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is concentrated within the thyroid gland by the maintenance of a gradient over that
of blood.1 Iodide is converted to I2 and then I+. Iodine concentration in the avian
by weight.3 Within the thyroid a peroxidase system converts iodide to iodine with a
hormone [for any reason] below metabolic requirements stimulates the anterior
the action of thyroid releasing hormone [TRH]. In adult chickens TRH does not cause
TSH release,5 rather its release from the anterior pituitary is controlled by T3. In birds,
stimulating hormone [FSH] is less effective than TSH, but can increase follicular
1
Under the influence of TSH, cyclic 3', 5' adenosine monophosphate [cAMP] is
activated in thyroid follicular epithelial cells. Increased cAMP leads to increased iodide
trapping from the blood by the follicular cells.8 As a result follicular colloid is processed
into follicular epithelial cells leading to release of thyroid hormones into the circulation.
hormones inhibit synthesis and release of GH.9 This may be a feedback mechanism
In the liver T4 and T3 are metabolized due to the action of I 5' deiodinase.1,10
mediated by nuclear thyroid hormone receptors that have their highest affinity for T3. In
The secretion rate of T4 in young chicks and adult chickens in the summer is
1/2 of the winter rate.1 This effect is directly correlated to ambient temperature. In
winter the follicular cells are higher and follicular volume is greater.12
photoperiod depresses I131 uptake in ducks and quail.1 Long days inhibit thyroid
2
function but stimulate thyrotrophic activity. During daylight T4 is depressed and T3
hens.14 Light intensity affects food conversion efficiency in turkey males with body
weight highest under the lowest light intensity coinciding with higher weight gain and
concentration and metabolism. The T4/T3 ratio increases during fasting, and plasma
III deiodinase [D3] and decreased renal D3 activity. No change was noted in either
The level of dietary protein fed to chickens had an effect on the concentrations
of T4 and T3 after adding T3 to the bird's diet. With a high level of protein, T4 was
greater and T3 less, however the protein level did not change the response to the
addition of T3 to the diet, indicating that dietary protein levels may not affect adaptive
responses to T3.19
The affect may be due to selected amino acid deficits.20 When chicks are fed a
restricted diet there is a decrease in plasma T3. Arginine deficiency prevents this
decrease, but does not alter T4 concentration suggesting that there is a specific
3
Other amino acids with similar effects include lysine and isoleucine. Leucine
and threonine have no effect on plasma T3. Lysine is the only amino acid that lowered
T4.
The level of selenium affects the growth of chickens via thyroid hormone
deficiency can depress growth by inhibiting 5' deiodinase activity causing lower
plasma T3 concentration.
mg/bird diminished egg production but did not result in moulting, while doses of 0.4
Thyroid Disease
4
Diseases of thyroid are well documented in chickens, but less well described in
other avian species. Cystic thyroids are occasionally seen, but the cysts may actually
levels of thyroid hormone are necessary to maintain normal weights of the spleen and
develops in the first 2-3 weeks post-hatching. As in humans, the iodine content of the
obese chicken thyroglobulin was lower than that of normal chickens, however these
Although the literature indicates that the condition is most common in budgerigars, a
study of 16 years of our data indicate that macaws, particularly blue and gold
macaws, have the highest incidence of hyperplastic goiter.32 Colloid goiter is also
surrounding tissues, including the trachea. The primary cause of goiter in budgerigars
has been considered to be iodine deficiency,31 but other potential causes include the
problems.32
thyroid glands.34 Affected glands are red-brown and firm. Histologically there is a
5
decrease or complete lack of follicular colloid, and the follicular epithelial cells are
however classical clinical and laboratory signs such as poor feathering and
necessary for these signs to develop. Without TSH response testing or histologic
In older, obese amazon parrots lesions of the thyroid have been associated
comprised of large cuboidal epithelial cells that form follicular and papillary structures,
as well as cystic spaces. Carcinomas are similar but more anaplastic and invasive.39
6
Thyroid scintigraphy was done in normal and radiothyroidectomized cockatiels,
The best method of testing the avian thyroid for abnormalities is the
time period.41,42 Unfortunately since veterinary TSH is no longer on the market, the
mammalian, the test must be able to lower T4 values. A single low T4 test cannot lead
proof that the bird is not hypothyroid. The test should be interpreted in association
7
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