LECTURE 3

Histology, Tissues and the

Integumentary System
Reference: Amerman Chapter 4 and 5

Dr. Garry Niedermayer

School of Science and Health

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 Learning objectives
1. Name the four main tissue categories
2. Compare and contrast different types of
epithelial & connective tissues and where
they can be found in the body
3. Describe the structure and functions of skin
4. Discuss tissue injury and tissue repair
 Histology
• Histology – study of normal structures of
tissues (a group of structurally and
functionally related cells and their external
environment that together perform common
functions); all tissues share two basic
components:
– Consist of discrete population of cells that are
related in structure and function
– Have a surrounding material called extracellular
matrix (ECM)

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 Overview of Tissue Types
• Groups of cells that perform the same general
function
– 4 main types:
1. Epithelial
– Covers body surface, lines body cavities, etc.
– Some specialised to become secretory glands
2. Connective
– Includes bone, cartilage, blood and fatty tissue
– Bind and support body structures
3. Muscle
– Categorized by shape, number of nuclei and mechanism of stimulation
– Striated (voluntary), smooth & cardiac muscle (involuntary)
– Contraction causes movement, produces heat, maintains balance
4. Nervous
– Neurons: signal conduction, communication
– Glia: support
 The Extracellular Matrix
Extracellular matrix – composed of substances in a liquid, thick
gel, or solid that surround cells of a tissue; consist of two main
components:
 ground substance - makes up most of ECM and consists of
extracellular fluid (ECF or interstitial fluid); components include
water, nutrients, ions, and three families of macromolecules
 protein fibers: embedded within ground substance; long molecules
composed of multiple fibrous subunits with a ropelike structure;
enormous tensile strength; three protein fiber types are found within
ECM:
 ECM performs a variety of functions:
 Provides tissue with strength to resist
tensile (stretching) and compressive
forces
 Directs cells to their proper positions within
a tissue and holds those cells in place
 Regulates development, mitotic activity,
and survival of cells in a tissue
General Features of Epithelial Tissue
• consist of tightly packed cells linked together by tight junctions
and desmosomes (+ gap junctions for ions)
• structural arrangement make
sheets of cells fairly impermeable
and resistant to physical stresses
and mechanical injury
• covers all body surfaces
– outside (skin) & inside
(body cavities, blood vessels)
• main gland tissue
• cells reproduce rapidly (mitosis for rapid healing)
• attach to basement membrane (basal lamina + reticular lamina)
• Epithelial tissues are avascular (lack blood vessels and must
obtain oxygen and nutrients by diffusion from deeper tissues);
limits their thickness
 Epithelial Tissue (epithelium)
Epithelium can be distinguished in 2 ways

1. Cell shape
• squamous cells look flattened
• cuboidal cells are short (and sometimes cube-like)
• columnar cells are tall and elongated

2. Number of layers
– Related to function
• simple epithelia consist of a single cell layer
• stratified epithelia consist of more than one cell layer
• pseudostratified epithelia consist of a single cell layer that appears as more
than one layer
Summary of Epithelial Tissues
Summary of Epithelial Tissues
 Epithelial Glands
• Gland – structure of epithelial origin that synthesizes
and secretes a protein product from designated
secretory cells
– Can be classified either by their shape or by how they
release products
– Products are released by two mechanisms:
• Endocrine
– Secrete hormones directly into blood stream e.g. Islets of Langerhans cells
& insulin
– no ducts
– has widespread effects
• Exocrine
– Secrete fluids into ducts that open onto
epithelial tissue e.g. sweat, saliva, mucus
– Duct system is simple or compound
– has local effects
 Connective Tissue
• Most common and widely distributed tissue in body
– Never exposed to external environment
• Includes bone, cartilage, adipose (fat) & blood (fluid
connective tissue – discussed in HAP2)
• Functions: to bind, support and protect other body
tissues, fills space, stores fat, fight infection, produce
blood cells
• Consist of 2 basic elements:
– Cells (embedded in extracellular matrix (ECM))
– ECM (contains fibres and ground substance)
• Most types have good blood supply
– Except tendons and cartilage
 Connective Tissue
Connective tissues are divided into two basic
groups that differ in their cell types and ECM
components:
• Connective tissue proper
 Also known as general connective tissue

 Widely distributed in body

 Connect tissues and organs to one another

 Components of internal architecture of some organs

• Specialized connective tissue

 have more specific functions
 Connective Tissue

FIBER TYPES
collagen & elastin fibres
collagen fibres (Co),
elastic fibres (EF), and
ground substance (GS).

• Collagen
 Many types

 Structural support

• Elastin
 Elastic in nature

 Very thin
 Connective Tissue
FIBER TYPES

reticular fibers

• Reticular fibers
 Thick, dark

 Networked/branched

 Form a capsule that can filter

 Connective Tissue Proper
• Cells of connective tissue proper – resident cells
permanently inhabit tissue in which they are found; migrant
cells migrate into different areas of body depending on
situation; cells in connective tissue proper include:
 Fibroblasts – resident cell, makes protein fibres and ground substance
 Adipocytes – fat cells found in many connective tissues around the body
 Mast cells – resident cell, immune cell which releases inflammatory
mediators
 Phagocytes – can be resident and migrant, immune cell which ingests
foreign substances, microorganisms, and dead and damaged cells by
phagocytosis
 Other immune system cells – can migrate in and out of connective
tissues depending on the body’s needs
 Connective Tissue Proper
• Two basic types of connective tissue proper:
 Loose connective tissue (areolar tissue, adipose, reticular)
o mostly ground substance, with all three types of protein fibers, fibroblasts, and
occasionally adipocytes, suspended in ground substance
o Binds underlying organs to skin & each other
o Have more cells & less fibres; provide
padding & support network for other tissues
o & passage ways for nerves & blood vessels
o Most common type

 Dense connective tissue (fibrous connective tissue)

o Provides structural support;
o has many collagen fibres, tightly packed in regular pattern;
o In tendons (muscle to bone) & ligaments (bone to bone)
& scar tissue
o mostly protein fibers; grouped into three classes:
• Dense irregular connective tissue – predominantly
disorganized collagen bundles
• Dense regular connective tissue - predominantly
organized into parallel collagen bundles
• Dense regular elastic connective tissue (elastic tissue)
- Mostly parallel-oriented elastic fibers with randomly
oriented collagen fibers
 Connective Tissue Proper
• Two basic types of connective tissue proper (cont’d):
 Reticular tissue (Loose)
o composed mostly of reticular fibers produced by fibroblasts (reticular
cells); form fine networks that can support small structures like blood and
lymphatic vessels

 Adipose tissue (fat tissue) (Loose)

o consists of fat-storing adipocytes and surrounding fibroblasts and ECM;
adipocytes can increase in size to point where fibroblasts and ECM are
scarcely visible
o Insulates & conserves body heat
o Cushion for internal organs
o Energy reserve
 Specialized Connective Tissues
• Specialized connective tissues have more
specific functions and include the following three
types of tissue:
 Cartilage (= supportive connective tissue) – found in
joints between bones, in ear, nose, and segments of
respiratory tract
 Bone tissue (= supportive connective tissue) – supports
body; protects vital organs; provides attachments for
muscles that allow for movement; stores calcium, and
houses bone marrow (produces blood cells and stores fat)
 Blood and lymph (fluid connective tissue) – unique
connective tissue with a liquid ECM called plasma;
consists of mostly water, dissolved solutes, and proteins
 Cartilage
• Made up chondrocytes (cartilage cells)
• Function: Support, attachment & cushions bones
• 3 types
– Differ in composition of ECM
1. Hyaline - Covers ends of moveable joints,
nose & respiratory passages
– Mostly ground substance & some collagen
fibres
2. Fibrous cartilage found in knee joint,
pubic symphysis & intervertebral discs
– Resist compression & limit bone to bone contact;
– Tough shock absorbers
– ECM is mostly collagen fibres & little ground substance
3. Elastic cartilage e.g. ear, epiglottis
– Tolerate distortion & return to original shape
– ECM is mainly elastic fibres
 Bone
(covered in more detail in Lectures 4 and 5)
• Hard connective tissues
• Consists of living cells (osteocytes, osteoblasts
and osteoclasts) and a mineralised matrix
• Compact and spongy bone types
• Functions:
– Support and protect other tissues and organs
– provide attachment sites for muscles
– store calcium and fat
– produce RBCs
 Blood (and Lymph)
• Blood – unique in that ECM is fluid
– contained in the cardiovascular system
– contains
• Plasma proteins – not like fibers found in other connective
tissues; smaller with a variety of functions including transport
of substances and blood clotting
• Erythrocytes (red blood cells) bind to and transport oxygen
through body
• Leukocytes (white blood cells) function in immunity
• Platelets – cell fragments; major role in blood clotting
• Lymph
– contained in the lymphatic system
– contains
• fluid from blood plasma
• reticular fibres, with various types of leukocytes
• cell debris
 Membranes
• Flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of
the body, composed of 1+ tissues
• Functions:
1. Anchor organs in place
2. Physical barriers
3. Immunity
4. Secretion
• Four types divided into true and membrane-like
 True - do not open to outside of body
• Serous
• Synovial
 Membrane-like structures - open to outside of body
• Mucous
• Cutaneous
 True Membranes
 Serous membranes (line pericardial,
peritoneal, and pleural body cavities; structural
and functional features)
 Consist of a mesothelium (thin layer of simple
squamous epithelium) associated basement
membrane, and a layer of connective tissue
 Fold over themselves giving appearance of
two layers; outer parietal layer lines body
wall; inner visceral layer covers organ
within body cavity
 Mesothelial cells produce a thin, watery
serous fluid; fills space between parietal
and visceral layers; reduces friction created
when organs (like heart or lungs) move within
respective membranes
 True Membranes
 Synovial membranes – line cavities surrounding
freely moveable joints like knee or shoulder; made
up of two connective tissue layers without a layer of
epithelial cells
 Outer layer – usually composed
of a mixture of loose and dense
irregular connective tissue
 Inner layer – synoviocytes
(modified fibroblasts) secrete
synovial fluid, a watery,
slippery fluid; primarily
functions to lubricate joint
 Membrane-like Structures
• Mucous membranes and cutaneous membranes are
membrane-like structures (do not fit full description of a true
membrane):
• Mucous Membranes (mucosae) line all body passages as
components of walls of hollow
organs that open to outside of body;
includes respiratory passages,
mouth, nasal cavity, digestive
tract, and male and female
reproductive tracts
• Consist of a layer of epithelium and
its basement membrane (layer of
connective tissue called the lamina
propria) and occasionally a thin
layer of smooth muscle
• Contain glands with goblet cells;
produce and secrete mucus;
serves several functions, primarily
protection
 Membrane-like Structures
• Cutaneous membrane – refers to skin; largest organ of body;
consists of:
• Outer layer of keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium called epidermis;
tough, continuous protective surface
that protects structures deep to it
• Dermis
• Layer of loose connective tissue
is found beneath epidermis plus
even deeper layer of dense irregular
connective tissue
• Home to many blood vessels;
provide a means for oxygen and
nutrients to diffuse into avascular
epidermis
 Muscle Tissue
(covered in more detail in Lectures 6 and 7)

• Muscle tissues are specialized for contraction

• Three muscle tissue types share common ability to
turn chemical energy of ATP into mechanical energy of
movement
• smooth muscles
• skeletal muscle
• cardiac muscle

• Walking, breathing, heart beating, and propulsion of

substances through hollow organs all result from
contractions of different muscle tissues
• Main component of muscle tissue is muscle cell or
myocyte; excitable (ability to respond to electrical or
chemical stimulation)
 Nervous Tissue
(covered in more detail in Lecture 8)
• Nervous tissue makes up majority of brain, spinal cord, and nerves;
composed of two main cell types and their surrounding ECM
• Neurons – capable of sending and receiving messages
• Neuroglial cells – perform various functions that support neuron
activities
• ECM is unique; made up of ground substance with unique proteoglycans not
found in other tissues of body; contains very few protein fibers

• Neurons (like muscle cells) are excitable cells; once mature, no longer
divide by mitosis; three main components:
• Cell body or soma – biosynthetic center of neuron where nucleus and most
organelles are found
• Solitary axon extends from one end of soma;
responsible for moving a nerve impulse from
soma to a target cell (may be another neuron,
muscle cell, or gland)
• Dendrites – other extensions protruding from
soma; typically short with multiple branches;
receive impulses from axons of neighboring
neurons; deliver impulses to soma
 The big picture: different tissues
combine to produce organs

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Integumentary System
• Largest and most accessible organ system
• = Skin and accessory structures (nails, hair,
glands)
• complex organ with many functions important
for homeostasis
• ~15% of body weight
• 1st contact between outside world & body
– Constantly eroded by UV light, chemicals, micro-
organisms
– 1st line of defence
– Physical barrier
 Skin Structure
Known as cutaneous membrane, it has two distinct
components:
1. Epidermis – superficial layer that consists of keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium resting on a basement
membrane
2. Dermis – deep to epidermis and basement membrane;
consists of loose connective tissue and dense irregular
connective tissue

• Hypodermis (deep to the dermis)

– NOT part of the skin
– Mostly subcutaneous fat (shock absorber and insulation)
– Anchors skin to body (mostly muscle)
 Skin Structure
• Accessory structures of skin – embedded
in cutaneous membrane: sweat glands,
sebaceous glands, hair, and nails
• Skin contains sensory receptors and arrector
pili muscles (small bands of smooth muscle
associated with hair)
• Epidermis is avascular:
– Must rely on diffusion of oxygen and nutrients
from blood vessels in deeper dermis; limits
epidermal thickness
– About 50% of cells in epidermis are too far from
adequate blood supply to sustain life; superficial
layers are made up entirely of dead cells
 Epidermal Layers
• Stratum basale (innermost layer)
• single layer of stem cells resting on basement membrane; closest cells to blood supply in
dermis; involved in vitamin D synthesis and replacement of dead keratinocytes (lost from
more superficial layers)
• Stratum spinosum
• thickest layer, sits on top
of stratum basale
• Stratum granulosum
• Three to five layers of cells with
prominent cytoplasmic granules; filled
with keratin bundles or a lipid-based
substance
• Hydrophobic nature of lipids provides
waterproofing; critical for maintaining
internal fluid and electrolyte homeostasis;
• Stratum lucidum
• narrow layer of clear, dead keratinocytes; found only in thick skin
• Stratum corneum (outermost layer)
• consists of several layers of dead flattened keratinocytes with thickened plasma
membranes; filled mostly with keratin bundles and little else; sloughed off or exfoliated
mechanically as desmosomes holding neighboring cells together are lost
 Cell types of the Epidermis
1. Keratinocytes
– Manufacture keratin – tough fibrous protein that makes epidermis more resistant to
mechanical trauma
– Linked to each other by desmosomes; makes epidermis stronger
2. Melanocytes
– located in stratum basale; produce
melanin; protein skin pigment ranging
from orange-red to brown-black
3. Dendritic (Langerhans) cells
– located in stratum spinosum;
phagocytes of immune system;
protect skin and deeper tissues
from pathogens
4. Merkel cells (sensory receptors)
– oval cells scattered throughout
stratum basale; associated with
small neurons in dermis
• Detect light touch and discriminate
shapes and textures
• Found in large numbers in regions
that are specialized for touch;
fingertips, lips, and at base of hairs
 Dermis
• Connective tissue layer – collagen and elastic
tissue, fibroblasts, macrophages and fat cells
2 layers
1. Papillary layer (loose
connective tissue)
– Contains dermal papillae with
blood vessels
– Interweave with epidermal 1
ridges  fingerprints
2. Reticular layer (dense 2
irregular connective tissue)
– Contains accessory organs
(hairs, glands, receptors)
– Provides strength & elasticity
to skin
 Epidermal Appendages 1: Hair (Pili)
• Lies in hair follicle
– Epithelial lined sheath
• Long shafts of dead keratin;
– shaft visible above skin; root
below
– Base contains a papilla
• (connective tissue & blood
vessels)
– Above it is hair matrix
• Mitotically active (cell
division & growth)
• Hair colour determined by
melanocytes in matrix
 Epidermal Appendages 1: Hair
• Contraction of arrector pili
muscles  piloerection
• Hair is a sensory organ as has
nerve supply to sheath
2 types of hair
1. Vellus (body)
2. Terminal (head hair incl.
eyebrows)
– At puberty  pubic & armpit hair
appear (hormone regulated)
• Growth varies with sex, age &
location
– Av. 2.5mm/wk
 Appendages 2: Glands
1. Sebaceous glands
• Exocrine gland
• duct empties into hair follicle
– Found on all skin except palms
and soles
• Secrete sebum (oil)
– Keeps skin waterproofed, pliable
and healthy Ear dermis contains
– Contains antifungal, antimicrobial ceruminous glands –
components produce ear wax to trap
dust and airborne
– Arrector pili contractions force pathogens
sebum to surface
• Blockage  whiteheads /
blackhead; acne = infection of
gland
 Appendages 2: Glands
2. Sweat glands (sudoriferous)
• Eccrine
– Gland base in dermis, tube to epidermal surface
– Empty to skin surface
– Everywhere except lips and head of penis
– produce odourless, colourless, acidic fluid
– Thermoregulation
• Apocrine
– Mainly in armpit, groin and nipple areas
– Empty into hair follicles
– Begin to function at puberty; activated by stress
and sexual foreplay
– B.O. occurs when skin bacteria use secretions
– No role in thermoregulation
 Appendages 3: Nails
• Nail consists of a body and root Free edge

• Nail matrix at base of root

produces nail
Body
– Composed of hardened keratin
• Body - pink due to underlying blood
vessels; free edge is white Nail root
• Proximal white part = lunule
• Cuticle = skin extending onto nail
• Fingernails grow faster than
toenails
• Changes in nail colour
diagnostically relevant e.g. fungus,
malnutrition, thyroid disorders
 Functions of the Integumentary
System
Integumentary system has following functions
that are critical for protecting underlying organs
or for maintaining homeostasis:
• Protection from mechanical trauma, pathogens, and
environment is most obvious function:
– Stratified squamous, keratinized epithelium provides a
durable but flexible surface; protects body from
mechanical trauma like stretching, pressure, or abrasions
– Provides a continuous barrier to invasion by
microorganisms or pathogens that can cause disease
– Contains cells of immune system that destroy pathogens
before they invade deeper tissues
 Functions of the Integumentary
System
• Protection (continued):
– Glands secrete a variety of antimicrobial
substances; sebaceous gland secretions give
surface of skin a slightly acidic pH (called acid
mantle); inhibits growth of many pathogens
– Provides protection from a number of
environmental hazards including absorption of
ultraviolet light (UV) before it damages deeper
tissues
– Skin secretes hydrophobic lipid-based chemicals;
repel ionic and polar covalent molecules like salt
and water; critical for maintaining water and
electrolyte homeostasis in a wide range of
weather conditions
 Functions of the Integumentary
System
• Sensation – process that enables nervous
system to perceive changes in the body’s
internal or external surroundings; critical to
homeostasis:
– Skin has numerous sensory receptors or
cellular structures that detect changes in
internal and/or external environment
– Receptors allow us to detect potentially
harmful stimuli such as heat, cold, and pain;
could lead to tissue damage
 Functions of the Integumentary
System
• Thermoregulation:
– Process that relies on
negative feedback
loops for maintenance
of a stable internal
temperature
– Internal body
temperature is
determined mostly by
muscle activity and
many chemical
reactions involved in
metabolism
 Functions of the Integumentary
System
• Excretion – process where waste
products and toxins are eliminated from
body; most occurs at other organs like
kidneys; skin and its accessory structures
make a small but significant contribution
 Functions of the Integumentary
System
• Skin plays a critical role in vitamin D synthesis;
cells found deep in epidermis convert vitamin D
from an inactive form (precursor) to active form:
– Precursor – modified cholesterol molecule;
converted to cholecalciferol when epidermis is
exposed to UV radiation
– Cholecalciferol is released into blood; modified first by
liver, then by kidneys, to form calcitriol (active form
of vitamin D)
– Vitamin D is required for calcium ion absorption from
small intestine; calcium ion is critical for nerve
function, muscle contraction, building and maintaining
bone tissue, and many other physiological functions
Function Mechanism
Mechanical Tough epidermis (keratinocytes); thickening = cornification
protection subcutaneous fat (shock absorber) & pressure receptors
(alert NS to excess stimn)
Chemical Epidermal Chemo nociceptors;
damage Keratinised skin cells (impermeable)
UV damage Melanocytes  melanin; secreted into fibroblasts -
protect against UV radiation - tanning
Bacterial Acidic skin secretions kill bacteria; dermis contains
damage macrophages & immune cells to kill pathogens
Thermo Contain thermo nociceptors in epidermis
regulation/ Vaso – dilation/constriction, sweating, shivering, fat deposits
damage
Dessication Epidermis contains keratin & glycolipids to waterproof
skin
Excretion Production of sweat - eliminates urea, electrolytes, lactic
acid & water; produces dehydration
Vitamin D Requires UV for skin to synthesis it; also found in fish oils
synthesis shellfish/fish; dietary supplement
Tissue Injury and Repair

• Injury stimulates the body’s

inflammatory and immune
responses
• Inflammation = generalised
response to prevent further
injury
• Immune response =
specific and directed against
pathogens and toxins
Four cardinal signs of Inflammation

• Rubor (redness)

• Calor (heat)

• Tumor (swelling)

• Dolor (pain)

• and sometimes loss of function

 Tissue repair
Process of wound healing; dead and damaged cells are removed
and replaced with new cells or tissues to fill in gap for
maintenance of homeostasis; process differs with different
tissues:
• Some tissues are capable of regeneration where dead and damaged cells
are replaced with cells of same type; when process is finished tissue has
returned to a normal functional level

• Not all tissues regenerate equally

– Epithelial cells, fibrous connective tissue and bone regenerate well
– Skeletal and cardiac muscle poorly regenerates and nervous tissue
regeneration is almost non-existent
 Tissue repair
Other tissues are not capable of full regeneration; fibroblasts fill
in gaps left from injury by a process called fibrosis:
• Fibroblasts divide by mitosis and produce collagen that fills in gap and
tissue loses some level of functional ability
• End result of fibrosis is development of scar tissue composed of dense
irregular connective tissue

• Smooth muscle tissue usually regenerates; cardiac and skeletal muscle

tissues generally heal by fibrosis
• Nervous tissue generally undergoes fibrosis.
 Skin Repair
• Initial injury  bleeding and
inflammatory response
• Triggers release of inflammatory
mediators from damaged tissue
and blood vessels
• Attracts immune cells from blood
vessels to destroy pathogens and
remove debris
• Within a few hours a scab (blood
clot forms) to restore epidermis
integrity and reduce pathogen
entry
• Triggers regeneration process
 Skin Repair
1. Underneath the scab granulation tissue
forms and replaces the clot
– Pink tissue mainly of fragile, growing new 3
blood vessels from nearby intact tissue
2
– Bleed freely if scab is picked! 1
2. Contains phagocytes to dissolve deeper
portions of clot & fibroblasts  collagen
fibre scar
3. Now epithelium regenerates underneath 4
scab and across the surface of the 3
granulation tissue
4. Few weeks later scar repair is complete;
scab is shed and fibroblast proliferation fills
in depression caused by initial injury.
5. Final result is regeneration of surface skin
covering underlying scar tissue
 Key three points
1. Epithelial cells cover external and internal
bodies cavities; size and shape is related to
function
2. Connective tissues bind, connect and
protect other tissues; most common tissue
type is body.
3. The skin is an important organ system that
performs important functions: protection,
thermoregulation, sensory perception,
excretion & metabolism
 Next Week (week 4)
• TUES/WED/THUR
– Lab 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology, Chemical
Organisation of the Body
• THUR/Fri
– Lecture 4: The Skeletal System 1
• pre-reading: Amerman Chapters 6 and 7

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