A

Seminar Report ii

ii On
Quantum computing ii

Submitted by ii

Mr. Rajvaibhav Vishnu Tawadkar

ii ii ii

Under the guidance of ii ii ii

Prof. L.R. Gade ii ii

Faculty of
ii ii

MCA ii

In partial fulfillment for the award of the

ii ii ii ii ii ii ii

ii degree of ii

MASTER OF COMPUTER APPLICATION

ii ii ii

(MCA-II) Semester-IV ii

ii (2021-2022)

Under Commerce Faculty

ii ii

ii AT

YSPM’s
Yashoda Technical Campus, Satara (YTC)
ii ii ii ii
 Yashoda iiShikshan iiPrasarak iiM&al’s

YASHODA iiTECHNICAL iiCAMPUS, iiSATARA

NH-4, iiWadhe iiPhata, iiSatara. iiTele iiFax- ii02162-271238/39/40

Website- iiwww.yes.edu.in, iiwebsite- iiyes.edu.in iiEmail: ii-

ii mcahod_ytc@yes.edu.in i Approved iiby iiAICTE- iiNew iiDelhi, iiGovt. ii of
iiMaharashtra ii(DTE, iiMumbai)

Affiliated iito iiShivaji iiUniversity, iiKolhapur ii/ iiMSBTE, iiMumbai.

NAAC iiAccredited iiInstitute

Ref. iiNo:- Date:

Certificate
This iiis iito iicertify iithat iithe iiseminar iireport iientitled ii“Quantum iicomputing” ii submitted ii by

ii “Mr.Rajvaibhav iiVishnu iiTawadkar” i i MCA ii- i i II i i Exam ii Seat ii No: ii “________” iiin i partial

ii fulfillment iiof iithe iiaward iiof iiMaster iiof iiComputer iiApplication ii(M.C.A.) iicourse iisubmitted

ii to iiShivaji iUniversity, iiKolhapur iifor iithe iiyear ii2021-2022 ii& iithis iiis iia iigenuine ii& ibonafide iiwork

ii prepared iiunder iimy iisupervision ii& ii guidance.

To iithe iibest iiof iiknowledge ii& iibelief iithe iimatter iipresented iiin iithis iiproject iireport

ii has iinot iibeen iisubmitted iiearlier iito iiany iiuniversity iifor iisimilar iipurpose.

Place: i i Satara

Date:

Guide Examiner HOD

 INDEX

Sr. Content Page

No
ii
No.
ii

Abstract
1 Chapter ii1

Introduction
2 Chapter ii2

Survey iiOf iiThe iiLiterature

2.1 iiHistory
2.2 iiLimitations iiOf iiThe iiClassical iiComputer ii& iiThe ii ii ii ii ii ii ii Invention
iiOf iiThe iiQuantum iiComputing iiArt

2.3 iiQuantum iiComputing: iiA iiCompletely iiNew iiParallelism ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii

iiConcept.

2.4 iiQuantum iiSuperposition ii& iiQuantum iiInterference.

2.5 iiQuantum-Entanglement.

2.6 iiQuantum iiTeleportation ii& iiInformation iiQuantum iiTheory.

2.7 iiQuantum iiComputation iiThermodynamics.

2.8 iiQuantum iiComputer iiExperimental iiRealization

2.9 iiQuantum iiComputing's iiFuture iiDirections.

2.10 iiQuantum iiTeleportation iiRequires iiThe iiModification iiOf iiThe

iiWave iiFunction.

3 Chapter ii ii3

Quantum iiComputers iiAre iiBeing iiBuilt iiExperimentally.

3.1 iiLow-Dimensionality iiMaterials—Quantum iiDot iiAs iiA iiViable

iiC&idate.

3.2 iiThe iiNecessity iiOf iiA iiModified iiCoulomb iiPotential ii& iiIts
iiAnalysis.

ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii 4 Chapter ii4

4.1 iiWhat iiAre iiThe iiCapabilities iiOf iiQuantum iiComputers?

 4.2 iiQuantum iiComputers iiHow iiDo iiIt?

4.3 iiWhen iiWill iiQuantum iiComputers iiBe iiAvailable?

Chapter ii5

5 FUTURE iiRESEARCH iiDIRECTIONS

5.1 iiA iiSymmetry iiBreaking iiProcess iiExplanation iiOf iiThe

iiMeasurement iiProblem.

5.2 Conclusion ii& iiFuture iiScope.

5.3 References.
 ABSTRACT
A iiquantum iicomputer iiis iia iicomputing iisystem iithat iiexecutes iioperations iion iidata iiwith iiquantum
iimechanical iiphenomena iilike iithe iisuperposition iithen iientanglement iiof iiatoms, iiphotons, ii&

iielectrons. iiQuantum iicomputers iiremain iidifferent iifrom iitransistor iibased iidigital iicomputers.

iiUnlike iitraditional iiprocessors, iiwhich iineed iidata iito iibe iiencrypted iiinto iibinary iidigits ii(bits),

iiquantum iicomputation iidenotes iidata ii& iiperforms iiactions iion iiit iiusing iiquantum iicharacteristics.

iiThe iiquantum iiTuring iimachine, iioften iiknown iias iithe iiuniversal iiquantum iicomputer, iiis iia

iitheoretical iimodel. iiNon-deterministic ii& iiprobabilistic iicomputers iihave iitheoretical iiparallels

iiwith iiquantum iicomputers. iiIt iihas iithe iiability iito iiconduct iicalculations iibillions iiof iitimes

iiquicker iithan iiany iisilicon-based iicomputer iicurrently iiavailable.

Quantum iitheory iiis iione iiof iithe iimost iiinfluential iitheories iiof iithe iitwentieth iicentury,
iiinfluencing iithe iitrajectory iiof iiscientific iiadvancement. iiIt iiintroduced iia iinew iiline iiof iiscientific

iithought, iiforesaw iipreviously iiunthinkable iiscenarios, ii& iiinspired iia iivariety iiof iimodern

iitechnology iidisciplines. iiThere iiare iinumerous iiways iito iiexpress iiscientific iilaws iiin iigeneral ii&

iiphysics iilaws iiin iiparticular. iiInformation iican iibe iipresented iiin iia iimultitude iiof iiways, iijust iias

iiphysical iilaws iiof iinature. iiSince iiinformation iican iibe iiexpressed iiin iia iivariety iiof iiways iiwhile

iiretaining iiits iicore iicharacter, iiit iiis iipossible iito iimanipulate iidata iiautomatically.

"There iiis iino iidata iiwithout iithe iiphysical iidemonstration," iistates iiunique iiwho iipractices iia
iiphysical iisystem iito iiexpress iidata. iiSupposed iiwords iiare iishowed iiby iiair iipressure iivariations:

ii"There iiis iino iidata iiwithout iiphysical iidemonstration." iiData iiis iian iideceptive iicontender iifor

iiprimarily iisignificant iiroles iiin iiphysics, iilike iienergy, iicontact iimomentum, ii& iiother iiabstractors,

iibecause iiit iiis iiinsensitive iito iihow iiit iiis iiexpressed ii& iimay iibe iieasily iichanged iifrom iione iiform iito

iianother. iiFrom iia iilayman's iiperspective, iithis iiis iia iitask iireport iion iithe iigeneral iicharacteristics iiof

iiQuantum iiComputing ii& iiData iiProcessing.

Keywords: iiquantum iimechanics, ii EPR, ii unitary ii transformation, ii decoherence,

iicomputation, iisuperposition.
CHAPTER 1 ii ii

INTRODUCTION
People iicreated iinew iiways iito iiexploit iidiverse iiphysical iiresources iilike iiforces, iimaterials ii&
iienergies iias iisociety iideveloped. iiData iiwas iiadded iito iithe iilist iiin iithe iitwentieth iicentury iiwhen

iiPCs iiwere iideveloped, iiallowing iidifficult iidata iiprocessing iito iibe iiexecuted iiouter iiof iihuman

iiIQs. iiFrom iimechanisms iito iisends iito iivalves iito iitransistors iito iiintegrated iicircuits, ii& iiso iion,

iihistory iiof iicomputer iitechnology iihas iibeen iia iiseries iiof iitransitions iifrom iithe iione iiform iiof

iiphysical iiimplementation iito iithe iinext.

Computers iitoday iiare iiclassical, iiwhich iiis iia iitruth iithat iiisn't iioften iiclear. iiSemiconductor
iitechnology iiis iiat iithe iiheart iiof iimodern iicomputers. iiTransistors, iithe iineurons iiof iiall iiPCs, iiwork

iiby iiutilising iisemiconductor iifeatures. iiClassical iiPCs iiare iiquantum iimechanical iiin iia iilimited

iiintelligence, iibecause iieverything iiis iiquantum iimechanical iias iifar iias iiwe iiunderst& iiit iinow. iiNo,

iieven iithough iithey iiare iifounded iion iiquantum iiphysics, iiclassical iicomputers iiare iinot iitotally

iiquantum iibecause iithey iido iinot iideed iiquantumness iiof iimatter iiat iithe iidata iitheoretic iilevel,

iiwhich iiis iiwhere iiit iireally iimatters.

Moores iilaw, iifirst iiproposed iiby iiGordon iiMoore iiat ii1965, iiprojected iithat iiprocessor iisupremacy
ii& iiquickness iiwill iidouble iievery ii18th iimonths. iiThis iilaw iistill iiholds iitrue, iibut iiit iiis iibeginning

iito iifalt, ii& iimodules iiare iishrinking. iiThey iiwill iishortly iibe iiso iismall, iiconsisting iiof iionly iia ii iirare

iiatoms, iithat iiquantum iieffects iiwill iiconvert iiunavoidable, iipotentially iiputting iian iiend iito

iiMoore's iilaw. iiIn iia iiclassical iisense, iiwe iican iiutilize iiquantum iieffects iito iiour iibenefit, iibut iifully

iiexploiting iithose iieffects iiallows iius iito iiachieve iimuch iimore. iiQuantum iicomputing iiis iibased iion

iithis iiconcept.

New iitechniques iiof iijoin iivarious iiphysical iiresources iisuch iias iimaterials, iiforces, ii& iienergy
iiwere iifound iias iiscience ii& iitechnology iiadvanced, iicontributing iito iithe iigrowth iiof iicivilization.

iiBeginning iiwith iiCharles iiBabbage's iiearly iithoughts ii& iiculminating iiin iithe iibuilding iiof iithe

iifirst iicomputer iiby iiGerman iiengineer iiKonard iiZeise iiin ii1941, iithe iihistory iiof iicomputer

iidevelopment iimarks iithe iiculmination iiof iiyears iiof iitechnological iiachievements. iiFrom iigears iito

iirelays iito iivalves iito iitransistors iito iiintegrated iicircuits iito iichip, iithe iientire iiprocess iirequired iia

iiseries iiof iitransitions iifrom iione iisort iiof iiphysical iiinstantiation iito iithe iinext. iiSurprisingly, iithe

iihigh-speed iicurrent iicomputer iiis iibasically iino iidifferent iifrom iiits iicolossal ii30-ton iiforefathers,

iiwhich iihad ii18000 iivacuum iitubes ii& ii500 iimiles iiof iiwire. iiThe iiwork iiof iimanipulating ii&

iiinterpreting iian iiencoding iiof iibinary iibits iiinto iia iiuseful iicomputing iiresult iihas iiremained iithe

iisame, iidespite iithe iifact iithat iiPCs iihave iigotten iimore iicompact ii& iisignificantly iifaster iiin iidoing

iitheir iitask.

If iiMoores iiLaw iiis iiprojected iito iithe iifuture iinaively, iiit iiis iidiscovered iithat iieach iibit iiof
iiinformation iiwill iibe iiencoded iiby iia iiphysical iisystem iiof iisubatomic iisize iisooner iior iilater. iiIn

iireality, iithe iisurvey iiconducted iiby iiKeyes iiin ii1988, iias iishown iiin iifig. ii1, iisupports iithis iiclaim.

iiThe iinumber iiof iielectrons iirequired iito iistore iia iisingle iibit iiof iiinformation iiis iidepicted iiin iithis
iigraph. iiHowever, iiextrapolation iiof iithe iipattern iishows iithat iiatomic iiscale iicomputations iimay iibe
iiwithin iireach iiwithin iia iidecade iior iitwo iiat iithe iiatomic iiscale.

ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii

Fig ii1: i i Figure ii1: iiYearly iiincrease iiin iithe iinumber iiof iidopant iiimpurities iiin iilogic iiin iibipolar
iitransistors.

Quantum iimechanics iigoverns iimatter, iiwhich iidiffers iisignificantly iifrom iithe iiclassical
iiprinciples iithat iigovern iithe iiproperties iiof iitraditional iilogic iigates. iiAs iia iiresult, iiif iicomputers

iiare iito iibecome iismaller iiin iithe iifuture, iinew iiquantum iitechnology iiwill iihave iito iireplace iior

iienhance iiwhat iiwe iinow iihave. iiRegardless, iiquantum iitechnology iican iido iifar iimore iithan

iipacking iimore ii& iimore iibits iiinto iisilicon ii& iimultiplying iimicroprocessor iiclock iispeeds. iiIt iican

iisupport iia iicompletely iinew iitype iiof iicomputation iibased iion iiquantum iiphysics iiprinciples, iiboth

iiquantitatively ii& iiqualitatively iinovel iialgorithms.

Researchers iihave iibegun iito iiinvestigate iithe iipossibility iiof iithese iiquantum iibehaviours iifor
iicomputation iiwhen iithe iisize iiof iicomponents iiin iiclassical iicomputers iishrinks iito iithe iipoint

iiwhere iithe iibehaviour iiof iithe iicomponents iiis iieffectively iicontrolled iiby iiquantum iitheory iirather

iithan iiclassical iitheory. iiSurprisingly, iiit iiappears iithat iia iicomputer iiwith iiall iiof iiits iicomponents

iiworking iiin iiquantum iimode iiis iimore iipowerful iithan iiany iiclassical iicomputer. iiThe iistudy iiof

iiquantum iicomputing iiis iidriven iiby iithe iiphysical iilimits iiof iithe iiclassical iicomputer ii& iithe

iipossibilities iifor iithe iiquantum iicomputer iito iido iicertain iivaluable iitasks iimore iiquickly iithan iiany

iiclassical iicomputer.

To iimake iiquantum iicomputers iia iireality, iionly iia iifew iibasic iiquantum iimechanics iiideas iiare
iirequired. iiLearning iito iimanipulate iithese iiconcepts iihas iibeen iithe iisubtlety. iiIt's iia iimillion iidollar

iiquestion iiwhether iisuch iia iicomputer iiwill iibe iiinevitable iior iitoo iidifficult iito iibuild iion.
CHAPTER 2 ii ii

2.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF QUANTUM COMPUTING:

II II II II II

HISTORY
Quantum iicomputation iiis iiprimarily iia iicollection iiof iitheoretical iipromises iifor iisome iiincredibly
iifast iialgorithms iithat iicould iibe iirun iion iiquantum iicomputers. iiHowever, iiexperimental

iidevelopment iihas iibeen iirapid iisince iithe iifirst iisubstantial iialgorithm iiwas iiproposed iiin ii1994,

iiwith iimultiple iiapproaches iiproviding iitwo ii& iithree iiquantum-bit iimanipulations.

Paul iiBenioff iidiscussed iiquantum iicomputers iifor iithe iifirst iitime iiin iithe iiperspective iiof
iiemulating iiclassical iiTuring iimachines ii(very iibasic iiconventional iicomputers) iiwith iiquantum

iiunitary iievolution. iiThe iisubject iiof iihow iisuccessfully iiconventional iicomputers iican iisimulate

iiquantum iisystems iiwas iiexamined iiby iiFeynman. iiHe iicame iito iithe iiconclusion iithat iiwhile

iiconventional iicomputers iisuffer iifrom iian iiexponential iislowdown iiwhen iiattempting iito iireplicate

iiquantum iisystems, iiquantum iisystems iimay iitheoretically iisimulate iieach iiother iiwithout iithis

iislowdown. iiDeutsch, iion iithe iiother iih&, iiwas iithe iione iiwho iiinitially iiproposed iithat iiquantum

iisuperposition iimay iiallow iiquantum iievolution iito iido iimultiple iiclassical iioperations iiin iiparallel.

Physicists ii& iicomputer iiscientists iisuch iias iiCharles iiH. iiBennet iiof iithe iiIBM iiThomas iiJ. iiWatson
iiResearch iiCentre, iiPaul iiA. iiBeniof iiof iithe iiArogonne iiNational iiLaboratory iiin iiIllinois, iiDavid

iiDeustch iiof iithe iiUniversity iiof iiOxford, ii& iiRichard iiP. iiFeynman iiof iiCaltech iifirst iiexplored iithe

iiidea iiof iia iiquantum iicomputing iidevice iiin iithe ii1970s ii& iiearly ii1980s. iiWhen iiscientists iiwere

iidebating iithe iifundamental iiconstraints iiof iicomputation, iithe iiidea iicame iito iithem. iiIn ii1982,

iiFeynman iiwas iione iiof iithe iifew iito iiattempt iito iiconceptualise iia iinew iitype iiof iicomputer iithat

iicould iibe iibuilt iiusing iiquantum iiphysics iiconcepts.

He iicreated iian iiabstract iimodel iito iidemonstrate iihow iia iiquantum iisystem iicould iibe iiutilised iito
iiperform iicalculations ii& iito iiexplain iihow iisuch iia iimachine iicould iibe iiused iias iia iisimulator iifor

iiquantum iiphysics iiproblems. iiA iiphysicist iiwould iibe iiable iito iiconduct iiquantum iiphysics

iiexperiments iiinside iia iiquantum iimechanical iicomputer, iiin iiother iiwords. iiQuantum iicomputers,

iiaccording iito iiFeynman, iican iitackle iiquantum iimechanical iimany-body iiproblems iithat iiare

iiimpossible iito iiaddress iion iia iiclassical iicomputer. iiThis iiis iidue iito iithe iifact iithat iisolutions iion iia

iiclassical iicomputer iiwould iitake iiexponentially iilonger iito iicompute, iiwhereas iiquantum

iicomputers iican iiperform iiall iicalculations iiin iipolynomial iitime.

In ii1985, iiDeutsch iidiscovered iithat iiFeynman's iiclaim iicould iilead iito iithe iidevelopment iiof iia
iigeneral-purpose iiquantum iicomputer. iiHe iidemonstrated iithat iia iiquantum iicomputer iicould

iitheoretically iirepresent iiany iiphysical iiprocess iiflawlessly. iiAs iia iiresult, iia iiquantum iicomputer

iiwould iihave iisignificantly iimore iicapabilities iithan iiany iitypical iiclassical iicomputer. iiAs iia

iiresult, iiefforts iiwere iiundertaken iito iicome iiup iiwith iifascinating iiuses iifor iisuch iia iimachine. iiThis

iididn't iiyield iimuch iisuccess iiother iithan iithe iicontinuation iiof iia iifew iimathematical iiissues. iiIn

ii1994, iiPeter iiShor iiproposed iia iiway iifor iiemploying iiquantum iicomputers iito iisolve iia iikey
iiproblem iiin iinumber iitheory, iinamely iifactorization. iiHe iidemonstrated iihow iian iiensemble iiof
iimathematical iioperations iicreated iispecifically iifor iia iiquantum iicomputer iicould iibe iiconstructed

iito iiallow iisuch iia iimachine iito iifactor iienormous iinumbers iifar iiquicker iithan iiconventional

iicomputers iican. iiWith iithis iiaccomplishment, iiquantum iicomputing iiwent iifrom iia iimere

iiacademic iicuriosity iito iia iiworldwide iifascination.

The iifact iithat iiquantum iicomputing iitook iisuch iia iilong iitime iito iitake iioff iiis iimaybe iithe iimost
iiamazing iifact iiabout iiit. iiThe iiworld iiof iisubatomic iiparticles iihas iibeen iia iirealm iiapart iifor

iiphysicists iisince iithe ii1920s, iibut iiit iitook iianother iihalf-century iifor iicomputer iiscientists iito

iiquestion iiif iiquantum iieffects iicould iibe iiexploited iifor iicomputation. iiThe iisolution iiwas

iieverything iibut iiobvious.

2.2 iiLIMITATIONS iiOF iiTHE iiCLASSICAL iiCOMPUTER ii& iiTHE iiINVENTION iiOF
iiTHE iiQUANTUM iiCOMPUTING iiART

2.2.1 ii: iiPublic iiKey iiCryptography ii& iiBig iiInteger iiClassical iiFactoring:

The iikey iidistribution iiproblem iiwas iisolved iiin ii1970 iiby iia iismart iimathematical iifinding iiin iithe
iiform iiof ii"public iikey" iisystems. iiUsers iido iinot iineed iito iiagree iion iia iisecret iikey iibefore iisending

iia iimessage iiwith iithese iisystems. iiThe iiconcept iiof iia iisafe iiwith iitwo iikeys iiis iiused, iione iipublic

iikey iito iilock iiit ii& iithe iiother iiprivate iikey iito iiopen iiit. iiEveryone iihas iia iikey iito iilock iithe iisafe, iibut

iionly iione iiperson iihas iia iikey iito iiopen iiit iiagain, iitherefore iianyone iican iiplace iia iimessage iiin iithe

iisafe, iibut iionly iione iiperson iihas iithe iikey iito iiopen iiit iiagain. iiThe iitwo iikeys iiare iitwo iilarge iiinteger

iinumbers iiin iipractise. iiA iipublic iikey iican iibe iieasily iiderived iifrom iia iiprivate iikey, iibut iinot iithe

iiother iiway iiaround. iiThe iitechnique iitakes iiadvantage iiof iithe iifact iithat iisome iimathematical

iioperations iiare iieasier iito iido iiin iione iidirection iithan iiin iithe iiother, iifor iiexample, iimultiplying

iinumbers iiis iisignificantly iifaster iithan iifactoring iia iilarge iinumber. iiWhat iireally iimatters iiin iia

ii"quick" iialgorithm iiis iithat iithe iitime iiit iitakes iito iimultiply iia iispecific iipair iiof iinumbers iidoes iinot

iiincrease iidramatically iias iiwe iiapply iithe iisame iiprocedure iito iiever-larger iiquantities. iiWhen iiwe

iiconvert iifrom iitwo iithree-digit iinumbers iito iitwo iithirty-digit iinumbers iiutilising iithe iisimpler iitrial

iidivision iimethod, iiwe iiknow iithat iimultiplication iitakes iiaround ii1013 iitimes iilonger iior iirequires

iimore iimemory iithan iifactoring iia iithree-digit iinumber. iiWhen iiwe iiincrease iithe iinumber iiof iidigits

iiin iia iifactorization, iithe iiamount iiof iicomputational iiresources iiused iiskyrockets. iiIn iitruth, iipublic

iikey iicryptosystems iicould iisolve iithe iiproblem iiof iikey iidistribution. iiTheir iisafety, iion iithe iiother

iih&, iiis iibased iion iiunproven iimathematical iiassumptions, iisuch iias iithe iidifficulty iiof iifactoring

iihuge iiintegers. iiHowever, iione iisuch iiprotocol iiis iiRSA, iiwhich iimakes iielectronic iibanking

iiconceivable iiby iipresuming iithat iia iifake iifinancial iitransfer iior iisuccessful iiforgery iiwould iitake

iithe iiworld's iifastest iicomputer iimillions iiof iiyears iito iicomplete. iiAnother iioption iiis iithe iiData

iiEncryption iiSt&ard ii(DES), iiwhich iiis iistill iisafe iienough iifor iimost iieveryday iicommercial

iioperations.

Factorization iiof iia iilarge iiinteger iican iibe iiquantified iiin iithe iifollowing iiway. iiConsider iithe
iinumber iiN, iiwhich iihas iiL iidecimal iidigits ii(N ii10 iito iithe iipower iiof iiL). iiThe iitrial iidivision

iiapproach iiis iiused iito iifactor iithe iinumber. iiOn iitraditional iicomputers, iione iiof iithe iimost iiwell-

known iifactoring iialgorithms iiruns iifor iia iilarge iinumber iiof iioperations.

s ii~ iiO ii(exp ii( ii(64/9)1/3 ii(lnN)1/3 ii(ln iilnN)2/3i))

or iiexplicitly, s ii~ iiA iiexp ii( ii1.9 iiL1/3 ii( iilnL)2/3 ii)

As iia iiresult, iithis iialgorithm iiscales iiexponentially iiwith iithe iisize iiof iithe iiinput iilog iiN ii(log iiN iiis
iithe iilength iiof iithe iiinput). iiOur iinumbering iischeme iidetermines iithe iibase iiof iithe iilogarithm.

iiThus, iibase ii2 iirepresents iithe iilength iiin iibinary, iibase ii2 iirepresents iithe iilength iiin iibinary, iibase

ii10 iirepresents iithe iilength iiin iidecimal, ii& iiso iion.) iiFor iiexample, iiin ii1994, iia ii129-digit iinumber

ii(known iias iiRSA ii129) iiwas iifactored iisuccessfully iiusing iithis iiprocedure iion iiapproximately

ii1600 iiworkstations iiaround iithe iiworld, iitaking iieight iimonths iiin iitotal. iiUsing iithis iito iicalculate
iithe iiper iifactor iiof iithe iiabove iiexponential iiscaling, iiit iiis iidiscovered iithat iifactoring iia ii250 iidigit
iinumber iiwith iithe iisame iicomputing iipower iiwould iitake iiaround ii800,000 iiyears, ii& iifactoring iia

ii1000 iidigit iinumber iiwould iitake ii10 iito iithe iipower ii25 iiyears ii(much iilonger iithan iithe iiage iiof

iiuniverse). iiFor iipublic iikey iicryptography, iithe iidifficulty iiof iifactoring iihuge iiintegers iiis iicritical.

Around ii250 iidigits iiin iibanks. iiFactorization iiusing iithe iitrial iidivision iiapproach iiTo iiaddress iithe
iiproblem iiof iiexponential iirise iias iia iifunction iiof iiL, ii10L/2 ii(=N) iidivisions iiare iirequired. iiAssume

iithat iia iicomputer iimakes ii1010 iijudgments iievery iisecond. iiThus, iia iicomputer iican iifactor iiany

iinumber iiN iiin iiaround ii1040 iiseconds, iisignificantly iilonger iithan ii3.8 iiX ii1017 iiseconds ii(12

iibillion iiyears), iithe iicurrent iiestimate iiof iithe iiuniverse's iiage!

2.2.2 Quantum iiFactoring

Based iion iithe iianalysis iiof iiclassical iibig iiinteger iifactoring, iiit iiappears iithat iifactoring iilarge
iinumbers iiwill iiremain iibeyond iithe iicapabilities iiof iiany iirealistic iicomputing iidevices, ii& iipublic

iikey iicrypto iisystems iiwill iiremain iisecure iiunless iimathematicians iior iicomputer iiscientists iicome

iiup iiwith iian iiefficient iifactoring iialgorithm. iiThis iidoes iinot iiappear iito iibe iithe iicase,

iithough.Because iiit iidoes iinot iidescribe iiall iiphysically iiconceivable iicomputations, iithe iiClassical

iiTheory iiof iiComputation iiis iiincomplete. iiIt iidoes iinot, iifor iiexample, iidescribe iicomputations iithat

iican iibe iicarried iiout iiby iiquantum iidevices. iiRecent iiresearch iiin iiquantum iicomputation iihas

iirevealed iithat iia iiquantum iicomputer iican iifactor iisubstantially iiquicker iithan iia iiclassical

iicomputer.

According iito iian iialgorithm iideveloped iiby iiPeter iiShor iifactoring iian iiinteger iiusing
iiquantum iicomputer iiruns iiin iiO((lnN) ii ) iisteps, iiwhere ii iiis iismall. iiThis iiis iiroughly
2+

iiquadratic iiin iithe iiinput iisize, iiso iifactoring iia ii1000 iidigit iinumber iiwith iisuch iian iialgorithm

iiwould iirequire iionly iifew iimillion iisteps. iiThe iiimplication iiis iithat iipublic iikey

iicryptosystems iibased iion iifactoring iimay iibe iibreakable.

2.2.3 iiFinding iian iiitem iiwith iia iispecific iiproperty:

Another iiproblem iithat iican iibe iigreatly iiaccelerated iiby iiutilising iia iiquantum iilogic-based iimethod
iiis iifinding iian iiitem iihaving iia iidesired iiproperty iifrom iia iicollection iiof iiN iithings. iiIf iiwe iichoose

iione iiitem iiat iir&om iifrom iia iicollection iiof iiN iiitems, iithe iilikelihood iiof iiselecting iithe iicorrect

iiitem iiis iithe iisame iias iiselecting iithe iicorrect iione; iithe iiprobability iiof iiselecting iithe iicorrect iiitem

iiis iihalf. iiAs iia iiresult, iion iiaverage, iiN/2 iiprocesses iiare iirequired iito iiobtain iithe iicorrect iiitem.

iiGrover, iion iithe iiother iih&, iidevised iia iiquantum iilogic-based iialgorithm iithat iicompletes iithe

iiidentical iitask iiin iian iiaverage iiof iiN iioperations.

2.2.4 iiClassical iicomputer iisimulation iiof iia iiquantum iisystem:

Richard iiP. iiFeynman iistated iiin ii1982 iithat iia iiquantum iiphysical iisystem iiof iiN iiparticles iiwith iiits
iiquantum iiprobabilities iicould iinot iibe iireplicated iiby iia iiconventional iicomputer iiwithout

iiexperiencing iiexponential iisimulation iislowness. iiIn iiclassical iiphysics, iihowever, iia iisystem iiof

iiN iiparticles iican iibe iisimulated iiusing iia iipolynomial iislowdown. iiThe iimajor iireason iifor iithis iiis

iithat iiin iiclassical iiphysics, iithe iidescription iisize iiof iia iiparticle iisystem iiis iilinear iiin iiN, iibut

iiexponential iiin iiN iiaccording iito iiquantum iicomputers ii(computers iibased iion iiquantum
iimechanics iilaws), iiwhich iican iiavoid iithe iislowness iiseen iiin iithe iisimulation iiprocess iiof iiquantum
iisystems. iiFeynman iialso iiaddressed iithe iisubject iiof iireplicating iia iiquantum iiphysical iisystem

iiusing iia iiprobabilistic iicomputer, iibut iiit iiappears iito iibe iia iichallenging iichallenge iidue iito

iiinterference iieffects.

2.3 iiQUANTUM ii COMPUTING: ii A ii COMPLETELY ii NEW ii PARALLELISM

iiCONCEPT

Even iithe iiquickest ii& iimost iipowerful iicomputers iiare iilimited iiin iitheir iicapacity iiwhen iidoing
iimathematical iicomputations, iibrowsing iithe iiinternet, iimodelling iithe iinational iieconomy,

iiforecasting iithe iiweather, ii& iiother iitasks. iiThe iiproblem iiisn't iithat iimicroprocessors iiare

iiexcessively iislow; iirather, iicomputers iiare iiintrinsically iiwasteful. iiModern ii(classical)

iicomputers iiwork iiwith iiprogrammes iithat iibreak iidown iia iitask iiinto iisimple iioperations iithat iiare

iithen iicarried iiout iisequentially, iione iiat iia iitime. iiAttempts iito iiconvince iitwo iior iimore iicomputers

ii(or iiat iileast iitwo iior iimore iimicroprocessors) iito iiwork iion iiseparate iiportions iiof iia iiproblem iiat iithe

iisame iitime iihave iibeen iimade, iibut iisuccess iihas iibeen iislow ii& iipatchy. iiTo iia iisignificant

iimeasure, iithis iiis iidue iito iithe iifact iithat iimicroprocessor iilogic iiis iiessentially iiserial ii(normal

iicomputers iisometimes iiappear iito iibe iidoing iimany iitasks iiat iionce, iisuch iiusing iia iiword iiprocessor

ii& iia iispreadsheet iiprogramme iiat iithe iisame iitime, iibut iithe iicentral iiprocessor iiis iimerely iicycling

iifrom iione iitask iito iithe iinext).

In iia iigenuine iisense, iia iiparallel iicomputer iiwould iibe iidesigned iiwith iisimultaneity iiin iimind. iiIt
iiwould iibe iiable iito iido iimultiple iiprocesses iiat iionce, iisearching iithrough iia iilarge iinumber iiof

iioptions ii& iihighlighting iithe iione iithat iisolves iithe iiproblem. iiThere iiare iicomputers iilike iithis.

iiQuantum iicomputers iiare iiwhat iithey're iicalled. iiIn iiactuality, iiquantum iiparallelism iiis iithe iimore

iiintriguing iiaspect iiof iiquantum iicomputing. iiA iiquantum iisystem iiis iinot iiin iia iisingle ii"classical

iistate," iibut iirather iiin iia ii"quantum iistate," iiwhich iiis iia iisuperposition iiof iiseveral iiclassical iior

iiclassical-like iistates. iiThis iiis iiknown iias iithe iiprinciple iiof iilinear iisuperposition, ii& iiit iiis iiutilised

iito iicreate iiquantum iistates. iiA iiquantum iicomputer iican iiproduce iifindings iibased iion iidetails iiof

iiall iiits iiclassical iilike iistates iiif iithe iisuperposition iican iibe iishielded iifrom iiundesirable

iientanglement iiwith iiits iisurroundings ii(known iias iidecoherence). iiThis iiis iiparallelism iion iia iiserial

iimachine, iior iiquantum iiparallelism.

2.4 iiQUANTUM iiSUPERPOSITION ii& iiQUANTUM iiINTERFERENCE: iiVisualization

iiof iia iiquantum iicomputer iiin iiconcept.

The iifundamental iiunit iiof iiinformation iiin iia iiquantum iicomputer ii(known iias iia iiquantum iibit iior
ii"qubit," iicomparable iito iithe iiclassical iibit iiused iiin iiconventional iicomputers) iiis iiquaternary

iirather iithan iibinary. iiThis iiqubit iifeature iicomes iias iia iidirect iiresult iiof iithe iiqubit's iiadherence iito

iiquantum iimotion iilaws. iiA iiqubit iican iiexist iinot iionly iiin iithe iistates iicorresponding iito iithe iilogical

iistates ii0 ii& ii1, iias iiin iia iiclassical iistate iibit, iibut iialso iiin iistates iicorresponding iito iia iiblend iiof iithose

iiclassical iistates. iiTo iiput iiit iianother iiway, iia iiqubit iican iibe iia iizero, iia iione, iior iiboth ii0 ii& ii1 iiat iithe

iisame iitime, iiwith iia iinumerical iicoefficient iireflecting iithe iilikelihood iiof iieach iistate. iiBecause

iieveryday iiphenomena iiare iigoverned iiby iiconventional iiphysics iirather iithan iiquantum

iimechanics, iiwhich iitaps iiout iiat iithe iiatomic iilevel, iithis iiconcept iimay iilook iicounterintuitive. iiThe

iispin iis=1/2 iiof iione iielectron iisystem iican iibe iiviewed iiphysically, iiwith iithe iitwo iistates ii+1/2 ii& ii–
1/2 iibeing iitwo iieigenstates iiof iiSz ii(z iicomponent iidirection iiof iian iiexternal iimagnetic iifield iiof
iispin ii12). iiA iisingle iiphoton iibeam iican iialternatively iibe iiemployed, iiwith iithe iitotal iistates iibeing

iithe iipolarisation iistate ii(horizontal iior iivertical) iiwith iirespect iito iia iigiven iiaxis. iiThus, iia iiqubit

iican iihave iitwo iivalues, ii0 iior ii1, iiwhich iicorrespond iito iitwo iieigenstates iiof iia iisingle iielectron's

iispin ii(say):

|1> ii= ii|>

|0> ii= ii|>
|0> ii+ i i |1> ii= i i |> ii+ i i |>

Furthermore, iia iiqubit iican iibe iia iisuperposition iiof iithese iitwo iistates iiwith iia iicomplex iicoefficient,
iiwhich iidistinguishes iithem iifrom iitraditional iicomputer iibits. iiIn iimathematical iiwords, iiwe iisay

iithat iibecause iithe iigeneral iistate iiof iia iiqubit iimay iibe iidefined iias iia iivector iiin iithe iitwo-

dimensional iicomplex iispace iic2 ii& iithe iitwo iipure iistates iiconstitute iithe iibasis iiof iithe
iirepresentation, iithe iistate iiis iicharacterised iias iia iivector iiin iithe iitwo-dimensional iicomplex iispace

iic2.

The iiphenomena iiof iiquantum iisuperposition iican iibe iiproven iiexperimentally iias iifollows. iiFigure
ii2 ii

Fig ii2: iiLight iibeam iisplitting

A iiphoton iiis iiemitted iifrom iia iilight iisource ii& iitravels iidown iia iipath iito iia iihalf-silvered iimirror.
iiThis iimirror iisplits iithe iilight, iisending iihalf iivertically iito iidetector iiA ii& iihalf iihorizontally iito

iidetector iiB. iiA iiphoton, iion iithe iiother iih&, iirepresents iia iisingle iiquantised iienergy iistate ii(E=h)

iithat iicannot iibe iisplit, iitherefore iiit iican iibe iidetected iiwith iiequal iiprobability iiat iiA iior iiB. iiThis iiis

iidemonstrated iiby iithe iifact iithat iiif iidetector iiA iiregisters iithe iisignal, iithen iidetector iiB iidoes iinot,

ii& iivice iiversa. iiWith iithis iiinformation, iione iiwould iibelieve iithat iiany iigiven iiphoton iitravels

iivertically iior iihorizontally, iichoosing iibetween iithe iitwo iidirections iiat iir&om. iiQuantum iitheory,

iion iithe iiother iih&, iipredicts iithat iithe iiphoton iifollows iiboth iidirections iiat iithe iisame iitime, iionly

iicollapsing iito iione iipath iiupon iimeasurement ii(collapse iiof iithe iiwave iifunction). iiThe iilinear

iisuperposition iiof iithe iipossible iiphoton iistates iiof iiprospective iiroutes iicauses iia iiphenomenon

iiknown iias iisingle-particle iiinterference. iiA iilittle iimore iisophisticated iiexperiment, iioutlined iiin

iifig ii3, iican iibetter iishow iithe iiphenomenon iiof iisingle iiparticle iiinterference. iiWhen iia iiphoton iihits

iia iihalf-polished iimirror ii(beam iisplitter) iiin iithis iiexperiment, iiit iiis iisplit iiinto iitwo iiparts: iireflected

ii& iitransmitted iibeams. iiBefore iireaching iia iidetector, iithe iitwo iibeams iiare iirecombined iiwith iihalf
iiof iithe iifully iisilvered iimirrors, ii& iithen iianother iihalf iisilvered iimirror iisplits. iiEach iihalf-silvered
iimirror iiintroduces iithe iipossibility iithat iithe iiphoton iiwill iitake iione iiof iitwo iipaths. iiWhen iia

iiphoton iistrikes iithe iimirror iialong iione iiof iitwo iipaths iiafter iipassing iithrough iithe iifirst iibeam

iisplitter, iithe iiarrangement iiis iiidentical iito iithat iishown iiin iifig ii2. iiThus, iiif iia iisingle iiphoton

iitravelling iivertically iistrikes iithe iimirror, iithe iiphoton iishould iihave iia ii50 iipercent iichance iiof

iistriking iieither iidetector iiA iior iidetector iiB, iiaccording iito iithe iiexperiment iishown iiin iifig ii2. iiThe

iisame iican iibe iisaid iifor iia iiphoton iitravelling iihorizontally. iiHowever, iithe iiactual iioutcome iiis

iirather iidifferent. iiIf iithe iitwo iialternative iipathways iiare iiprecisely iithe iisame iilength, iithe iiphoton

iihas iia ii100% iichance iiof iireaching iidetector iiA ii& iia ii0% iichance iiof iireaching iidetector iiB. iiAs iia

iiresult, iithe iiphoton iiis iicertain iito iihit iidetector iiA, ii& iiit iiseems iiinevitable iithat iithe iiphoton iimust

iihave iitravelled iiboth iiroutes iiat iithe iisame iitime.

B
Fully iiSilvered

Half iiSilvered
ii(Beam

iisplitter)

Fig ii3: iiTo iidemonstrate iithe iiwave ii& iiparticle iinatures iiof iilight.

When iian iiabsorbing iiscreen iiis iiplaced iiin iithe iipath iiof iieither iiof iithe iiroutes, iiit iibecomes iiequally
iilikely iithat iidetector iiA iior iiB iiwill iibe iireached. iiWhen iione iiof iithe iipaths iiis iiblocked, iithe iiphoton

iisomehow iiunderst&s iithat iiit iiis iinot iiauthorised iito iireach iidetector iiB, iithus iiit iimust iihave iifelt iiout

iiboth iiroutes. iiIt iiis iitherefore iicompletely iilegitimate iito iistate iithat iithe iiphoton iitravelled iiboth

iitransmitted ii& iireflected iipaths iibetween iithe iitwo iihalf-silvered iimirrors, iior, iiin iimore iitechnical

iiterms, iithat iithe iiphoton iiis iiin iia iicoherent iisuperposition iiof iibeing iiin iiboth iithe iitransmitted ii&

iireflected iibeams. iiThe iilinear iisuperposition iiprinciple iicauses iithis iiquantum iiinterference. iiThis

iiis iione iiof iithe iidistinguishing iicharacteristics iithat iidistinguishes iicurrent iiquantum iicomputing

iiresearch iias iimore iithan iia iicontinuation iiof iitoday's iicomputer iiconcept, iibut iirather iian iientirely

iinew iibranch iiof iithought ii& iiunderlying iiconcept, ii& iiit iiis iibecause iiquantum iicomputers iiharness

iithose iidistinguishing iicharacteristics iithat iithey iihave iithe iipotential iito iibe iiextremely iipowerful

iicomputational iidevices.

2.5 QUANTUM-ENTANGLEMENT

The iifinding iiof iia iicorrelation iibetween iiseveral iievents iiis iia iicommon iioccurrence. iiWith iithe
iihelp iiof iiclassical iiphysics iilaws, iithese iiconnections iican iibe iiwell iicharacterised. iiConsider iithe
iifollowing iisituation: iiConsider iithe iifollowing iiscenario: iia iibank iiheist. iiThe iibank iirobber iiis
iithreatening iithe iiterrified iiteller iiwith iia iigun. iiIf iithe iiteller iiis iialive ii& iiunharmed, iithe iipistol iihas

iinot iigone iioff. iiIf iithe iiteller iiis iidead iion iithe iifloor iifrom iia iigunshot iiwound, iithe iigun iihas iibeen

iifired. iiThis iiis iia iistraightforward iidetective iicase. iiAs iia iiresult, iithere iiis iia iiclear iilink iibetween iithe

iicondition iiof iithe iigun ii& iithe iicondition iiof iithe iiteller: ii"gun iifired" iiindicates ii"teller iialive." iiIt iiis

iiassumed iithat iithe iithief iionly iishoots iito iikill ii& iinever iimisses.

The iicorrelation iibetween iioccurrences iiis iinot iiso iieasy iiin iithe iiuniverse iiof iimicroscopic iithings
iirepresented iiby iiquantum iiphysics. iiConsider iia iinucleus iithat iimay iior iimay iinot iiexperience

iiradioactive iidecay iiover iia iiperiod iiof iitime. iiAs iia iiresult, iithere iiare iitwo iitypes iiof iinuclei iiin iiterms

iiof iidecay.

Only iitwo iistates iiwere iipossible: ii'decayed' ii& ii'not iidecayed,' iijust iias iithe iigun iihad iitwo iistates:
ii'fired' ii& ii'not iifired,' iior iithe iiteller iihad iitwo iistates: ii'living' ii& ii'dead.' iiIn iithe iiquantum

iimechanical iirealm, iihowever, iithe iiatom iican iibe iiin iia iimixed iistate iidecayed-not iidecayed iiin

iiwhich iiit iiis iineither iione iinor iithe iiother, iibut iisomewhere iiin iithe iimiddle. iiThis iiis iidue iito iithe iiidea

iiof iilinear iisuperposition iiof iitwo iiquantum iimechanical iistates iiof iithe iiatom, ii& iiit's iinot

iisomething iiwe'd iiexpect iito iisee iiin iitraditional iiobjects iilike iifirearms iior iitellers. iiLet's iitake iia

iilook iiat iia iisystem iimade iiup iiof iitwo iinuclei. iiTwo iinuclei iimay iibe iiconnected iiin iisuch iia iiway iithat

iiif iione iidecays, iithe iiother iiwill iias iiwell. ii& iiif iione iiisn't iidecaying, iithe iiother iiisn't iieither. iiThis iiis

iia iione-to-one iicorrespondence. iiHowever, iithe iinuclei iimay iibe iiconnected iisuch iithat iiif iione iiis iiin

iithe ii'decayed-not iidecayed' iisuperposition iistate, iithe iiother iiwill iibe iias iiwell. iiAs iia iiresult, iithere

iiis iione iimore iicorrelation iibetween iinuclei iiquantum iimechanically iithan iiwe iiwould iipredict

iitraditionally. ii'Entanglement' iiis iithe iiterm iifor iithis iitype iiof iiquantum'super iicorrelation.'

Entanglement iiwas iigiven iiits iiGerman iiword, ii'Verschrankung,' iiby iiErwin iiSchrodinger, iia
iiNobel iiLaureate iiin iiphysics, iiin iirecognition iiof iihis iifundamental iicontribution iito iiquantum

iimechanics. iiSchrodinger iiwas iithe iifirst iito iinotice iientanglement's iipeculiar iiproperties.

iiConsider iithat iithe iinucleus, iinot iithe iirobber, iiis iithe iione iiwho iidecides iiwhether iior iinot iithe iipistol

iiwill iifire. iiWhen iithe iinucleus iidecays, iia iihair iitrigger iiis iiactivated, iiwhich iishoots iithe iigun. iiThe

iigun iiwill iinot iifire iiif iiit iidoes iinot iidegrade. iiHowever, iiif iithe iinucleus iiis iiin iisuperposition, iiit iican

iibe iilinked iito iia iigun iithat iiis iiin iia iifired-not-fired iistate. iiSuch iia iilink, iion iithe iiother iih&, iileads iito

iia iidisastrous iisituation. iiThe iiteller iiin iithis iiexample iiis iieither iidead iior iialive iiat iithe iisame iitime!

iiSchrodinger iiwas iiconcerned iiabout iia iisimilar iipredicament iiin iiwhich iithe iiquantum

iientanglement iivictim iiwas iia iicat iitrapped iiin iia iibox ii(Schrodinger iicat: iiA iiparadox). iiThe iirelease

iiof iia iifatal iipoison iicould iibe iitriggered iiby iithe iidecay iinucleus iiin iithe iiSchrodinger iicat iiin iia iibox.

iiThe iifundamental iiissue iiis iithat iiwe iiare iinot iiaccustomed iito iiseeing iithings iilike iia iidead-alive

iianimal iior iia iidead-alive iiteller iiin iiour iidaily iilives. iiHowever, iisuch iiunusual iistates iishould iibe

iiattainable iiin iiprinciple iiif iiquantum iimechanics iiis iito iibe iia iifull iitheory iidescribing iievery iilevel

iiof iiour iiexperience. iiWhat iiis iithe iiboundary iibetween iithe iiquantum ii& iiclassical iiworlds? iiDo iiwe

iitruly iihave iia iidividing iiline iibetween iiquantum ii& iiclassical iiphenomena? ii& iiso iiforth. iiThese ii&
iirelated iiconcerns iihave iibeen iidiscussed iifor iia iilong iitime, ii& iiseveral iidistinct iiinterpretations iiof
iiquantum iitheory iihave iibeen iiproposed iiin iithe iiprocess.

Einstein, iiPodolsky, ii& iiRosen iipublished iia iirenowned iipaper iiin ii1935 iiin iiwhich iithey iiargued
iithat iiquantum iimechanics iiis iian iiimperfect iitheory, iinot iiincorrect, iibecause iiof iithe iiunusual

iibehaviour iiof iientanglement. iiThe iiEPR iiparadox iiis iia iiwell-known iiexample iiof iithis. iiThe

iifollowing iiexample iiwill iihelp iiyou iiunderst& iithe iiconcept iiof iithe iiEPR iiparadox: iiConsider iithe

iiground iistate iiof iia iiHelium iiatom. iiIt iiconsists iiof iitwo iielectrons iiwith iiquantum iinumbers iiof iin=1,

iil=0, iis=1/2, iisz ii= ii+1/2 iifor iione ii& iisz ii= ii-1/2 iifor iithe iiother. iiAs iia iiresult, iiwe iihave iij ii= ii0 ii& ii1. iijz

ii= ii(sz)1 ii+ ii(sz)2 ii= ii0, iithough. iiAs iia iiresult, iionly iithe iij=0 iistate iiis iipermitted. iiTwo iielectrons iiin

iia iiHelium iiatom iiare iiantiparallel iito iieach iiother, iiforming iian iientangled iipair iiof iisystems. iiA

iisufficient iiamount iiof iienergy iiis iidelivered iito iithe iiatom ii(equal iito iithe iibinding iienergy iiof iithe

iiatom). iiAs iia iiresult, iiit iidisintegrates iiwhile iinot iiin iiuse. iiAs iia iiresult, iitwo iielectrons iiflee iiin

iiseparate iidirections.

Figure ii4: iiA iidescription iiof iithe iiEPR iiconundrum iiusing iithe ii iiatom.

Two iielectrons iiare iidismantled. iiWhen iione iielectron's iispin iiis iiflipped iidue iito iithe iiapplication iiof
iia iimagnetic iifield, iithe iispin iiof iithe iiother iielectron iiis iialso iiflipped iiinstantly ii(communication

iiwith iispeed iifaster iithan iispeed iiof iilight). iiThis iiis iia iireal iiphenomena, iidubbed ii"spooky iiaction iiat

iia iidistance" iiby iiEinstein, iithe iimechanism iiof iiwhich iicannot iiyet iibe iiexplained iiby iiany iitheory—

it iimust iisimply iibe iitaken iias iigranted, ii& iithis iiwas iiEinstein's iiobjection iito iiquantum iitheory's
iicompleteness. iiHowever, iifurther iiadvancements ii(the iiBell iiinequality ii& iiits iiexperimental

iiproof) iihave iidemonstrated iithat iiquantum iiconcerns iiare iitrue, iieven iiwhen iiit iientails

iicommunication iibetween iispace-like iievents. iiEven iimore iiincredible iiis iithe iiability iito

iidetermine iithe iistate iiof iispin iiof iianother iielectron iiwithout iihaving iito iitest iiit.

Quantum iiEntanglement iiallows iiqubits iiscattered iiby iihuge iidistances iito iiinteract iiwith iione
iianother iiin iireal iitime ii(not iilimited iito iithe iispeed iiof iilight). iiNo iimatter iihow iifar iiapart iithe iirelated

iiparticles iiare, iithey iiwill iiremain iientangled iias iilong iias iithey iiare iiisolated. iiQuantum

iisuperposition ii& iientanglement, iiwhen iicombined, iiresult iiin iisignificantly iiincreased iicomputing

iipower.

2.5.1Bertleman’s iisocks:
One iicould iibe iitempted iito iiwonder, ii"What iiis iiso iispecial iiabout iiquantum iientanglement?" iiat
iifirst. iiSimilar iiscenarios ii(phenomenon iiof iicorrelation iibetween iitwo iievents) iican iibe iiseen

iioutside iiof iithe iiquantum iiworld. iiConsider iithe iiinstance iiof iiMr. iiBertleman, iiwho iihas iithe iiodd

iihabit iiof iiwearing iidifferent iicoloured iisocks iion iihis iileft ii& iiright iifeet. iiIf iihe iiwears iia iired iisock

iion iione iifoot, iihe iishould iiwear iia iigreen iisock iion iithe iiother, ii& iiif iihe iiwears iia iiyellow iisock iion

iione iifoot, iihe iishould iiwear iia iiblue iisock iion iithe iiother. iiMr. iiBertleman, iiI'm iiguessing, iinever

iibreaks iithe iirule. iiAs iia iiresult, iiby iiobserving iithe iicolour iiof iione iisock, iione iican iidetermine iithe

iicolour iiof iithe iiother iisock iihe iiis iiwearing. iiHowever, iia iicloser iiexamination iireveals iithat iithe

iipoint iiexpressed iiabove iiis iiunfounded. iiIn iifact, iiwhen iiit iicomes iito iiquantum iientanglement, iithe

iichoice iiof iimeasurement iiis iicritical. iiThe iix-component iiof iispin, iiits iiy-component, iior iia

iicompound iiin iia iidirection iiinclined iiat iian iiarbitrary iiangle iito iithe iix-axis iican iiall iibe iimeasured.

iiThe iiother iiparticle iiadjusts iiits iispin iiin iithe iisame iiway. iiThe iispectator iihas iia iirole iito iiplay iiin

iiBertleman's iiexample. iiThe iionlooker, iihaving iidecided iito iisee iithe iiyellow-blue iicolour

iicombination iifor iiBertleman iisocks, iilooks iiat iiit iiaccordingly. iiThe iionlooker's iiintention iiin

iipicking iithe iicolour iiis iiintriguing, iias iiis iithe iiinstant iiconveyance iiof iithat iidecision.

2.5.2 iiTHE iiBELL iiTHEOREM, iiHIDDEN iiVARIABLES, ii& iiTHE iiEPR iiSITUATION:

John iiBell's iicareful iiassessment iiof iiEinstein, iiPodolsky, ii& iiRosen's ii(EPR) iiwork ii"Is iiQuantum
iiMechanics iiComplete?" iiled iito iithe iifollowing iiconflicting iiconclusion:

1. The iiEPR iicorrelations ii(also iiknown iias iiquantum iientanglement) iiprojected iiby
iiquantum iimechanics iiare iiso iistrong iithat iiit's iihard iinot iito iiconclude iithat iiquantum

iiphysics iirequires iisome iimore iiparameters ii(those ii iicalled iihidden iivariables.)

2. The iidevelopment iiof iithe iiprevious iiresult iishows iithat iithe iihidden iielements
iidescription iicontradicts iisome iiquantum iimechanics iipredictions.

There iiis iionly iione iiway iiout iiin iithe iiface iiof iithese iitwo iiabsolutely iiclear ii& iicontradicting
iiresults: iiask iiNature iihow iiit iiworks. iiThere iiwas iino iiexperimental iioutcome iito iisolve iithis iitopic

iiuntil iithe iiend iiof ii1970. iiThe iiinconsistency iirevealed iiby iiBell iiin iihis iiEPR iiwork iiis iiso iisubtle

iithat iiit iionly iiemerges iiin iivery iiunusual iicases iithat iihaven't iibeen iistudied. ii& iithey iidem& iithat

iiparticular iitests iibe iidesigned ii& iibuilt.

2.5.2.1 iiA iicircumstance iiinvolving iiEPR:

Consider iia iisource iithat iiemits iitwo iiphotons, iiv1 ii& iiv2, iithat iiare iitravelling iiin iiopposing
iidirections. iiEach iiphoton iicollides iiwith iia iipolarizer, iiwhich iimeasures iilinear iipolarisation iiin

iitwo iidirections ii(a ii& iib) iispecified iiby iithe iipolarizer's iiorientation.

ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii

Figure ii5: iishows iia iigraphical iirepresentation iiof iithe iiEPR iicondition.
For iieach iimeasurement, iithere iiare iitwo iipossible iioutcomes: ii+1 ii& ii–1. iiAccording iito iiquantum
iimechanics, iia iitwo-photon iistate ii(EPR iistate) iiexists iiin iiwhich iithe iipolarisation iimeasurements

iidone iiindividually iiappear iir&om iibut iiare iihighly iicoupled. iiP+(a) ii& iiP-(a) iiare iithe iiprobability

iithat iithe iipolarisation iiof ii1 iialong iian iiis iidiscovered iito iibe iiequal iito ii+ iior ii-, iirespectively, ii& iiare

iianticipated iito iibe iiequal iito ii0.5. iiSimilarly, iiP+(b) ii& iiP-(b) iifor iiphoton ii2 iiare iiprojected iito iibe

iiequal iito ii0.5 ii& iiindependent iiof iithe iiorientation iib. iiP++(a) iifor iiseeing ii+ iifor iiboth iiphotons, iion

iithe iiother iih&, iiis iiequivalent iito ii0.5 iiCos2 ii(a.b). iiThis iijoint iiprobability iiis iiP++(0)=0.5 iifor

iiparallel iipolarisers ii[(a.b)=0], ii& iiP—(0)=0.5 iifor iipolarisers ii[(a.b)=0] ii(0). iiThe iijoint

iiprobability iiis iiP-+(/2)=P+-(/2)=0 iifor iicross iipolariser ii[(a.b)=/2]. iiAs iia iiresult, iithe iiresults iifor

iithe iitwo iiphotons iiin iithe iisame iipair iiare iialways iiidentical, iiwhether ii+ iior ii–, iiindicating iithat iithey

iiare iiperfectly iilinked. iiRelationships iilike iithese

Outside iiof iithe iiphysical iiworld, iithere iimay iibe iicorrelations iibetween iiseemingly iir&om iievents.
iiConsider iithe iioccurrence iiof iia iispecific iiailment ii(say iiG) iiin ii50 iipercent iiof iithe iipopulation iiaged

ii20 ii& iiits iiabsence iiin iithe iiother iihalf. iiNow, iiwhile iilooking iiat iithe iioutcomes iiof iia iispecific iipair

iiof ii(actual) iitwin iibrothers, iia iicomplete iicorrelation iiis iidiscovered: iiif iione iibrother iiis iiimpacted,

iithe iiother iiis iilikewise iiimpacted; iinevertheless, iiif iione iiparticipant iihas iinot iideveloped iithe

iidisorder, iithe iiother iiis iialso iiunaffected. iiBiologists iiwill iiundoubtedly iiinfer iithat iithe iisickness

iihas iia iihereditary iiorigin iiin iithe iiface iiof iisuch iiflawless iicorrelation iifor iiidentical iibrothers. iiA

iisimple iiscenario iimight iibe iiimagined: iiat iithe iitime iiof iiembryo iicreation, iia iir&om iigenetic

iiprocess iiformed iia iipair iiof iichromosome iisequences, iione iiof iiwhich iiis iiusually iithe iicause iior

iiabsence iiof iithe iidisease, iiwhich iiwas iiduplicated ii& iipassed iito iiboth iibrothers. iiThus, iithe iitwo

iiinstances iiof iipolarised iiphase iicorrelation iibetween iitwo iiphotons ii& iithe iiscenario iiof iitwo

iisiblings ii(a iivariety iiof iisuch iisituations iican iibe iishown) iiare iiidentical. iiAs iia iiresult, iiit iiseems

iieasy iito iiassociate iithis iicorrelation iibetween iithe iipairs iiof iiphotons iiwith iia iisimilar iifeature iiakin

iito iithe iitwo iitwin iibrothers' iishared iigenome. iiThis iicommon iiattribute iivaries iifrom iipair iito iipair,

iiaccounting iifor iithe iisingle iievent's iir&omness. iiJohn iiBell's iiprimary iiconclusion iion iiEPR iistates

iiis iias iifollows. iiQuantum iimechanics iiis iinot iia iicomprehensive iiaccount iiof iiphysical iireality,

iiaccording iito iia iinatural iigeneralisation iiof iithe iiEPR iilogic. iiIn iireality, iithe iiaddition iiof ii"some

iicommon iiattribute" iithat iivaries iifrom iipair iito iipair iisuggests iithat iia iicomprehensive iidescription

iiof iia iipair iimust iiinclude ii"something" iiother iithan ii iistate iivector, iiwhich iiis iisame iifor iiall iimatches.

iiThis ii"something" iiis iisometimes iireferred iito iias iia iisupplementary iiparameter iior iia iihidden

iivariable. iiHidden iivariables iiare iiused iito iitransmit iian iiaccount iiof iithe iipolarised iistates iiof iitwo

iiphotons iifor iiany iiset iiof iiorientations ii(a, iib).

2.5.2.1 Bell Inequalities

ii

As iia iiresult iiof iiBell iiinconsistencies, iia iitest iifor iithe iiaccuracy iiof iihidden iivariable iitheory iiis
iiprescribed. iiQuantum iitheory, iion iithe iiother iih&, iipredicts iia iivalue iifor iis iiof ii2.8, iiwhich iidefies

iiBell iiinequalities, ii& iithis iiis iiconfirmed iiby iitests. iiAs iia iiresult, iithe iiabove-mentioned iihidden

iivariable iitheories iiare iiunable iito iiaccount iifor iithe iiEPR iicorrelations ii(quantum iientanglement)

iianticipated iiby iiquantum iimechanics. iiSubatomic iicorrelations, iion iithe iiother iih&, iiare iimore
iidifficult iito iicomprehend iithan iisimilar iicorrelations iibetween iitwo iisiblings. iiThe iipremise iiof
iilocal iihidden iivariable iimodels iiunderpins iithe iiBell iiinequality. iiThe iiassumption iiof iilocalization

iistates iithat iithe iioutcome iiof iia iipolariser iimeasurement iicannot iibe iidirectly iichanged iiby iithe

iiorientation iiof iianother iipolariser iipositioned iifar iiaway. iiActually, iithis iiis iimerely iithe iiresult iiof

iiEinstein's iicausality ii(No iisignal iican iimove iiwith iia iispeed iigreater iithan iispeed iiof iilight iiin

iivacuum). iiRegardless, iiBell iiInequalities iican iibe iiapplied iito iia iibroader iirange iiof iitheories iithan

iilocal iihidden iivariable iitheories.

Any iitheory iiin iiwhich iieach iiphoton iihas iia ii"physical iireality" iilocalised iiin iispace-time iithat
iidetermines iithe iiresult iiof iithe iiaccompanying iimeasurement iiwould iiresult iiin iiinequalities iithat

ii(sometimes) iicontradict iiquantum iiphysics. iiSome iiquantum iimechanical iipredictions ii(EPR

iicorrelations-quantum iientanglement) iicannot iibe iireplicated iiby iiany iilocal iirealistic iimodel iiin

iithe iispirit iiof iiEinstein's iitheory iiof iihidden iivariables, iiaccording iito iiBell's iitheorem.
2.6 iiQUANTUM iiTELEPORTATION ii& iiINFORMATION iiQUANTUM iiTHEORY

Information iiis iiphysical, ii& iiany iidata iiprocessing iiis iialways iidone iiwith iiphysical iimeans—a
iiseemingly iiinnocuous iiphrase, iibut iiwith iifar-reaching iirepercussions. iiThe iiemergence iiof iia

iifundamental iinew iiscience, iian iiuniquely iiQuantum iiTheory iiof iiInformation, iihas iiresulted iifrom

iian iiexplosion iiof iitheoretical ii& iiexperimental iiadvances iiduring iithe iilast iifew iiyears. iiQuantum

iiphysics iienables iithe iidevelopment iiof iiqualitatively iinew iikinds iiof iilogic iigates, iidefinitely

iisecure iicryptosystems ii(systems iithat iiintegrate iicommunications ii& iicryptography), iithe iiputting

iiof iitwo iibits iiof iiinformation iiinto iione iiphysical iibit, ii& iia iison iiof ii"teleportation," iiwhich iihas

iionly iirecently iibeen iiproposed.

Scientists iidid iinot iitake iiteleportation iiseriously iiuntil iilately. iiUsually, iiscience iifiction iiwriters
iicall iithe iiaccomplishment iiof iidissolving iian iiobject iior iiperson iiin iione iilocation iiwhile iia iiflawless

iicounterpart iiappears iisomewhere iielse iiteleportation. iiNormally, iithis iiis iiaccomplished iiby

iiscanning iithe iiitem iiin iiorder iito iiextract iiall iiof iithe iidetails iifrom iiit, iithen iitransmitting iithat

iiinformation iito iithe iireceiving iilocation, iiwhere iiit iiis iiused iito iiconstruct iithe iiduplicate, iinot

iinecessarily iifrom iithe iisame iimaterial iias iithe iioriginal, iibut iimost iilikely iifrom iiatoms iiof iithe iisame

iitypes, iiarranged iiin iithe iisame iisequence iias iithe iioriginal. iiA iiteleportation iimachine iiwould

iifunction iisimilarly iito iia iidevice, iiexcept iithat iiit iiwould iiact iion ii3-dimensional iiobjects iias iiwell iias

iitexts, iigenerate iia iiprecise iicopy iirather iithan iian iiapproximate iireplica, ii& iidestroy iithe iioriginal

iiduring iithe iiscanning iiprocess.

In iiclassical iiphysics, iian iientity iican iibe iiteleported iiby iiperforming iia iimeasurement iito iifully
iicharacterise iithe iiobject's iiattributes, ii& iithen iisending iithat iiinformation iito iianother iiplace ii&

iireconstructing iithe iiobject. iiFurthermore, iiclassical iiinformation iitheory iiconfirms iicommon

iisense: iiif iia iimessage iiis iitransmitted iiusing iian iiobject iithat iican iibe iiput iiinto iione iiof iiN iidistinct

iistates, iithe iihighest iinumber iiof iidifferent iimessages iithat iican iibe iisent iiis iiN. iiA iisingle iiphoton,

iifor iiexample, iican iionly iihave iitwo iidistinct iipolarisation iistates: iileft iih&ed ii& iiright iih&ed. iiAs iia

iiresult, iia iisingle iiphoton iican iionly iicarry iitwo iidistinct iimessages, iior iione iibit iiof iiinformation.

iiLeaving iiaside iithe iifundamental iiquestion: iican iia iicomplete iireconstruction iiof iithe iioriginal

iiobject iibe iiprovided? iiNo, iithat iiis iinot iithe iicase. iiAll iiphysical iisystems iiare iiultimately iiquantum

iimechanical, ii& iiquantum iimechanics iistates iithat iiit iiis iiimpossible iito iifully iiascertain iithe iistate

iiof iian iiunknown iiquantum iisystem, iimaking iiit iiimpossible iito iishift iia iiquantum iisystem iifrom iione

iipoint iito iianother iiusing iithe iiclassical iimeasurement iiprocess.

This iiis iirelated iito iithe iiHeisenberg iiUncertainty iiPrinciple, iiwhich iiasserts iithat iithe iimore
iicorrectly iian iiobject iiis iiscanned, iithe iimore iiit iiis iidisturbed iiby iithe iiscanning iiprocess, iiuntil iithe

iiobject's iioriginal iistate iiis iiutterly iidisrupted, iieven iiif iienough iiinformation iihas iibeen iicollected iito

iiconstruct iia iiflawless iireplica. iiThis iiappears iito iibe iia iicompelling iicounter-

argument.teleportation: iiif iienough iiinformation iicannot iibe iiextracted iifrom iian iiobject iito iimake
iia iiperfect iireplica, iia iiperfect iicopy iicannot iibe iimade.

A iifascinating iiapproach iifor iiteleporting iiquantum iistates iiusing iiEPR iistates iihas iibeen iiproposed
iiby iiCharles iiH iiBennet ii& iihis iicolleagues, iias iiwell iias iiStephen iiWiesner ii(entangled iistates
Abstractly, iiquantum iiteleportation iican iibe iirepresented iiin iiterms iiof iitwo iiparticles, iiA ii& iiB. iiA
iihas iian iiunknown iistate iiin iiits iipossession ii|> ii iiexpressed iias:

|> ii= ii|0> ii+ ii|1>

This iiis iia iitwo-level iiquantum iisystem iiwith iia iisingle iiquantum iibit ii(qubit). iiTeleportation's iigoal
iiis iito iitransmit iithe iistate ii|> iifrom iipoint iiA iito iipoint iiB. iiEntangled iistates iiare iiused iito

iiaccomplish iithis. iiEach iiof iithe iitwo iiqubits iiin iia iitwo-qubit iientangled iistate iiis iiheld iiby iiA ii& iiB.

|>(|0>Ai |0>B) ii+ ii|1>A|1>B)

ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii Fig ii6:Quantum iiTeleportation

2.7 iiQUANTUM iiCOMPUTATION iiTHERMODYNAMICS

Computers iiare iimachines, ii& iithey, iilike iiall iimachines, iiare iisubject iito iithermodynamic iilimits
iiimposed iiby iithermodynamic iilaws. iiModern iicomputers iibased iion iidigital iicomponents

iigenerate iiheat iiin iithe iisame iiway iithat iiany iiphysical iimachine iidoes. iiThe iiunderlying iiquestion iiis

iiwhether iidigital iicomputers iican iibe iimodified iito iiproduce iiless iiheat. iiIt iiturns iiout iithat iian iiideal

iicomputer iicapable iiof iistructuring, iipreserving, ii& iitransferring iiaround iidigital iisignals iiwithout

iigenerating iiheat iican iibe iiimagined ii(in iiaccordance iiwith iiphysical iiprinciples). iiThere iiis iione

iipoint, iithough, iiwhere iiheat iimust iibe iigenerated. iiThe iiphase iispace iirelated iito iithe iisystem iithat

iisaves iiinformation iishrinks iiwhenever iiinformation iiis iiremoved. iiThe iientropy iiof iithe iisystem

iithat iistored iithe iiinformation iiis iireduced iiby iiat iileast iiS=klog2 iiwhen iia iisingle iibit iiof iiinformation

iiis iierased. iiHeat iiis iitransferred iito iithe iienvironment iias iientropy iiis iireduced.

As iia iiresult, iiif iia iicomputer iicould iibe iibuilt iithat iidid iinot iidestroy iiany iidata, iiit iicould iioperate
iiwithout iigenerating iiany iiheat iiat iiall. iiIn iiquantum iicomputers, iithis iiis iiexactly iithe iicase.

iiReversible iiQuantum iiComputation ii. iiAs iia iiresult, iiit iiis iitheoretically iiconceivable iito iido

iiquantum iiprocessing iiwithout iicreating iiheat. iiOf iicourse, iithe iicomputer iiwould iistill iiemit iia iilot

iiof iiheat iiin iiactuality. iiElectric iipulses iitravelling iithrough iicopper iiwires iiwould iihave iito

iiovercome iiresistance. iiElectrons iidiffusing iifrom iia iisource iiwould iistill iiclash iiwith iicrystal

iidefects ii& iielectrons iiin iithe iidrain, iiresulting iiin iiheat iigeneration. iiCopper iiwires iicould iibe

iireplaced iiwith iisuperconductors iiin iian iiideal iisetting, ii& iiflawed iicrystals iiwith iiperfect iiones.

Quantum iicomputers' iireversibility iiis iiachieved iiby iidesigning ii& iiconstructing iispecific iigates.
iiGates iilike iiN&, iiNOR, ii&, ii& iiXOR iiare iiused iiin iidigital iicomputers. iiAll iiof iithese iigates iiare

iiirreversible, ii& iithey iimust iigenerate iiheat iiin iiorder iito iifunction. iiThe iiamount iiof iidata iion iithe

iiright iiside iiof iithe iipage

(a,b) (ab)

is iismaller iithan iithe iiamount iiof iidata iion iithe iileft iiside. iiCharles iiBennett iihas iiproved iithat
iiquantum iicomputers iican iiexecute iiany iicomputation iiusing iijust iireversible iisteps iiusing iiToffoli

iigates. iiThese iiparticular iigates iikeep iitrack iiof iieverything iithat iiis iigiven iito iithem, iiallowing iithe

iicomputation iito iibe iiperformed iiboth iiforward ii& iibackward. iiAs iia iiresult, iithe iialgorithm

iigenerates iia iilot iiof iidata iibecause iievery iiintermediate iistep iiis iiremembered, iibut iiheat iicreation iiis

iieliminated iias iithe iicomputation iiprogresses. iiAfter iithe iicomputation iiis iicompleted, iithe

iialgorithm iican iibe iirepeated iibackwards iito iirestore iithe iicomputer's iiinitial iistate ii& iiprevent iiit

iifrom iispontaneously iicombusting.

2.8 iiQUANTUM iiCOMPUTER iiEXPERIMENTAL iiREALIZATION

The iiquantum iicomputer's iidesign iisimplicity iimakes iiit iiquicker, iismaller, ii& iiless iiexpensive, iibut
iiits iiconceptual iicomplexities iicomplicate iiits iiexperimental iireality. iiDespite iithis, iia iinumber iiof

iiattempts iihave iibeen iimade iiin iithis iiregard iiwith iivarying iidegrees iiof iisuccess.wishing iiyou

iisuccess iiIt iiis iiexpected iithat iiin iithe iinot-too-distant iifuture, iiquantum iicomputers iiwill iireplace

iidigital iicomputers iiin iitheir iientirety. iiThe iifollowing iiare iisome iiof iithe iiattempts iito iibuild iia

iiquantum iicomputer iiin iian iiexperimental iisetting:

2.8.1 iiHeteropolymers:

Teich iiconceived ii& iibuilt iithe iivery iifirst iiheteropolymer-based iiquantum iicomputer iiin ii1988, ii& iiLloyd
iienhanced iiit iiin ii1993. iiA iilinear iiarray iiof iiatoms iiis iiemployed iias iimemory iiblocks iiin iia iiheteropolymer

iicomputer. iiPumping iithe iimatching iiatom iiinto iian iiexcited iistate iistores iiinformation iion iia iicell. iiLaser

iipulses iiwith iicorrectly iituned iifrequency iideliver iiinstructions iito iithe iiheteropolymer. iiThe iishape ii&

iiduration iiof iithe iipulse iidictate iithe iitype iiof iicomputation iithat iiis iidone iion iiselected iiatoms.

2.8.2 iiIon iitrapping ii

Zoller ii& ii iiCirac iipresented iian iiion iitrap iiquantum iicomputer iiin ii1995, ii& iiMonroe ii& iiassociates
iiconstructed iiit iiin ii1995, iifollowed iiby iiSchwarzchild iiin ii1996. iiThe iiion iitrap iicomputer iistores

iiinformation iiin iithe iienergy iilevels iiof iiions iias iiwell iias iithe iivibrational iimodes iithat iiexist

iibetween iithem. iiEach iiion iiis iicontrolled iiby iia iiseparate iilaser iiin iitheory. iiThe iiion iitrap iicomputer

iican iianalyse iiFourier iitransformations, iiaccording iito iipreliminary iiresearch. iiShor's iifactoring

iialgorithm, iiwhich iiis iibased iion iiFourier iitransforms, iiis iithe iiresult iiof iithis.

2.8.3 iiCavity iiof iiQuantum iiElectrodynamics:

Turchette ii& iicoworkers iipresented iia iiquantum iielectrodynamics ii(QED) iicavity iicomputer iiin
ii1995. iiA iiQED iicavity iifilled iiwith iicesium iiatoms, iias iiwell iias iilasers, iiphase iishift iidetectors,

iipolarizers, ii& iimirrors, iimake iiup iithe iicomputer. iiBecause iiit iican iicreate, iicontrol, ii& iipreserve

iisuperposition ii& iientanglements, iithe iiarrangement iiis iia iireal iiquantum iicomputer.

2.8.4 iiNuclear iiMagnetic iiResonance:

A iiNuclear iiMagnetic iiResonance ii(NMR) iicomputer iiis iimade iiup iiof iia iiliquid-filled iicapsule ii& iia
iinuclear iimagnetic iiresonance ii(NMR) iimachine. iiEach iimolecule iiin iithe iiliquid iiacts iias iia

iiquantum iimemory iiregister iion iiits iiown. iiThe iisample iiis iibombarded iiwith iiradio iipulses, ii& iithe

iiresponse iiis iianalysed. iiThe iispin iistates iiof iithe iinuclei iiof iithe iiatoms iithat iimake iiup iithe

iimolecules iiare iiused iito iiimplement iiqubits. iiA iimeasurement iion iia iistatistical iiensemble iiof, iisay,

ii2.7x1019 iimolecules iiis iiused iito iiread iiout iithe iimemory iiregister iiin iian iiNMR iicomputer. iiIn

iicontrast, iia iisingle iiisolated iiquantum iisystem iiwas iiemployed iifor iimemory iiregister iiin iithe iiQED

iicavity iicomputer iiion-trap iicomputer. iiIn iipolynomial iitime, iithe iiNMR iicomputer iican iianswer

iiNP ii(non-polynomial) iicomplete iiproblems. iiNMR iicomputers iihave iibeen iiused iito iiachieve iithe

iimajority iiof iipractical iiquantum iicomputing iiachievements iithus iifar.

2..8.5 iiQuantum iiDots
In iicomparison iito iithe iifour iiquantum iicomputer iiimplementations iicovered iithus iifar, iiquantum
iicomputers iibased iion iiquantum iidot iitechnology iihave iia iisimpler iiarchitecture ii& iirequire iiless

iispecialised iiexperimental, iitheoretical, ii& iimathematical iiskills. iiFor iiconstructing iiquantum

iigates iiusing iithe iisplit iigate iitechnique, iian iiarray iiof iiquantum iidots iiis iiused, iiwith iithe iidots

iicoupled iito iitheir iinearest iineighbours iivia iigated iitunnelling iibarriers. iiOne iiof iithe iiprimary

iiadvantages iiof iithis iisystem iiis iithat iithe iiqubits iiare iicontrolled iielectrically. iiThe iidrawback iiof

iithis iiarchitecture iiis iithat iiquantum iidots iican iionly iicommunicate iiwith iitheir iiimmediate

iineighbours, iimaking iidata iireadout iichallenging.

2.8.5.1 iiJosephson iiJunctions

Nakamura ii& iicolleagues iidemonstrated iithe iiJosephson iijunction iiquantum iicomputer iiin ii1999.
iiA iiCooper iipair iibox, iia iismall iisuperconducting iiisl& iielectrode, iiis iiweakly iilinked iito iia iibulk

iisuperconductor iiin iithis iicomputer. iiWeak iicoupling iibetween iisuperconductors iiresults iiin iithe

iiformation iiof iia iiJosephson iijunction, iiwhich iiacts iias iia iicapacitor. iiWhen iithe iiCooper iibox iiis iias

iismall iias iia iiquantum iidot, iithe iicharging iicurrent iibreaks iidown iiinto iidiscrete iitransfers iiof

iiindividual iiCooper iipairs, iiallowing iia iisingle iiCooper iipair iito iibe iitransferred iiacross iithe

iijunction. iiQubits iiin iiJosephson iijunction iicomputers iiare iicontrolled iielectrically, iisimilar iito

iiquantum iidot iicomputers. iiQuantum iicomputers iideveloped iiby iiJosephson iiJunction iiare iione iiof

iithe iimost iipromising iipossibilities iifor iifuture iidevelopment.

2.8.5.2 Kane Computer ii

This iicomputer iimimics iia iiquantum iidot iicomputer iiin iiappearance, iialthough iiit iifunctions iimore
iilike iian iiNMR iicomputer iiin iiother iirespects. iiIt iiis iimade iiup iiof iia iisingle iimagnetically iiactive iip31

iinucleus iiembedded iiin iian iiisotropically iiclean iimagnetically iiinactive iiSi28 iicrystal. iiAfter iithat,

iithe iisample iiis iiplaced iiin iia iivery iistrong iimagnetic iifield iiin iiorder iito iialign iithe iispin iiof iip31 iiwith

iithe iifield's iidirection. iiThe iispin iiof iithe iip31 iinucleus iican iithen iibe iicontrolled iiby iisending iia

iiradio iifrequency iipulse iito iia iineighbouring iicontrol iielectrode iicalled iiA-gate. iiBy iiapplying

iivoltage iito iiJ-gate iielectrodes iiplaced iibetween iithe iip31 iinuclei, iithe iielectron-mediated

iiinteraction iibetween iispins iimay iibe iicontrolled.

2.8.6 iiQuantum iiComputer iiwith iiTopological iiProperties

In iithis iicomputer, iiqubits iiare iiencoded iiusing iian iianyons iisystem. iiAnyons iiare iiquasi-particles
iithat iiobey iiparastatistics iiin iia iitwo-dimensional iimedium ii(neither iiFermi iiDirac iinor iiBose

iiEinstein). iiAnyons, iion iithe iiother iih&, iiare iistill iicloser iito iifermions iiin iithat iithey iishare iia

iifermion-like iirepulsion. iiThe iibraid iigroup iidescribes iihow iianyons iimove iiin iirelation iito iione

iianother. iiThe iitopological iiquantum iicomputer's iiconcept iiis iito iiemploy iithe iibraid iigroup

iicharacteristics, iiwhich iiexplain iithe iimotion iiof iianyons, iito iido iiquantum iicomputations. iiIt iiis

iibelieved iithat iisuch iia iicomputer iiwould iibe iiimpervious iito iianyon iitopological iistability

iiquantum iifaults.
2.9 iiQuantum iiComputing's iiFuture iiDirections

The iifoundations iiof iiquantum iicomputation iihave iibeen iiestablished, iibut iieverything iielse
iirequired iifor iiits iifuture iidevelopment iiis iistill iibeing iiresearched. iiThis iiincludes iiquantum

iialgorithms, iidecoherence iidynamics ii& iicontrol, iiatomic iiscale iitechnology, ii& iiuseful

iiapplications. iiQuantum iireversibility iicould iiaid iiin iithe iisolution iiof iiNP iiissues, iiwhich iiare iieasy

iiin iione iidirection iibut iidifficult iiin iithe iiother. iiInterference iican iihelp iiwith iiglobal iiminimization

iiproblems ii(as iiseen iiin iiFermat's iiprinciple iiin iiwave iimechanics). iiDue iito iiquantum iitunnelling

iivia iibarriers, iisimulated iiannealing iiapproaches iimay iiimprove. iiComplex iinumbers' iipowerful

iicharacteristics ii(analytic iifunctions, iiconformal iimappings) iicould iilead iito iinovel iialgorithms.

Quantum iifield iitheory iican iibe iiused iito iienhance iiquantum iicomputation iiby iiallowing iiquanta iito
iibe iicreated ii& iidestroyed. iiQuantum iioptics iiis iian iiideal iienvironment iifor iisuch iiactivities. iiThe

iicopy iiprocedure, iifor iiexample, iican iibe iiunderstood iias iithe iist&ard iidouble iislit iiexperiment ii(or

iibeam iisplitter). iiBecause iithe iiintensity iiof iithe iitwo iicopies iiis iihalf iithat iiof iithe iiprior iivalue, iiit iiis

iiallowed iiin iiquantum iitheory. iiTheoretical iitechniques iifor iidealing iiwith iimany-body iiquantum

iientanglement iiare iilacking. iiIts iiimproved iicharacterisation iicould iilead iito iibetter iiquantum iilogic

iigate iiimplementation ii& iithe iiability iito iirepair iicorrelated iimistakes.

Decoherence iican iibe iirepresented iias iia iiuseful iiprocess, iibut iiits iidynamics iiare iiunknown. iiTo
iicontrol iidecoherence, iione iimust iifirst iidetermine iiwhich iieigen iistates iiare iifavoured iiby iithe

iienvironment iiin iia iigiven iiconfiguration. iiEven iiafter iidecades iiof iiquantum iimechanics, iithe

iidynamics iiof iithe iimeasurement iiprocess iiremain iia iimystery. iiIn iian iiotherwise iiunitary iiquantum

iitheory, iimeasurement iiis iisimply iidescribed iias iia iinon-unitary iiprojection iioperator. iiBoth iithe

iisystem ii& iithe iiobserver iiare iiultimately iimade iiup iiof iiquantum iibuilding iipieces, iihence iia

iiunified iiquantum iidescription iiof iimeasurement ii& iidecoherence iiis iirequired. iiIt iiwould iiaid iiin

iithe iiimprovement iiof iidetectors iithat iioperate iinear iithe iiquantum iilimit iiof iiobservation, iiin

iiaddition iito iitheoretical iigain. iiThe iishift iifrom iithe iiclassical iito iiquantum iistate iiis iiof iitremendous

iiinterest iito iiphysicists. iiWe iican iiget iithere iiby iiexp&ing iithe iisystem iifrom iimicroscopic iito

iimesoscopic iilevels ii& iishrinking iithe iienvironment iifrom iimacroscopic iito iimesoscopic iilevels. iiIf

iithere's iisomething iimore iithan iiquantum iitheory iilurking iithere, iiit'll iibe iidiscovered iiin iithe iirace

iito iibuild iiquantum iigadgets. iiIn iiattempting iito iiovercome iidecoherence, iiwe iimay iiuncover iinew

iiquantum iitheory iiconstraints.

Theoretical iiadvancements iiwill iibe iiuseless iiwithout iicorresponding iitechnological

iiadvancements. iiThe iiquest iito iiminiaturise iielectronic iicircuitry iiis iicurrently iiedging iicloser iito

iithe iiquantum iireality iiof iinature. iiTo iicreate iinew iitypes iiof iiinstruments, iiwe iimust iishift iiour

iiperspective iifrom iiscientific iito iitechnological-quantum iieffects iishould iinot iionly iibe iiobserved,

iibut iithey iishould iialso iibe iicontrolled iithrough iipractical iiapplication. iiAlthough iithe iifuture

iicannot iibe iipredicted, iiit iiappears iito iibe iibright.

2.10 iiQuantum iiTeleportation iirequires iithe iimodification iiof iithe iiwave iifunction.

The iiidea iiof iimodifying iithe iiExpansion iiTheorem iias iiit iiapplies iito iian iiEPR iisituation iifor
iicorrelated iiterms iiis iidiscussed iihere. iiIn iithis iisection, iiwe iiattempt iito iiinclude iia iicorrelation iiterm

iiin iithe iiLinear iiSuperposition iiPrinciple's iidescription iiof iiwave iifunction ii() iiIn iiword iiequation,

iia iigeneral iiexpression iiof iiwave iifunction ii() iiis iias iifollows:

Wave i i Function i i () i i = i i i i Sum i i of i i Un-correlated iiterms ii+ iiTerm i i of

i i Correlated i i states i i ().

The iinumerical iiequivalent iiof iithis iiword iiequation iiis:

 ii= ii ii+ ii iian iin i i i i i i i i
As iia iiresult iiof iithe iiprevious iidiscussion iiof iithe iiExpansion iiTheorem iiin iiQuantum
iiSystems, iiit iiis iisuggested iithat iithe iiwave iifunction iidefinition iibe iiadjusted iito iiallow iifor iithe

iirepresentation iiof iiEPR iistates, ii& iithat iifurther iiresearch iibe iiconducted iito iidiscover iithe

iivalue iiof iiin iithe iiwave iifunction iidefinition. iiTo iisupport ii& iivalidate iithe iiabove iiformalism,

iiI iiused iithe iiSchrodinger iiWave iiEq. iiin iiboth iitime iidependent ii& iitime iiindependent iimodes

iito iisee iiif iithe iiform iiof iithe iiExpansion iiTheorem iichanges.

We iihave iiSchrodinger iiWave iiEq. iiin iithe iist&ard iiformulation iiof iiQuantum iiMechanics,
iiwhich iiis iidescribed iiby:

2 ii+ ii2m/h’ ii(E-V) ii ii= ii0 i i i i i i i i

Chapter ii3

QUANTUM iiCOMPUTERS iiARE iiBEING iiBUILT iiEXPERIMENTALLY.

3.1 ii iiLow-dimensionality iimaterials—Quantum iiDot iias iia iiviable iic&idate

Richard iiFeynman, iia iiphysicist, iipresented iian iiafter-dinner iidiscussion iiin ii1959 iiabout iithe iilimits
iiof iiminiaturisation. iiIn iihis iiseminal ii1959 iiaddress ii"There's iiPlenty iiof iiRoom iiat iithe iiBottom,"

iithe iiscientist iidiscussed iithe iipromise iifor iinanoscience, iiushering iiin iia iinew iiera iiin iithe iistudy iiof

iilow-dimensional iimaterials. iiOne iithing iithat iiall iiconducting iinanomaterials iihave iiin iicommon

iiis iithat, iidespite iithe iimaterial's iishrinkage iiin iisize, iithe iifundamental iiproperties iiof iithe iimaterial

iistay iithe iisame—the iienergy iilevels. iiThis iiis iitrue iias iilong iias iithe iimaterial's iisize iidoes iinot iivary

iimuch. iiAs iithe iinumber iiof iienergy iilevels iirises, iithey iibegin iito iishift iitoward iithe ii'blue' iizone.

iiThis iimeans iithat iithe iiwavelength iiis iishorter iithan iithe iiwavelengths iiof iigreen, iiyellow, iiorange,

ii& iired. iiHowever, iiwhen iithe iiwavelength iidecreases, iithe iifrequency iirises.

We iinow iiknow iithat iithe iienergy iilevel iiE iimay iibe iicalculated iiusing iithe iifollowing iiequation:

E ii= iih ii

Planck's iiconstant iiis iih, ii& iifrequency iiis iiv.

The iienergy iirises iias iithe iifrequency iirises iiby iichanging iitowards iiblue. iiAs iia iiresult, iithese
iimaterials iican iistore iimore iienergy ii& iiare iitermed iito iihave iinanoproperty. iiThe iifollowing iiis iithe

iicause iiof iithe iiaforementioned iiphenomenon:

Compton iiWavelength iiis iia iiwavelength iithat iidetermines iiwhen iithe iienergy iilevels iiof iimaterials
iichange.

c ii= iih/ ii(m0 ii* iic)

c: iivelocity iiof iilight.
m0: iirest iimass
ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii iih: iiPlanck’s iiconstant

If iia iimaterial's iisize iiis iicomparable iito iiits iiCompton's iiwavelength, iiit iihas iinanoproperty, ii& iithe
iimaterials iiare iireferred iito iias iiNanomaterials. iiThe iiorder ii10-9 iim iiis iidiscovered iito iibe iithe iicase.

iiThis iiis iithe iicause iifor iithe iinanoproperty iiof iithese iimaterials. iiWhen iia iiresult, iiwe iiarrive iiat iithe

iiconclusion iithat iias iiwe iiprogress iifrom iimacro iito iinano iidimensions, iiwe iinotice iithe iifollowing:

1. iiThe iitransport iiof iielectrons ii& iiprotons iiis iihampered iiby iian iiextra iirestraint.

2. iiThe iidegree iiof iifreedom iihas iibeen iireduced.

As iia iiresult, iithese iimaterials iiare iialso iiknown iias iilow-dimensional iimaterials, iibecause iithe
iicharge iidensity iiincreases iias iithe iidegree iiof iifreedom iidecreases. iiThe iiuse iiof iinanoparticles iiin

iicomputer iimanufacture iivalidates iiMoore's iiLaw, iiwhich iistates:

"The iiability iiof iicomputers iito iiprocess ii& iicarry iiinformation iiis iidoubles iievery iieighteen
iimonths."

This iiis iiaccomplished iiby iireducing iithe iiamount iiof iielectrons iinecessary iito iicarry iia iisingle iibit iiof
iidata. iiThe iimajority iiof iinanomaterials iiare iicharacterised iiby iia iireduction iiin iidegrees iiof

iifreedom. iiStrong iispatial iilocalisation iito iia iiplane, iiline, iior iipoint ii(i.e. iiconfinement iiof iian

iielectron iiin iiat iileast iione iidirection iiat iithe iide-Broglie iiwavelength) iiallows iieffective iireduction

iiof iigeometry iito iitwo iior iifewer iidimensional iisystems. iiThis iioccurs iionly iiin iithe iicase iiof iiatoms

ii& iielectrons iilocalised iion iicrystal iiimperfections ii( iie.g. iion iiimpurities).

Quantum iiWells iiare iiultra iithin, iiquasi ii3-D iiplanes iithat iiare iione iiof iithe iithree iimain iicomponents
iiof iiquantum iidevices. iiA ii1-D iiquantum iiwire iiis iia iithin iistrip iisplit iifrom iione iiof iithe iiplanes. iiA ii0-

D iiquantum iidot iiis iicreated iiby iichopping iiup iia ii1-D iiwire. iiBy iireducing iithe iinumber iiof
iidimensions iiin iithis iiway, iithe iielectron iiis iiforced iito iiact iimore iilike iian iiatom. iiAll iithree iidevices

iiare iiquantum iidevices, iiwhich iimeans iithey iihave iinanostructures. iiAs iia iiresult, iiwe iimay

iiconclude iithat iiwith iithe iiadvancement iiof iinanotechnology iicomes iithe iiperiod iiof iishrinking

iidimensions iifrom iithe iiordinary ii3-dimensions iito ii2-dimensions iiin iithe iiform iiof iiQuantum

iiWells.On iia iione-dimensional iilevel, iiquantum iiwells iiwere iifollowed iiby iiquantum iiwires. iiThe

iiconcept iiof iiquantum iidots iican iinow iiachieve iithe iilevel ii0-dimension.

Fig ii7: iiQuantum iiDots

Quantum iidots iiare iia iistrong iicontender iifor iibeing iiused iias iia iibuilding iiblock iiin iifuture iiQuantum
iiComputers, iias iiopposed iito iiother iitechniques iisuch iias iiNuclear iiMagnetic iiResonance, iiTrapped

iiIon, ii& iiothers, iibecause iitheir iidecoherence iiis iivery iilow, iiso iieven iiif iithey iiare iiprepared iito iiact

iias iiquantum iibits, iithey iidegrade iiquickly ii& iiinteract iiwith iithe iienvironment, iilosing iitheir

iicoherence iibehaviour. iiBecause iiquantum iidots iiare ii0-dimensional iientities iiwith iinearly iino

iidegrees iiof iifreedom, iitheir iiinteraction iiwith iithe iienvironment iiis iiideally iinil, iiallowing iithem iito

iibehave iias iiqubits iito iia iigreater iiextent. iiIn iithe iifollowing iiparts, iiwe'll iilook iiat iimore iianalysis ii&

iistability iicriteria.
3.2 iiThe iiNecessity iiof iia iiModified iiCoulomb iiPotential ii& iiIts iiAnalysis

Classical iielectrodynamics, iiwhich iicombines iithe iiextremely iieffective iitheories iiof iielectricity ii&
iimagnetism iiwith iithe iirules iiof iiclassical iimechanics, iihas iibeen iiplagued iiby iia iisignificant

iidifficulty iifrom iiits iibeginnings. iiThe iiissue iiarises iiwhen iicharge iiparticles iiinteract iiwhen iitheir

iidistances iiapproach iizero. iiThe iiparticle's iienergy iibecomes iiunlimited, iiits iifield iimomentum

iibecomes iiinfinite, ii& iiits iiequation iiof iimotion iileads iito iinon-physical iisolutions iisuch iias

iirunaway iisolutions ii& iipre-acceleration iiphenomena. iiIn iiclassical iielectrodynamics, iithis iiis

iiknown iias iithe ii"Problem iiof iiDivergences."

It iiwas iithought iithat iithe iiarrival iiof iiQuantum iiTheory iiwould iianswer iiall iiof iithese iiproblems.
iiThis, iihowever, iidid iinot iiturn iiout iito iibe iithe iicase. iiAll iiof iithese iiissues iistill iiexist iiin iithe

iiquantum iiversion iiof iithe iitheory, iialbeit iiin iia iimore iisophisticated iiform. iiSeveral iiattempts iihave

iibeen iiattempted iito iisidestep iithe iidivergence iiproblem iiof iiClassical iiElectrodynamics iiin iithe

iiprevious iiten iidecades, iieven iisince iiLorentz iihighlighted iithe iiproblem iiin ii1903. iiThe

iirenormalization iitechnique ii& iithe iiRohrlich iiprocedure iifor iiinvoking iiboundary iiconditions

iihave iigotten iithe iimost iiattention iiout iiof iiall iithe iiprescriptions.

During iithis iiinquiry, iiI'm iibringing iito iilight iian iiattempt iito iireformulate iithe iiidea iiof iielectricity
ii& iimagnetism. iiProf. iiY iiM iiGupta iipresented iia iibasic iiyet iielegant iiprescription iithat iiwas iiused

iiin iithe iiprocedure. iiFor iithe iidevelopment iiof iithe iiproposed iiformalism, iiit iihas iibeen iidecided iithat

iithe iiabove-mentioned iiproblem iimust iifirst iibe iisolved iiat iithe iiclassical iilevel, ii& iithen iithe

iireformulation iicarried iithrough iito iithe iiquantum iilevel. iiThe iibasic iirigorous iicriterion iithat iithe

iifuture iitheory iimust iibe iia iicovering iitheory iiof iithe iicurrent iione iiis iiautomatically iiensured iiby

iithis iimethodological iidevelopment: iithe iiapplication iiof iithe iiBohr iiCorrespondence

iiPrinciple-"When iithe iiproposed iiadjustment iiis iiremoved, iithe iiproposed iitheory iireverts iito iithe

iicurrent iitheory."

The iiproposed iiformalism iiis iibased iion iithe iiobservation iithat iithe iipotential iifunction, iifield
iiintensity, iifield iimomentum, ii& iiinteraction iiforce iiare iiall iisingular iiat iithe iiorigin ii(R=0), iii.e. iiall

iiof iithese iiphysical iiquantities iibecome iiinfinite iiin iithe iilimit iiof iizero iidistance iiin iithe iirealm iiof

iiknown iiClassical iiElectrodynamics iiformalism. iiIt iiis iithis iiuniqueness iithat iiis iiat iithe iiheart iiof

iithe iiissue. iiWe iiachieve iiphysical iiquantities iifree iiof iisingularity iiwhen iiwe iichoose iia iipotential

iifunction iithat iiis iiadequately ii& iiaccurately iichosen iisuch iithat iiit iiis iiregular iiat iithe iiorigin iias iiwell

iias iiall iiother iispace iilocations iiin iithe iicurrent iiformalism. iiThis iiis iia iilogical iitechnique iito iiget iian

iientire iiset iiof iiab iiinitio iiregular iidependent iiquantities.

However, iiit iiis iialso iiobvious iithat iiall iiattempts iito iialter iithe iifundamental iiequations iiof
iielectrodynamics ii(Maxwell iiequations) iihave iifailed. iiIn iifact, iiit iiis iinecessary iito iipreserve iithe

iibasic iielectrodynamic iiequations iiwhile iisearching iifor iia iisuitable iipotential iifunction ii(solution

iiof iibasic iiequations) iithat iiprovides iidivergence-free iisolutions iito iiClassical iiElectrodynamics

iiproblems ii(field iienergy, iifield iiintensity, iifield iimomentum iietc.). iiProf. iiY iiM iiGupta's

iiprescriptions iiwere iifollowed iiin iiorder iito iiachieve iithis iigoal. iiThe iifollowing iiare iithe iikey

iifeatures iiof iithe iiprescriptions:

1. iiThe iibasic iielectrodynamic iiequations ii(Maxwell iiequations) iiremain iiunchanged.

2. iiThe iiderived iiform iiof iithe iipotential iifunction iiis iiregular iiat iiall iispace iipoints, iiincluding iithe
iiorigin. iiDespite iithis, iiit iigenerates iifield iiintensities, iifield iienergies, ii& iiinteraction iiforces iithat

iiare iiconsistent iiacross iiall iispace iipoints iifrom iithe iistart.

3. iiThere iiare iino iifree iiparameters iiin iithe iitheory; iiit iiis iiessentially iia iiparameter-free iitheory.

4. iiThe iiprescription iifollows iithe iiBohr iiCorrespondence iiPrinciple iiextremely iislightly. iiIn iiother
iiwords, iithe iiproposed iipotential iifunction iidecreases iito iithe iinormal iiCoulomb iipotential iifunction

iiat iilong iidistances.

5. iiThe iiprescription iiis iibroad iiin iiscope ii& iinot iisolely iibased iion iielectrodynamics. iiIt iican iibe
iiused iito iisolve iiany iiinverse iisquare iiforce iilaw. ii(For iiexample, iithe iigravitational iiforce iiof

iiNewton ii& iithe iinuclear iiforce iiof iiYukawa.)

When iithe iientire iisituation iiis iiexamined iiclosely, iiit iiis iidiscovered iithat iithe iiheart iiof iithe
iiproblem iiis iiconcealed iiin iithe iifact iithat iiin iithe iiworld iiof iiclassical iiformalism, iithe iicrux iiof iithe

iiproblem iiis iihidden iiin iithe iifact iithat

At iithe iiorigin ii(R=0), iithe iielectrodynamics iipotential iifunction, iifield iiintensity, iifield
iimomentum, ii& iiinteraction iiforce iiare iiall iiinfinite. iiFor iithe iifundamental iidevelopment iiof

iielectrodynamics iitheory, iithis iisingularity iiin iithe iibehaviour iiof iithese iiphysical iiquantities iimust

iibe iiremoved iisystematically. iiIf iithe iipotential iifunction iiis iichosen iiproperly, iiwe iiwill

iiimmediately iiobtain iiphysical iivalues iithat iiare iiregular iiat iithe iiorigin ii& iiother iipoints iiin iispace.

iiThis iiis iia iilogical iimethod iifor iisystematically iiremoving iisingularities. iiWe iican iinext iiattempt iito

iicarry iiforward iithe iireformulation iito iithe iiquantum iilevel iiafter iiwe iihave iiobtained iithe

iiappropriate iipotential iifunction. iiThe iiessential iirigorous iicriterion iithat iithe iifuture iitheory iimust

iibe iia iicovering iitheory iiof iithe iipreceding iione iiwill iibe iiautomatically iimet iias iia iiresult iiof iithis

iiprocedural iiadvancement.

. iiE ii= ii/0

 iix iiE
ii= ii0 iiE

ii= ii-

ii

2 ii ii
= ii- ii/0

According iito iiProf. iiY iiM iiGupta, iithe iilast iiequation iiabove iiof iithe iipotential iigives iithe iifollowing
iisolution:

 ii= ii1/22 ii0 ii∫ iiSi ii(Y|r-r’|)/ ii|r-r’| ii(r’) iid3 iir’

Further iilim|r-r’|->0 i i Si ii(Y|r-r’|)/ ii|r-r’| ii= iiY

& iilim|r-r’|->0 ii ii= iiqY/22 ii0, iiq ii= i i ∫ ii(r’) iid3 iir’
This iiis iihow iia iiquantum iicomputer iiworks, iiusing iin iiinput iiqubits ii(the iiregister iiV) ii& iin iioutput
iiqubits ii(the iiregister iiW):

A iisuperposition iiof iistates, iisuch iias iian iiequal iisuperposition iiof iiall iinumbers iifrom ii0 iito ii2n, iican
iibe iicreated iifor iithe iiinput iiregister:

The iicomputer iithen iidoes iia iiparallel iicalculation iiof iithe iifunction iiapplied iito iiall ii2n iiintegers iiat
iithe iisame iitime. iiWhen iiwe iimeasure iiW iiusing iithe iiQMP ii(Quantum iiMeasurement iiPostulate),

iiit iiwill iichoose iia iiBoolean iifor iieach iibit iiof iithe iioutput iiregister iibased iion iithe iientangled iiwave

iifunction iiof iithe iioutput iiqubits. iiDesign iiF iiin iisuch iia iiway iithat iithe iichance iiof iithe iioutput iiwe

iimeasure iibeing iithe iiresponse iiwe iiwant iiis iimaximised. iiThe iiwave iifunction iiis iicollapsed iiwhen

iithe iioutput iiis iimeasured: iiretrieve iiBoolean iivalues iifor iiall iithe iiqubits iiin iiW. iiOne iiof iithe

iiavailable iioutputs iiis iithe iioutcome.

Assume iiF iiis iithe ii(integer) iisquare iiroot iiof iiW ii= iiV. iiPrepare iiV iias iithe iisuperposition iiof iiall
iiintegers iifrom ii0 iito ii2n, iithen iirun iithe iicomputer. iiThe iisquare iiroot iiof iian iiinteger iibetween ii0 ii&

ii2n iiwill iibe iithe iiresult. iiWith iiequal iiprobability, iithe iisquare iiroot iiof iiany iisuch iinumber. iiF

iicalculates iiall iiof iithe iinumbers' iisquare iiroots iiin iiconcurrently, iibut iiQMP iiclaims iiwe iican iionly

iifind iiout iiabout iione. iiFor iireal-world iisituations, iiorganise iiF iiso iithat iithe iioutput iistate's

iiprobability iiamplitudes iistrongly iifavour iithe iiintended iioutput iifrom iiF.

A iiquantum iicomputer iiis iiprobabilistic, iiwhich iimeans iiwe iimay iihave iito iirun iiit iiseveral iitimes
iibefore iigetting iithe iidesired iiresult.
Chapter 4 ii

4.1 What are the capabilities of quantum computers?

ii ii ii ii ii ii ii

Peter iiShor's ii1994 iidiscovery iiof iian iieffective iiquantum iimethod iifor iidiscovering iithe iiprime
iifactors ii(factoring) iiof iilarge iiintegers iiwas iithe iibiggest iisuccess iithus iifar, ii& iithe iievent iithat

iisparked iithe iicurrent iifast iigrowth iiof iithe iiarea iiof iiquantum iicomputing.

Shor's iialgorithm iidetermines iia iifactor iiof iia iinumber iiN iiin iitime iiabout iithe iisquare iiof iithe iiinput
iilength iiby iimaking iicreative iiuse iiof iisuperpositions, iiinterference, iiquantum iiparallelism, ii&

iisome iiclassical iinumber iitheory ii(which iiis iilog iiN iibits). iiEvery iiknown iiclassical iiapproach, iion

iithe iiother iih&, iitakes iiexponential iitime iito iifactor. iiBecause iifactoring iiis iione iiof iithe iimost

iifundamental iiaspects iiof iinumber iitheory, iithe iioldest iimathematical iidiscipline, ii& iicenturies iiof

iiefforts iiby iithe iiworld's iigreatest iimathematicians iihave iiyielded iino iibetter iimethods, iiit iiis iiwidely

iiassumed iithat iibetter iimethods iieither iido iinot iiexist iior iiare iiprohibitively iidifficult iito iifind. iiIn

iifact, iimost iicurrent iipublic-key iiencryption, iiparticularly iithe iiRSA iisystem, iiwhich iiis iiwidely

iiused iion iithe iiInternet ii& iiin iithe iifinancial iiworld, iiis iibased iion iithis iiidea. iiIf iione iican iifactor iihuge

iinumbers iiquickly, iisuch iicryptosystems iican iibe iibroken. iiAs iia iiresult, iithe iidevelopment iiof

iiquantum iicomputing iiputs iiall iisuch iisystems iiat iirisk: iiif iia iiquantum iicomputer iican iibe

iideveloped, iimost iipresent iicryptography iibecomes iicompletely iiunsecure, ii& iielectronic iimoney,

iifor iiexample, iican iibe iifabricated.

Quantum iicomputing iibrings iiback iiin iianother iiform iiwhat iiit iitakes iiaway iiwith iione iih&
ii(conventional iipublic-key iicryptography) ii(quantum iisecret-key iicrypto). iiBennett ii& iiBrassard

iidevised iia iimethod iiin ii1984 iifor iiobtaining iia iishared iisecret iikey iibetween iitwo iipeople iivia

iiquantum iimechanical iicommunication. iiTheir iiplan iiwas iialways iithought iito iibe iicompletely

iisecure iiagainst iiany iikind iiof iispy iior iieavesdropper, ii& iithis iihas iilately iibeen iiverified. iiHowever,

iiseveral iiaspects iiof iielectronic iitransactions, iisuch iias iiirreversible iisignatures, iiappear iito iibe

iibeyond iithe iicapabilities iiof iiquantum iitechnologies. iiGrover's ii1996 iitechnique iifor iifinding

iidatabases iiis iia iithird iiapplication. iiConsider iithe iiproblem iiof iilocating iia iispecific iirecord iiin iia

iivast, iiunordered iidatabase iicontaining iiN iientries. iiTraditionally, iithere iihas iibeen iino iibetter iiway

iithan iigoing iiover iiall iirecords iisequentially, iiwhich iiwill iitake iiN ii/ ii2 iitime iisteps iifor iia iirecord iiin

iigeneral iiposition. iiGrover's iitechnique, iion iithe iiother iih&, iiemploys iiquantum iisuperpositions iito

iianalyse iiall iirecords ii"at iithe iisame iitime," ii& iilocates iithe iitarget iirecord iiin iiapproximately iiN

iisteps.

This iiis iithe iidifference iibetween iitwo iimonths iiof iicomputing ii& iione iisecond iiof iicomputing
iiwhile iiexamining ii1012 iirecords iiwith iiunit iimicrosecond iiprobes! iiHis iimethodology iialso

iiprovides iifor iiquadratically iifaster iisolution iiof iicommon ii& iiinfamously iidifficult iiNP-complete

iiproblems ii(such iias iithe iitravelling iisalesman iiproblem) iithan iiknown iiclassical iimethods,

iilowering iiexponential iitime iiwith iiexponent iiN iito iiexponent iiN ii/ ii2 iito iiexponential iitime
The iiCWI ii(Centrum iivoor iiWiskunde iien iiInformatics, iiUniversity iiof iiAmsterdam) iigroup iiwas
iiinitially iiresponsible iifor iithe iiconception ii& iidevelopment iiof iia iifourth iiapplication. iiIt iideals

iiwith iia iisituation iiin iiwhich iitwo iiindependent iiparties, iiAlice ii& iiBob, iiseek iito iicompute iia

iifunction iif(x,y) iibased iion iix ii(which iiis iionly iiknown iito iiAlice) ii& iiy ii(which iiis iionly iiknown iito

iiBob) ii.

A iisimple iistrategy iiwould iibe iifor iiAlice iito iisend iiher iix iito iiBob ii& iithen iilet iiBob iiperform iiall iiof
iithe iiwork iion iihis iiown, iibut iithis iiwould iirequire iia iilot iiof iicommunication, ii& iithere iiare iioften

iimuch iimore iisophisticated iischemes iithat iirequire iiless iicontact. iiThe iiarea iiof iicommunication

iicomplexity iistudies iithe iioptimum iinumber iiof iibits iithat iimust iibe iisent iito iicompute iia iigiven

iifunction. iiWhat iihappens iiif iiwe iiextend iithis iiscenario iito iithe iiquantum iiworld ii& iiallow iiAlice ii&

iiBob iito iicommunicate iivia iiquantum iicomputers ii& iiqubits?

It iiturns iiout iithat iiallowing iisuch iiquantization iiallows iius iito iiperform iiparticular iijobs iiwith
iisubstantially iiless iicommunication. iiBy iikeeping iito iitraditional iicommunication iibut iiallowing

iiAlice ii& iiBob iito iiuse iipre-defined ii"entangled" iiqubits, iiwe iiwere iiable iito iiachieve iiidentical

iiresults. iiBoth iiapproaches iioutperform iithe iiboundaries iiof iitraditional iicommunication.

The iipreceding iidevelopments iisuggested iithat iiquantum iicomputers iimay iidramatically iispeed iiup
iiall iicomputations. iiBut iithis iiis iinot iithe iicase! iiQuantum iicomputers iihave iiboth iisignificant ii&

iiwidespread iilimits, iiaccording iito iiCWI iiexperts. iiGrover's iialgorithm iiis iiquadruple iithe iispeed iiof

iitraditional iisearch iialgorithms. iiBecause iiit iiwas iialready iiestablished iithat iia iiquadratic iispeed-up

iiis iithe iibest iiquantum iicomputers iican iiaccomplish iiwhen iiscanning iia iidatabase, iiexponential

iispeed-ups iifor iithis iiapplication iiwere iinot iipossible. iiCWI iiresearchers iihave iidemonstrated iithat

iithe iisame iiholds iitrue iifor iiall iiproblems iiin iiGrover's iialgorithm's iidatabase-setting: iiquantum

iicomputers iican iibe iiat iimost iipolynomially iifaster iithan iiclassical iicomputers iifor iiall iisuch iiissues.

Limiting iiresults iilike iithe iiabove iido iinot iirule iiout iiexponential iispeedups iiin iivarious
iicircumstances, iisuch iias iiShor's, iior iia iicreative iifuture iisetting iithat iihas iiyet iito iibe iidiscovered.

iiExploring iiquantum iicomputation's iipotential iiis iian iiintriguing ii& iivital iitask iifor iiboth iicomputer

iiscientists ii& iiphysicists.

4.2 Quantum Computers How Do It?
ii ii ii ii ii

What iiabout iimaking iiquantum iicomputers iithat iican iiperform iifast iialgorithms iilike iiShor's,
iiGrover's, ii& iiCWI's? iiOnly iiextremely iimodest iiquantum iialgorithms ii(& iislightly iilarger

iiquantum iicrypto iidevices) iihave iibeen iiconstructed iito iidate, iibut iiquantum iicomputer iiphysical

iireality iiis iistill iiin iiits iiearly iistages.

The iifundamental iiissue iiis iithat iiquantum iisuperpositions iiare iiextremely iifragile, ii& iiany
iiinteractions iiwith iitheir iisurroundings iican iisoon iiresult iiin iierrors, iilowering iithe iicomputer's

iiperformance. iiRecently, iiquantum iiversions iiof iierror-correcting iicodes iiwere iidevised, iiwhich iiin

iitheory iisolve iithis iiproblem iito iia iisignificant iiextent, iibut iinot iiyet iiin iithe iibrittle iipractise iiof iithe

iiphysical iilab ii(let iialone iithe iibrittle iipractise iiof iiour iidesktops).

This iihas iisomething iito iido iiwith iithe iiadvancement iiof iiQuantum iiInformation iiTheory, iiwhich iiis
iia iiquantum iiextension iiof iiclassical iiinformation iitheory. iiThis iiresearch, iias iiwell iias iirelated

iiconceptions iiof iiinformation iiin iiindividual iiquantum iistates, iihave iibeen iiprovided iiby iiCWI's

iigroup: iiQuantum iiKolmogorov iiComplexity iiis iia iiterm iiused iito iidescribe iithe iicomplexity iiof

iiquantum iisystems.

Experimental iiphysicists iiface iisevere iichallenges iiin iibuilding iihuge iiquantum iicomputers,
iisimilar iito iithe iiearly iibarriers iito iiclassical iicomputing: iiunreliable iicomponents, iiphysically

iilarge iicomponents, iimemory, iiorganisation, iicommunication, ii& iiprogramming. iiThe iitheory iiof

iiquantum iimechanics iiis iinow iibeing iiextended, iiin iipart iithanks iito iiCWI iiresearch, iiespecially iiin

iiterms iiof iithe iialgebraic iianalysis iiof ii"quantum iientanglement," iia iikey iiconcept iiin iimany

iiquantum iialgorithms iithat iihas iiyet iito iibe iicompletely iiexamined iiin iiquantum iitheory.
4.3 WHEN WILL QUANTUM COMPUTERS BE AVAILABLE?
ii ii ii ii ii ii

Rolf iiL&auer, iian iiIBM iiFellow, iifirst iiproposed iithe iinotion iiof iiquantum iiinformation iimore iithan
iithree iidecades iiago. iiDavid iiDeutsch ii& iiother iiresearch iifellows iideveloped iithe iiconcept iiof iia

iiquantum iicomputer iia iidecade iilater. iiSince iithen, iiquantum iicomputing iihas iiprogressed iislowly

iiin iiterms iiof iitechnical iidevelopment. iiIBM iinow iihas iia iithree-bit iiquantum iicomputer, ii& iithe

iiLos iiAlamos iiNational iiLaboratory iijust iiunveiled iia iiseven-bit iiNMR ii(Nuclear iiMagnetic

iiResonance) iicomputer. iiDespite iiIBM iiresearch iifellows' iiclaims iithat iia iiten-bit iicomputer iiwill

iibe iiavailable iisoon, iia iipractical iiquantum iicomputer iiwill iirequire iihundreds, iiif iinot iithous&s, iiof

iiqubits. iiUnfortunately, iideveloping iimore iithan ii10 iiqubits iiappears iito iibe iinearly iiimpossible.

This iiis iibecause iias iithe iiqubits iiare iiadded, iithe iiroom iitemperature ii& iiother iicircumstances iiwill
iichange iiexponentially, iidisrupting iithe iiatom's iiquantum iibehaviour. ii"When iiyou iilook iiat

iiquantum iimechanics, iiit iigoes iiaway," iiIBM iiResearch iiFellow iiIsaac iiChuang, iia iitop iiexpert iiin

iiquantum iicomputer iiresearch, iistated. iiAs iia iiresult, iiyou iimust iiensure iithat iithe iicomputer iiis

iicompletely iiinsulated iifrom iithe iioutside iiworld." iiTo iiput iiit iianother iiway, iiquantum iicomputing's

iicommercial iidevelopment iiis iicurrently iilimited. iiAs iia iiresult, iiquantum iicomputers iiwill iihave

iilittle iiimpact iion iiour iidaily iilives iiin iithe iinear iifuture.

However, iiChuang iiis iivery iioptimistic iiabout iiit: ii“Quantum iicomputing iibegins iiwhere iiMoore’s
iilaw iiends—about iithe iiyear ii2020, iiwhen iicircuit iifeatures iiare iipredicted iito iibe iithe iisize iiof iiatoms

ii& iimolecules”. iiOther iiscientists iiestimate iithe iibirth iiof iicommercial iiquantum iicomputers iiwill

iibe iiin iiat iileast iianother iithree iidecades.

Chapter ii5

FUTURE iiRESEARCH iiDIRECTIONS

5.1 iiA iiSymmetry iiBreaking iiProcess iiExplanation iiof iithe iiMeasurement iiProblem

The iimost iifundamental iifeature iiof iiphysical iisystems iiis iisymmetry. iiWhen iiit iicomes iito iiphysical
iisystems, iiit's iia iipretty iibroad iiconcept. iiLocal iispace iitime iisymmetries ii& iiglobal iispace iitime

iisymmetries iiare iiexamples iiof iisymmetries iifound iiin iinature. iiAll iiof iiPhysics' iilaws iiare iisubject

iito iiglobal iispace-time iisymmetries. iiWe iiwill iiattempt iito iiprovide iia iidirection iiin iiwhich iifurther

iithought iican iibe iiformed iifor iithe iiresolution iiof iithe iiwell-known iiMeasurement iiProblem iiin

iiQuantum iiMechanics iiin iithis iipart. iiIn iiQuantum iiMechanics, iithe iiMeasurement iiProblem iiis iiat

iithe iiroot iiof iimany iiissues ii& iiobservable iianomalies. iiI'm iiattempting iito iiexplain iithe

iiMeasurement iiProblem iiusing iithe iiSymmetry iiBreaking iiProcess. iiThe iibasic iiequation iiof

iiQuantum iiMechanics, iiAB iiBA, iiwhich iiis iivalid iifor iiconjugate iivariables, iiindicates iithat iithe

iisystem iiis iiirreversible. iiNow, iiaccording iito iithe iiPrinciple iiof iiSufficient iiReason ii(PSR) iiof

iiLeibniz: iiThe iiprinciple iistates iithat iiif iithere iiis iino iisufficient iireason iifor iione iithing iito iihappen

iiinstead iiof iianother, iinothing iihappens iior iithat iia iisituation iiwith iiparticular iisymmetry iievolves iiin

iisuch iia iiway iithat iithe iiinitial iisymmetry iiis iipreserved iiin iithe iiabsence iiof iian iiasymmetric iicause.

iiTo iiput iiit iianother iiway, iia iishattering iiof iioriginal iisymmetry iior iithe iiemergence iiof iiasymmetry

iicannot iihappen iiby iichance. iiThe iiphenomena iiis iicaused iiby iiasymmetry. iiAs iia iiresult, iisymmetry

iibreaking iifollows iithe iiPrinciple iiof iiCausality, iiwhich iistates iithat ii"there iiis iia iireason iifor iievery

iieffect." iiUnlike iithe iicollapsing iiof iithe iiwave iifunction iiinto iian iiindeterminate iiEigen iistate, iithe

iiMeasurement iiprocedure iiintentionally iithrows iithe iiQuantum iiSystem iias iia ii"choice iiof

iiinformation" iiby iithe iiobserver. iiIn iia iimeasurement iiprocedure, iithe iisystem iidoes iinot iilose

iiinformation iias iiin iiclassical iisystems, iibut iiis iiinstead iiplaced iiinto iia iispecific iieigen iistate iibased

iion iithe iiobserver's iiinformation iichoice. iiAs iia iiresult, iiin iiQuantum iiMechanics, iiwe iineed iito

iipropose iia iiparameter iithat iitakes iicare iiof iithis ii"choice iiof iiinformation" iirather iithan iithe ii"loss iiof

iiinformation," iiwhose iiparameter iiin iiclassical iimechanics iiis iientropy. iiCurie's iiPrinciple iiis iialso

iia iifun iimethod iito iivisualise iisymmetry iirequirements iiin iia iisystem.The iicauses' iisymmetry

iielements iimust iibe iifound iiin iitheir iiconsequences, iibut iithe iiopposite iiis iinot iitrue: iiIt's iipossible

iithat iithe iieffects iiare iimore iisymmetric iithan iithe iicauses.. iiThe iifollowing iiare iithe iiconditions iithat

iiapply iito iiCurie's iiPrinciple: ii

1. iiThe iicausal iirelationship iimust iibe iitrue.

2. iiThe iirelationship iibetween iicause ii& iieffect, iias iiwell iias iitheir iisymmetries, iimust iibe iiwell
iispecified.

There iimust iibe iia iisufficient iicause iifor iithe iiMeasurement iiProblem iito iioccur, ii& iiwe iimay iiargue
iifrom iiLeibniz's iiPrinciple iiof iiSufficient iiReason ii(PSR) iithat iithere iimust iibe iisome iisymmetry

iibreaking iiprocess iicausing iithe iiasymmetry iiin iithe iisystem ii& iiso iileading iito iithe iiMeasurement

iiProblem. iiAs iia iiresult, iimore iiresearch iiis iineeded iito iidetermine iihow iisymmetry iibreaks iiin iithe

iisystem. iiWhat iikind iiof iisymmetry iiis iithere? iiIs iiit iia iilocal iior iiglobal iisymmetry iithat iibreaks iiin

iithe iiwave iifunction's iiReduction(R) iiProcess, iias iiit iiis iiknown iiin iiQuantum iiMechanics? iiThus,

iiintroducing iisymmetry iiinto iithe iiReduction iiProcedure iiin iiQuantum iiMechanics iiis iia iinovel
iinotion iithat iican iished iifurther iilight iion iithe iireason iifor iiwave iifunction iicollapse ii& iithe iispecific
iiprocess iiby iiwhich iiit iioccurs. iiAs iia iiresult, iithe iiHeisenberg iiUncertainty iiPrinciple iimay iihave iia

iifundamental iiexplanation. iiIt's iitrue.It iihas iito iibe iiknown iiwhether iithe iiUncertainty iiPrinciple iior

iithe iisymmetry iibreaking iithat iiis iioccuring iiin iithe iisystem iiis iimore iibasic.

5.4 Conclusion & Future Scope

ii ii ii

The iifundamentals iiof iiquantum iicomputation iihave iibeen iiestablished, iibut iieverything iielse
iirequired iifor iiits iifuture iidevelopment iiis iistill iibeing iiresearched. iiQuantum iialgorithms, iilogic

iigate iioperations, iierror iicorrection, iidecoherence iidynamics ii& iicontrol, iiatomic iiscale

iitechnology, ii& iirelevant iiapplications iiare iiall iicovered. iiQuantum iireversibility iicould iiaid iiin iithe

iisolution iiof iiNP iiissues, iiwhich iiare iieasy iiin iione iidirection iibut iidifficult iiin iithe iiother.

iiInterference iieffects ii(as iiobserved iiin iiFermat's iiprinciple iiin iiwave iimechanics) iimay iihelp iiwith

iiglobal iiminimization iidifficulties. iiDue iito iiquantum iitunnelling iivia iibarriers, iisimulated

iiannealing iiapproaches iimay iiimprove. iiComplex iinumber iiqualities ii(analytic iifunctions,

iiconformal iimappings) iicould iilead iito iinovel iimethods. iiTheoretical iitechniques iifor iidealing iiwith

iimany-body iiquantum iientanglement iiare iilacking. iiIts iiimproved iicharacterisation iicould iilead iito

iibetter iiquantum iilogic iigate iiimplementation ii& iithe iiability iito iirepair iicorrelated iimistakes.

iiThough iidecoherence iiis iia iiuseful iiprocess, iiits iidynamics iiare iiunknown. iiHowever, iian iiattempt

iihas iibeen iimade iiin iithe iicurrent iiproject iiwork iiin iithe iiform iiof iithe iisymmetry iibreaking

iiargument iior iithe iinecessity iifor iian iientropy-like iiparameter iior iifunction iito iiaccount iifor

iiirreversibility iiin iithe iisystem. iiTo iibe iiable iito iicontrol iidecoherence, iione iimust iifirst iibe iiable iito

iidetermine iiwhich iieigenstates iithe iienvironment iifavours iiin iia iigiven iisetting. iiThough iian

iiattempt iiis iimade iiin iithis iistudy, iithe iidynamics iiof iithe iimeasurement iiprocess iiare iinot iientirely

iiunderstood.

In iian iiotherwise iiunitary iiquantum iitheory, iimeasurement iiis iisimply iidescribed iias iia iinon-unitary
iiprojection iioperator. iiBecause iiboth iithe iisystem ii& iithe iiobserver iiare iimade iiup iiof iiquantum

iibuilding iiblocks, iia iiunified iiquantum iiexplanation iiof iimeasurement iiplus iidecoherence iiis

iinecessary. iiIt iiwould iiaid iiin iithe iiimprovement iiof iidetectors iithat iioperate iinear iithe iiquantum

iilimit iiof iiobservation, iiin iiaddition iito iitheoretical iigain. iiThe iishift iifrom iithe iiclassical iito

iiquantum iistate iiis iiof iitremendous iiinterest iito iiphysicists. iiWe iican iiget iithere iiby iiexp&ing iithe

iisystem iifrom iimicroscopic iito iimesoscopic iilevels ii& iishrinking iithe iienvironment iifrom

iimacroscopic iito iimesoscopic iilevels. iiIf iithere's iisomething iilurking iibeyond iiquantum iitheory,

iiit'll iibe iinoticed iiin iithe iirace iito iibuild iiquantum iigadgets.

In iiattempting iito iiovercome iidecoherence, iiwe iimay iiuncover iinew iiquantum iitheory iiconstraints.
iiTheoretical iiadvancements iiwill iibe iiuseless iiwithout iicorresponding iitechnological

iiadvancements. iiNowadays, iithe iibattle iito iiminiaturise iielectrical iicircuitry iiisn't iitoo iifar iioff iifrom

iinature's iiquantum iireality. iiTo iicreate iinew iitypes iiof iiinstruments, iiwe iimust iishift iiour

iiperspectives iifrom iiscientific iito iitechnological-quantum ii, iiwhich iishould iinot iionly iibe iiseen iibut

iialso iicontrolled iifor iipractical iiapplications. iiAlthough iithe iifuture iicannot iibe iipredicted, iiit

iiappears iito iibe iibright.

5.5 REFERENCES
ii

1]“Quantum iiComputation ii& iiQuantum iiInformation", iiMichael iiNielsen.

2] ii“Algorithms iifor iiQuantum iiComputation", iiPeter ii iiShor.

3] ii“Quantum iiNP”, iiA. iiKitaev, iiDePaul iiUniversity.

4] ii“http://oxfordquantum.org/”

5] ii“https://www.uts.edu.au/about/faculty-engineering-&-information-technology”

6] ii“https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing”