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Water Pollution Impacts on Livelihoods: A Case Study of Fishing Communities

in Tungabhadra Sub Basin

Chapter · July 2013

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-36143-2_21

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Water Pollution Impacts on Livelihoods:
A Case Study of Fishing Communities
in Tungabhadra Sub Basin

S. Manasi

1 Introduction

Aquatic ecosystem is one of the most productive ecosystems as the large pro-
portion of the earth’s biodiversity resides in it. They provide many critical services
such as assimilation of waste products, food production, transport, water supply
and supports terrestrial ecosystems and wildlife. On the other hand, increasing
pollution loads have degraded the water quality of many rivers across the world.
The situation is no different in the Tungabhadra river sub basin (TBSB), where
agricultural activities, urbanization and industrialization have significant impacts
on water quality, surface water as well as ground water. Knowledge of the water
quality has become important because of its implications to human and aquatic
health and significant costs associated with decisions involving water manage-
ment, conservation, and regulation. The present paper is based on the EC-funded
STRIVER project, ‘‘Strategy and methodology for improved IWRM—An inte-
grated interdisciplinary assessment in four twinning river basins’’, ‘‘2006–2009’’1
of which TBSB represents the Indian case. IWRM intends to understand and
integrate various disciplines related to water issues. IWRM also entails to develop
plans by involving the assessment of the current conditions and the evaluation of
future options. The paper is an attempt to understand the extent of water-quality

1
The study is a part of an international collaborative research project (STRIVER) funded by the
European Union under FP7 research program between 2006-09. The team for this part of the
study included Prof. K. V. Raju, Nagothu, Dr. Udaya Sekhar, Dr. Manasi. S, Latha N and Dr.
Lenin Babu. More information on the IWRM assessment can be found in the STRIVER report
(2008) which is based on individual basin reports prepared by researchers from the respective
river basins.

S. Manasi (&)
Centre for Ecological Economics and Natural Resources,
Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore, India
e-mail: manasi@isec.ac.in

S. Nautiyal et al. (eds.), Knowledge Systems of Societies for Adaptation and Mitigation 347
of Impacts of Climate Change, Environmental Science and Engineering,
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-36143-2_21,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
348 S. Manasi

problems and its impact on livelihoods with specific reference to fishing com-
munities and associated key issues and constraints.

2 Tungabhadra Sub Basin

River Tungabhadra is the largest tributary of the river Krishna, contributing an

annual discharge of 14,700 million m3 at its confluence point to the main river.
TBSB is a transboundary river, stretches over an area of 48,827 km2 in both the
riparian states of Karnataka (38,790 km2) and Andhra Pradesh (9,037 km2) and
finally joins Krishna that flows into the Bay of Bengal. Tungabhadra covers seven
districts2 in Karnataka and four districts in Andhra Pradesh,3 the sub-basin is
mostly rainfed, dominated by red soils with an average annual rainfall of
1,200 mm. The upper basin of Tungabhadra is characterized by undulating terrain
with high rainfall while the lower portion of the basin is characterized by much
lower rainfall, drought conditions and mainly plain terrain. Agriculture is the
major occupation across the basin. The major crops grown are paddy, jowar,
sugarcane, cotton and Ragi (finger millet). The river catchment includes a number
of large and small-scale units supporting industrial activities. Fishing is next major
activity that supports more than 10,000 families. Brick making, potters etc. are
other livelihood options practiced along the basin.
Reservoir water storage capacity of the Tungabhadra reservoir is reducing due
to siltation from mining activities, dust, soil erosion etc. During the last two
decades there has been an increase in the number of small towns and industrial
areas, which has enthused the competing demands for water, making the situation
more difficult. While increased industrialization and growing urban areas have
made it possible to improve the economy, it has also led to negative externalities
like pollution and land degradation. Pollution affecting human health, agriculture
and fish production is prominent. There has been a disparity between maintaining
the tempo with development activities and providing sanitation and water supply
infrastructure while population stresses have added on. The TBSB is a politically
sensitive basin as negotiations between the states concerning water allocation are
presently going on. Conflicts within and across sectors are widespread, besides
interstate disputes, as it is an interstate river.

3 Methodology

Both primary and secondary data was collected for the study. Primary data was
collected from key informants and direct and indirect dependents. Secondary data
was collected from different National and Regional institutions—Karnataka State

2
Shimoga, Chikamaglur, Davanagere, Haveri, Bellary, Koppal and Raichur.
3
Karnool, Cudappa, Ananthpur and Mahaboobnagar.
Water Pollution Impacts on Livelihoods 349

Pollution Control Board (KSPCB), Department of Mines and Geology, Central

Ground water Board, State Fisheries Department, Karnataka State Fisheries
Development Corporation and Fishermen co-operative societies (FCS) within the
TBSB. Data included were chemical and biological quality of available water
resources (actual situation, seasonal changes, trends); water allocation and prior-
ities, water resources needs and quality constraints for optimum performance in
the different sectors and expected future needs; data on political priorities and
plans. Primary sources mainly included focus group discussions and surveys.
Stakeholder workshops were another main source of information. Household
survey of fishermen households (direct dependents), labourers hired by fishermen
(direct dependents), middleman—traders (Regional, contractors, agents, local
traders, petty traders—women selling fish (indirect dependents) were carried out.
The study was conducted in TBSB from January 2008 to April 2008. The data
was gathered through household survey of 106 fisher folk (in 16 villages) selected
through stratified random sampling based on two criteria—water sources and their
socio-economic status. Information was also collected through interviews and
focus group discussions with 30 traders who were indirectly dependent on fishing
for their livelihoods. Due to time and resource constraints, a larger sample survey
was not possible in this study. The survey was more extensive in nature to get a
broader idea of fisheries across the sub basin. The sampling ensured representation
of informants from different fishing sources across the basin—Reservoirs—Major
and Minor, Tanks—Major and Minor, Private Ponds, River Stretch leased out by
the Department and Canals. Women and men together contribute to the household
economy through fishing; hence to understand livelihoods, both men and women
were interviewed. Information related to variables such as income from fishing,
incomes from other sources, type of fishing, nature of work, water quality related,
marketing problems etc., were collected.

4 Results

Irrigated agricultural lands suffer from water logging and salinity problems apart
from the extensive use of fertilizers in crop production. In particular runoffs of
phosphorus is a problem, leading to eutrophication of water bodies causing taste
and odour in the water supplied to the public; and excess algae growth leads to
deoxygenation of water and fish kills. In fact, across the TBSB, fertilizer con-
sumption increased to 700 tonnes in 2001–2005 from 510 tonnes in 1995–1996
indicating nutrient loss in the soil systems. The problems related to irrigated
agriculture are mainly seen in the downstream of the river basin (Koppal, Raichur
and Bellary districts) due to intensive cultivation and excessive use of fertilizers.
Bellary district accounts for 19,170 Ha affected by salinity. Water logging is also
observed high in Raichur, Bellary and Koppal. The excessive use of fertilizers has
also affected ground water quality with high Nitrate concentrations in the ground
water. However, there have been no systematic studies carried out with respect to
these non-point pollution sources.
350 S. Manasi

Industries are another key source of pollution in Tungabhadra and there are
about 77 large-scale industries (27 functioning and 50 under implementation).
Major types of industries include iron and steel, paper and pulp, chemical and
sugar. Major industries permitted to discharge treated effluents into the river as per
the law are: Vishweshvaraiah Iron and Steel Industries, Harihara Polyfibres,
Gwalior Rayon Silk Manufacturing Industry, two sugar and two distillery units.
Following the public protests regarding the discharge of 6,000 tonnes of molasses
into the river that led to fish kills on a large scale in 1984, the government
instructed the distillery unit to discharge only treated effluents into the river. Apart
from large-scale industrial units, there are 2,543 small-scale industrial units
operating (as of 2006–2007). The water consumption by industrial units in the TB
Basin works out to 172.733 Mm3 per day (Tungabhadra—129.125 Mm3 and
Bhadra—43.608 Mm3).
Also two major iron mining areas, i.e., Kudremukh and Hospet, exist in the
river basin; however, there are no proper mining standards followed in iron ore
extraction. The mining of iron ore at Kudremukh and Manganese in Sandur has
seriously affected the stability of the catchments in the form of soil erosion and
silting of several small reservoirs, traditional tanks and the Tungabhadra reservoir,
and thus conflicting with irrigation needs of the region. Further, these mining
activities have adversely affected water tables besides causing iron contamination
of water (Patel 2005). Air pollution due to the transportation of iron ore in open
trucks and truck movements cause dust nuisance. Agriculture in the region is also
affected because of mining induced dust pollution as the dust gets deposited on
crops. Polluted water affects river basin ecosystems while downstream fish kill
which is frequent, affects the livelihood of fishing families. The number of fish
species has reduced over the years with several local varieties of fish becoming
extinct. According to fishermen, around 50 % of the local breeds have disappeared
or decreased over time (Sekhar et al. 2008b). During the field study of the
STRIVER project, many fishermen expressed concern over increased use of
chemical fertilizers in agriculture; 47 % of the fishermen believed polluted water
killed fish stock (Sekhar et al. 2008b).
With regard to urban settlements, a majority of the ‘‘Urban local bodies’’ and
Town municipalities do not have underground drainage system and treatment
facilities in place for collecting and treating the municipal sewage (Fazi and Porto
2009), and as a result, the sewage directly enters the river system or agricultural
fields. In the rest of these settlements such treatment is only partial, impacting
around 75 villages. Domestic and industrial pollution, combined with deforesta-
tion, use of pesticides and fertilizers have affected water quality extensively
making it unfit for consumption (Raju and Manasi 2007).
The Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh State Pollution Control Boards being
responsible for monitoring water quality, have initiated action plans to prevent
river pollution in 4 towns under the National River Action Plan, introduced by the
National River Conservation Directorate of the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India. There are various standards set up for allowable
concentrations of and parameters related to pollution, of which the most relevant is
Water Pollution Impacts on Livelihoods 351

the drinking water standards specified by IS 10500:1991. In spite of these regu-

latory measures, implementation has not been very effective in controlling pol-
lution levels. The role of the state pollution control boards is limited to sample
testing, warning polluters and issuing show–cause notices indicating institutional
constraints. What is important to keep in view, however, is that such issues cannot
be the responsibility of the regulatory authorities alone as a strong political will is
also required to bring in the required changes.

4.1 Pollution Sources and Impacts

Largely the sources of pollution in the TBSB are from the following categories (a)
Agricultural runoff (b) Industrial effluents (c) Sewage from urban settlements (d)
Mining activities and (e) Over exploitation of ground water.

4.2 Agriculture Activities and Pollution

Agriculture is the major activity in the TBSB and 80 % of the population is

dependent for their livelihoods. Though the area is designed for semi-arid crops,
paddy and sugarcane are the major crops grown. The area under these crops is
increasing indicating growing demand on water. Dependency on ground water for
irrigation has been increasing over time, as the canal water supply is not meeting
the demand.
As agriculture is the main occupation in the TBSB, the use of fertilizer has been
increasing over a period of time. The data indicates the increase in fertilizer
consumption to 700 tons in 2001–2005 from 510 tons in 1995–1996 (Table 1)
indicating nutrient loss in the soil. Manure spreading carried out as a fertilizer
activity; pesticide usage, spreading on frozen ground results in high levels of
contamination of receiving waters by pathogens, metals, phosphorus and nitrogen
leading to eutrophication and potential contamination.
Runoff from agricultural fields has resulted in water logging and salinization
problems in the basin affecting the irrigated areas and water quality. The total area
affected by salinity, alkalinity and water logging in the Tungabhadra command

Table 1 Fertilizer consumption in the river basin

Years Fertilizer consumption in tons Total
Nitrogen (N) Phosphorous (P) Potash (K)
1991–1992 305.18 192.9 102.14 600.22
1995–1996 272.65 145.28 92.08 510.01
2001–2002 369.88 200.36 129.77 700.01
2004–2005 353.98 199.31 146.73 700.02
Source District at a Glance, Karnataka
352 S. Manasi

Table 2 Areas affected with salinity, alkalinity and water logging in the TBSB
District/Taluk Area affected (Area in hectares)
Salinity Alkalinity Water logging Total
Tungabhadra command area
Koppal 6,916.51 1,028.88 4014.59 11,959.98
Raichur 25,931.57 4,546.76 23,838.88 54,317.21
Bellary 19,170.51 2,770.2 7,997.39 29,938.1
Total 52,018.59 8,345.84 35,850.86 96,215.29
Bhadra command area 3,826 1,643 29,219
Source Tungabhadra Command Area Development Authority and Bhadra Command Area
Development Authority

area is 52,000, 8,345 and 35,850 ha respectively. These problems are prevalent
mainly in the downstream of the basin—in Koppal, Raichur and Bellary districts
(Table 2).
Application of chemicals and pesticides in the agriculture area, especially on
paddy crop, is another source of water pollution. The fishing communities
expressed anxiety over the increasing use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture.
There is lack of data and no scientific studies about the impacts of non-point
pollution sources. Specific incident of intensive spraying of pesticides for paddy
crop in 2006 affected water quality in the river resulting in foul smell in the area
and the local people were cautioned not to drink the water until dilution.

4.3 Industrial Activities and Implications

Industries pollution is another major source of water pollution across the basin.
Major types of industries include Iron and steel, paper and pulp, chemical and
sugar etc. There are 27 large-scale industries in the basin, while 50 are under
various stages of implementation. In addition, there are 2,543 small-scale indus-
tries, which are showing an increasing trend since 2003–2004 (refer Table 3).
Across the river Bhadra, the two major industries viz., Mysore Paper Mills (MPM)
and Vishweshvaraiah Iron and Steel Industries (VSIL) are located at Bhadravathi.
Harihara Polyfibres, GRASIM, two sugar industries and two distilleries are the
major industries located across Tungabhadra River (Raju and Manasi 2007).

Table 3 Number of small scale industries in the Tungabhadra basin

Years Number Investment in Rs. Lakhs
2003–2004 2,425 6,620
2004–2005 2,374 7,773
2005–2006 2,494 7,525
2006–2007 2,543 7,974
Source Department of Industries and Commerce, H.O Bangalore
Water Pollution Impacts on Livelihoods 353

The sources of supply are both surface and ground water with majority of the
water supply from ground water sources. Water demand for industrial usage has
not been estimated. Based on the water availability, water is distributed to the
industries. For instance, with the case of Harihar Polyfibres, the local people
objected their fresh demand for expansion, as it would mean reduced water flows
and more effluent discharge. The intensity of pollution from the industries is seen
near Bhadravathi, Haveri, Harihara and Ranebennur area due to discharge of
untreated or partially treated industrial effluents.

4.3.1 Health Impacts

Observations in the field revealed that the industrial sewage inflow from major
industries have affected the nearby villages in the basin. For instance, Harihara
Polyfibres had affected around 45 surrounding villages. People are exposed to foul
smell and several other health implications. Washer-men and fishermen who spent
long hours in the river had experienced skin diseases and other ailments. Free skin
disease detection and treatment camps held at villages located at a distance of
20 km from HPF effluent discharge point revealed that around 13 fishermen were
suffering from skin diseases ‘Superficial folliculitis’, an inflammation of the hair
follicles. Health department received several complaints and the health supervisor
found most of the residents suffering from skin diseases and stomach ailments.
Discussion with the Doctor at Chennagiri town confirmed the negative health
implications of poor quality water with increased number of Gastroenteritis cases
reported. Similar situations were observed at the downstream of the basin (Harihar,
Ranebennur and surrounding areas). There are no scientific studies on the impli-
cations and extent of pollution on health conducted so far.
In the upper reach of the basin, the villages located in the surroundings of VISL
and MPM encounter pollution related health issues. Around 11 villages located in
the stretch between Bhadravathi town and Kudli, (confluence point of river, Tunga
and Bhadra), are affected. The river Bhadra is highly polluted at Holehonnur town
as the effluents from MPM and VSIL joins the river. The residents of Holehonnur
town are supplied with poor quality drinking water and several protests by the
public was observed demanding safe drinking water. The Public filed their initial
complaint in 2001–2002 to water authorities but was not effective. Hence, the
people protested and continued their demands by registering complaints continu-
ously (up to 15 times) after which the treatment plant was installed to purify the
water before the supply (Raju and Manasi 2007).
On the contrary, the water quality monitoring results of Pollution Control
Boards have indicated that the industries are meeting the discharge standards. But
the discussions with the people living in the surroundings of these industries
indicate that the industries violate norms during some days and the discharge of
effluents without treatment which may not be documented by the PCB. There were
several instances of protests by the local people to impede the effluents discharge.
354 S. Manasi

As a result of this, Tungabhadra Environment Monitoring Committee—was

formed to curb and monitor the pollution.

4.4 Fish Kills

One of the important indicators of water quality is the impact on fish and other
aquatic life. Fish kills are a serious issue resulting from pollution, more so
industrial pollution. Fish kills occur more during summer season due to minimum
water flows and least dilution. The effects of pollution were felt 40 km down-
stream during the summers. In TBSB fish kills occurred for 3–4 times annually as
opined by the department officials. In 1984, major fish kill was observed in the
Tungabhadra River downstream of the Birla industries. KSPCB pointed out
uncontrolled discharge of industrial effluents as the cause and issued a notice to the
industry to stop releasing effluents. Another occurrence was in March 1994 in the
downstream of Tungabhadra to a stretch of 25–30 km affecting more than 30
villages. This was one of the colossal fish kill ever observed where an estimated
2.5 tonnes of fishes were dead. The study showed that the BOD levels in the raw
effluents released into the river were 1,000 mg/l.
During discussions, fishermen expressed concern over the increasing use of
chemical fertilizers in agriculture besides industrial effluents. Several stretches of
the river are polluted affecting around 75 villages. 47 % of fishermen indicated that
water was polluted due to pollution and fish kills had negative impacts in terms of
health and reduced income -26 %, while some had a combination of health,
reduced income and also witnessed fish kills—9 %. 44 % of the fishermen felt that
it was the responsibility of the government to clean the river while 20 % felt it
should be the responsibility of the polluters. There are no systematic data
regarding the extent of fish kills and its damage on the species (Sekhar et al.
2008b).

4.4.1 Decline in Fish Species

Decline in fish species is another serious issue. According to Mr. Gireesha,

Assistant Director of Fisheries, Shimoga, there were nearly 120 species of fishes in
the river, among them 28 species are threatened due to over exploitation and
pollution. He also stated that the fish yield decreased by 50 % over 10 years (1,200
tonnes to 650 tonnes annually). Another important impact has been on the fish
species especially due to impounding of water in large reservoirs. The issue of
water quality and the availability of fish have added significance as they are
directly related to the livelihoods of a large number of families in the basin where
10,000 fishing families reside.
Water Pollution Impacts on Livelihoods 355

5 Implications of Blasting

Stretches of the river encounter threat from explosives blasts occurrence carried
out by some illegal groups. The Indian Fisheries Act 1897 empowers the state
governments to make rules for the introduction of conservancy measures and
licensing system. The Mysore Game and Fish Preservation Regulation 1901
applicable to old Mysore districts empowers the government to prohibit poisoning
or use of explosives in any stream or lake and declare closed seasons. The district
forest officer with the approval of the district commissioner is authorized to declare
any river stream, pond, lake, tank or other water body to be closed to fishing during
any year or during the spawning season. The regulation also prohibits the use of
dynamite or deleterious substances and the use of nets having mesh of less than
two inches in perennial streams. Irrespective of the Fisheries Acts placing a ban on
such activities, the problem is not resolved.
Blasting is practiced with the purpose to catch fish at one go (20–30 kg).
Blasting kills all the fish, particularly the small ones and the fingerlings. In the
process, fish can be collected partially leaving the remaining fish to decompose.
This results in bad stench and pollution of the river ecosystems. There have been
many conflicts between the fishing communities and the illegally operating groups
but to no avail. The fishing communities have also lodged complaints to the
Department of Fisheries but the problem remains. There is no data or information
on number of blasts and areas of blasts that occur along the basin. Based on
discussions with the officials at the Department of Fisheries, it was opined that
blasts occur 2–3 times in a week in 10 locations across the TBSB (Raju and
Manasi 2007).

5.1 Urban Settlements and Pollution

Karnataka Urban Water Supply and Drainage Board is responsible for providing
water supply and sewerage facilities to all 28 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in the
basin. During the study, twelve towns were visited to understand the drinking
water supply status and pollution problems. River Tunga, Bhadra and Tung-
abhadra are the main sources of drinking water supply. In addition, during scarcity,
water is supplied through other alternative sources—ground water and surface
water tanks to meet the demand. The total volume of water supplied is 344.5 MLD,
out of which 4.32 TMC (331.4 MLD) constitutes surface water and 13.09 MLD is
from ground water. The domestic sewage generated is estimated, as 267.4 MLD
from these urban bodies.
356 S. Manasi

Table 4 Prevalence of UGD and treatment plants

Towns UGD system Treatment plant Waste water disposal
Partial 7 towns 1 7 into the river
Not prevalent 20 towns 21 20 into agricultural fields/valleys
Source Discussions with Officials, 2009

5.1.1 Lack of STPs

Majority (around 20 out of 27) of the ULBs do not have underground drainage
system and treatment facilities to collect and treat the municipal sewage. In the rest
of ULBs though UGD is present, it is partial. Eleven towns across the basin
discharge waste water into the river while the rest of the towns’ discharge waste
water into agricultural fields, open tanks or low-lying areas (Table 4).
There is lack of coordination and cooperation across the Departments. During
discussions, the officials of State Pollution Control Board expressed constraints
and pressures from the local politicians curtailing them to take action against the
Urban Local Bodies who are to take responsibility for effectively implementing
safe disposal of sewage.

5.2 Mining and Pollution

Two major iron-mining areas (Kudremukh and Hospet), exist in the river basin.
Mining industries are affecting the water quality (Patel 2005). There are no proper
mining standards for iron ore extraction as open cast mining is practiced. The
earlier practice of mining was restricted to mine heads, but now it is practiced at
the foothills too adding to pollution. Impact on water quality due to the silt from
mines is prominent and contamination of surface water from iron is observed in
Bellary district. Mining also causes air pollution caused during transportation of
ore using open trucks besides dust pollution is prominent with its prominent
deposits on trees and crops. There seems to be no scientific study conducted to
assess crop losses and damage caused by air pollution due to mine dust, although
officials mention about negative impacts. It exists as qualitative information,
observed problems in research studies and NGOs reports but no quantification has
been done.
Several research studies are conducted, however, confine only to certain parts
of the basin. For example—A study by Krishnaswamy et al. (2006) on the ‘Impact
of iron ore mining on suspended sediment response in a tropical catchment in
Kudremukh’, highlights that more than 50 % of the suspended sediment load in
both the Bhadra River and Bhadra Reservoir comes from mining-affected lands
that occupy less than one per cent of the total catchment area. During the 2002 and
2003 monsoons, the suspended sediments discharge rates had increased to about
Water Pollution Impacts on Livelihoods 357

1.99 and 7.89 Mg km_2 day_1 for upstream and downstream sites respectively and
sediment concentration downstream was significantly higher than upstream for all
conditions. The current annual suspended sediment load below the mine ranges
from 100,000 to over 150,000 Mg, depending on the size and frequency of large
rain events. Comparison of historic data and another study in 1994, with recent
measurements confirm that mining and associated activities in Kudremukh
National Park are the greatest sources of sediment entering the Bhadra River; and
the Bhadra river carries considerably more sediment now than before mining
started damaging riverine ecosystems and disrupting downstream water resources.
A study on the impact of Kudremukh mining activity on the environment of the
western-ghats region has revealed the sedimentation in the Bhadra river (Chika-
magalur) between 2002 and 2004. The study highlighted that the mining and other
related activities have altered the water quality. The water leached from mine
waste/tailing and dumps in the Kudremukh area are joining the river Bhadra with
high BOD concentration, iron content, and manganese in the upstream of the
basin. The concentrate sediment analysis revealed that it was rich in ferrous and
ferric iron ore magnetite, haematite and consisted of 59 % of magnetic concentrate
of iron ore tailings and other additional metallic compounds (Patel 2005). Besides
these, sand mining from the riverbed where mechanized boats are used is also
causing affecting water quality.

5.3 Ground Water Contamination

Ground water is the main source of drinking water for several villages located on
the river bank. Seepage of domestic, industrial sewage and agricultural runoff has
contaminated the ground water quality in the basin. In addition, over-exploitation
of ground water for irrigation has also added on. There are around 6 lakhs wells in
TBSB and is increasing over a period of time. The extraction levels are high in the
downstream of the river (Davanagere, Raichur and Bellary districts) and irrigation
is the key sector contributing to extraction.
The Department of Mines and Geology monitor ground water quality regularly
in the state. Based on the extent of contamination, the area is classified into four
categories—most critical, critical, less critical and non-critically affected. Table 5
indicates the area with affected ground water quality in TBSB as on March 2004.
Around 150 villages have been affected with poor ground water quality. The major
pollutants are Nitrate, Flouride, Hardness and Iron. The most affected districts are
Raichur and Bellary.

5.3.1 Ground Water Depletion

Over exploitation of ground water and increased use of fertilizers and pesticides
have lead to ground water quality degradation in the TBSB. The data from the
358 S. Manasi

Table 5 Area with affected ground water quality (in Hectares) (2004)
Status Area with affected ground water in Ha
Tunga Bhadra
Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon
Most critical Nil 125.48
Critically affected 732.59 3,875.62 2 11,715.86
Less critically affected 3,233.95 3,550.79 2,093.43 17,117.13
Non-critically affected 13,087.69 9,627.82 54,365.54 27,502.51
Total 17,054.23 17,054.23 56,460.97 56,460.97
Source Department of Mines and Geology, 2009

Table 6 Ground water Levels in meteres

Districts Years
1978 1987 1997
Bellary 7.37 7.40 10.91
Chikkamagalur 8.95 9.22 9.95
Raichur 5.96 7.03 6.58
Shimoga 9.23 9.03 9.76
Source Department of Mines and Geology, 2009

Department of Mines and Geology revealed that the ground water levels were
depleting over a period of three decades as shown in Table 6.

6 Regulatory Institutions

KSPCB has an important role in the river water quality maintenance of the TBSB.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the Karnataka State Pollution
Control Boards (KSPCB) are the only bodies responsible for the monitoring and
controlling of pollution. They were first set up under the 1974 Water Act. At
present they are responsible for implementation of a number of pollution related
Acts, their various amendments and Rules framed under them. The Board is
enforcing the various Acts and Rules, out of which the ones related to water, are
• The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, and as
amended in 1991.
• The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978.
• The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• Rules framed under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Water Pollution Impacts on Livelihoods 359

6.1 Regulatory Mechanism

Regulatory institutions prevail to curtail water pollution. The Central Office of the
KSPCB is responsible for making general policies relating to enforcement of
various environmental legislations. KSPCB monitors water quality through car-
rying out sample testing across the river Basin. The Regional Pollution Control
Boards located at five districts (Shimoga, Chikamaglur, Davangere, Bellary,
Raichur and Koppal) in TBSB carries out frequent river water quality monitoring
under Global Environmental Monitoring System Program (GEMS), Monitoring of
National Aquatic Resources Programme (MINARS) and Board Programmes by
collecting 74 samples (5 under GEMS, 40 under MINARS and 19 under Board
Programmes)—(see Fig. 1). In addition, the Board has initiated action plans to
prevent river pollution in four towns under the National River Action Plan
(NRAP), initiated by the National River Conservation Directorate of the Ministry
of Environment and Forest, Government of India.
The water quality status of the river was analyzed based on the quality analysis
data collected from the KSPCB and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). It
was difficult to get data from the Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board (AP-
PCB) hence most of the description of water quality deals mainly with the stretch
of the river in Karnataka state, which forms a major portion of the basin. However,
there is considerable variation in the number of parameters monitored at the dif-
ferent stations over the years. After 2001, the KSPCB decided to restrict the
number of parameters monitored and this creates a hiatus in the data. Inspection of
the data provided by the KSPCB showed that at most five parameters at ten
locations could be traced over a sufficiently long time period (from 1986 to 2005).

6.2 Prescribed Standards

There are various standards set up for allowable concentrations of parameters

related to pollution. The most relevant are the drinking water standards specified
by IS 10500:1991. More detailed standards are also recommended by the CPCB
for different classes of surface waters and by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
for Drinking Water.
Department of Mines and Geology (DMG) Ground water wing analyses ground
water/surface water samples at the main laboratory at Bangalore, and also in the
divisional laboratories at Mysore, Chitradurga, Dharwar, Belgaum, Bellary and
Gulbarga. Ground water investigation also forms one of the functions of the
Department where monitoring of quality is undertaken. However, linkages with
other institutions and sharing the information on further curtailing pollution is not
under its purview.
360 S. Manasi

Fig. 1 Tungabhadra basin KSPCB water sampling stations Source Fazi et al. Deliverable 7.1

7 Fishing Communities

Fishing communities, located throughout the basin are either restricted to a few
households spread out in a village or living in a locality together in groups, or ‘camps’
and range between 4 and 200 households. The fishing population is concentrated
more in the Tungabhadra river stretch (5,000 families) compared to Tunga (3,000
families) and Bhadra stretch (2,000 families). Total fishermen population was
133,987 out of which 34,028 were full time fishermen. Difference in economic status
across small scale fishermen was evident. Few households were totally dependant on
fishing and others had complementary income from varied sources.
Water Pollution Impacts on Livelihoods 361

7.1 Large-Scale Fishermen

Large-scale fishermen fish in larger groups by hiring 15 to 20 labourers and were

confined only to TB reservoir (400 groups) representing about 30 % of the total
fishermen population. Nearly 66 % of the fishermen were engaged in fishing
activity throughout the year and the rest between 6 and 10 months. During the lean
period, they were engaged in agriculture and construction etc. These fishermen are
paid members of Fishermen Cooperative Societies and obtain licenses. The larger
groups are headed by a fisherman who would invest approximately around INR 3
lakhs. Each labourer is paid between INR 1800 and 2500 per month along with
allowance for food, medical expenses, etc. The group spends the whole night (up
to 10 h) in casting the nets and fishing till early hours. Fish catch ranges between
10 and 100 kg, which is highly dependent on the weather conditions, fingerlings
released and season.

7.2 Small-Scale Fishermen

Small-scale fishermen work in a team of two or three persons representing 60 % of

the fishermen population in the basin. Payments made to the society4 varied
between INR 200 (riverine, tank) to INR 4,000 (reservoir) based on type of net and
fishing location. They were using gill nets of various sizes. 53 % of fishermen
invested about INR 2,000 on boats and nets, annually. Small-scale fishermen who
are members obtained licenses from the FCS and the period varied between
3 months and 1 year. However, whenever there were instances where some fishing
communities paid the Fisheries department for canal fishing in Saibabanagar.
Small-scale fishermen were economically poor and most vulnerable as the income
level is low due to minimum fish catch. The quantity of fish catch per day during
the lean season was as low as ‘ kg at times, however, majority up to 55 % caught
between 3 and 5 kg. 76 % of the fishermen were able to harvest 10–20 kg during
peak season. Average income level varied between INR 2,000 and INR 6,000 per
month. Poverty among the small-scale fishermen in particular was prominent as
fish catch depended on external factors beyond their control hence migration was
inevitable to sustain livelihoods. Poverty levels varied across locations even
among the small-scale fishermen. 26 % fishing camps were located in areas that
had very poor access to the main city, isolating women and children for most part
of the year. During lean periods, women had to walk long distances in search of
odd jobs while men migrated for months. With no transportation facilities, children
were confined to these camps and had no access to schooling and basic medical
care.

4
Payments have to be made to the FCS that would have got the bid.
362 S. Manasi

7.3 Women and Fishing in TBSB

The role of the women largely depended on the socio-economic conditions of the
households. Overall, the conditions and quality of life for women were poor across
different fishing groups. This included long working hours, poor wages as com-
pared to men and in addition the burden of household maintenance. There were no
special programs targeting women in the fishing sector. For instance, women in
Hale Ayodhya, village confined themselves mainly to weaving of the nets.
However, women in this village did not go out to sell fish unlike in some villages
where they were responsible for selling fish. Women were involved mostly in
processing and marketing of fish. In Thambrahalli, about 40 women worked as
labourers sorting fish for the large contractors. On an average they sorted 30 kg of
fish per day and were paid about INR 45 per day. Women also worked as agri-
cultural labourers to substitute income from fishing (Sekhar et al. 2008a).

7.4 Formal Fishing Rights

Fishing rights were given through open tenders in reservoirs and rivers, whereas in
case of tanks it was through open auctioning. As we see in the following sections,
these varied forms of allocating fishing rights favour/disfavour the fishing com-
munities. For example, licensing favours the fishermen in the place of tender
systems, similarly, in the tank systems, open auctioning has no restrictions on
bidding (initially bidding was done only by local fishing communities) for the tank
and promote aquaculture as an entrepreneur, which is acting against the interests of
the fishing communities. With respect to obtaining fishing rights, Department of
Fisheries decides minimum reserve price.

7.5 Licensing

The legal fishing rights across sources were granted by the Department of Fisheries
through licensing process. Members had to register by paying the prescribed fee
annually, which varied based on location, duration of contract, types of nets, and
number of boats. The members were given license to fish for a prescribed period,
usually 6 months or one year. However, they were not eligible to get any credit
facilities except fishing rights. Licensing system was preferred as the fee was
minimal in TB basin where initially, leasing of the reservoir, was given to the
small-scale fishermen by obtaining license from the TB Board. However, this
practice was changed in 2001. The Board calls for a tender notification and the
societies bid and the highest bidder benefits. However, in certain areas, fee varied
Water Pollution Impacts on Livelihoods 363

and fishermen found it difficult to pay the license amount forcing them to depend
on middlemen. Thus, the system worked against the welfare of the fishermen.

7.6 Open Auctioning

Open auctioning was another common practice to allot fishing rights across water
bodies except in the Tungabhadra reservoir. In case of village tanks, Grama-
panchayats were empowered to allot fishing rights through open auctioning that is
not confined to the fishing communities within the village. Such a practice is
usually to the disadvantage of the small fishermen in the village as outsiders/
middlemen get involved in bidding and often tend to get the fishing rights. These
middlemen in turn employed the local fishermen as labourers for fishing, in the
process the local fishermen not only lose the rights to fish in the local water bodies
but were forced to work for low wages. Although there was a regulation in the
Department of Fisheries that the local fishermen should be given priority, the local
councils and government agencies do not follow it. The government should sup-
port the local fishermen through loans or subsidies in order to help them get the
fishing rights in these water bodies.

7.7 Open Tender

Allotting fishing rights through open tenders is practiced only in the Tungabhadra
Reservoir since 2000. Tungabhadra Board, an autonomous body is responsible for
inviting tenders. Main reason for inviting tenders was to cut down on illegal users.
Information on call for tender is intimated to the FCS. The highest bidder gets the
tender and they in turn sub lease the fishing rights to other fishermen. In reality, it
is the private contractors/middlemen who enter the process and bid using the
support of FCS, as the fishermen are not economically competent to invest the
tender amount. Thus the open tender remains in the name of the FCS but invested
and dictated by the middlemen. Presence of middlemen has led to more compe-
tition and an increase in the tender amount each year—from INR 300,000 in 2000
to INR 450,000 in 2007. Middlemen play an important role in the TBSB fisheries
influencing fishing activities from the net to the market stage. Middlemen provide
advance loans to fishermen who in turn are expected to sell their fish to him. The
prices were decided by the middlemen and often lower than the market price. It
was often the case that middlemen from the neighbouring districts Vijayawada and
Kolkata paid advances to individuals and promoted them to compete for the
tender. These individuals in turn sub-contract the licenses to middle level
fishermen.
364 S. Manasi

Although the system benefits the Board, it has led to disadvantages to the
fishing community. All categories—small/large-scale fishermen and small-scale
traders were against the tendering system. Irrespective of the harvest, the fishing
groups have to pay, which may not be in the interest of the fishing groups. Apart
from this, fishermen have no other skills to bank upon. Tender system has led to
creation of more societies, dependency on middlemen, debt traps and conflicts.

8 Discussion and Conclusion

Pollution from various sources contaminates the river causing immense damage to
the river ecosystems and livelihoods. Irrespective of various regulatory measures,
implementation has not been as effective. Initiatives towards pollution control are
not integrated across institutions and sectors. For instance, the role of the Kar-
nataka State Pollution Control Board is limited to collecting water samples and
sending reminders and issuing show–cause notices to the polluters. Monitoring and
accountability systems are not in place. Similarly, in the case of ULBs, efforts
towards establishing sewage treatment plants are constrained due to several rea-
sons, finances, lack of political will and so on. Pollution from agriculture was
obvious throughout the basin with impacts on land use changes. Current institu-
tions have fewer roles to play with respect to non-point sources. Few studies
conducted along the basin indicate the intensity and implications of pollution at
specific points. Several water quality assessment models like SWAT and TEOTIL,
AQUA MONITOR are popularly implemented in the developed countries to
forecast future trends, however are not suitable due to data constraints both in
terms of adequacy, access (costs and sharing) and quality and compatibility of
data.
There is now greater awareness of water quality issues amongst the public in
the area, although it is sometimes only narrowly focused on the two major
activities of industry and mining. This awareness needs to be extended to agri-
cultural diffuse pollution and urban wastewaters besides associated changes. There
is a need for continued monitoring, and vigilance, on the part of civil society
groups and concerned stakeholders. It is important that the roles of institutions are
redefined to work towards restricting pollution. So, far, none of the organizations
work in unison regarding the water quality issue but have a segmented approach in
understanding water quality.
The study also showed that there were linkages between water quality and
implications on livelihoods, besides fisheries in TBSB supported the livelihoods of
a significant percent of population. Other issues on fishing communities were also
discussed showing the need for interventions. The State Water Policy and water
management plans in TBSB do not consider fisheries as a priority, though it does
mention that water should be ensured for various sectors and to support liveli-
hoods. Development initiatives by the Department of Fisheries are not integrated
 Water Pollution Impacts on Livelihoods 365

with the water management plans or other development activities of the water
resources department or the Agriculture Department.
A number of policies and institutions already exist in TBSB that can facilitate
improvement, what is needed is an integrated framework where the relevant
polices; departments (state and local agencies) and programs can be pulled toge-
ther to facilitate the access of the poor to fisheries and addressing the concerns
discussed. Besides pollution, a number of measures can be imitated at the local
level, for example, improving the water bodies, issuing licenses only to small scale
and traditional fishermen and prioritizing the poor, developing local co-operative
insurance schemes to include poor, legitimizing community networks, increasing
training programs etc. Security of tenure is an important issue and fishermen are
concerned about the rights to access and use common waters. The contexts of the
poor are diverse and need to be addressed in a holistically in development
programs.

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