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INDEX
S.No. Topic Page No.

WEEK- 1
1 Microwave Theory and Techniques Introduction – I 01
2 Microwave Theory and Techniques Introduction – II 17
3 Microwave Theory and Techniques Introduction – III 37
4 Effects of Microwaves on Human Body – I 54
5 Effects of Microwaves on Human Body – II 71
WEEK- 2
6 Waveguides - I: Parallel Plane Waveguides 93
110
7 Waveguides - II: Parallel Plane Waveguides
8 Waveguides - III: Parallel Plane Waveguides 122

Transmission Lines – I: Coaxial Cables, Strip Lines
9 142
and Microstrip Lines
Transmission Lines - II: Transmission Line Model,
10 Open and Short Circuited Lossless 161
Transmission Lines
WEEK- 3
Smith Chart and Impedance Matching - I: using
11 180
Quarter Wave Transformer
Smith Chart and Impedance Matching – II: using
12 193
Lumped Components
Smith Chart and Impedance Matching – III: using
13 208
Short and Open Circuited Stubs
14 ABCD – Parameters 222
15 S - Parameters 235
WEEK- 4
Power Dividers – I: Two-way, Three-way and Four-

16 249
way Equal Power Dividers
Power Dividers – II: Unequal, Broadband and
17 262
Compact Power Dividers
Microwave Couplers - I: Coupled Line Directional
18 281
Couplers
19 Microwave Couplers – II: Branch Line Couplers 295
Microwave Couplers – III: Rat race Coupler and
20 314
Applications
WEEK- 5
Microwave Filters – I: Filters and Low Pass

21 335
Butterworth Filter
22 Microwave Filters – II: Low Pass Chebyshev Filters 350
Microwave Filters – III: Microstrip Realization,
23 Transformation from LPF to other 370
Filters
24 Microwave Filters - IV: Band Pass Filters 385
Microwave Filters - V: Coupled Line and Tunable
25 401
Band Pass Filters
WEEK- 6
Microwave Diodes: PN Junction, Varactor, Schottky,

26 PIN, Tunnel, and GUNN. 421
Diodes
Microwave Attenuators: Fixed and Variable
27 440
Attenuators
28 Microwave RF Switches: Series and Shunt SPST 454
Series and Shunt SPDT Switches and Introduction
29 469
to Phase Shifters
Microwave Phase Shifters: Switched and Loaded
30 488
Line
WEEK- 7
Microwave Transistors: BJT, HBT, JFET, MOSFET,

31 505
MESFET and HEMT
Microwave Amplifiers – I: Basics and Power Gain
32 523
Expressions
Microwave Amplifiers - II: Stability and Constant
33 538
Gain Circles
34 Microwave Amplifiers - III: Design Example 555
Low Noise Amplifiers - I: Noise Sources and Noise
35 576
Figure
WEEK- 8
Low Noise Amplifiers – II: NF Circles and LNA

36 589
Design
Power Amplifiers: Class A, Class B, Class AB and
37 605
Class C
Microwave Tubes – I: Linear Beam Tubes– Two
38 624
Cavity Klystron
Microwave Tubes - II: Linear Beam Tubes- Reflex
39 640
Klystron and TWT
Microwave Tubes – III: Crossed Field Tubes-
40 651
Magnetron
WEEK- 9
41 Microwave Oscillators – I 666

42 Microwave Oscillators – II 678
Microwave Mixers – I:
43 696
Fundamentals
Microwave Mixers – II:
44 712
Fundamentals
45 Microwave Mixers – III: Design 728
WEEK- 10
46 Fundamentals of Antennas 745

47 Dipole, Monopole, loop and Slot Antennas 760
48 Linear and Planar Arrays 780
49 Microstrip Antennas 802
50 Horn and Helical Antennas 822
WEEK- 11
51 Yagi - Uda, Log-Periodic and Reflector Antennas 840

52 RF MEMS and Microwave Imaging 856
53 Microwave Systems 876
54 Measurement using Network Analyzer 892
55 CST Software Introduction with Filter Design 910
WEEK- 12
56 Power Divider and Combiner Design in CST 932

57 Hybrid Coupler Design 953
58 Antenna Design and Amplifier Simulation in CST 976
59 Mixer Design in NI AWR Software – I 1007
60 Mixer Design in NI AWR Software – II 1030
Microwave Theory and Techniques
Prof. Girish Kumar
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
Module – 01
Lecture – 01
Microwave Theory and Techniques Introduction – I
Hello everyone. I am Girish Kumar, professor at IIT Bombay in the Electrical Engineering
Department and I am going to conduct this course through NPTEL. The title of the course is
Microwave Theory and Techniques. Just to tell little bit about myself, I have been here at IIT
Bombay since 1991 and I have been teaching mainly antennas and microwave circuits course.
So, this microwave theory and technique related course I have been teaching for last 25 years.
So, to help me in this course, there will be 3 teaching assistants. All 3 of them are PhD
students at IIT Bombay and their names are Rinkee, Rajbala and Vinay. They will be taking
some of the lectures in this particular course. So, let us start with the formal outline of the
course. So, the course outline is we will start with the introduction to microwaves.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:16)
And what is the history of the microwaves, how it really started and what are the different
applications and when we are working on microwave radiation, we should also know; what
are the effects on the human body. So, any system we want to develop, we must also
consider; what are the social effects of this particular technology. After that; we are going to
talk about microwave transmission modes and we will talk about waveguides and
transmission lines.
So, transmission lines could be strip line or microstrip line, after that we will talk about Smith
chart. Smith chart is used for plotting impedance, admittance, reflection coefficient and
VSWR. So, it’s a graphical representation of all these quantities and then we will talk about a
very important concept of impedance matching techniques. We all know that for maximum
power transfer, the load impedance should be equal to source impedance, but that may not be
always the case.
So, this impedance matching network should be lossless so that the maximum power transfer
takes place to the load or it could be an antenna. After that we are going to talk about ABCD
and S parameters; ABCD parameters are defined in terms of input voltages and currents and
output voltages and currents. And S parameters are defined in terms of wave parameters
because at microwave, we are mostly concerned with the electromagnetic waves. So, this will
be followed by power dividers. So, we will talk about 2-way, 3-way, 4-way power dividers
equal and unequal power dividers and combiners.
Then we will talk about different types of couplers which will be followed by microwave
filters. So, in filters, we will talk about low pass filter, high pass filter, band pass filter and
band reject filter, then it will be followed by microwave diodes and attenuators. So, we will
see; what are the different type of microwave diodes are there and how these diodes can be
used for attenuation purpose, RF switches as well as phase shifters.
Now, all these things are required for developing a microwave system. So, this will be
followed by microwave transistors and we will see that how these microwave transistors can
be used for general purpose amplifier and LNA which stands for low noise amplifier. Now, in
this particular course our emphasis will be on the design, design and design. Our prime
minister has been saying make in India, but make in India will be only successful if we
emphasize on the design.
So, my saying is; at this sentence should come before make in India which is design in India,
then make in India. So, after this, it will be followed by power amplifiers. We will cover
about solid state power amplifiers and followed by microwave tubes such as klystron,
magnetron and so on. Then we will discuss about microwave oscillators and mixers and this
will be followed by different type of antennas. So, we will talk about fundamentals of
antennas dipole antenna, monopole antenna, arrays, horn antenna, helical antenna, microstrip,
reflector, Yagi-Uda.
Now, in this course we will basically talk little bit about antennas if you really want to know
more about antennas through NPTEL only, I have recorded 30 hours of lectures on antenna.
So, you can see that also to enhance your knowledge about antennas. Now, till now, we have
talked about various microwave components and now we will talk about systems also, but
first we will cover RF MEMS which is an important emerging technology. Then we will talk
about microwave measurements; how measurements can be done and then we will talk about
several microwave systems and microwave imaging again that is also emerging as a new
technology.
And the course will be concluded with software session as well as lab demonstration. since
this one has a very wide course coverage. So, no single book covers all these things. So, I
would actually recommend several books on microwave circuits separately and antennas
separately. So, you can see that for the microwave circuits there are 8 different books, we
have mentioned.
So, these are D. M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering book, K. C. Gupta and so on. So, you can
look at thing and I strongly recommend that you please try to buy any one of these books and
many of these books are also available as a PDF file for free from internet. So, you can
download those and read it and for antennas, I have actually given only 3 books which cover
basically most of the theoretical and practical concepts of the antennas.
So, the first book is by Kraus which is actually used in many places, undergraduate level,
Balanis book is slightly more advanced which covers antenna theory analysis and design and
the third book is actually written by me which is Broadband Microstrip Antenna. So, I am
going to cover lot of microstrip antenna portion from this particular book. So, now, what is
the electromagnetic spectrum; what are we really looking at.

So, the electromagnetic spectrum; as you can see from here, it starts from DC, 3 KHz all the
way, it goes to several THz also ok. So, now, let us just look at the application point of view.
So, you can see that extremely low frequency, the sources are basically earth and subways.
So, which are really transmitting extremely extremely low frequency, then you are familiar
with ac power which is 50 Hz in India and 60 Hz in USA.
Then you might have used CRT monitors and we can say that AM FM radio. So, AM FM
radio; AM radio frequency is from 530 to 1620 KHz and then FM radio which is basically
from 88 MHz to 108 MHz, then we have TV transmission. This is a picture of a mobile
phone tower and that is a cell phone. Now, there are several technologies are there in India
and abroad which starts from 800 MHz goes up to about 2.5 GHz.
Then you can see here a microwave oven and Wi-Fi. Just to tell you microwave oven works
at 2.45 GHz and Wi-Fi works from 2.4 to 2.483 GHz. So, these are almost in the similar
frequency range and then we have satellites which work at x band or even higher band and
then we have all these other sources of electromagnetic radiation. So, electromagnetic
radiations are defined in 2 zone; one is known as a nonionizing zone, another one is known as
ionizing zone.
So, x-rays, nuclear rays, gamma rays, other thing are in the ionizing radiation form and these
are nonionizing. How do we differentiate between the 2? Ionizing radiation has more energy
which is given by the formula E = hf; where f is frequency. So, higher the frequency, it will
have a higher energy. So, it can break the molecular bond and hence, it is known as ionizing.
Now microwave frequency in this region, basically has a lower frequency and hence, it has a
lower energy. So, E = hf; f is smaller; however, energy is not defined only by E = hf; energy
is also equal to power multiplied by time. So, if power is more, less time will be required and
if the power is less, larger time will be required to do the thing. Just think about a heating in a
microwave oven. So, when we do the heating in a microwave oven. So, you can see that if the
power is high; let us say if you put on a full power, a cup of water may boil in about 1 to 2
minutes. However, if you put on the lower power mode, the water may get heated after
several minutes. So, this is what I also want to mention here that; for example, cell phone;
cell phones transmit about 1 watt of power, but people use it for hours and hours and after
almost close to a 5 to 10 years, people start developing various health problem. Similarly,
people who live next to the cell tower and especially if they are main beam of the antenna,
then they will get affected quickly; So, I am going to talk a lot about this effect of microwave
radiation in the next few lectures.
So, let us see first of all quickly application. So, you all are familiar with fm radio; the
frequency band is 88 to 108 MHz. All these blue colors are various, you can say cellular
phone bands. So, CDMA works from 824 to 890; GSM900 890 to 915 and 935 to 960.
Actually speaking one part is used for transmit and another part is used for receive.
So, what is transmit for cellular tower, it becomes received frequency for mobile phone and
what is the receive for cellular phone, it becomes transmit for the cell phone. So, these are the
GSM1800 band, 3G and 4G. Now in between, we have a GPS band. Now most of the mobile
phones have GPS and that works at 1575 MHz and the bandwidth of that is plus minus 10
MHz. I did mention about Wi-Fi which is from 2400 to 2483; but Wi-Fi is also being used at
5.2 to 5.8 GHz band and then of course, there are many applications in satellite and defense
and they use high frequency to all the way millimeter wave frequencies also. So, there are
huge amount of applications.
So, let us see how these applications are divided into civil, military as well as medical
application. So, in civil application, we have a wireless communication, mobile
communication is part of this particular thing, here FM radio, AM radio, all the broadcasts
are basically one-way communication.
Now recently vehicle collision avoidance has also taken a significant step in the present
vehicle things. In fact, you might have heard about that many companies have now started
actually developing these driverless cars. So, in that we have a vehicle collision avoidance, of
course, remote sensing is again a very very important thing where they actually; it sense the
weather or they can actually find out what is the soil current conditions or what are the other
conditions for remote sensing.
Now, there are military applications. So, that could be aircraft safety and navigation. Of
course, aircraft navigation also comes under civilian application also, there are various types
of radar which are being used for military application. Then missile guidance and control;
that is all part of microwave system, then of course, now there are applications in the medical
domain also. So, microwave can be used for cancer or tumor detection. In fact, a controlled
microwave radiation can also be used for cancer treatment also.
So, microwave radiation can cause cancer and microwave radiation can cure cancer also. It
all depends upon; if it is a controlled radiation, then microwave can be used for proper
diagnosis as well as proper treatment, of course, it can also be used for medical diagnostic
and therapy and along with that to all these areas microwave imaging is finding applications
in all civil, military and medical applications.
So, let us just look at the history of electromagnetic waves first; the reason for that is that
before we start with the microwave, we must look at what is the history of electromagnetic
waves and I would actually recommend that you please see this particular website which is of
course, Wikipedia excellent coverage is given on the history of electromagnetic waves. So,
history of electromagnetic waves goes back to 200 years or more and before Maxwell’s
equations became famous a lot of work had been done by various people for example, Gauss
law is there, Ampere’s law is there, Faraday’s law is there.
But electromagnetic wave equations were basically first proposed by Maxwell in the 1860s
and I am sure this thing; you must have studied in the electromagnetic waves the 4 famous
Maxwell’s equation. So, I just quickly read for you; ∇ . D= ρ, ∇ . B=0 , ∇ . D= ρ∇ . D= ρ
∇ × E=−∂ B/ ∂t, and ∇ × H =J +∂ D/∂ t. Now this is of course, the differential form of
Maxwell equation there is an integral form of Maxwell equation also.
So, then it was 1891 when Hertz basically validated Maxwell’s theory and this is the original
apparatus used by Hertz for this electromagnetic experiment and you know what is the unit of
the frequency it is given by Hz. So, that is why it is a very important thing that the person
who really develops all this thing and now he becomes almost immortal. So, whenever we
talk about frequency we talk about 50 Hz or 1000 Hz or GHz and so on. So, now let us just
look at the next part which is history of microwave engineering. So, again here we have
divided into different parts.
So, first we will talk about a radio communication what are the historical events and it was
actually Jagadish Chandra Bose who did the first experiment demonstrated in Calcutta, India
and that was in 1895. So, he first publicly demonstrated electromagnetic waves and he used
that to ring a bell remotely as well as to explode some gunpowder. So, that people can really
understand; what are the different applications around that time only Popov from Russia, he
also wrote a paper, but it was actually Marconi in 1901 who really demonstrated a long
distance thing.
So, first transatlantic radio communication over a distance of 2000 miles from Poldhu, UK to
Newfoundland, Saint John’s in December 1901. And this is what really speaking set the tone
for radio communication; you can also see the website for detailed information; now
transmission line.
Let us see; what are the developments took place, it was in 1897 when Lord Rayleigh
actually speaking showed that the waves could propagate within a hollow conducting
cylinder. Before that of course, coaxial lines were there, but coaxial line has a center
conductor and outer conductor, whereas, inside a waveguide there is a low central conductor.
So, it is a hollow conducting cylinder and he first presented the concept of critical or cutoff
frequencies in waveguide, you might have studied in electromagnetic waves that the cutoff
frequency lambda C is equal to 2 a. However, in later in this course we will briefly discuss
about that part. And then it was in nineteen thirties when systematic development of
waveguide theory was actually developed and this was developed parallely by 2 groups; Bell
labs as well as MIT lab, both are situated in USA and then it was 1950 when the concept of
stripline was invented and stripline then later on the next concept was 1952 which was
microstrip line.
So, for very long time stripline was stopped, you can say printed circuit version which was
being used for lot of applications and development. But later on microstrip lines have been
used for developing various microwave circuits and component. So, in this course we will
talk more in more detail about these two things, but our main focus will be on microstrip
lines.
Then let us see how all these radars and other transistors were developed. So, it was in 1942,
MIT radiation laboratory first demonstrated X-band radar, but; however, that X-band radar
did not contain any solid state devices, it was in 1947 when bell labs actually invented the
first transistor and it was in 1954 when bell labs actually develop the working silicon
transistor.
And then later on microwave gallium arsenide MESFETs were developed in 1965 and in
1970, the first solid state radar was demonstrated at X-band. So, this is the general historical
perspective how the microwave really started; but now let us look at the one basic block
diagram which is used for microwave communication system.
So, here is a block diagram for transmitter and this is the block diagram for receiver. So, let
us see one by one; what these block diagrams are all about. So, this is the modulating signal.
In fact, in some books they use that intelligent signal or you can say information signal. So, it
is the information which you want to send to a far away distant and that can be a voice signal,
it can be a data signal or video or audio signal and then this is the carrier signal; carrier signal
is basically, you can say in a different way that this carrier will carry this particular signal and
that is how most of the time we define.
Let us say FM radio; the carrier frequency is between 88 to 108 MHz or we can say that a
mobile phone 900 MHz. So, that becomes the carrier frequency or for a Wi-Fi 2.45 GHz
becomes a carrier frequency, then these 2 signals are modulated. Now, there are several
modulation schemes are there, for example, analog modulation and digital modulation and all
of this thing that modulated signal has to be amplified and basically here, we will have a high
power amplifier and that is connected to the antenna.
Now, many books do not include this impedance matching network, but I think it is a very
very important thing between antennas and amplifier. Just to give you a little bit of an idea;
majority of the time antennas are designed for let us say 50 Ω impedance, but the amplifier
output impedance may not be 50 Ω, this impedance can be very small or it can be very high
depending upon the application, for example, if this amplifier is let us say op amp amplifier
or a simple low frequency transistor amplifier then the output impedance required here may
be several hundreds of ohm to KΩ that cannot be connected with 50 Ω.
Just think about if this is 50 Ω and if this is 1 KΩ and this part is not there. So, what will be
50
the voltage at this point? It will be . So, voltage here will be very small power
50+1000
delivered to the load also will be very small. Now for high power solid said amplifier, the
output impedance may be of the order of few ohms, it can be even 2 or 3 Ω. So, if you
50
connect 2 Ω with the 50 Ω, again, , it will still give this one here.
52
But the problem with this is that the current going through here will be very small. So, the net
power will not be very good and also the maximum power transfer theorem says that output
impedance is 2 Ω, finally, what I should have here input impedance at this point should be 2
Ω. So, this 50 Ω has to be converted to either 2 Ω or KΩ depending upon the application. So,
what we really need is a lossless impedance matching network. So, in this particular course
we will actually talk about several techniques of impedance matching network and of course,
the importance is that this technique has to be lossless impedance matching network.
Now, the signal which is being transmitted from this antenna through various medium it will
come over here and this is where the power is received. Now, that received power goes
through RF amplifier and this is the place here where we actually have to have a low noise
amplifier because this signal is very weak and along with the travel from here to here it has
picked up lot of noise. So, we do not want to add more noise by this amplifier.
Now, before this RF amplifier, many a times, we also put a band pass filter here so that it
selects only the frequencies which are required; now of course, sometimes antenna itself acts
as a band pass filter. So, that is why it is not always hundred percent required; you need to
put a band pass filter, but most of the time you do require a band pass filter so that you really
get only the desired signal.
So, then this signal actually speaking comes here. In fact, this RF amplifier consists of
multiple stages, it has a low noise amplifier followed by the small signal amplifier and so on;
because this signal could be very weak, for example, for FM radio the signal input may be of
the order of a microwatt, but for mobile phone this signal could be as small as Pico watt also.
So, the signal is very small here most of the time. In fact, for GPS it can be even a fraction of
Pico watt and even the TV transmission signal which we receive through the satellite also
may have a very low power at this particular input.
So, that is why we need to have an amplifier which may be amplifying the signal by forty to
even 80 dB also which really comes out to be 10,000 to even million times signal to be
amplified and then this signal goes to a mixer. Now this is a one block diagram of a
heterodyne receiver; not all the receivers use this particular concept, but nevertheless this is
one of the most popular concept. So, this is a heterodyne receiver. So, where this signal
which has been amplified comes to a mixer and there is a local oscillator. So, that local
oscillator and the RF amplifier to frequencies mix up.
And the mixer has a property that it actually generates sum and difference of these 2
frequencies, now of course, in majority of the receivers it is only the difference of these 2
frequencies which is considered. In fact, many a times in the transmitter mixer may be used
for up conversion also where the 2 frequencies may be added and get the sum of the 2 input
frequencies, but over here majority of the time it is the difference of the 2 which is known as
if intermediate frequency.
So, again what we need now IF filter and then amplifier; this whole thing goes to the
demodulator; this demodulator is opposite of modulator. So, if it has done analog modulation,
it should do analog demodulation; if it is digital modulation, it should do the digital
demodulation and that goes to the display device speaker. So, this is what a complete
microwave communication system chain is there. So, in this particular course, we will talk
about almost all the things except for the modulation and demodulation techniques which is
generally covered in different courses.
So, let us just look at what are the various components. The various microwave components
have been divided into two parts passive and active microwave component. So, in the passive
we have a transmission line, antennas, power divider, combiners couplers, filters, attenuator.
Now, in active microwave components we have amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, switches,
phase shifters and so on and then we have several microwave systems.
So, this is not the complete list of the microwave system, but just to tell you; you all are
familiar with mobile phone. Now, mobile phone jammers are required where we do not want
the nuisance of mobile phone, where signal is very weak we need repeaters or signal
enhancer; RFID stands for RF identification. In fact, you can see that these days there are lots
of applications for RFID, then RF transceiver; RF transceivers are nothing, but transmitter
and receivers are now built into a single IC so the design becomes very very simple and
convenient.
Even GPS and GSM modules are available separately as well as a single module is there
which has both GPS and GSM. Of course, there are varieties of radars are there and now
since there is so much RF energy available in the atmosphere for example, there are cellular
towers almost everywhere, there Wi-Fi modems are there, there are TV transmitters are there,
FM transmitter. So, this is also becoming a very important topic today which is the RF energy
harvesting.
So, you can harvest this RF energy which is available in the environment and that can be used
to charge a battery or it can even use a low power electronic circuits then we will talk about
microwave equipment which are very very important for testing or developing any
microwave system. So, there are 3 main equipments are there; these are microwave generator,
spectrum analyzer and network analyzer and then we will also talk about high power
microwave systems and what are their applications.
So, just to conclude that we started with the course outline; so, we did mention about what
are we going to cover in this particular course and we also looked into history of
electromagnetic waves as well as history of microwave. So, how the microwaves really
started and how the radio communication was established when the transmission lines were
developed and when these transistors and radars were developed. So, we will conclude
today’s lecture at this particular point and then now onwards, we will start covering these
components in detail and then we will talk about microwave system.
Thank you very much and we will see you next time.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 01
Lecture - 02
Microwave Theory and Techniques Introduction – II
Hello everyone. In the last lecture, we had talked about microwave theory and techniques and
I had just mentioned about that I will be taking most of the lectures. And then along with me,
3 of my PhD students who are the 3 TAs of this particular course; Rinkee, Rajbala and Vinay,
they will be taking some of the lectures.
So, what we have done in the last lecture? We had just quickly looked at the course outline,
then after that I had mentioned about reference books for microwave circuits as well as for
antennas.
And followed by electromagnetic spectrum and we had mentioned about ionizing and
nonionizing radiation.
And then we talked about several applications and frequency bands in which these
applications work.
After that we talked about civil, military and medical applications of microwave followed by
history of electromagnetic waves then history of microwave engineering in terms of radio
communication.

Then transmission line, after that we talked about solid state microwave devices and system.
And then we looked at the block diagram of the transmitter and receiver.
And in these block diagrams there are several passive microwave components and active
microwave components followed by microwave systems. So, let us look very briefly about all
these passive microwave components today.
So, we will start with transmission line. So, in the transmission line we have a coaxial line.
So, I am sure, most of you might have seen the coaxial. So, it has a center conductor, on that
we have a dielectric insulator and then on that there is a metallic, you can say, sometimes a
copper or even some times aluminium and followed by there is a plastic jacket on that. So,
this whole unit becomes a coaxial line, then you might have also studied in the electro-
magnetic course about waveguide.
So, this we have shown here fundamental mode of the wave guide. So, fundamental mode of
the waveguide is TE10 mode and this is how the propagation takes place. And then we will
also talk about strip line and microstrip line, but just to tell you; what is really strip line. So,
what strip line is that you actually see here; there is a metallic line here which is actually
considered as ground plane, there is another top layer which is also a ground plane and in
between, we see there is a flat micro strip or line here, but the combination is known as strip
line configuration. Now this whole thing can be actually understood, think about this coaxial
line. So, in the co-axial line we have a center pin and along the center pin, we have got a
ground plane.
Now, you just think about that the center pin which is a round has been made plat and the 2
ground planes and now separated. So, the circular ground plane separated like this and
separated here and the curved line here is actually put dominated into the metallic vertical
one. So, basically a strip line is nothing, but you can say as one substrate here and on the
substrate we print the line and then we have another substrate and then we put these two
things together, we have to ensure that there is a no air gap between this particular substrate
and this.
It has to be tightly put over there. Now from here, we will ship with the microstrip line, in
case of microstrip line, you can actually consider it as a half of strip line. So, this ground
plane remains as before; substrate is there as before; line is there as before; except that now
there is a no top substrate; now because there is a no top substrate here, so most of the field
actually will be within this particular region, but there will be some fringing fields which will
be outside and because part of the fringing fields are outside, we define for this particular line
e for this.
We have a r which is a dielectric constant. So, we will see when we talk about transmission
line in detail. We will tell you how to calculate e for microstrip line. But microstrip lines are
more popular these days compared to strip line because first of all, it requires only one
substrate, it does not require other substrate to be clamped; the cost gets reduce.
And also there is a possibility that you can mount the components more easily compared to in
case of strip line.
Then we will talk about several antennas in this particular course, we will talk about
monopole antennas, dipole antennas, loop, slot antenna, antenna array, microstrip patch
antenna, helical, horn, Yagi-Uda, Log-periodic and reflector antenna. So, just to show you,
this is a monopole antenna which is generally considered as a /4 length over infinite ground
plane, but majority of the time the size of the ground plane will be small.
So, in many cases, we will see that the size of the ground plane is very large in that particular
case, a length of the monopole may be greater than /4; this is a printed version of a
monopole antenna, it is actually a very broadband monopole antenna. What we see over here
as these are microstrip antennas and there are 4 by 4 array. So, it an array of microstrip
antennas, this is a horn antenna and this one here is actually speaking a Yagi-Uda antenna
where one antenna is only fed, you can see here there is a feed point and this one acts as a
reflector and these are all directors; larger number of directors imply larger gain.
Then we will talk about power dividers and combiners. There can be two-way power divider,
three-way power divider, four-way power divider, it can be even eight-way or sixteen-way
also, but just to show you something simple in the way that two-way power divider if you see
from here; so, from this point, if let’s say we give the input. So, half power will go here, half
power will go here. What is this over here; this is actually known as isolation resistant. So, if
you just look at only this particular portion and that has been realized at a different frequency
over here.
So, you can see that there is a SMA connector here and this is SMA connector at the output
side and in between this particular thing has been designed at a higher frequency, this has
been designed at a lower frequency. So, hence size is large, but this one here instead of a two-
way. Now each two-way is further divided into two-way power divider. So, it basically
combination becomes one is input and this is a four-way power divider, now if these things
are designed properly then a power divider can also act as a power combiner; that means,
suppose if we feed the power at these 4 ports we can get the output over here. So, the general
concept is suppose if I feed let’s say 1 W, 1 W, 1 W, 1 W, ideally I should be able to get 4 W
of power and when we discuss power divider combiner in more detail I will tell you what are
the real things we get.
Then we will talk about the branch line and directional coupler. So, what you see the picture
over here, you just imagine here, this is a 1 microstrip line which is going over here. So, we
are feeding this input and this is the output. Now, what has been done here; another
microstrip line has been put which is gap coupled to this particular line. Now because of the
fringing fields along this particular line, part of the power gets coupled.
So, now I am sure you know the concept of that suppose if I feed the current like this here
then the induce EMF will be coming like this. So, that is the primary principle of this
particular directional coupler. So, we feed the input here, lets say power goes here; part of the
power gets coupled and that goes over here and this is known as isolated port and these
couplers are generally good for lets say 10 dB coupling, 20 dB coupling, 30 dB coupling.
Now 10 dB coupling actually is not plus 10 dB. In fact, that is just a nomenclature; in reality
what we would get minus 10 dB or minus 20 dB or minus 30 dB. Theoretically output power
here should be 0 which go response to minus infinity dB. But, when we talk about this, we
will see what practically we get. Now since this particular coupler is more applicable for
minus 10 dB or minus 20 dB or minus 30 dB coupler and if we want a strong coupling. So,
what do we do to get a strong coupling? these lines are connected.
So, over here you think about again, we have a one through line, then there is another line
and these 2 lines are connected with 2 /4 line. So, these are known as branches; hence the
name is branch line directional coupler and this particular branch line coupler has been
designed such a way that suppose if we give an input here, half power comes here, half power
comes here and theoretically no power goes over here. So, one can actually see that at centre
frequency power coupled to this port is very very small. So, what you see over here is a
reflection coefficient at this port here and what we see here and here is this particular plot
here. So, you can see the power going to these 2 port is equal.
So, we will talk about different type of filters like low pass filter, high pass filter, band pass
filter, band reject filter which are also known as notch filter. In fact, these band filters are also
known as band stop filter also. So, generally a low pass filter would require inductor,
capacitors and so on; but when we do the microstrip realization; as you can see over here, so
all you see the bottom part here is actually speaking a complete ground plane and what you
see on the top is just these microstrip lines etched and these microstrip lines just to tell you;
so, this particular line here; this represents capacitance; this represents inductor, this is a
capacitance; this is a inductor, capacitance, inductor, capacitance. So, here these are the
inductors which are series inductor and these are the capacitors which are actually shunt
capacitor because these things provide capacitance between this and the ground plane. So,
this is the photograph of the 7th order low pass filter.
So, as you can see that at micro wave frequency realizing low pass filter is very very simple,
you do not need inductor, capacitor and so on and we will tell more things about other filters
when we discuss filters in detail.
Then there are different types of attenuators are there. There are narrow band attenuators,
broadband attenuator. So, what is the purpose of the attenuator? Attenuator basically
attenuates the signal. Now you might wonder why should be attenuator the signal. I tell you
the reason. So, attenuator will be something like opposite of amplifier. In amplifier we
amplify the signal. In attenuator we actually attenuate the signal or reduce the signal. So,
there are types of attenuator like 3 dB, 10 dB, 20 dB, 30 dB and so on. So, these attenuators
find lot of application specially many a times, these are used at the input side where you
actually have an attenuator so that it will act to more like a gain control; so that you can get a
fixed thing.
It can be even connected at the output side. In fact, many a times attenuators are also used
specially these high power attenuators where let’s say we have a power amplifier which is
giving an output of 20 W and we want to measure is it really 20 W? and let us say, we
connect that amplifier output to either a spectrum analyser or let us say network analyser.
Now, spectrum analyser or network analyser generally they are designed for maximum 100
mW of power. So, if we actually put 20 W power.
Those input receivers of these equipment will burn. So, what you do? Let us say we have a 20
W power and if we actually give let us say a 20 dB attenuator. 20 dB attenuator would mean
it will attenuate by 100 times. So, 20 W output will actually become 0.2 W or we can use 30
dB, then 20 W will actually become 0.02 W and that is safe to give to either a spectrum
analyser or network analyser. So, there are fixed type of attenuators, these are the variable
attenuators and as I mentioned that variable attenuators are actually used for gain control.
We will talk about several different types of RF amplifiers. So, here we have a low noise
amplifier. Most of the time these low noise amplifiers will be the first amplifier at the
receiver end because at the receiver the signal received is generally very very small and just
to give you an idea how small it is. So, let say for fm radio the input signal could be few µW;
whereas for mobile phone the input signal could be nW or even pW are even smaller. So, we
really need a low noise amplifier. So, generally we define an amplifier by its noise figure and
that can be 1 to 2 dB. However, now recent technologies are coming where noise figure even
less than 1 dB is possible and the gain should be typically 10 to 20 dB. After this low noise
amplifier, there are more amplifiers come into picture.
So, we have a now a medium power amplifier typically a medium power amplifier would
have a power output of 0.01 W to 1 W. This value 0.01 W also corresponds to 10 mW to
let’s say one thousand mW and here we just want to convert into dB. So, 1 W is actually 0
dB, but this is also defined as 30 dBm. So, this m is with respect to the mW power. Now high
power amplifier in general are defined power output should be greater than 1 W and 1 W is
equivalent to 30 dBm. Now for high power amplifier, thermal management is very very
important. In fact, when we designed some of these high power amplifiers like 10 W, 20 W
and so on; in the beginning we did not take precaution of thermal management and we ended
up burning lot of power amplifiers and these are not cheap. So, they cost lot of money; so,
one has to really plan properly about the thermal management.
Then we will talk about the various other things which are integral part of any RF system. So,
oscillator; you can thing oscillator as nothing, but also a microwave generator and we are
talking about a microwave generator, there are different things which are important. What is
the frequency at which it is oscillating? of course, there are other things are there; which are
known as VCO voltage controlled oscillator.
So, basically voltage control oscillator will give us variable frequency output. Then
oscillators are governed by what is the output amplitude and generally, it is preferable that
output amplitude remain same over the frequency range of operation and then of course,
oscillators are also characterized by what is the phase noise.
And what are the harmonics. So, in general harmonics level should be 20 to 30 dB down. So,
if you recall the Fourier series. So, if a waveform is not a perfect sign wave, then it will have
second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth harmonics. So, we want a perfect sinusoidal wave form and
for a perfect sinusoidal wave form there will be no harmonics; however, nothing is perfect.
So, there will be some harmonics.
So, we want these harmonics to be as small as possible then we will talk about mixers.
Mixers basically what we do in the mixer; we give two input signals and you can see over
here a simple configuration here. So, there is a RF signal and there is a LO signal. So, what
are these? So, RF signal is the input signal and LO is the local oscillator frequency and if we
do that; mixer generates basically sum and difference of these 2 frequencies. So, if you use
sum it is known as up converter; if you use the difference then it is known as down converter
and most of the time this down converter frequency is known as IF frequency or inter mediate
frequency.
Now, many a times, we need RF switches. So, you can think in a simple way a RF switch can
be in very simple way just like the way you switch on or off a light and that particular on and
off is actually something similar to SPST single pole single throw. So, basically this
particular switches are actually used so that you can switch on or off. So, let’s say whether
the power should go or it should not go. Then we have SP2T, this is known as single pole
double throw; SP4T single pole 4 throw. So, the purpose here is that the input will either go
to one port or the input will go to the other port.
And in this particular case the input may go to port number 2 or 3 or 4 or five. And then we
need phase shifter. So, phase shifters can be analogue or digital phase shifter and these phase
shifters can be realized using diodes; it can be realized using transistors, it can also be
realized using RF MEMS. So, here is one of the picture of a loaded line phase shifter. You
can see here this is the input port and this is the output port. And we can actually you know
get the phase difference by switching on or off in case of the digital, in case of analogue we
can vary let’s say a varactor diode which has a variable capacitance and then we can have a
phase shifter because of that.
Then before we look into the microwave system we have to look at the link budget. It is very
very important before you even think about designing any microwave system. So, we must
actually speaking look at the link budget. So, what really is a link budget? let’s just look at
one by one things here. So, here is a transmitter.
So, this transmitter we have just talked about transmitter block diagram. So, the transmitter
consists of that entire block diagram which is connected to the transmitting antenna and let’s
say now, the wave is propagating. Now, we have a receiving antenna or receiver antenna and
this receiver antenna then goes to the receiver and we need to cover let’s say from here to
here distance r. So, what we need to do? we need to see the derivation how we define this
one. So, the derivation is actually given by Friis transmission equation.
So, over here first of all, let’s just look into the, what is the power density at this particular
distance over here. So, power density at a distance can be found by what is the transmitted
power. So, the power transmitted is symbol is Pt and then what is the gain of the antenna
multiplied by that and divided by 4r2; So, just to tell you let’s say we want to transmit a
power Pt and in the beginning let’s say if you are transmitting the power in a sphere. So, this
whole power may go in all the directions. So, if I actually look at the spherical area. So, the
area of the spare is 4r2; so, power transmitted divided by 4r2 will be the power density.
Now we are going to transmit this within antenna.
Now, antenna has a gain; the gain can be 2 dB or 10 dB or 20 dB or 30 dB depending upon
type of the antenna and this particular antenna will transmit the signal in this particular
direction. So, in order to find out the maximum power transmitted in this particular direction,
we multiply with the gain Gt. So, that is the power density.
Now, the received power will basically now receive the power in terms of power density
multiplied by what is the aperture area of that particular receiver antenna. So, the power
received by the antenna will be equal to nothing, but power density multiplied by the aperture
area and there is a relation between aperture area and gain of the receiving antenna. So, that
particular relation is given over here and the relation is that the gain is nothing, but equal to
4 πA .
λ2
So, if we substitute the value of A over here. So, this is what would be the power received
and this whole expression is simplified over here. So, what is power received is nothing, but
2
λ . So, that means, power received at a far away distance depend upon the
Pt Gt Gr ( )
4 πr
transmitted power. So, larger the transmitted power larger will be received power; it depends
upon gain of the antenna. So, larger the gain larger will be the power received and it depends
upon the frequency. Frequency is coming in the form of  so; that means, if frequency is high
 will be small so; that means, power received will be reduced and r is the distance. So, you
can see that that if r increases power reduces by r2 factor. So; that means, instead of 10 m, if
you go to 100 m power received will be reduced by 100 times. And if you go to km compare
to 10 m power will reduce by 1002 which is 10,000 times.
So, let just took one practical example. So, practical example here is a GSM cell tower is
transmitting 20 W of power in the frequency range of 1840 to 1845 MHz, just to tell you in
India, we allow these cellular operators to transmit 20 W of power; typically, the gain of the
antenna at this particular frequency is about 17 dBi. So, what we want to do? we want to find
out the power density at a distance of 50 m and at a distance of 300 m in the direction of
maximum radiation and what is the power received at that particular distance.
So, power density formula we already have just looked into the derivation and here 17 dB
gain is nothing, but numerical value is equal to 50. So, we substitute the value of 50 in the
previous thing. So, we can now calculate P d at r = 50. So, Pd will be nothing, but a 20 which
is the transmitted power into 50 which is gain of the antenna and divided by 4r2. So, r = 50.
So, that gives us a value of 31.8 mW/m2 and for r = 300 m, instead of now 50 we write 300.
So, at 300 m distance the power density received is 0.88 mW/m2.
So, now just to tell you there are various studies are there all over the world. So, there are
some study for example, there is a Austrian medical association which actually says that even
1 mW/m2 is not safe for 24 hours exposure. Whereas, in India we have the radiation norm of
450 mW/m2. So, when I talk about the radiation health hazards.
I will cover these points in more detail, but let’s see what is the power received at a distance
of 300 m and we talk about the distance now we have to also look at what is the gain of the
antenna. So, here I have assumed the gain of the antenna to be one which is equal to 0 dB and
in that case, we can say what is the power received as you can see in the main beam power
received is going to be minus 32 dBm.
So, one may think this is small power which is indeed true, but; however, this is a very large
power for reception of a mobile phone mobile phone typically will give let us say mobile
phone has these bars one 2 3 4 5 bar. So, actually speaking even at minus 70 dBm, it shows
full strength and it works even at minus 100 dBm. So, if you not take the difference between
32 dBm and 100 dBm if I just say approximately 70 dB; 70 dB actually implies the 10
million times.
So, this particular signal is 10 million times more stronger, then what mobile phone really is
required? So, why people transmit more power because so that they can cover large distance,
but because of this people leaving in the close vicinity of the tower are developing lot of
health problem: what are those health problem; you will see it after couple of lectures. So,
just to summarize today, we looked at various microwave components which are used in a
given system.
And then we also looked at the link budget. So, which is very very important a few more
things I want to tell about link budget. The link budget equation which I have given you; it is
valid only for free space. So; that means, you are transmitting the signal receiving the signal
there are no hindrances in between, but if there are any other objects coming in between or if
the weather conditions are not good.
For example, if it is raining heavily. So, rains will provide some attenuation. So, we have to
when we do the link budget we always actually speaking keep a gain margin of about 10 dB
and this is universal situation that where for the worse case situation you do it. In fact, you
have notice also many a times when you are watching a cable TV and these days, we are
using a 11 GHz receiver. So, in that case, you might have noticed that when it is raining
heavily you may not get the TV signal properly; the main reason is because rains will
attenuate the signal and hence the received power reduces.
So, one has to provide a little better gain margin in those cases which should take care of the
rain attenuation also. So, we will just stop at this particular point, but with just a brief thing
that in the next lecture we will look about several microwave system.
So, the whole concept is that you get a little bit over view of various components and you
look at what are the different systems and that will motivate you go through the entire
theoretical process. However, in this course, I would like to just mention that my logo is that
theory is very important to solve practical problem. Also we are going to emphasis more on
the design part so that you can actually speaking work on the real product and see how these
products can be designed.
So, thank you very much, we will see you next time, bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 01
Lecture – 03
Microwave Theory and Techniques Introduction – III
Hello, everyone. In the last couple of lectures, we have talked about microwave theory and
technique course outline, different books used, we talked about the microwave transmitter
and receiver block diagram, we also talked about microwave components and it was followed
by link budget. Today, let just see: what are the different systems we are going to cover in
this particular course. So, let us start with something which you all people are used to, your
mobile phone.
So, mobile phone actually speaking you can just see here a simple mobile phone, but in this
particular simple mobile phone there are too many things are there. So, let us start from here.
So, there is an antenna which is used for transmit as well as receive here. So, you are
transmitting a single and receiving a single. So, now, over here one can see there is a diplexer
or filter because the transmitter and receiver frequencies are different. So, over here you can
see that this is the transmit chain and this is the receiver chain.
So, we have looked into the transmitter block diagram as well as receiver block diagram. So,
you can see there are lot of similarities are there. So, you can say here, there is a diplexer
filter so, which will only filter out the desired thing. So, it is also known as a double band
bandpass filter. So, one band is for this particular case and this is for the another one. Now
this filtered signal comes to the RF low noise amplifier, after that it goes to the mixer. You
can see here, there is a local oscillator, then it comes to IF amplifier, there is a IF filter, there
is a demodulator.
And, so, you can see that this block diagram looks very similar to what I had shown you, ok.
Let us also look at the transmitter chain again. So, you can see that there is a modulator over
here, I will talk about these thing little later; modulator then there is an IF amplifier; there is a
mixer which does up conversion. So, this is slightly different than the block diagram with I
had shown you, but otherwise you can see that all it is doing it is it doing the up conversion.
So, here modulation is done at lower frequency and then conversion is done to the higher
frequency and this is the RF power amplifier. So, typically for a mobile phone this amplifier
may give about roughly 1 W of output power and in some system it may be even 2 W output
system then it goes through the filter and antenna.
Now, what are these things over here? So, you can see here there is a microprocessor
controller which actually have this all this human interface, dialing, memory battery power
control and here is the data which you want to send which can be in the form of video data or
speech. These things then go to because that may be of signal here could be you can say
analog signal that is converted to the digital signal and then through the local oscillator some
up conversion is done as I said this is done at a slightly lower frequency and then it is done at
a higher frequency.
So, this is what is a general block diagram; However, current mobile phones are much more
complicated they have many many more things in there. They also have a GPS receiver
which is not shown over here. So, this is basically just to give you a general glimpse of the
block diagram, but as I said that the current mobile phones may have a GPS receiver, they
may have accelerometer and so many things.
So, now when there are too many mobile phones are there. There is a requirement for jammer
also. So, first of all what is a jammer? In fact, we also gave a name as silencer. So, what is a
mobile phone jammer? Basically, it generates noise which should be larger than the signal
strength in that particular location. So, if the noise is larger than the signal received by the
mobile phone will get confused and hence it will actually show that there is a no network
available.
Now, there can be different types of mobile phone jammer. It can be a low power, medium
power, high power basic proposes. A low power jammer will have a small range; a high
power jammer will have a larger range. It all depends upon whether you want to do jamming
only in a small room or in a big hall or you want to even do a jamming at several you know
concerts or even for you can say military convey they actually do a jamming for several
hundreds of meter range also.
Now, these jammers can be single band jammer or multi band jammer; that means, either you
have just jamming only one particular band or multiple band you are doing. Now, antennas
can be two type omni directional antenna which will actually speaking omni directional
antenna has a radiation pattern which radiates in this particular direction equally, but in the
vertical direction radiation is not there. It has a radiation pattern in this particular fashion
which makes a figure of 8. So, when we talk about antenna we will talk more about it.
Directional antennas are antennas which send signal in a particular direction.
So, where do we need to use mobile phone jammer? There are lots of application. So, I will
actually first start with the prison. Now, these days there are several jails where prisoners are
actually able to smuggle in the mobile phones and then they do anti-social activities even
though they are in the prison. So, we need to install jammers in the prison. Now, colleges;
many colleges these days are installing jammers specially during the exam time. I mean if
you had seen Munna Bhai MBBS movie; in that movie one of the hero actually uses mobile
phone for cheating purposes. In fact, that has created lot of problems. So, many colleges now
have started installing jammers and also students are using mobile phones in the colleges so,
they are not concentrating on their studies and hence many colleges are also installing
jammers.
In meeting seminar rooms; I mean meeting is going on and somebody’s mobile phone rings.
So, of course, it is a nuisance. So, many times they install these jammers. Even in religious
places let us say if we are going to some place to do aarti and some mobile phone rings, it is
very annoying. Now, VIP movement is requiring jammer because these days many of the
bombs are getting triggered by remotely mobile phone. So, even in the court and theatre
people have started installing jammer. So, jammers have lot of applications that way.
Now, this is signal enhancer and repeater. Signal enhancers and repeaters are basically
nothing, but the devices which amplify the weak signal in a given particular area. Now, these
signal enhancers again can be single band or multi-band, it can have a gain and power it can
be low, medium, high depending upon in how much area you want to amplify the signal,
again it may have omni or directional antenna.
So, what are the applications? So, I will actually start first in general that many hotels
actually speaking have in-building solution. So, in-building solution consists of lot of power
dividers, couplers, filters, antennas and repeaters. So, that is how they are able to give signal
in almost every possible room. But, so, here any room or any hall wherever there is a no
signal sometimes in the open space there is a possibility that signal may be weak. Inside the
lift you know that if it is specially a metallic lift you might have noticed that your mobile
phone does not work, and garage or parking lots especially underground parking lot signal is
very very weak. So, they do install signal enhancers over there.
GPS and GSM modules: now, GSM modules of course, are there inside the mobile phone;
even many mobile phones have GPS. But, these now days these are separately available also.
So, you can by separately GPS module, you can buy separately GSM modules. In fact,
nowadays even combined GPS and GSM modules are also available. So, GPS works at a
frequency of 1575 MHz and the bandwidth is plus minus 10 MHz. So, GPS can be used for
many many application. So, for example, you can say GPS data in a memory and you can
retrieve it later or you can transmit the data using GSM module or you can transmit using
transceivers.
There are several applications are there; of course, these days people do car booking and
other thing also; so, which has a location finder. So, which actually has a GPS and other
thing, but so, in generally you can use it for vehicle tracking, remote monitoring, location
identification, even some people use it for people tracking also.
Now, RF transceivers, what is a RF transceiver? Basically, you can say mobile phone in an
example of RF transceiver. So, RF transceiver consist of transmitter, receiver; so the
combination of this is known as transceiver; you can see that trans coming from here and this
part is coming from here. So, by using RF transceiver one can transmit the data at a specified
frequency.
Now, in India we have to use wireless planning commission and this comes under the
umbrella of DOT which is department of telecommunication. In USA the corresponding body
is FCC. Now, in India RF transmitters transceivers are there 433, 866, 2.45, 5.8, but I just
want to mention here 433 MHz band has not been approved in India, but almost you can say
majority of the other countries do use 433 MHz as transceiver, but this is not allowed in India
as of now. Of course, when you are talking about transceiver what are the important things,
what is the data rate, at which you can transmit and what is the bandwidth allocated for that
particular band. And, of course, there are many applications are there. You can use a for
security purpose, you can use for sending alarm or you can use for distant messaging and so
on.
And, RFID I am sure many of your familiar with radio frequency identification; might have
used active or passive tag. So, you can just see here this is a passive tag over here, you can
see a simple one there is a this is one is a RF reader, through the RF reader antenna is there.
So, in this particular case we transmit the signal and what passive tag really implies that there
is a no battery. So, what happens, it gets the signal through this transmitter power and that
signal is converted to dc voltage and then it sends back the signal and that is how the
identification takes place. In case of active tag this may actually have its own battery. So, the
advantage of having a battery is that the range is much larger; the disadvantage is of course,
you need a battery and the battery needs to be changed at different times.
So, there are several frequencies which have been approved by WPC wireless planning
commission in India. So, 125 kilohertz, 13.56 MHz, 866 MHz, 2.45 GHz, 5.8; So, you can
really see there is a huge spectrum starting from kilohertz up to GHz. So, that is why there are
lots of applications are there. So, it can be used in the retail, it can be used for library
management, vehicle license plate, E-passport, product tracking, animal tracking, electronic
toll collection and so on.
So, let us talk about ground penetrating radar. What is a ground penetrating radar? In a very
simple manner what we have here this is a transmitting antenna which is sending the signal
down and the let us say there is an objects and the wave gets reflected from this particular
object and this is the receiver antenna. So, what it does here, this is used for buried objects, it
can be used for landmine detection, buried objects can be even it can be a gold, it can be just
buried copper cables or it can be a you know buried steel and so on.
So, basically what the principle is that reflected amplitude and phase are captured for
reconstruction of images for underground object. So, in fact, this you can even think about it
is a part of microwave imaging also. So, how much is the depth one can go through that
actually depends upon the depth of penetration depends on the transmitted power and
frequency. So, just to give you a general idea if the frequency is around 1 GHz the depth of
penetration can be about 40 to 50 cm, but if you want a larger depth then you have to use
lower frequencies.
So, radar systems are of course, used for defense systems. So, I am not talking about the
defense system right now. Most of the time they are secrete things. So, let us now talk about
the secrete things. So, what are the public domain things, let us talk about that.
So, these days radar systems are being used for many automobile application. So, we have
some of these lower frequency region compared to this it is lower ok; of course, otherwise 10
GHz or 24 GHz are very high frequency; Just to give you a little bit of a perspective most of
the mobile phones to work at 1 to 2 GHz, Wi-Fi works a 2.45 GHz. So, 10 GHz is definitely
larger than that. But, now these 10 GHz or 24 GHz radar systems, these are actually being
used to measure speed of the vehicle.
So, you might be familiar with the speed gun. So, basically speed guns are nothing, but used
to monitor the speed of the vehicle and majority of the police would have these kind of a
speedometer, so that they can actually find out who is driving very fast and of course, then
you may get a ticket. Of course, in India speedometers are not very popular, but abroad
almost all the other countries do have police vehicles which are actually have these radars to
measure the speed.
But, here I am talking about one additional application and that is to measure length of the
vehicle. So, there are now these 10 GHz 24 GHz radar systems. So, not only they can
measure this speed of the vehicle they can also measure the length of the vehicle. So, in fact,
we have worked on some of this system. So, where we could actually speaking what we did?
that we actually put this particular radar system next to the highway and we went early
morning around 6:30 am and we could actually see that you know when a Maruti car goes or
a bigger car goes or a truck goes so, you get actually a larger signature and with this
particular thing then you can measure the speed as well as length of the vehicle. In fact, when
we were doing the testing we found these to be extremely sensitive also and we can even
detect hand movement also, but of course, the distance is up to only about 5 to 10 meter.
Now, these days many automobiles especially high end automobiles and of course, driver less
automobiles are using 77 GHz radar system and these are again now collision avoidance for
the vehicle. And recently now, all these things are also available in the module form. So, you
can actually speaking buy the module. In fact, 77 GHz module is just approximately about 10
cm by 10 cm size. So you can see it is really small and you can actually mount in the vehicle.
And majority of all these driverless vehicles do have that as I mentioned some of the high end
vehicles like high end Mercedes they do have these kind of a high power radars.
Then, this is again becoming a very very important topic which is a RF energy harvesting
system. So, why it is important? First of all, I tell you these days in the atmosphere we have
too many RF signals, we have too many cell towers working at CDMA, GSM 900, 1800 then
3G, 4G; we have Wi-Fi modems almost everywhere these days, we have a Wi-Fi enabled
airports, Wi-Fi enabled colleges, Wi-Fi enabled railway stations, now they are talking about
Wi-Fi enabled city. So, these signals are available almost everywhere.
So, what is this RF energy harvesting system; that you can use some of these available signal
in the available in the environment or you can actually use this as a standalone unit also. So,
first of all let me just tell you quickly the block diagram. So, what RF energy system has? It
has an antenna then along with an antenna, there is a matching circuit in between, basically
this circuit is required what we generally need is an antenna should receive the signal and that
should go to RF to DC conversion, but the rectifier input impedance is very different then the
antenna impedance. Hence we need a lossless matching circuit and in this particular course
we will talk about lot of different type of lossless matching network. So, this combination
again part comes from rectifier and this part is coming from antenna. So, that is how the term
is rectenna.
So, this now RF to dc conversion we got a DC voltage over here that can go to the charging
circuit which can charge a battery or it can be used for low power devices also. So, may not
require for example, as I said RFID really speaking does not have any battery, but it actually
uses straight way. In fact, RFID won’t have any of these thing; RFID at this particular point
only it will go to the circuit which will send the signal.
So, now we have designed this particular circuits. So, just to show you here one of the
example. So, here we have actually designed a broadband monopole antenna. Why
broadband? so that we can receive the signal, right from CDMA which starts around 800
MHz up to Wi-Fi which is 2.5 GHz. So, we designed this broadband antenna and then this
portion what you see over here that has actually RF to DC conversion as well as matching
circuit.
So, all of that fits over here ok and you can see the size idea you can get there is a mobile
phone over here. So, now, just to give the demonstration here then a mobile phone starts
ringing. So, we initiated a call from here, this antenna receives the signal and now you see
what is the DC voltage measure by this; that is 6.76 volt that is huge voltage which is
sufficient to charge a battery.
Now, just you tell you what we also did. So, we made multiple units of this. So, we put one
unit on this side and we put another unit over here and we took this DC output of this and DC
output of this and we put combiner and over here we got more than 13 volt. So, that means,
you can put one rectifier circuit here another rectenna or RF energy harvesting system and
put a mobile phone. So, if you actually speaking put mobile phone in the speaker mode so,
while you are talking speaker mode you can use this voltage and you can even use this
voltage to charge a battery. So, that would be a simple thing for mobile phone, but this
particular thing can also be taken next to the cell tower and in fact, we have done some of
these experiments also. So, when we talk about energy harvesting system we will talk about
some of these things in more detail.
Let us look at what are the different types of microwave equipment. So, we have a something
like a microwave generator. There are varieties of microwave generators are there. There are
microwave generators may give output of only up to one GHz or up to 3 GHz or 10 GHz or
20 GHz; of course, there are microwave generators at 100 GHz also. Then, these microwave
generators may have other features also they may have things like amplitude modulation built
in or frequency modulation or it may have a digital modulation built into it so that you know
when you get an output, you can get a modulated signal output also.
So, here in general microwave generator you can change the frequency from a low frequency
value to a higher frequency; low frequency can be in kilohertz also up to GHz and the output
power also can be changed from a very small value which can be even let us say minus 100
dB to up to even plus 10 to plus 20 dBm also.
Now, then there is a spectrum analyzer. Basically, spectrum analyzer is a equipment which
measures the spectrum of a given signal. So, what you see over here that here is a signal is
present over here and this is nothing, but a noise floor. So, again in spectrum analyzer
majority of the time what you do? You actually set the start frequency and the stop frequency
and then you can see the spectrum of a given signal.
So, then we have a network analyzer. So, basically network analyzer is used to measure the
S-parameters of a device. S-parameters also we will discuss in more detail, but just in a
simple form suppose if this device is an amplifier. So, we connect the input over here we
connect the output over here. So, you can actually measure the gain of the amplifier.
Now, if you have done the simple experiment in the analog circuits lab. So, what do you do?
you give an input signal through let us say generator and then you measure this particular
output signal let us say an oscilloscope. So, generally speaking to get the frequency response
measure so, what you do? So, let us say you want to do frequency response from 1 kilohertz
to 20 kilohertz, you will give 1 kilohertz you measure there you give 2 kilohertz then measure
the value, then 3 then up to 20 and then you will set down and plot the graph.
Well, network analyzer does all of those things in a very simple manner all you need to do it
is you give the start frequency you give the end frequency you give the step frequency and
then you connect this particular thing; of course, before connecting you have to do one thing.
You have to do the calibration over here, the calibrations are in the form of short circuit, open
circuit and matched load.
So, once you do this particular calibration network analyzer is ready to do the testing and you
connect that and you will straight way get the plot; you will get the plot of reflection
coefficient also, you will get the plot for transmission coefficient. So, what is reflection
coefficient that will tell you; what is the reflected power, transmission coefficient will tell
you what is the transmitter power. So, this can be used to let us say characterize a amplifier or
let us say filter or coupler or divider and so on and so forth.
Now, let us look at various high power microwave system. So, of course, what you are
familiar with the simple microwave oven. So, you can see a typical block diagram of a
microwave oven. So, we can see here there is a power supply, there is a transformer which
goes to magnetron that magnetron generates a microwave frequency at 2.45 GHz through the
waveguide it goes over here and it is actually going in to the cavity where multiple reflection
takes place.
Now, there may be a stirrer over here or there can be a turntable sometimes there may be
both, so that there is a uniform heating of the food which is kept in there, but however, high
power microwave systems are used also let us say communication range is increased, just to
tell you some of the defense system may even use 1 MW of power also. And, of course,
microwave heating as I mentioned you may be familiar with the microwave oven, but there
are many other applications are there; it can be used for cooking, it can be used for drying, it
can be used for food processing, it can be even used for hyperthermia.
And, of course, an extremely high power microwave can be used as microwave bomb alright.
So, the what bomb does? if this one actually basically microwave bomb transmits a very high
power small pulse which has actually a very wide bandwidth and this actually is used to
destroy all the receivers. So, once a microwave bomb is put, most of the receivers which
actually work at a very low received power when they receive this very high power these
receivers input signal get burned.
Now, microwave weapon is now reality where what they do, they use high power microwave
directed towards a certain segment and in fact it has been now commercially used for crowd
dispersal. So, you know that for crowd dispersal people do use tear gas or they use water
cannon and here they have used high power microwave at millimeter wave frequency and by
transmitting that people feel the burning sensation and they run away.
Microwave imaging is now again becoming a very very important thing. So, here you can
actually see that this person has concealed the gun inside the cloth, but just by looking at the
image of that particular thing you can see that the gun is reveal. Now, microwave imaging
can also be use in the medical things. So, here is a one of the example where it can be used
for breast cancer detection and there are many other applications are there.
So, in conclusion I would like to mention that RF technology is rapidly changing; lots of new
advances are happening and specially now with the new 2 requirements which are coming up
and that is 5G and IoT which full form is Internet of Things, just you tell you that 5G internet
of things has been projected by the industry people as 7 trillion dollar market, and just to tell
you that as of now, India’s GDP is around 2 to 3 trillion dollar. So, you can imagine 7 trillion
dollar is huge amount of money. So, there will be lots of things happening. So, I want to
mention as per as India is concerned we miss the bus for 2G, 3G, 4G.
So, all those things are getting imported in India. In fact, today India is one of the largest
importer of let us say apple phone. In fact, in India we have about 100 crore cell phone
subscribers and only 10 crore cell phones are being manufactured in India. So, 90 crore or
may be half of that 50 crore even if we say which are being imported and if you take an
average price of 4000 rupees per mobile phone we are totally you know we are importing
about 2 lakh crore rupees worth of mobile phone and then all the infrastructure mobile
phones and other thing are being imported.
So, now a 5G an internet of things if that is going to be let us say 7 trillion dollar market then
Indian market itself may be touching one trillion dollar and that is like half to one third of the
Indian economy. So, I think all the people all the professors, all the researchers, all the
industry people and students they should really seriously focus on microwave technology, so
that we should start designing in India and if we design in India then only we can make in
India. So, make in India will be only successful if you do design in India.
So, we really in fact, if these things are manufactured in India it will create lots of jobs in the
manufacturing sector, it will create lots of job in the design. So, all you engineers will get
good possible job, all you professors may get consultancy project and all the engineers you
have your hands full. So, I would like to mention that there is a requirement for innovative
thinking to meet the demands and challenges and design is of course, the key thing and the
design can be in two different segments one thing is design would be which would be a low
cost design. So, that would be very very important to complete with the rest of the world.
The second thing is design could be that frontier technology you develop new technology. So,
design can be from let us say low end to a very high end also. So, in this particular course we
are going to look at different types of design and at different times I will tell you about what
are the low cost design and where we need a high cost design specially when it comes to the
defense and space application, where performance is much more important and when we talk
about commercial application then the cost is more important. So, we have to maintain a
balance when we are doing the design of different component.
So, now, of course, in the next lecture I am going to first talk about microwave hazards
because before you design anything whether it is a electronic product or whether let us say
your designing a bridge or the road you have to understand what are the safety requirements
for that. So, in the next lectures I am going to talk about what are the health hazards possible
because of the microwave radiation and what precautions need to be taken.
Thank you very much, bye.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 01
Lecture – 04
Effects of Microwaves on Human Body – I
Hello, everyone. Today, we are going to talk about effect of RF and microwave radiation on
human body.
So, the outline of the presentation today is we will first talk about RF sources which are
present for the commercial as well as defense application. Then, we will talk about
microwave heating principle, I am sure all of you might have used microwave oven or seen
somebody using microwave oven and you are familiar with that microwave oven can do the
cooking. Then, we will talk about radiation pattern of antenna, we will talk about safety
norms in India and in other countries, we have done radiation measurements at more than
thousand places, then we will tell you what to we have found.
And, then we are going to review biological effects. Yes, I just want to tell you neither I am
your biology professor and most of you are not biology student that our human body is a
biological body. So, I am sure you will be able to correlate with these biological effect. And,
the last one is my most favorite one that is solutions. In fact, my definition of engineers is that
engineers are born to solve practical problems. So, first we will identify what are the
problems and then we look at the solutions. So, let us look at what are the different RF
sources in the commercial domain.
So, these are RF sources in India, but it would be similar thing in other countries also. So, we
can see here FM towers are there. Typical frequency range of FM towers is between 88 to
108 MHz and they may be actually transmitting about 10 KW of power. Of course, there are
some FM towers which are there inside let us say colleges or community services there they
may be allowed only to transmit 50 W of power.
Now, there are TV towers this particular frequency band I have written specifically for tower
in Mumbai which is situated in Worli and that particular tower transmits about 40 KW of
power and in fact, that is a lot of power. Now, the antenna which transmits this particular
power is mounted roughly at a height of 300 m and in fact, till about 10 years back most of
the buildings around this Worli area were not even had a height of 50 m. But now, in the
Worli sky phase because it is very expensive area now multiple buildings have come which
have a height of 200 to close to 300 m. And, now these buildings are coming in the main
beam radiation of the antenna and I can already forewarn people that in another 5 to 10 years
there may be a lot of health problem occurring in those high rise buildings which are in the
main beam of the antenna.
Then there are AM towers are there typical frequency range is 530 to 1620 kilohertz and
these AM towers may transmit about 100 KW of power up to even 1 MWof power. However,
these people take precaution and at least within a 1 km radius there is a no residential
building or complex. So, they do know that these are causing a health hazards and hence they
take that precaution.
Now, we have Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi works even though I have written 2.4 to 2.5, but actual
frequency range is from 2.4 to 2.483 GHz and these days Wi-Fi modems are there almost
everywhere. We have Wi-Fi enabled airports, railway stations, colleges, schools and various
campuses and now in fact, there are proposals to make Wi-Fi enabled cities. In fact, this is
going to cause a lot of health problem to various people also in time to come.
Then, we have cell towers; in India we have a several technologies which are 800 MHz
which is basically CDMA, 900 is GSM 900, then GSM 1800, then we have 3G and then we
have 4G. And, in India we allow them to transmit 20 W of power and there is a extra
concession given to a 4G operators, they can transmit up to 40 W of power and we have more
than 6 lakh towers in India.
And, then of course, mobile phone I think almost all the people today have mobile phones
and in the mobile phones again depending upon the technology there may be a 2 W power
transmission allowed for GSM 900 phone and for other GSM 1800, 3G, 4G generally 1 W
power is allowed. But, however, there are 100 crore plus subscribers in India and just to tell
you let us say if you initiate a call using a cell phone, what really happens?
Let us take a case where a mobile phone is transmitting 1 W of power it goes to the nearest
base station and that base station actually transmits 20 W of power to communicate with this
particular cell phone. Then, this base station through let us say some switching network
communicates through the other base station, that base station will transmit another 20 W of
power to the mobile phone which is going to transmit 1 W of power.
So, for one mobile phone connection 1 plus 20 plus 20 plus 1 total 42 W power has been
consumed and you will be surprised that effective power used by cell phones as well as cell
tower is only 0.0000001 W. So, that means, 41.99999 W power is getting dissipated in the
atmosphere. And of course, when you initiate a call roughly one-third of the power is getting
absorbed in your own body; specially if you keep that cell phone like this and then one-third
of the power is going towards your head. But as far as the cell towers are concerned, people
living in the close vicinity are getting affected; the birds flying in that particular region are
getting affected also.
Now, there are several sources for defense also, but I just tell briefly about these things so,
they do use radar systems which can be pulse and continuous and in several defense
applications there may be even transmitting 1 MW of power. However, these defense forces
do take precaution. Of course, they do use lot of high power microwave sources and they use
transmitters and almost all these band HF – high frequency, VHF – very high frequency,
UHF – ultra high frequency and microwave. So, they do use a lot of high power for many of
their communication requirement.
Of course, there is a microwave bomb also. So, microwave bomb what is does it actually
transmits the very high power impulse and what happens because of that the receivers in that
particular area get burnt and that is causes a total damage. And, of course, microwave has
been used as a microwave weapon if that microwave high power beam is targeted towards a
certain person of people and those people can gets seriously affected. In fact, this is being
also used as a non lethal weapon specially for crowd dispersion.
So, now let us talk about a microwave heating principle. Now, you might wonder that we are
talking about RF, why we are talking about microwave heating principle I will come to that
in a short while. But, what really happens when we put a food inside a microwave oven, it is
the water in the food which actually receives this microwave radiation. And these water
molecules start vibrating and you know at what speed they vibrate at 2.45 GHz they vibrate at
a speed of 2.45 billion times per second. So, when that vibration takes place that vibration
causes friction and that friction causes heating and that heating is responsible for cooking the
food.
So, now how that is related with the human body? So, let us say human body consists of 70%
liquid and in fact, our human brain consists of 80% liquid. So, what happens let us say if we
keep the phone like this here so, this microwave radiation which are coming so, they start
vibrating water, fluid and blood molecules. And these things start vibrating, let us say if it is a
900 MHz technology. Then they are vibrating at a speed of 900 million times per second and
inside the body then these things actually cause DNA damage which is known as non thermal
effect and that friction then leads to heat and that is known as thermal effect. So, non thermal
effects are several times more harmful than thermal effects.
So, I also want to tell you that there is a bit debate going on all over the world people says it
is sun heating is more worse than microwave heating, but just to tell you the two heating
processes are totally different and let me explain in a very simple manner. So, these people
specially the operators and their supporters they talk about while sun density is something
like 1 KW/m2 whereas, we are talking about microwave power which could be as 1 mW/m 2
or maybe 100 mW/m2. So, 1 KW versus 1 mW sounds huge difference, but let me explain the
concept here.
So, what happens when sun we are going outside in the sun; first of all, we are not going to
stand in the sun for 24 hours, whereas, a microwave radiation is absorbed 24 hours especially
if you are living next to the cell tower. So, now, this radiation when you stand in the sun so,
what happens the sun rays come here and it actually basically skin acts as a protective layer.
So, the heating if at all takes place that is from outside then it goes inside, but that skin
heating takes place and the body start sweating or there may be a breeze so, it really speaking
becomes better of course, you do not stand for a long time and even a cloth will protect you
from that.
Whereas, a microwave radiation it actually penetrates the body, entire body wherever it falls
and then what happens that heating goes deep inside the skin and then the water, blood fluid
molecules start vibrating and that internal heating is now trapped by the same skin. And that
is why there are more problems because of the microwave heating. Another very simple
example if you put let us say a one cup of water in the sun, it is never ever going to boil but,
if you keep one cup of water inside a microwave oven it is going to boil within 1 to 2
minutes. So, you can see that the two phenomenas are totally different.

So, let me just ask you people only a very simple question and you can actually think about it.
And the question is simple that if you have used cell phone for more than 20 to 30 minutes
have you noticed you ear gets warmed? I am sure majority of you would have noticed it is
getting warmed. So, what is the reason? In fact, when we keep the cell phone like this the ear
lobe is closest to the mobile phone and the blood inside the ear lobe does not circulate much.
So, what happens when this is impinging microwave radiation it is heating the blood and it
has been reported that after about 20 minutes or so, the ear lobe temperature goes up by 1
degree centigrade. And then the brain realizes that something is wrong and then a process
known as thermo regulatory mechanism starts and the body becomes uniform.
But, think about this damage of one degree centigrade if body temperature is 98.4 degree
Fahrenheit you add 1 degree centigrade which is equal to 1.8 degree Fahrenheit and if you
add the two things it becomes 100.2 degree fever. So, every time you use for 20 minutes or
30 minute you are getting a fever of 100 degree and I am sure most of you people will not
like to have the fever. So, anyway this warm sensation in the beginning leads to the pain and
then slowly that pin then converts to irreversible hearing loss which can be partial or full
hearing loss as well as it can also lead to ear tumor.
In fact, I have started writing my own newsletter also; cell phone tower newsletters. In fact
you can just Google search it and you can download or you can send me an email and my
emails are given on my first slide itself. So, you can send me and I will mail you these three
newsletters and in one of the newsletters I have actually given the interviews of five different
E&T specialist and they have unanimously agreed that there are getting very large number of
cases these days where people are suffering from partial or full hearing loss as well as ear
tumor. So, please take care of your ear.
So, now, how do we define a radiation from cell phone? In fact, the radiation from the cell
phone is defined by its SAR value. SAR is known as specific absorption rate and this limit
has been set as 1.6 W/kg. However, this limit was set in 1998 and this limit was set for only 6
minutes per day use. So, the cell phones which you people are using they were actually
designed only for 6 minutes per day use. However, do not be too much afraid also there is a
safety margin of 3 to 4; that means, really speaking a person should not use cell phone for
more than 18 to 24 minutes per day.
In fact, I would like to recommend that next time when you are going to buy your next cell
phone you check what is the SAR value and it is easy to check these; the things are available
on the internet or on the smart-phone you can actually say star hash 0 7 hash and then you
can check the SAR value. So, the lower the SAR value better it would be. So, typical SAR
value may vary from 0.3 up to about 1.59 just below 1.6. Now, this information is not at all
available to people in India.
In fact, I just want to tell you many people are using iPhone or other phones, but just to tell
you. So, if you look at this here that iPhone of course, is from apple dot com, you have to go
through the legal. So, they know there are legal issues are there and there are some RF
exposure and what it says? Well, the limit is 1.6 W/kg and their phone has a SAR value of
1.19 for head and full body is 1.2. Hence it is within the limit.
However, how they test the cell phone? they test their cell phone; read this here, carry i phone
at least 5 mm away from your body to ensure exposure levels remain at or below the as tested
level. So, that means, they are testing the mobile phone by keeping 5 mm away and then they
are saying this is the SAR value. So, let me ask you people do you really you know measure
5 mm keep the cell phone like this? No, not really; many people use cell phone like this or
they hold cell phone like this and there are of course, much smarter people they do multi-
tasking and they use cell phone like this.
Now, in this situation 90% of the radiation is going towards your body and the same apple
iPhone also tells you that to reduce exposure to RF energy use a hands free option such as
built-in speaker, supplied headphones or similar accessories. So, if there was a no health
problem because of the RF radiation then why take precaution? Why these people are telling
you to reduce exposure to RF energy. So, one should really think about yes there is definitely
a problem and we will see: what are these problems and when these things start coming.
So, I want to mention an interphone study was actually started in 2000 and it followed all the
protocols of WHO which is world health organization and the study started at 2000 and it
actually took 10 years; the report came in may 2010. It actually took cases from 13 different
countries and it actually studied about 5117 brain tumor cases and of course, the study
involved about 25 million dollar and one third of that money came from the cellular industry.
So, now let us see what is the conclusion? The conclusion says no overall increase in the risk
and you start thinking, Oh, good! We are safe. No, let me tell you this is no overall increase
in the risk is for average user and what is the definition of average user? 2 hours per month
and 2 hours per month comes out to be 2 into 60; 120 minutes per month that really comes
out to be 4 minutes per day. So, if you use cell phone only for a 4 minutes per day no
problem, but if you use for longer time then there is a problem and what is the heavy user
definition; half hour per day over 8 to 10 years and what they found? double to quadrupled
brain tumor risk.
Now, I just want to tell you since then the mobile phone technology has improved; now the
cell phone technology has improved. Now, it actually checks: what is the radiation intensity
in that particular area and if it is small then it will transmit a high power and if it is high then
it will transmit low power. So, in fact, I do recommend that when you are inside a building or
if you are inside a lift where the signal strength maybe low and that you can see by one or
two bars on your mobile phone. So, in that case take precaution do not use for longer time.
So, but those precautions actually have resulted into a little better thing and after a few slides
I am going to tell you what are those things.
So, now I want to tell you that this study which came in May 2010; that International Agency
for Research on Cancer took a one full year and their report came in 31st May 2011. And
now, IARC classified radiofrequency electromagnetic fields as possible carcinogen to human;
that is known as class 2B. However, WHO even though this is a part of WHO; WHO
designated only cell phones as possible human carcinogen and they designated as class 2B.
Now, it is really strange then their own agency says radio frequency electromagnetic field
which will actually encompass radiation from all sources which can be a radar which can be
TV towers, which can be cell towers, which can be a Wi-Fi, however, WHO simply made it
only cell phone. So, now, the question comes why WHO did that. So, you have to really think
about WHO gets funding from whom? Well, WHO gets funding from various governments
of the world and the various governments of the world are making lots of money from
cellular operators.
So, just to give you a little bit of an idea between 2013 and 2016 Indian government did the
spectrum auction and they raised about 3 lakh crore rupees and this is just by spectrum
auction. They are getting huge money by income tax, sale tax and now GST. So, it is one of
the biggest revenue today for the government of India and again in 2018 they are planning to
have another round of spectrum auction and they are hoping to garner more than 1 lakh crore
and that is why government is also relatively silent about the health hazard.
And of course, cellular industry will never tell that there are health problems associated with
the overuse cell phone, just like cigarette industry, cigarette industry never admitted that there
are health problems. Even 40 – 50 years back we knew that cigarette smoking is bad, yet it
was only about a 5 years back when if you go to watch a movie or if you see some TV
channel though there was somebody is smoking then it says cigarette is injurious to health
and now, for a last 1 year it has started showing smoking kills.
However, now even though cell phone is class 2B; what class 2B really means? it is possible
human carcinogen and what it really means there are limited evidences. However, I will tell
you since this report came in may 2011; now 7 years have almost coming or 6 and a half
years are gone and there are several more evidences have come. And now, scientists are after
WHO and they are telling who to now make this thing as class 2A which is known as
probable carcinogen or even class 1, which is known human carcinogen. So, we have to wait,
WHO has promised that they will come out with their report in May 2018. So, let us see what
will be that particular report.
So, now, I just also want to tell you that a risk to the children is much more compared to an
adult and in fact, this study has been reported where let us say a child is using cell phone. So,
for a 5-year-old the penetration is almost 75%, for a 10-year-old or teenagers the penetration
is about 50% and for an adult the penetration is 25%. So, for children because their skulls are
smaller and thinner so, they absorb the more radiation and also their cells are growing. So,
they get affected much more.
In fact, there are many European countries they have actually banned use of cell phone by
children. In fact, they are advocating that children below 12 years should not use cell phone
or if at all they use cell phone they should use it only for emergency use. In fact, actually I
want to tell you all people that the invention of cell phones was actually meant only for
emergency use and it was never ever meant to be used for hours and hours every day.
So, now I want to mention that the recent study after 2011; this study is October 2014 and
what that study is? this is a very interesting study. So, I just want to tell you what it shows
here malignant brain tumor versus cumulative use. So, here you can see along this axis the
usage from 0 to 10000 hour and this is the odd ratio of getting malignant brain tumor; I have
actually put a line somewhere over here and the reason for that is this corresponds to about
95000 hours.
And, I know that there are several younger people and even some of the sales people they use
cell phone for 4 hours per day and if you have been using it for 6.5 year you will consume
95000 hours. So, now, here what these plots are? So, there are three plots are there. So,
basically you can say this is the lower end to the maximum and this is the average or mean
thing, and this is valid more for children.
So, if you look at the odd ratio for children corresponding to this if you look at it here that is
3.5. So, that means, odd ratio for children of getting brain tumor is 350% and even for a
normal person this is about 2.5 which is 250% and this is all in 6.5 years. So, in about 8 to
10-year malignant brain tumor may increase by 400% especially for young children. So,
please take care of your health.
So, now of course, we know that these things are very dangerous and this is becoming now
more and more evident also. So, this is the report in Asian Age newspaper July 10, 2017 and
I just want to mention here what they are saying. Every year 40000 to 50000 people are
diagnosed with brain tumor in India and out of which 20% are children and you can actually
even say that doctor said that this could be attributed to long term mobile phone use.
So, even here another doctor is also claiming that these are the things which are causing
health problem. So, we want specially the younger generation to use cell phone only for short
duration. We understand that cell phone is absolute fantastic technology. In fact, these days
you can do so many things with your cell phone, but yet you need to take precaution. So, I am
going to tell you now; what are the precautions to be taken.
In fact, this article was written by me for popular science magazine; it came in September
2011. So, what precautions I suggest; first is limit your use and I do not advice anybody to
use cell phone for more than 20 minutes talk for short duration now if possible use SMS.
Now, in 2011 WhatsApp was not there, but nowadays WhatsApp is there and you know
when you are actually typing SMS or WhatsApp there is a very little radiation, just to tell you
that even if you are not using cell phone it is still transmits about 1 pulse per minute to the
base station. But, if you have Wi-Fi on and Bluetooth on and so, many applications on then it
maybe 2 to 4 pulses per minute to the base station.
So, let us say when you are typing it is a normal 1 or 2 pulses per minute it is only when you
press the send button then there is a larger radiation. So, I would advise that use even SMS or
WhatsApp lesser number of times; use cell phone with the lower SAR value because lower
the SAR value lesser will be the radiation. However, please remember if you have making
call for a longer time cell towers are going to radiate continuously. So, you all are responsible
for creating electromagnetic pollution. In fact, we have been telling the government now that
let electromagnetic radiation be classified as fourth pollution; the other three pollutions are
water, air and noise.
Use speaker phone or wire hands free. In fact, you can have a mobile phone and put it in the
speaker phone and you can talk. Of course, in the public you cannot do that, but at least when
you are inside the home you can do that. You can use wire hand free, but the thing is how you
are using it? now let us say you put the wires hand free, then where is your phone? are you
holding it in your hand, then your hand will receive more radiation. If you are putting in the
shirt pocket then your heart will receive more radiation, if you are putting in the front or a
back pocket then that body area will receive more radiation. So, you have to decide which
part of the body you do not like.
Of course, you can use Bluetooth; just to tell you Bluetooth transmits maximum 10 mW of
power whereas, a mobile phones may transmit 1 W of power. So, naturally Bluetooth
transmit a power of 10 mW is 100 times less than the mobile phone, but again how you use it.
So, what I have seen many a times that people put this Bluetooth over here and let us say put
the cell phone like this. So, now, what is happening Bluetooth is transmitting 10 mW, this
mobile phone is transmitting 10 mW to this Bluetooth and it is anyway transmitting 1 W of
power.
So, you have actually speaking increase your exposure to the microwave radiation. So, the
best thing is if you are using Bluetooth, keep the cell phone and the cell phone
communication can take place through Bluetooth till about 5 m distance. So, you can be at a
distance; you can do some exercise also, you can do walk and talk and in fact, suppose if the
other party is giving you too much stress you can do some yoga exercise also breath in breath
out, so that you can relax.
So, in fact, I do recommend that use the landline wherever it is available because landline has
no radiation. Do not keep cell phone in your hand pocket for a long; remember it is
transmitting a 1 pulse per minute to may be to several pulses per minute to the base station.
So, if you are keeping the cell phone for 6 to 8 hours in your pocket you are going to get
larger exposure. So, I always recommend that you know when you go to home, your office
keep the cell phone away from you at least 1 foot distance and especially when you are
sleeping do not keep cell phone next to your pillow.
You may be sleeping, but your cell phone is not. So, it is actually sending radiation towards
your body. So, I recommend that you keep the cell phone at an arm’s length so; you can reach
the cell phone in emergency. So, in the night please sleep properly. So, you also sleep
properly and you let your friends and relatives also sleep properly.
So, I will conclude my lecture today at this particular point and in the next lecture I am going
to talk about radiation health hazards to the people who are living or working close to the
cellular towers.
Thank you very much and see you next time, bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 01
Lecture - 05
Effects of Microwaves on Human Body – II
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on cell, tower, antenna, radiation hazards and solutions.
In the last lecture I had actually talked about what are the various RF sources in India and
then we talked about health hazards associated with cell phone. Now, let us look into what
are the radiation hazards from cell tower and what are the possible solution?
Now in India, we have too many technologies. We have a CDMA technology, GSM 900,
1800, then 3G, 4G and now we have Wi-Fi, almost you can say everywhere. Wi-Fi is present
in schools and colleges, at airports, railway stations and there is a proposal to make Wi-Fi
enabled city and this particular frequency just to tell you 2400 to 2500. The center of that
which is 2450 MHz is used in a microwave oven. And you know that you can cook the food
in a microwave oven in about few minutes. Of course, that power is very high and Wi-Fi
radiation power is much smaller.
But however, we also know that energy is power multiplied by time. So, if I reduce the power
by 1000 times then the time taken will be 1000 times more. Similarly, if I reduce the power
by 10000 or 20000 times, similarly the time taken will be more. But you can actually think
about that in one particular day see we have 60 minutes multiplied by 24 hours, you multiply
that by 365 in a year and you can see how many minutes are accumulated. And then you can
compare the power of Wi-Fi which is typically of the order of 0.1 watt compared to the
microwave oven power which is around 500 W of power. In fact, I would like that all of you
people please see this website http://wifiinschools.com .
In fact, this website is dedicated to help the public realize that wireless internet or Wi-Fi or
cell phone or cell tower or any RF radiation the causes serious health effects, such as damage
to DNA, cancer and infertility.
So, just to show you some of the pictures of the thing, you can see here that various antennas
are mounted. You can see over here these are mounted on top of the building. Here these are
mounted on the side of the building. I just want to tell you there are two main types of
antenna; one are these circular ones here, these are actually circular dish antenna. And in fact,
these do not transmit to very high power. In fact, most of the time, they transmit about 1 W of
power and they are actually meant for packet transmission.
So, though basically they do not communicate with a mobile phone, they communicate with
each dish is communicating with another dish. And in fact, they do not want any human
being to be there in between, so that the communication is not broken. However, if any bird
flies in that particular region will do get affected. So, it actually these vertical one which
actually communicate with the mobile phone and I have given a very simple name to these.
These I have given name as tube lights, vertical tube lights. Why I call them tube light?
Because when you turn on a tube light, it takes time to turn on.
Similarly, our human brain which cannot see microwave, which cannot hear microwave,
which cannot smell microwave, so we are not willing to understand also: what are the health
hazards associated with these microwave radiations. So in India, we allow these particular
antennas to transmit 20 W of power for 2G and 3G and we allow them to transmit 40 W of
power for 4G.
So, let’s see what is the typical radiation pattern of these antenna. So, of course, a radiation
pattern of the antenna is a 3 dimensional thing. But just to make things little simpler, we have
actually divided into two plane; horizontal plane and vertical plane. So, you can see that the
beam is wide in the horizontal plane. So, if you think I am that antenna, then the beam
coverage will be wide. So, all the people in this particular area will receive more radiation
and people behind me or in this side will receive lesser radiation.
But in the vertical, you can see that the maximum radiation is in the forward direction. So,
people living in that particular direction will receive very high radiation compared to other
people. Now, beside this is the radiation pattern of the antenna.
However, there is another phenomenon which is power density varies by 1 by R square,

where R is distance from the tower. So that means, let us say if there is a tower here and you
are at this distance and if this distance is increased by 10 times, then what will happen?
Power will decrease by 100 times. So, this is important to understand that as you go away, the
radiation intensity is decreasing.
However, this I have taken from one of the German website and what they have written;
people living within 50 to 300 meter radius are in the high radiation zone and are more prone
to ill effects of electromagnetic radiation. And if you see in India, people are living even at 10
meter or 20 meter distance from the tower. So, people living at less than 50 meter distance
are in extremely high radiation zone. So, this is the one of the case which actually became
quite popular in Mumbai area about 4 years back.
So, what had happened? 4 years back in this particular Usha Kiran building, four cancer cases
were reported on 6th floor, 7th floor, 8th floor and they actually found out that there were
multiple towers were installed in the opposite building. And all these antennas on the towers
were transmitting and this being in the main beam and as I mentioned that this is installed on
the 7th floor.
So from the 7th floor: where the maximum radiation will go towards 6, 7, 8 floor. Now, while
these people were fighting with the cellular operator trying to convince them to remove the
tower, four cancer cases actually became six cancer cases and you can see that these are
almost in consecutive floor. So, basically why: because this is actually speaking leading and
trailing edge of the main beam. So, of course, after several years of battle they were finally
able to get the towers removed.
Now, just to know what are the standards in India and abroad. Now, I just want to mention
that India had adopted ICNIRP guideline; just to tell you, what is ICNIRP? ICNIRP stands
for International Commission for Non Ionizing Radiation Protection and people think that it
must be an international body something similar to WHO, which is actually speaking taking
care of health of the entire world; well that is not true.
ICNIRP is nothing but an NGO and which was actually formed by doctor Michael Repacholi.
And if you just Google search about him you will find that there are lots of websites claiming
and saying that he was always an industry person. So, all the things which are there in the
ICNIRP guideline, they basically suit the industry. However, there are still few interesting
things are there.
ICNIRP guideline itself says that these guidelines are only for short term exposure and not
for long term exposure. And in fact, this guideline of 4500 milliW per meter square for GSM
900 is only valid for 6 minutes per day. But in India, we adopted this particular guideline for
24 hours a day. I mean just think about you put the food in a microwave oven for 1 minute or
100 minute, what will be that case? The food will be totally charred.
Now, I just want to mention here. So, in India technology came in 1995, there were
absolutely no guidelines. So, in 2008, they followed ICNIRP guideline and then again they
had come out with the white paper where they mentioned that they are going to look at it.
And 2010, my journey from Mumbai to Delhi started. So, just to tell you, between 2010 and
2014 I made more than 30 trips to Delhi, I met TRAI people, TEC people, DOT people.
I made presentations to the inter ministry committee which consisted of DOT people, health
ministry people, as well as environment ministry. And then, I had also submitted my report to
DOT secretary in December 2010. And then, IMC report came in January 2011. They did
mention about lot of health problems, but at the same time they also mentioned it is not
conclusive and they recommended that one tenth of the ICNIRP norm should be adopted.
And then in September 1, 2012, one-tenth of the ICNIRP norm was incorporated in India.
However, again if this is valid only for 6 minutes per day, one-tenth of that is only valid for
60 minutes per day which really means 1 hour per day whereas, people who are living next to
the cell tower are exposed to radiation 24 hours a day.
So, really speaking, India has really adopted a very very high radiation for 24 hour exposure.
If you see now, most of these things are below 450; majority of them, except if you look at
here 3000 and 3000 is implemented by USA. And most of the time cellular operators actually
quote that, oh USA has adopted 3000, but we also know that they are very particular about
the health hazard.
So, I just want to tell you that you actually look at the USA FCC guideline OET 56 page
number 21 and it has a one paragraph where it is actually written there that they allow high
power transmission in the rural or along the highways. In the urban area, they allow only 0.5
to 1 W of power. So, in India we allow them to transmit 20 W of power and for 4G, we allow
them 40 W of power and that is why people in India are developing health problems at a
much faster rate than the counterparts in the other countries.
So, I just want to also mention here Austrian Medical Association adopted on 3rd March
2012 and see what they are saying; irrespective of ICNIRP recommendation. So, they also
know: what are the ICNIRP recommendations. ICNIRP is in Germany and they are in
Vienna, Austria. So, they know each other pretty well and see: what are their guidelines and
they are talking about regular exposure of more than four hours per day.
So, if you are exposed for more than four hours per day, then even 1 mW per meter square is
very far above normal and, in India what we have, 450 mW/m 2 for 24 hour exposure. So, you
can see that we are literally speaking, sitting on radiation time bomb which is going to create
havoc in India in time to come; So, just to tell you that we have done radiation measurement
at more than thousand places and just to highlight the few cases, here in this particular place
here.
We had done the radiation measurement and you can see this value is only 17.7 mW/m 2 and
this lady developed cancer within 1 year. In fact, later on we had sent our team to that Usha
Kiran building where they had reported several cancer cases. And we found the radiation
level to be between 5 to 10 mW/m 2 and they started developing these severe health hazards in
about 2 to 4 years.
Now, besides cancer, in fact cancer is the last stage. Lot of health problems happen before
that. And I want to bring to your attention here. So, this is the power density which is mW/m 2
and let just look at this one. So, 1 mW/m 2, if you see here all these reds are severe health
problem.
So, you can actually see here that it is actually mentioning here decrease cell growth and
other thing you can see over here at the level of 2 or 3; these are giving rise to childhood
leukemia. But in fact, the onset of the problem even happens at such a low level which
actually means sleep disorder, fatigue, weakness and pain and I am sure people do not want
to live with these kinds of a problems.
Now, what are the most common complaints? So, let us just look at the first column over
here. It leads to sleep disruption, headache, concentration problem, forgetful memory,
depression fatigue. And I just want to tell you India is now becoming capital of the entire
world when it comes to the depression. We have several crores of people who are depressed
today.
So, I am not saying that everything is related to cell phone and cell tower or microwave
radiation but that is definitely definitely one of the reason to cause depression. And if you go
with this health problem, majority of the time doctors will tell you have too much stress and
too much strain and you will in general agree yeah, I have too much strain too much stress or
too much strain and you may not take any precaution. But if you ignore that, now things
become serious; you may have a dizziness problem, heart problem especially if you keep the
cell phone in your shirt pocket near the heart, visual disorder problem is also becoming a
various serious issue. In fact, there are multiple reasons are there.
Let us say you have a cell phone and you are actually either playing a game or watching
video and let us say it is still transmitting one or two pulses per minute. So, first of all when
you are looking at it, it is a very small screen characters are very small. You are actually
speaking your lids are not moving blinking much and in that case of course, there is a stress
on that, but besides that there is a this radiation going on. So in fact, that radiation is coming
towards you. So, your eyes are getting dried up, your lids are getting dried up and so on and
that is leading to lot of visual disorder problem.
So, cardiovascular problem again, more prominent if you live next to the cell tower or if you
use the cell phone next to your shirt pocket, buzzing in the head altered reflexes. If you
ignore these things, not things become even more serious.
So, these are Alzheimer disease, Parkinson’s disease. In fact, in India these diseases are
increasing linearly, immune system degradation, I have already talked about ear damage
irreversible infertility. In fact, that has become a major major concern today especially, to the
people who are keeping cell phone in there pant pocket because what is happening, it is
affecting and it is affecting both the genders for all the males, it affects their sperm quality
and quantity and for all the girls and ladies, it affects the eggs in the ovaries.
So, both of them are becoming infertile. In fact, a few years back report came in Mumbai that
46% of eligible couple are not able to conceive. And in fact, today IVF is one of the biggest
industry and there are so many people are going and of course, it is a roaring business for IVF
people. And on the lighter side, just to mention that there was a one advertisement of idea on
3G, one of the movie star had advertise that and the advertisement was like India busy busy
no abadi.
And in fact, I will tell you it is a absolutely perfectly true advertisement except that one line
is missing in between, India busy busy, they become infertile and hence no abadi. And I can
probably predict that India may not be able to overtake china as far as the population is
concerned because many people are going to die because of the health problem and many
children will not be born because of the infertility issues. So, there is of course, an effect on
the skin, DNA damage and increase in cancer risk.
So, let us just look at it here. So, the professor Henry Lai had published a few papers. So, just
to tell you, so this is a bundle of the DNA and if this bundle of DNA is exposed to X-ray, you
can see that DNA breaks are very obvious because X-ray has a much higher energy. Here
energy formula which is being uses E = h f, h is Planck’s constant, f is frequency. So, it has a
higher frequency hence it has a higher energy and it can break the bond.
Now, microwave does not have enough energy because of that particular formula E = h f.
However, prolong use can actually do a DNA damage and that DNA damage is responsible
for various health problem. In fact, when damage to DNA is greater than rate of DNA repair
because human body has the mechanism to repair the DNA, but if damage is greater than
DNA, there is a possibility of retaining mutation and initiating cancer. So, even if you may
not develop health problem, but your children may develop health problem.
So, I just want to bring this Bio-Initiative Report in front of all of you people. So, there are
two bio initiative report are there; one is 2007 which has given references of 2000 papers,
another one is came in 2012 which gave references of 1800 papers. So, total 3800 scientific
papers are there. These are written by 1000 scientists or so. And these are published in the
best possible journal of the world which are peer reviewed. And you can see the details of
this; you can just simply say https://bioinitiative.org/, you can download these report. In fact,
they have also given conclusion; you can read that and make a informed decision.
But I also want to tell you if there are 4000 papers which say there are a lot of health
problem, then there are about 25000 papers which say there are no health problem. And in
fact, on the internet itself you can find that out of those 25000 papers, more than 70% papers
are funding by industry but still 30% is a large number. So, I actually went through lot of
those paper and you will be actually surprised that there is actually a paper which says that or
this person used the cell phone for 15 minutes and that this the testing before and after use
and there were no auditory problems. In 15 minutes if people had developed the hearing
problem, then the whole world would have been deaf by now.
So, you know that exposure was very small duration. Similarly, there are many experiments
they have done on the rats but what they do? They will expose the rat only for let us say one
hour per day for 30 days and then they will say there is a no health hazard or there is a no
conclusive thing. In fact, we have also done experiments where we expose the rat for 4 hours
every day for 45 days and we found out 20 to 40% changes in biological, physical and
chemical.
So, those changes are really speaking very damaging to the health of the people. So, let me
take you around the world. So, you can see the nice pictures of around the world, but what I
want to show you; what are the health hazards reported in different countries. So, this is
Austria, Salzburg report and what you see over here odd ratio of getting cancer.
And what this shows here greater than 1000 micro watt per meter square which really is equal
to 1 mW/m2. Now, you see there, tower was built in 84 just updated on 2011. So, that is about
27 years, but just see the effect, 8 times increase in the odd ratio. Now, this is the study in
Naila Germany tower was built in 1993. So, after 5 years what they found out that the odd
ratio risk is roughly about 1.1. Now, 1 is normal. So, 1.1 is not at all conclusive. After 10
years, what they found out this is about 3.2 times. So, you can actually see that the risk is
very high after 10 years of exposure specially to the people who are living next to the cellular
towers.
This is the report from Brazil that 80% of the victims out of 4924 were within 500 meters
from cell phone antennas.
Now, I also want to mention this is the Naval Medical Research Institute. In fact, this report
was reported in 1971, but it was classified, it only got the declassified in 2017. And in fact, it
has given 2000 plus references and they have actually given categories A, B, C, D up to Q
and in fact, I counted disease among these categories and they have mentioned about 130
types of health hazard. And these effects on the whole body brain, eyes, head, blood, heart
infertility, hair loss, mutation and so on.
These are the cases reported in Mumbai. So, you can see that cancer is cell phone towers
panic and 6 cancer cases in 3 years.
These are the reports in Jaipur; 7 cancer cases in one area, 6 cancer cases in another area. In
fact, there are cancer cluster cases in the vicinity of the cellular tower. In fact, we sent our
team to Jaipur and they measured the radiation level between 10 to 50 mW/m 2. Of course,
they are within the range of 450 mW/m2 and that is what I have been telling that those things
have to be changed.
Now, I want to also mention here 25000 brain tumors have been reported in just two states,
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. And what they have written that there are about 7 cases per 1
lakh population and again the doctors have mentioned that heavy use of mobile phone also
increased risk of Glioma, there are of course, saying that frequent headaches are there with
several sections of people.

Now, cell tower radiation not only affects human being, it also affects a bird. So, birds flying
in the near zone of the cellular operators are getting affected and that is why sparrows
populations are disappearing in most of the metropolitan cities.
Now, of course, it also affects the animals. In fact, of dairy cows have been reported
specially, when the cellar antenna is within the close vicinity that they have reported that
there is a decreased milk production. In fact, these days many cancer cases have been
reported for dogs also.
Now, it also affects the plants. In fact, just think about it that the tower is stationary here and
the tree is stationary here. So, this is constant radiation bombardment and the water in these
fruit bearing trees start getting vibrated and so what happens because, of that their sizes start
becoming smaller and the fruits become bitter and also the yield starts reducing. In fact, this
thing I had gone to this particular place there are 4 cell towers you can see over here near
Gurgaon, Delhi, Toll Naka and the owner actually mention that the lemon yield actually
reduced from 100% to less than 5% in just about 2.5 years of installation.
In fact, alarmed by all these things environment ministry had also formed a committee of 10
people and they had actually submitted the report in November 2011 and all these things
actually show that they are associated health hazards.
Now in fact, now scientists are after WHO and they are telling them to classify RF field as
class 2A or even class 1. So, what are the solutions to reduce? So, as far as the cell phones are
there, I have already told you: what are the precautions to be taken.
Now, as far as the radiations from cellular towers are concerned, we all have to unite and
convince DOT to reduce the norm immediately to less than 10 mW/m 2. Let me tell you this is
not safe, this is just a one step in between which can be immediately implemented in a very
simple way that the output power instead of 20 W, they should not transmit more than 1 to 2
W of power in the densely populated area.
So, they can either reduce the power amplifier or reduce gain of the amplifier. In fact, this
will lead to several other advantages also. So, if they use a high power amplifier, it requires
cooling that will require air conditioning. So, now, they can save that particular cause. In fact,
power requirement reduces means they, now they do not need diesel generators, they can use
solar panel to meet this requirement, they can even claim carbon credit also. You can see this
particular detail thing, you can actually see click on this particular thing and you can see my
report also. But why cellular operators are not doing this thing? The disadvantage of the
reduced power is that if we reduce the transmitted power, then the range will reduce from
here to let us say here.
So, then the people living in this particular area will not get the radiation. So, signal will not
be there. So, they have to install more number of low power transmitter. So, if they have to
install more number of low power transmitter, it will definitely cost more money and that is
the reason why these people are not doing it. So, just like in the western world, they transmit
much lesser power and they have low power repeaters, the same solution we have to adopt in
our country and that is the only way to have this wonderful technology deployed safely in our
country.
So, just to conclude I just talk more about cell phone and cell tower, but there is a RF
radiation from computers, your laptops, AM, FM, TV tower, leakage from microwave oven,
Wi-Fi, radars and all that; all these are additive. In fact, I also want to mention that in
addition to this, overhead high voltage transmission lines which carry 50 Hz or 60 Hz. In fact,
these have been classified by WHO, as possible carcinogen in 2002 itself. In fact, majority of
the people are not even aware of that. In fact, there are certain rules are there that if there are
high power voltage transmission line, then within 30 m, there should be no residential
building or office building. However, with growing population people are getting closer to
these high power transmission line and they are developing health problem.
So, we want that the awareness must be created among the people; people should unite to
convince government of India and all the governments in the world to adopt stricter radiation
norm. And, I would request all of you people to share these slides with all your friends and
known people to create awareness and we should all demand that there should be a safe
radiation. And just to tell you, health is fundamental right of every citizen of this world. So,
we must demand safe radiation level so that we can enjoy this beautiful technology and yet
we do not develop the health problem.
So, thank you very much, bye.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 02
Lecture - 06
Waveguides - I: Parallel Plane Waveguides
Hello my name is Rajbala, I am pursuing PhD under the guidance of Professor Girish Kumar.
I am also one of the TAs for this course, and I will take few lectures on waveguides. The
outline took cover this topic of will be-
First I will start fundamentals of waveguides, then I will discuss parallel plane waveguide,
after that I will discuss rectangular waveguide, and then I will discuss the applications of
waveguides.
So, let us begin with basics of waveguides. The waveguides as the name suggest that it is a
structure which can be used to guide electromagnetic waves along it. There are other
structures also which can guide electromagnetic waves such as transmission lines and co
axial cables. But, there are some differences between these structures and waveguides. And
the first difference is that at microwave frequencies the transmission lines and the co-axial
cables, become inefficient due to dielectric losses and conductor losses or we can say due to
skin effect. Whereas, waveguides can be used at microwave frequencies and they can provide
larger bandwidth with lower attenuation or lower losses.
And the second difference is that, the transmission lines can work from a DC or a zero
frequency to a certain high frequency that means, it acts as a low pass filter; whereas, wave
guides can be operated above a certain frequency called as cutoff frequency; so it acts as a
high pass filter. And the third difference is that the transmission line can support only TEM
mode of propagation whereas, wave guides can support many field configurations called as
modes which we will discuss later. So, these are the differences between transmission lines
and waveguides.
Generally, waveguides are made from high conductivity metals such has copper, aluminium,
brass etc. And these waveguides can be of any shape, but in general the rectangular and
circular waveguides are used. So, to analyze rectangular waveguide first we will develop
some concept for a simple wave guiding a structure that is parallel plane waveguide and after
that we will extend those concepts to rectangular wave guide. So, let us begin with parallel
plane waveguide.
In parallel plane waveguide there are two metallic plates separated by a distance a in x
direction and these plates are extended to infinity in y direction and the direction of
propagation of electromagnetic wave is taken in positive z direction.
Now, let us see how electromagnetic wave propagate in this parallel plane waveguide. In
general, to analyze any problem in electromagnetics we need to solve Maxwell’s equations.

So, what are Maxwell’s equations? There are 4 Maxwell’s equations which can be written
either in differential form or in integral form. The difference between these two forms is that
the differential form establish relationship between the field and the source but they cannot be
used at media interphases where medium properties changes abruptly.
In those situations, integral form of Maxwell’s equations can be used and they will establish
relationship between the fields in two different mediums they are called as boundary
conditions. So, these are the 4 Maxwell’s equations in differential form or they are also called
as Maxwell’s equation in point form.
The first Maxwell’s equation is ∇ . D= ρwhich comes from Gauss law and it states that the
electric flux leaving from a volume is proportional to the charge enclosed. The second
−∂ B
equation is ∇ × E= which comes from the faradays law of induction, and it states that
∂t
the voltage induced is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux. And the third
equation is ∇ . B=0 which comes from Gauss law for magnetism and it states that total flux
∂D
leaving a closed surface is 0. And the fourth and last equation is ∇ × H =J + , where J is
∂t
∂D
conduction current density and is displacement current density.
∂t
So, these are 4 Maxwell’s equations. However, for waveguides this J term in the last equation
will be 0 as we assume that the wave guide is filled with the source free lossless dielectric
∂D
material. So, this J = 0 and the last equation will reduce to ∇ × H = .
∂t
In general, in waveguides we consider the direction of propagation in z direction and the

fields present in the direction of propagation are called as longitudinal fields. So, the
longitudinal fields will be Ez and Hz and the fields which are perpendicular or transverse to
the direction of propagation are called as transverse fields. So, transverse fields will be H x,
Hy, Ex and Ey.
We can derive these transverse field in terms of longitudinal fields E z and Hz by solving these
−∂ B ∂D
two Maxwell’s equations ∇ × E= and ∇ × H = . We can consider these two equation
∂t ∂t
in frequency domain which is ∇ × E=− jωμH and ∇ × H =− jωϵE.
So, by you solving these two equation. We can get the transverse fields H x, Hy, Ex, Ey these
are the transverse fields. And in these transverse fields the constant γ is a propagation
constant which is equal to α + jβ where α is attenuation constant and β is phase constant and
k=ω √ μϵ and h2 =γ 2 +k 2.
To derive a transverse fields, we need to know the longitudinal fields, let us say, so let us see
how longitudinal fields Ez and Hz can be found. These fields Ez and Hz can be found using
wave equation. And the wave equation for electric field is ∇ 2 E+ω 2 μϵE=0 and it is
∇ H +ω μϵH =0 for magnetic field.

2 2
Since electric field and magnetic field has 3 components E x, Ey, Ez and Hx, Hy and Hz. So,
there will be six a scalar equations and these equations are also called as Helmholtz equation.
So, to find Ez and Hz we need to solve these equations in the direction of propagation. So, we
2 2 2
∂ Ez ∂ Ez ∂ Ez
will solve these two equation 2
+ 2
+ 2
=−ω2 μϵ E z.
∂x ∂y ∂z
So, we will solve this equation and we can get E z. Similarly, if we solve this equation for
magnetic field then we can get magnetic field in z direction. Now, let us see how these
longitudinal fields are derived using these wave equations in parallel plane wave guide.
So, in parallel plane waveguide as we discussed that the plates are extended to infinity in the
direction y, so the field will be constant in y direction and there will not be any change in the
∂
fields. So, we can take =0. By putting this thing in the wave equation we will get
∂y
2 2
∂ Ez ∂ Ez
2
+ 2
=−ω2 μϵ E z .
∂x ∂z
Since Ez is varying along x and z only and it is constant along y. So, we can consider E z is
equal to function of x into function of z. Now, put this function in this equation, so we will
get ZX ”+ XZ ”=−ω 2 μϵXZ . Now, divide this whole equation with XZ. Then we will get
'' ''
X Z
+ =−k , where k 2 =ω2 μϵ ; this is a constant, where k is a wave number.
2
X Z
Since this k 2 is a constant and these variables are independent variables. So, these two terms
'' ''
X 2 Z 2
should be a constant. So, we can take =−k xand =−β or we can replace β 2 with γ 2. If
X Z
we take α =0 in γ then this will become −β 2. So, this negative sign for these constant is taken
for the propagating wave.
And, if we take positive sign then the solution of this differential equation will be exponential
''
X
function. Now, equate this −k 2x to then we will get this differential equation X ' ' +k 2x X=0 .
X
The solution of this type of differential equation is C 1 cos function plus C2 sign function. So,
X =C 1 cos ( k x x ) +C 2 sin ⁡(k x x). Similarly, we can find Z and this will be C 3 eγz +C 4 e−γz. So, this
is how we a find X and Z. Now, we will put these functions X and Z in E z. And then we can
γz −γz
get the longitudinal field Ez which will be ( C 1 cos ( k x x ) +C 2 sin ( k x x ) ) (C 3 e +C 4 e ).
In this equation the term e γz represents the wave propagating in negative z direction and the
term e−γzrepresents the wave propagating in positive z direction.
Since, we have considered the direction of propagation of electromagnetic wave in positive z

direction. So, this term should be 0 so C3 = 0. Now, put C3 = 0 here and then Ez reduces to
( C1 C 4 cos ( k x x ) e−γz +C 2 C4 sin ( k x x ) e−γz ) or we can write it as ( A1 cos ( k x x ) + A 2 sin ( k x x ) ) e−γz.

So, this is how longitudinal electric filed is derived using wave equation, similarly we can
−γz
derive magnetic field also. So, that will be ( B 1 cos ( k x x ) + B 2 sin ( k x x ) ) e .
Now, by using these two equations we can derive the transverse fields H x, Hy, Ex and Ey. So,
the equations for these transverse fields will be like this. And you can verify these by putting
∂
=0 in the equations we have seen earlier, this is how all the field components are derived
∂y
in a parallel plane wave guide.
Now, let us see how different modes propagate in a parallel plane waveguide. First let us see
the TEM mode of propagation.
TEM mode is a transverse electric and magnetic mode in which electric field and magnetic
fields are transverse to the direction of propagation or there is no electric, and magnetic field
in the direction of propagation that means, Hz = 0 and Ez = 0.
Now, by putting these values in the transverse field equations we can find the transverse
fields by putting Hz = 0 and Ez = 0 we will get Ex = 0, Ey = 0 and Hx = 0 and Hy = 0. It means
all the field components are 0 in a parallel plane waveguide in TEM mode. If there is no field,
then propagation of electromagnetic wave will not take place or we can say parallel plane
waveguide cannot support TEM mode of propagation.
Now, let us see the next mode which is TM mode transverse magnetic mode in which
magnetic field is transverse to the direction of propagation. And there is no magnetic field in
the direction of propagation. So, Hz = 0 and E z ≠0 . And the general solution for electric field
−γz
in the longitudinal direction will be E z=( A 1 cos ( k x x ) + A 2 sin ( k x x ) ) e as we discussed
earlier.
Now, we need to apply boundary conditions on the electric field. So, what are the boundary
conditions? The answer is that the tangential component of the electric field should be 0 at
the conducting boundary. In the parallel plane waveguide, the conducting plates are at x = 0
and x = a and the tangential field is Ez. So, at x = 0 and x = a Ez should be 0.
So, put x = 0 here we will get A 1 cos 0+ A 2 sin 0,sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1; So, we will get A 1 e−γz.
Now, equate this to 0 then we will get A 1 = 0. Now, put A1 = 0 in this equation then E z
−γz
reduces to E 0 sin ( k x x ) e .
Now, apply the second boundary condition which is at x = a, Ez = 0. So, if you put x = a here
−γz
then it will become E 0 sin ( k x a ) e .. And if you equate it to 0 then E0 cannot be 0 this cannot
become 0. So, sin function has to be 0. So, sin ( k x a )=0 which implies k x a should be multiple
mπ
of . So, k x a=mπ where m is a integer. From here k x= . Now, put this value of k x in this
a
mπ
equation. So, the longitudinal electric field will be E z= E 0 sin ( )
a
x e−γz . So, this is how the
longitudinal electric field is derived.
Now, let us see the propagating and non-propagating modes in TM propagation.
So, we have Hz = 0, E z= E 0 sin ( mπa x )e −γz

. By using these to we can find Ex, Ey, Hy, Hx. So,
Ex is this thing, Ey = 0, Hy is this and Hx = 0.
Now, if we put m = 0 in these field equations then that will become TM 0 mode, Hz is already
0. Now, put m = 0 in Ez then it will become sin 0 and sin 0 = 0. So, Ez is also 0. Then put m =
0 here, so 0 into something will be 0. So, E x = 0, Ey is already 0, in Hy if we put m = 0 then Hy
will become 0 and Hx is already 0. It means all the field components are 0. So there will not
be any wave propagation.
So, this mode is same as the TEM mode because E z and Hz both are 0 in this mode. Now, if
we put m equal to 1 or more than 1 then E z, Ex and Hy will not be 0. So, there will be
propagation of electromagnetic wave in these modes. So, examples of propagating modes are
TM1, TM2, TM3 like this.
Now, let us see how field varies in these propagating modes.

So, take an example of TM1 mode and let us see how field varies and TM1 mode. In
transverse magnetic modes, whereas only one component of magnetic field which is in y
direction whereas, there are two components of electric fields which are E x and Ez. All of
these 3 components are constant in the direction y and they are varying along x and z only.
So we will see though variation of the fields in xz plane only.
So, let us first see though variation of magnetic field in xz plane. So, in this this is the x axis,
this is the z direction and y direction is normal to this plane outward. And the dots in the
circle represents the positive y direction and cross in the circle represents the negative y
direction and the size of the circle represent the amplitude of the fields. So, larger the size of
the circle higher will be the amplitude of the fields.
Now, let us see variation of magnetic field along x direction. So, H y is varying as cos function
along x direction, at x = 0 this will be cos 0 which is maximum. So, at x = 0, Hy will be
maximum and if we put x = a here then this will be cos  = -1. So, at x = a there will be a
maximum in opposite direction and if we put x = a/2 then this will be cos (/2) = 0. So, Hy
will have 0 at x = a/2.
So, the magnetic field is maximum at x = 0 and x = a and it is 0 at x = a/2. As you can see
from this figure it is maximum here, maximum here, 0 here. Now, let us see the variation of
− j2 π
z
magnetic field in z direction. So, it is varying as e λ in z direction. And this function is
periodic function with period 2 and it will be maximum at z = 0, z = λ/ 2 and z is equal to
multiple of λ/ 2. And it will be minimum at z = λ/ 4, z = 3 λ / 4 and odd multiple of λ/ 4.
So, Hy will be maximum at z = 0, z = λ/ 2, z is equal to multiple of λ/ 2and it will be 0 at z =

λ/ 4, 3 λ/ 4 and odd multiple of λ/ 4. So, this is how magnetic field varies in TM1 mode. So,
there is a half sinusoidal variation of magnetic field in the x direction.
Now, let us see the variation of electric field in xz plane. So, in this the direction of arrow
shows the direction of field and the length of line represents the amplitude of the fields. So,
larger the length of the line the higher will be the amplitude of the field. Since, we have two
components of electric field so the resultant electric field will be vector sum of Ex and Ez.
Now, let us see the variation of these two in x direction. So, E x varies as cos function along x
and Ez varies as sin function along x that means, these two components are in phase
quadrature along x direction or we can say when E x is maximum then Ez will be 0 and when
Ex is 0 then Ez will be maximum. As you can see from this also; so at x = 0, E x is maximum
and there is no filed component in z direction, so Ez is 0.
Similarly, at x = a, Ex is maximum and there is no field component in z direction, so E z is 0.

So, this is how electric field varies along x direction and in z direction these two fields are
staggered by a length of λ/ 4 because of this factor there will be a 90 0 phase delay. So, when
Ex is maximum then Ez will be 0 along z direction and when Ex is 0, then Ez will be maximum
along z direction.
You can see from this figure also. So, at z = 0, E x is maximum and Ez is 0 and at z = λ/ 4, Ez
is maximum and Ex is 0 and at z=λ/ 4 ,Ex is maximum and Ez is 0. So, this is how electric and
magnetic field vary in xz plane in TM1 mode. There is they half sinusoidal variation of the
fields in the x direction or in the direction in which the wave is confined. So, this is all about
the TM1 mode.
Now, let us move on to the next mode which is TE mode transverse electric mode in which
the electric field is transverse to the direction of propagation or there is no electric field in the
direction of propagation or we can say E z = 0 and H z ≠0 . The general solution for magnetic
−γz
field in longitudinal directional will be H z=( B 1 cos ( k x x ) + B 2 sin ( k x x ) ) e which we derived
earlier.
Now, we need to apply boundary conditions for this and the boundary conditions are the
tangential component of the electric field should be 0 at the conducting boundary. So,
conducting boundary is at x = 0 and x = a and the tangential fields are Ey and Ez. Ez is already
0 so we need to make Ey = 0 and to make Ey = 0 we need to find Ey first. So, we can find Ey in
jωμ ∂ H z ∂Hz
terms of Hz like this. So, E y = . So, if Ey = 0 then =0. So, put x = 0 and make
h ∂x
2
∂x
∂Hz
=0 then we will get B2 = 0. And the magnetic fields reduce to H z=H 0 cos ⁡(k x x)e .
−γz
∂x
∂Hz
Now, apply the second boundary condition which is at x = a, Ey = 0 or at x = a, =0. By
∂x
mπ
applying this condition, we will get sin ( k x x ) =0 which means k x= . Now, put this value in
a
this equation. So, we will get the longitudinal magnetic field H z=H 0 cos ( mπa x ) e
−γz
.
Now, let us see propagating and non-propagating modes in TE propagation. So, we have E z =
0 and Hz is equal to this H 0 cos ( mπa x )e −γz

. From here we can find the transverse fields. So,
Ex = 0, Ey is equal to this, Hx is equal to this and Hy = 0.
Now, if we put m = 0 in these field equations then this will become TE 0 mode. In this Ez is
already 0 and by putting m = 0, Hz will be H 0 e−γz which is not equal to 0. Ex is already 0, Ey
will be 0 into something 0, Hx will be 0 into something 0 and H y is already 0. So, all the
transverse field components are 0. So, there will not be any wave propagation in TE 0 mode so
for TE propagation non propagating mode is TE0.
Now, if we put m equal to 1 or greater than 1 then this Hz, Ey and Hx will not be 0. So, there
will be wave propagation in TEm mode. So, the propagating modes in TE propagation are
TEm mode such has TE1, TE2, TE3 like this.
Now, let us see how field varies in TE modes; so let us take an example of TE2 mode.
This is the electric field variation in TE 2 mode. This is the magnetic field variation in TE 2
mode. So, in the transverse electric mode there is only one component of electric field which
is in y direction and there are two components of magnetic fields which are in x direction and
z direction Hx and Hz.
Student: (Refer Time: 28:46).
And all of these 3 components are constant along y direction and they vary along x and z
only. So, we will see the variation of field in xz plane only. So, let us first see the variation of
electric field. So, this is x direction, this is z direction and y direction is normal to this plane
out word, and the dots in this circle represents the positive direction cross represent the
negative y direction and size of the circle represent the amplitude of the field.
So, Ey is varying sinusoidally along x direction. So, if we put x = 0 then it will be sin 0. So,
we will get 0 field at x = 0. If we put x = a then we will get sin2 = 0, so this will be 0 and if
we put x = a/2 then sin = 0. So, electric filed is 0 at x = 0, x = a/2 and x = a. And the
maxima will be at x = a/4 and at x = 3a/4. So, there is a two half sinusoidal variation of
electric field in x direction.
Now, let us see variation of electric field in z direction. It will be 0 at z = 0, z = λ/ 2, z = λ and
z is equal to multiple of λ/ 2, whereas it will be maximum at z =λ/ 4, z = 3 λ/ 4 and z is equal
to odd multiple of λ/ 4.
Student: (Refer Time: 30:42).
So, this is how electric field varies in xz plane for TE 2 mode. Now, let us see the variation of
magnetic field in TE2 mode. So, there are two magnetic fields and the resultant magnetic field
will be vector sum of Hx and Hz. Hx is varying sinusoidally along x direction and H z is
varying co sinusoidally along x direction. It means these two components are in phase
quadrature along x direction or we can say when H x is maximum then Hz will be minimum or
0 and when Hx is 0 then Hz will be maximum which we can see from this figure also. At x =
0, Hz is maximum and there is no filed along x direction, so H x is 0. At this point also x = a/2,
Hz is maximum and Hx is 0; at this point also Hx is 0 and Hz is maximum.
So, Hz is maximum at x = 0, x = a/2 and x = a, whereas it is minimum at x = a/4 and x = 3a/4.

So, there is a two half sinusoidal variation of the fields along x direction.
Now, let us see the variation of these fields in z direction. These two components H x and Hz
are a staggered by a length of lambda by 4 because of this factor j there will be 900 phase
delay. So, these two components are 900 out of phase. So, if Hx is maximum then Hz will be 0
along z direction and if Hx is 0, then Hz will be maximum along z direction.
So, if we will see in z direction then Hz is maximum at z = 0, z = λ/ 2, z = λ, z is equal to

multiple of λ/ 2, whereas Hx will be 0 at these points z = 0, z = λ/ 2, z = λ , like this.
Similarly, Hz will be 0 at z = λ/ 4, 3 λ / 4 and odd multiple of λ/ 4 and at these points Hx will

be a maxima. So, Hx is maxima at z = λ/ 4, z = 3 λ/ 4 and odd multiple of λ/ 4. So, this is how
electric and magnetic fields vary in TE 2 mode in parallel plane wave guide. So, in x direction
or in the direction in which the wave is confined the variation of the fields is two half
sinusoidal. Or in general if we have TE m mode or TMm mode then the variation of the fields
along the direction in which the confinement has been done will be m half sinusoidal. This is
all about the fields present in TM and TE modes.
In the next lecture we will discuss the cutoff frequencies for these modes, and after that we
will start rectangular wave guides.
Thank you.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 02
Lecture - 07
Waveguides - II: Parallel Plane Waveguides
Hello. In the last lecture, we will discussed Maxwell’s equations after that we; so, transverse
fields in terms of longitudinal fields and then how longitudinal fields are derived using wave
equations or Helmholtz equation. After that we applied these concepts of the fields in a
simple wave guiding structure parallel plane waveguide and we saw how fields vary in
different modes of parallel plane waveguide.
Today, we will see the cutoff frequency of parallel plane waveguides in different modes and
phase constant, intrinsic impedances, phase velocity and group velocities of the waves in
different modes, after that we will start the discussion on rectangular waveguide. So, let us
start with cutoff frequency in parallel plane waveguide.
So, as we discussed earlier that h2 =γ 2 +k 2 =k 2x where γ is a propagation constant which is

equal to α + j β and k is wave number which is equal to ω √ μϵ and kx is wave number along x
mπ
direction which is equal to .
a
So, from here, we can get propagation constant γ=√ k 2x −k 2. There are 3 cases of the values of
γ, first case is when γ is real, then β=0 and γ=α, the γ to be real this quantity inside this root
should be positive. So, k 2x−k 2 >0, we can put the values of k x and k in this equation and we
2
mπ 1 m
2
will get ω μϵ <
a ( )
. From here, we can get the frequency f <
2 √ μϵ a
.
So, for all the frequencies less than this frequency or less than this number the propagation
constant will be a real number. And in this case, when propagation constant is real, then the
variation of the fields along z direction will be e−αz which is attenuating field or we can say
the fields will die down as they will move along the z direction. So, because of this these
fields are called as evanescent fields because they are attenuating field or non-propagating
fields. So, below this frequency there will not be propagation of wave as they are attenuating
fields.
Now, second case is when gamma is imaginary in that case α =0 and γ= jβ and for γ to be
imaginary the term inside this root should be negative. So, k 2x−k 2 <0, from there, we will get
2
mπ 1 m
2
ω μϵ > ( )
a
and from here, we can get the frequency f >
2 √ μϵ a
.
And for all the frequencies greater than this term, the propagation constant will be imaginary
number and in this case, for γ imaginary number the variation of the fields, along z direction
will be e− jβz which is propagating wave. So, when γ is imaginary, then propagation of waves
will take place.
Now, the third case is when γ = 0; that means, α =0 and β=0and in this case, there will be
neither attenuation nor propagation of the fields and for γ to be 0 this quantity should be 0;
2
mπ
2 2
k −k . So, make this 0 and then we will get ω μϵ =
x
2
a ( )
. From here, we can get the cutoff
1 mπ 1 m
frequency ω c= and cutoff frequency f c = . We are calling these frequencies
√ μϵ a 2 √ μϵ a
as cutoff frequency because, below this frequency there is attenuating fields or non-
propagating fields and above this frequency, there are propagating fields. So, below this
frequency there will not be any propagation of waves and above this frequency there will be
propagation of the waves.
mv
So, these are the cutoff frequencies or we can write this cutoff frequency as f c = also
2a
1 mv
because v= . So, cutoff frequency for TMm mode and TEm mode is given by f c =
√ μϵ 2a
where m is a mode number and it is a integer. And if the waveguide is field with air then
mc
cutoff frequency will be f c = ; where c is a speed of light in vacuum which is equal to
2a
3 ×10 m/ sec or 3 ×10 cm/ sec . So, this is the equation for cutoff frequencies for different
8 10
modes.
Now, let us see the graph of cutoff frequencies for different modes. So, in general the cutoff
mv 1
frequencies given by f c = where v= and if we put m = 1 in this equation, then we will
2a √ μϵ
v
get cutoff frequency for TM1 mode and TE1 mode. And if we put m = 2, then we will get
2a
2v v
cutoff frequency for TM2 and TE2 mode which will be or we can say ; similarly by
2a a
putting the value of m, we can get the cutoff frequency for any mode.
v
Now, in this the lowest cutoff frequency is which is of mode TM1 and TE1 and the mode
2a
with lowest cutoff frequency is called as fundamental mode. So, in parallel plane waveguide
the fundamental modes are TM1 and TE1.
v
And in this TM1 and TE1 have same cutoff frequency which is and TM2 and TE2 mode
2a
2v
have same cutoff frequency which is . Similarly, TMm mode and TEm mode have same
2a
mv
cutoff frequency which is and the modes with same cutoff frequency are called as
2a
degenerate modes.
So, the degenerate modes in parallel plane waveguides are TM m and TEm modes for example,
TM1 and TE1 or TM2 and TE2 mode and so on. So, this is all about the cutoff frequency of
parallel plane waveguide for different modes. Now, let us see phase constant and intrinsic
impedance of the waves inside the waveguide in different modes.

2
mπ
So, as we discussed earlier that the propagation constant γ=
√( a )
−ω2 μϵ and for a
propagating wave γ is imaginary. So, α =0 and γ= jβ. So, equate jβ to this. So,
2
mπ
jβ=
√( a
−ω 2 μϵ .
)
2
From here we can get  which is a phase constant; β= ω2 μϵ− mπ ; take ω 2 μϵ outside of
a √ ( )
2
fc
this root and we will get ω √ μϵ 1−
√ ( )
f
. So, this is the phase constant .
Now, let us see intrinsic impedance; intrinsic impedance is given by ratio of electric field and
Ex −E y
magnetic field that is either or . In transverse magnetic mode as we have seen that Ey
Hy Hx
and Hx are 0 and Ex and Hy are non-zero and we have derived E x and Hy in terms of
longitudinal field Ez; so put those field equations in this, then we will get intrinsic impedance
β
in TM mode η TM = . So,  we have derived which is this one. So, divide this by ωϵ , then
ωϵ
2
f
we will get
√√ ()
μ
ϵ
1− c .
f
So, this is the intrinsic impedance for TM propagation. Now if the waveguide is filled with
μ can be replaced by a constant η which is impedance of wave in free

air, then the term
√ ϵ
0
2
fc
space and the value of η0 =120 π=377 Ω. So, ηTM =η0 1−
√ ( ) for air filled waveguide.
f
Now, similarly we can find intrinsic impedance for TE mode. So, in transverse electric mode
as we have seen that Ex and Hy are 0 and Ey and Hx are nonzero and we have derived these in
ωμ
terms of longitudinal field Hz. So, put the values of the fields and we will get ηTE = and
β
μ 1
by putting the value of  here, we will get √ ϵ f
2
and for air filled waveguide it will
√ ( )
1− c
f
η0
2
be f ; this is for air filled waveguide. So, these are the equations of intrinsic
√ ( )
1− c
f
impedances in TM mode and TE mode. Now, let us see how these impedances vary as
frequency changes.
So, for air filled waveguide ηTM is this one and ηTEis this one. Now if we plot these equations
with the respect to frequency, then the plot will be something like this. So, ηTM varies from 0
to η0 as frequency increases from cutoff frequency to infinity. This ηTE decreases from
infinity to η0 as frequency changes from cutoff frequency to infinity. But, the product of these
2 is always a constant which is equal to η20 for air filled waveguide. In general, the product of
impedances of TM and TE modes is equal to μϵ. So, these are the impedance variations.
Now, let us move on to phase velocity and group velocity of waves in a waveguide.
These are the 2 plates in parallel plane waveguide which are separated by a distance a in x
direction and these plates are extended to infinity in y direction and this is z direction which
is the direction of propagation. In general, the wave is propagated in any waveguide because
of the total internal reflection and; let us say if wave is launched inside this waveguide at an
angle θ then by the second law of reflection which states that the angle of reflection is equal
to angle of incidence. So, our angle of reflection θ r will be same as θ i angle of incidence
which is equal to θ. So, if we have launched the wave at an angle θ then it will be reflected
from the walls of the waveguide at an angle θ.
Now, again this reflected wave will go to other wall at an angle θ and that will be reflected at
an angle θ. So, this is how by total internal reflections from the walls of the waveguide the
wave is propagated in this zigzag path and because of this zigzag path, there are 3
components of wave number, this k is a wave number along the path of the electromagnetic
wave where k=ω √ μϵ and the kz is the wave number along z direction kx is wave number
along x direction
Since the resultant reflected waves will travel along z direction only. So, k z is same as  and
we can take component of this k and then we will get β=k sin θ and k x=k cos θ where
2
fc fc
cos θ= and sin θ= 1−
f √
f ( )
.
2
√
Now, if we put the value k and sin θ, we can get the value of  which comes ω μϵ 1− f c
f( ( ))
So, this is the same value of  which we have derived earlier and similarly we can derive the
.
value of kx also. So, is omega root mu epsilon and cos theta is fc by f. So, put the value of f c
mπ
and then we will get k x= which is same as we got earlier and same as this wave number
a
the velocity of the electromagnetic wave will have 3 components.
1
One is v= , another one is phase velocity and the third one is group velocity, the phase
√ μϵ
velocity is the velocity with which the locus of constant phase surfaces propagates inside the
ω ω v
waveguide and it is given by v p = . We know β=k sin θ and =v. So, v p will be or
β k sin θ
v
fc
2 v p=
√
sin θ= 1−
f ( ). So, we can get phase velocity
1−
√ f c 2.
f ( )
2
√
We can get phase velocity by putting  directly here also. So, β=ω μϵ 1− f c
f ( ( )) . So, we
will get the same value of phase velocity. So, if the waveguide is filled with air then this
c
c
phase velocity will be or f c 2.
sin θ
√ 1− ( )
f
Since sin θ ≤1; that means, phase velocity v p ≥ c or phase velocity is always greater than equal
to a speed of light, but Einstein’s relativity theory says that message or information cannot
travel faster than speed of light and for waveguides energy cannot travel faster than velocity
of light.
So, does this v p ≥ c violates the Einstein’s relativity theory? The answer to this question is
that, no, it does not violate the Einstein’s relativity theory because energy does not travel
inside the waveguide with the phase velocity, whereas, it travels in the waveguide with group
velocity and the group velocity is the velocity with which the resultant reflected waves travel
1
inside the waveguide and it is given by v g= .
(∂ β/ ∂ω)
2
Now, we know β=ω μϵ 1−
√ ( ( ))fc
f
. So, if we differentiate it with respect to ω then we will
2
f
√
get v g=v 1− c
f( ) or we can write it as v sin θ and if the waveguide is filled with air, then
the phase velocity will be c sin θ and since sin θ ≤1. So, the group velocity v g ≥c and because
of this there will not be violation of Einstein’s relativity theory because the energy in the
waveguide will travel with this velocity group velocity.
So, these are the equations of phase velocity and group velocity. Now let us see; how these 2
vary as frequency changes. So, if we plot phase velocity with frequency, then the plots will
look something like this. So, this is the plot for phase velocity of TE 1 and TM1 mode, the
second one is for TE2 and TM2 mode, third one is for TE3 and TM3 mode. Similarly, if we
plot group velocity then the plots will be something like this. So, first one is for TE 1 and TM1
mode, second one is for TM2 and TE2 mode third one for TE3 and TM3 mode.
So, as you can see from these curves, the phase velocity decreases from infinity to speed of
light which is 3 ×108 m/ sec as frequency changes from cutoff frequency to infinity. Whereas,
this group velocity increases from 0 to a speed of light as frequency changes from cutoff
frequency to infinity. These fc1, fc2 and fc3 are cutoff frequencies for mode TM1 TE1; this one
is for TM2 and TE2 and this fc3 is for TE3 and TM3.
So, this is the variation of the velocities with frequency, but the product of these 2 velocities
is always a constant which is equal to c 2 for air filled waveguide and in general, the
multiplication of phase velocity and group velocity is always a constant which is equal to μϵ
and one more thing, since this phase velocity and group velocity change with the frequency it
means that different frequency components travel in the waveguides with different velocities.
And because, of this the time taken by different frequency components will be different to
reach from input to output and at the output different frequency components will reach at
different time instants and this effect is called as dispersion effect.
So, in waveguide, there will be wave dispersion which is not really desirable. So, this is all
about the phase velocity and group velocity. Now let us take an example of a parallel plane
waveguide and see how calculations are done in parallel plane waveguide.
So, let us say, we have in air filled parallel plane waveguide in which the 2 plates are
separated by a distance a = 10 cm. Now we need to find cutoff frequencies in TE 2 and TM3
mc
modes. So, general formula for cutoff frequency f c = . So, if we put m = 2, then we will
2a
get cutoff frequency for TE2 mode which will be 2 into speed of light which is
3 ×10 cm/ sec and 2× a=10 cm. So, by simplifying this, we will get 3 GHz for TE2 mode.
10
Similarly, we can get cutoff frequency for TM 3 mode. So, put m = 3, then we will get
10
3×3 ×10 cm/ sec So, we will get 4.5 GHz for TM3 mode. Now, the next question is
3 ×c=
2× 10 cm
if the phase velocity in TE2 mode is √ 3c , then what will be the frequency and guided
c
v p=
wavelength. So, the formula for phase velocity is f c 2 . Now equate this given
√ ( )
1−
f
phase velocity which is √ 3c . Now cancel this c and c; square these 2 sides.
2 2
f 1 1 2 f 2 f
So, we will get 1− c = and 1− = . So, we will get c = . So, c = 2 from here
( ) ( )
f 3 3 3 f 3 f 3 √
the frequency f = 3 f c and we have already calculated cutoff frequency for TE2 mode which
2 √
is 3 GHz. So, put this value here. So, frequency comes out to be 3 3 GHz.
2 √
vp
Now, to find guided wavelength. So, guided wavelength is given by λ g= ; phase velocity
f
10
3 ×10
; frequency f =3 3 GHz. Gigahertz is 109 Hz. So, after simplifying
v p =√ 3 c. So√ 3×
f √
2
this we will get λ g=10 √ 2 cm.
So, this is how the problems in parallel plane waveguides are solved. So, till now, we have
discussed all about parallel plane waveguide in which we discussed different modes TEM
mode TE mode TM modes and how fields vary in these modes. And what is the cutoff
frequency for these modes and after that we discussed phase constant, intrinsic impedance
and phase velocity and group velocity inside the waveguide.
We have developed some concept for parallel plane waveguide, we extend these concepts to
rectangular waveguide because, there is only one difference in the structure of parallel plane
waveguide and rectangular waveguide which is in parallel plane waveguide the wave is
confined in only one direction which is in x direction and z is the propagation direction in y
direction the wave is not confined because of that all the fields are constant along y direction
and they vary along x and z directions only.
Whereas, in rectangular waveguides, the wave is confined in 2 directions which are x and y
and wave is propagated along z direction. So, all the fields will be vary in all the 3 directions
x, y and z directions. So, we will extend the concepts of parallel plane waveguide in
rectangular waveguide and we will see what happens to the transverses fields and what
happens to the longitudinal fields and how fields are different in TEM mode, TM mode and
TE modes and we will see the cutoff frequency, intrinsic impedances, phase velocity and
group velocity. We will discuss all these thing in the next lecture.
So, in the next lecture we will start from rectangular waveguide and after that; we will
discuss some applications of the waveguides.
Thank you.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 02
Lecture - 08
Waveguides - III: Rectangular Waveguides
Hello. In the last 2 lectures, we have covered various concepts for parallel plane waveguide.
Today, we will extend those concepts to Rectangular Waveguide, after that we will see some
applications of wave guides. So, let us begin with rectangular waveguide.
In rectangular waveguides, there are 4 finite metallic plates of which 2 metallic plates are in
yz plane and those plates are separated by a distance a in x direction and the 2 metallic plates
are in xz plane which are separated by a distance b in y direction.
Now, as we have discussed earlier that to find the longitudinal field we need to solve the
wave equation or Helmholtz equation. So, Helmholtz equation for electric field is
2 2 2
∂ Ez ∂ Ez ∂ Ez
2 2
∇ E+k E=0 or we can write it as 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ω2 με E z=0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Since in rectangular waveguide, waves are confined in 2 directions. One is in x direction,

other one in y direction and the third direction is the direction of propagation. So, the field
varies in all the 3 directions x, y and z. So, we can write longitudinal electric field E z as
E z ( x , y , z )= X ( x ) Y ( y ) Z ( z).
Now, put this Ez in this wave equation. So, we will get YZX ' ' + XZ Y '' + XY Z ' ' + ω2 μϵ XYZ=0.
Now, divide this whole equation with the XYZ, then we will get this equation
'' '' ''

X Y Z 2
+ + =−ω μϵ or we can write it as k .
2
X Y Z
Since these X, Y and Z functions are independent of each other and this term k 2 is a constant.
'' ''
X 2 Y 2
So, each term in this equation must be a constant. So, we can assume =−k x and =−k y
X Y
''
Z 2
and =−β or we can write it as +γ 2. So, in γ if α =0 then we will get −β 2 and the signs of
Z
these constants are taken as negative for propagating wave and if we take positive signs of
these constant, then the solution of this type of equation will be a exponential function that
will represent a attenuating field or a non-propagating field or evanescent field.
So, for propagation of the waves the negative signs are considered. We will get these type of
second order differential equation from here, we can get X, Y and Z. So, X comes out to be
X =C 1 cos ( k x x ) +C2 sin ( k x x ). Similarly, Y comes out to be Y =C 3 cos ( k y y ) +C 4 sin ⁡(k y y) and
Z comes out to be Z=C 5 e γz +C 6 e−γz. Now, by putting these fields in this equation we will get
the longitudinal field Ez. So, Ez will be multiplication of these 3.
γz
So, it is ( C 1 cos ( k x x ) +C 2 sin ( k x x ) ) (C 3 cos ( k y y ) +C 4 sin ( k y y ) ) ( C 5 e +C 6 e
−γz
). The term e γz in
this equation represent the propagating wave in negative z direction and the term e−γz
represents the wave propagating in the positive z direction, but we have assumed that wave
propagation is there in positive z direction. So, this term should be 0. So, C5 = 0 and the
electric field Ez reduces to
E z ( x , y , z )=( A 1 cos ( k x x ) + A 2 sin ( k x x ) )( A 3 cos ( k y y ) + A 4 sin ⁡(k y y))e

−γz
.
Similarly, we can derive longitudinal magnetic field Hz which will be this if we know E z and
Hz, then we can derive the transverse fields H x, Hy, Ex and Ey as we have derived for parallel
plane waveguide and the constants are same as before. There is only one difference which is
h =k x +k y because, the wave is confined in both x and y direction.

2 2 2
Now, let us see how these fields vary in different modes in a rectangular waveguide. So, first
start with TEM mode which is transverse electric and magnetic mode in which electric and
magnetic fields are transverse to the direction of propagation and in the direction of
propagation, there is no electric field and magnetic field. So, Hz = 0 as well as Ez = 0.
Now, if we put these values of Hz and Ez in the field equations, then we will get Ex = 0, Ey = 0
and Hx = 0 and Hy = 0; that means, all the field components are vanished. So, there will not
be wave propagation in the waveguide in TEM mode or we can say rectangular waveguide
does not support TEM mode of propagation. Now, move on to the next mode which is
transverse magnetic mode in which the magnetic field is transverse to the direction of
propagation or we can say magnetic field is 0 in the direction of propagation.

So, Hz = 0 and Ez is non-zero and as we have derived earlier that the longitudinal electric field
will be Ez is equal to this. Now, we need to apply boundary conditions on this electric field
and what are boundary conditions? Boundary conditions are that the tangential component of
electric field should be 0 at the conducting boundaries and in the rectangular waveguide, we
have 4 conducting boundaries. One is at x = 0, another one is at x = a and other 2 are at y = 0
and y = b; So, put x = 0 in this equation; so, we will get A 1 cos 0+ A 2 sin 0; sin 0 = 0, cos 0 =
1. So, we will get A1 into something and now equate this to 0. So, we will get A1 = 0.
Similarly, put y = 0 in this equation then we will get A 3 cos 0+ A 4 sin 0 and from here, we will
get A3 = 0; now put the values of A1 and A3 in this equation. So, Ez reduces to
E z ( x , y , z )=E 0 sin ( k x x ) sin ⁡(k y y)¿ e . Now, apply the other 2 boundary conditions which
−γz
are at x = a, Ez = 0 and at y = b, E z = 0. So, if we put x = a in this equation then what will

happen? sin ( k x a )=0 which makes k x a=mπ , where m is an integer. So, from there we will
mπ
get k x= .
a
Similarly, if we put y = b in this equation, then we will get sin ( k y b ) and we need to make that
nπ
to 0. So, k y b=nπ where n is an integer from there, we will get k y = . Now put these
b
values of kx and ky in this equation. So, Ez will be E z ( x , y , z )=E 0 sin ( mπa x )sin ( nπb y ) e
−γz
.
So, this is the longitudinal electric field in TM propagation. Now, let us see; what are the
propagating and non-propagating modes in TM propagation.
So, as we know Ez and Hz. So, we can derive Ex Ey Hx and Hy. So, these are the field
equations for these transverse components. Now, if we put m = 0 and n = 0 in these
equations, then the mode will be TM 00 mode. So, if we put m and n equal to 0, then this will
be sin 0 * sin 0. So, E z = 0, Hz is already 0. Similarly, Ex will be 0 into something 0 and Ey
will be 0 and like this. So, all the field components in TM00 mode are 0. So, there will not be
propagation of electromagnetic wave.
Similarly, if we put n = 0 and m can be anything, then this will be 0 if we put n = 0, then we
will get sin 0 here, so E x is 0; put n = 0 here then 0 into something E y will be 0. Similarly, H x
0 into something, it will be 0, same way, Hy is equal to sin 0 which is 0. So, this is how all the
components will be 0 in TMm0 mode. Similarly, for TM0n mode where m is 0 and n can be
anything all the field components will be 0.
So, for these 3 modes, there will not be any propagation of wave. So, these modes are called
as non-propagating modes for rectangular waveguides, if we put both m and n greater than or
equal to 1, then these fields will not be 0. So, there will be propagation of electromagnetic
wave. So, TMmn mode modes are the propagating modes in rectangular waveguide. Now, let
us see how field varies in propagating modes in TM propagation.
This is the example for TM21 mode, this graph is for xy plane, this is the variation of fields in
yz plane. So, as you can see from this, there is a 2 half sinusoidal variation of the fields in x
direction and there is only one half sinusoidal variation of the fields in y direction. In general,
in TMmn mode there is m half sinusoidal variation of fields along x direction and there are n
half sinusoidal variations of the fields in y direction.
So, now let us see in these graphs, in the first graph along x direction, there is 0 maxima 0.
This is a half sinusoidal variation along x direction and along y direction maxima 0 maxima,
this is also a half sinusoidal variation. So, this mode is a TM 11 mode, similarly in this, there is
0 maxima 0 in x direction and in y direction, there is maxima 0 maxima 0 maxima; this is 2
half sinusoidal variation of the fields. So, this mode is TM12 mode.
Similarly, in this in x direction there are 2 half sinusoidal variation of the fields and in y
direction there is only one half sinusoidal variation of the field. So, this is TM 21 mode. And
similarly for this along x direction, there is 3 half sinusoidal variation of the fields and along
y there is only one half sinusoidal of the fields. So, this corresponds to TM 31 mode all these 4
plots are in xy plane.
Now, let us move on to the next mode which is TE mode transverse electric mode in which
the electric field is transverse to the direction of propagation and there is 0 electric field in the
direction of propagation. So, Ez is equal to 0 and H z is not equal to 0 and as we have
discussed earlier that the general solution for Hz is this one.
So, we need to apply a boundary condition for this and boundary conditions are the tangential
component of electric field should be 0 at the conductive boundaries. There are 4 conducting
boundaries x = 0, x = a, y = 0 and y = b. For 2 boundaries x = 0 and x = a there are 2
tangential component Ez and Ey. Ez is already 0. So, we need to make E y = 0; to make Ey = 0
first we need to find Ey. So, how we will find E y? since we already know Ez and Hz. So, we
jωμ ∂ H z
can find Ey in terms of Hz and Ez that will be E y = .
h ∂x
2
∂Hz
So, if we need to make Ey = 0, then =0.So, put this boundary condition at x = 0;
∂x
∂ H z , then we will get A = 0. Similarly, for y = 0 and y = b the tangential components are
=0 2
∂x
Ex and Ez; Ez is already 0. So, we need to make E x = 0. So, write Ex in terms of Hz,
− jωμ ∂ H z . If E = 0, then ∂ H z .
E x= z =0
h
2
∂y ∂y
So, if we differentiate this with respect to y, then we will get A 3 sin y + A4 cos and if we put 0
here, then we will get A3 sin 0 + A4 cos 0. So, this term will be 0 and then we will get A 4 into
something and then we need to make that equal to 0 then we will get A 4 = 0, if we put these 2
−γz
conditions here in Hz, then H z ( x , y , z )=H 0 cos ( k x x ) cos ⁡(k y y)¿ e .
Now, apply the other 2 conditions, the third one is at x = a, Ey = 0 or we can say at x = a
∂Hz mπ where m is an integer. Similarly, if

=0. So, sin ( k x a )=0from here, we will get k x=
∂x a
nπ
we apply this condition, then we will get k y = . Now, by putting kx and ky in this equation
b
we will get H z ( x , y , z )=H 0 cos ( mπa x )cos ( nπb y ) e

−γz
. So, this is the longitudinal magnetic
field in TE mode. Now let us see; what are the propagating and non-propagating modes in TE
propagation.
So, we know Hz and Ez; we can find transverse fields E x Ey Hx Hy in terms of these 2. Now, if
we put m = 0 and n = 0 in these field equations, then what we will get? E z is already 0, will
get Ex = 0, Ey = 0, Hx = 0, Hy = 0 and Hz is not equal to 0.
Since all, the transverse field components are 0 in this mode. So, wave will not propagate in
this mode. So, TE00 mode is a non-propagating mode in TE propagation and if we put m = 0
and n can be anything which is greater than 1 then H z Ex and Hy will not be 0 and if we put n
= 0 and m can be anything which is greater than 1, then H z, Ey and Hx will not be 0 and
because of this, there will be propagation of the waves in these 2 modes. Similarly, if we put
m is greater than or equal to 1, n greater than or equal to 1, then there will be propagation of
the waves. So, these 3 modes TE0n TEm0 and TEmn are the propagating modes for rectangular
waveguide.
Now, let us see how fields vary in TE mode. So, as you can see from this, this is the x axis,
this is y axis and this is the direction of propagation. As you can see from this figure that in x
direction, there is half sinusoidal variation of the field because at this point 0 field is there,
here it is maximum, here it is 0. So, there is half sinusoidal variation along x direction and
along y direction there is no field variation. So, this will be TE10 mode.
Similarly, for this in the x direction, there are 2 half sinusoidal variations of the field and in
the y direction there is no variation of the field. So, this is TE 20 mode. Similarly, for this in x
direction there is no variation of the field and in y direction, there is one half sinusoidal
variation of the field. So, this is TE 01 mode. So, this is how we can plot the field variation of
any TEmn mode or TMmn mode inside a rectangular waveguide. Now, let us see cutoff
frequencies for rectangular waveguide in different modes.
So, as we have earlier that h2 =γ 2 +k 2 =k 2x + k2y for rectangular waveguide. So, from here, we
can get propagation constant gamma γ=√ k 2x +k 2y −k 2. From this, there are 3 conditions of γ.
First one is if γ is real, then β=0 and γ=β. In this case, this quantity should be positive. So,
2 2
mπ nπ
2 2 2 2
k x +k y−k >0 from here, we can get ω με < ( ) ( ) and in this mode, the variation of
a
+
b
the field along z direction will be e−αz and that is a attenuating field, we call it as evanescent
field.
Now the second case is when gamma is imaginary; that means, α =0 and γ= jβ and from
here this quantity should be negative. So, k 2x +k 2y−k 2 <0, from here, we can get
2 2 2 2
mπ nπ 1 mπ nπ . And for this case,
2
ω με> ( ) ( )
a
+
b
and from here, we can get f >
2 π √ με √( a ) ( )
+
b
the variation of the fields along z direction will be e− jβ z which is a propagating wave. So, for
all the frequencies greater than this term, there will be propagation of the electromagnetic
wave.
The third case is when γ=0; that means, α =0, β=0. So, there is neither attenuation nor
propagation of the wave. So, from here make this quantity to 0, then we will get
2 2 2 2
1 mπ nπ or we can write it as v mπ nπ . And if the waveguide is
f c=
2 π √ με √( a ) ( )
+
b 2 √( a ) ( )
+
b
2 2
filled with air, then the cutoff frequency is given by c mπ nπ
2 √( a) ( )
+
b
this is the cutoff
frequency. So, this is how we calculate the cutoff frequency for different modes.
Now, let us see the graph of cutoff frequencies this plot represents the cutoff frequency of a
rectangular waveguide with a = 2.5 cm and b = 1 cm. So, for TE 10 mode, the cutoff frequency
for this waveguide comes out to be 3 GHz; for TE 20 mode, it is 6 GHz. Similarly, for other
mode, we can calculate in this the lowest cutoff frequency is of TE10 mode.
So, the mode with lowest cutoff frequency is called as fundamental mode. So, the
fundamental modes in rectangular waveguide is TE10 mode, and if we want to know the
fundamental mode for TM propagation, then the lowest frequency in TM propagation is of
TM11 mode. So, TM11 mode is the fundamental mode for TM propagation. Now, the TE 11 and
TM11 have the same cutoff frequency. Similarly, TE21 and TM21 have same cutoff frequency.
So, these modes are called as degenerate modes.
Now, let us move on to phase constant and intrinsic impedance. So, as we know
γ=√ k x +k y −k in a rectangular waveguide and for propagating wave gamma is imaginary.

2 2 2
So, α =0 and γ= jβ. So, by equating this to jβ, we will get the value of β which is
2 2 2
f
√
β= k 2−
mπ
( ) ( )
a
−
nπ . And after simplifying this, we will get
b
is the phase constant in rectangular waveguide.
√
β=ω √ με 1− c . So, this
f ( )
Now, as we have discussed earlier in parallel plane waveguide, the intrinsic impedance for
2
f
TM mode is given by ηTM = μ 1− c
ε f √√ () and the intrinsic impedance for TE mode is given
μ 1
by
η TE =
√ ()
ε fc
2
and for an air filled waveguide, it is given by η0
√ f
2
( ) for TM
1− c
√ 1−
f
f
η0
2
mode intrinsic impedance for TE mode is given by fc .
√ ( )
1−
f
Now, let us see the phase velocity and group velocity. The phase velocity as we have
ω
discussed earlier that it is given by v p = . So, if we put the value of β here, then we will get
β
v 1
v p= v g=
2
the phase velocity f c . Similarly, we can calculate the group velocity ∂β .
√ ( )
1−
f ∂ω
2
f
By solving this, we will get v g=v 1− c .
f √ ( )
So, as we have seen earlier for parallel plane waveguide that phase velocity decreases from
infinity to speed of light as frequency changes from cutoff frequency to infinity, whereas,
group velocity increases from 0 to speed of light as frequency changes from cutoff frequency
to infinity. But the product of these 2 is always a constant which is equal to v2 or c2 for air
filled waveguide. This is all about the phase velocity and group velocity. Now, let us take an
example and see how different calculations are done in rectangular waveguide.
So, let us say we have an air filled rectangular wave guide named WR430, then we have to
find cutoff frequencies in TE10 mode and TM21 mode. Now first thing which we need to know
is; what are the dimensions of WR430 wave guide. So, the convention of these type of
waveguides is that the dimension a = 430/100 in inches. So, a = 4.3”. Now if we have
WR230, then a = 230/100 = 2.3. So, a = 2.3”.
Similarly, if we have WR90, then a will be 0.09”. Now, we need to convert this a from inches
to centimeter. So, to convert from inches to centimeter we need to multiply with 2.54. So, a
will be 4.3 * 2.54 cm which comes out to be 10.922 cm and in general, in these type of
waveguides b is taken as half of a. So, b = 5.461 cm and the formula for cutoff frequency as
2 2
we have discussed is f c = c m n
2 √( a) ( ) for air filled waveguide.
+
b
10
c1 3× 10 1
Now, put n = 0 and m = 1 for TE 10 mode, then we will get f c = . So, . By
2a 2 10.922
simplifying this one, we will get 1.372 GHz for TE 10 mode. So, this is cutoff frequency for
TE10 mode. In the same way, we can calculate the cut off frequency for TM 21 mode by putting
m = 2 and n = 1 and a = 10.922 and b = 5.461 and after simplifying this we will get 3.884
GHz for TM21 mode.
Now, the next question is if the given waveguide is filled with dielectric with ϵ r =2.2instead
of air, then what will be the cutoff frequencies for these modes, the cutoff frequency for
2 2
c m n
different dielectric mediums will be f c =
2 √ εr √( a)()
+
b
; we have already calculated these
terms. So, we need to divide cutoff frequencies we have calculated earlier by √ ε r only. So,
1.372/√ 2.2 will be the cutoff frequency for TE10 mode which comes out to be 0.925 GHz.
Similarly, for TM21 mode it will be 3.884/√ 2.2 which comes out to be 2.619 GHz. So, this is
how cutoff frequencies in the rectangular wave guide are calculated. Now, let us move on to
the applications of wave guides. There are various applications of wave guides, these wave
guides can be used to transport large powers from one point to another in any system. Some
applications of rectangular waveguides include E-plane Tee, H-plane Tee, magic Tee,
attenuators, couplers. So, let us see these one by one.
So, first we will have E-plane Tee. In E-plane Tee this is the port one which is called as E-
arm, this is port 2 and this is port 3. These 2 are called as collinear arms. If input is given to
port number 1, then the power will be divided in these 2 ports, but the outputs at these ports
will be 1800 out of phase as you can see from this figure if the direction of electric field is
like this. So, it will propagate like this in E-arm and after this, it will be divided something
like this.
So, the direction of electric field in this port port 3 will be in this direction and the direction
of electric field is in this direction; that means, these 2 are 180 0 out of phase. You can see
from this also this is port 1, this is port 2, this is port 3. And we are providing input from this
port and the output is getting divided at this point and the direction of the arrows at these 2
ports are opposite to each other; that means, they are 180 0 out of phase. I have this E-plane
Tee with me also. So, in this is the port 1, this is port 2, this is port 3. So, if we provide input
at this the power will be divided in this and this, but the outputs will be in 1800 out of phase.
Similarly, the other application is H-plane Tee, in H-plane Tee the port 1 is called as H-arm,
port 2 and 3 are called as collinear arms, if we give input to port 1, then power will be divided
equally and the output powers will be in the same phase. So, as you can see from this figure
also. In this, this is the port 1, this is port 2 and this is port 3. So, we are giving input at this
port and the power is getting divided at this point and it is going in the same phase; the 2
output are in the same phase.
So, depending upon our requirement of the power division; so, if we want equal power
division and output should be in same phase, then we can use H-plane Tee and if we want
equal power division, but output should be at 1800 out of phase, then we can use E-plane Tee.
Now, there is one more Tee which is magic Tee. In this port 1 is H-arm and port 4 is E-arm
and 2 and 3 are collinear ports. So, in this if we give input to port 1, then power will be
divided equally in 2 and 3 and the outputs will be in same phase and the port 4 will be
isolated port as you can see from this figure. In this, this is the port 1, this is port 2 and 3 and
this is port 4. And if we give input to this port, then output is getting divided in these 2 ports
equally with same phase as you can see from the direction of the arrows and the port 4 is
isolated port.
Similarly, if we give input to port 4, then power will be divided in 2 and 3 equally, but in
opposite phase and port 1 will be isolated as seen from this and one more thing, if we give
input at port 1 and port 4 simultaneously, then the sum of these inputs will be provided at one
of these ports 2 and 3 and the difference will be provided at the other port. Now, the next
application is a coupler. So, in coupler, we have 4 ports input port, through port, coupled port
and isolated port.
So, in this is the input port, this is the through port this is the coupled port and this is the
isolated port, this isolated port in this coupler is terminated with a mesh load this coupler is a
10 dB coupler. So, if we give input 0 dB here, then we will get -10 dB here at the coupled
port.
Now, the next application is attenuator. So, this is the attenuator.

In this, this is the waveguide, we will give input here and get output from here and there is a
absorbing material which will absorb the power flowing through the waveguide, this is 10 dB
attenuator. So, if we give 0 dB input, here we will get -10 dB output here. So, this is a fixed
type of attenuator, in general, the wave guides are used to transport a high power from one
point to another in a system.
Thank you.
Microwave Theory and Technology
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 02
Lecture - 09
Transmission Lines – I: Coaxial Cables, Strip Lines and Microstrip Lines
Hello everyone. Today, we are going to talk about different types of transmission line such as
Coaxial line, Strip line, Microstrip line and Rectangular waveguide. You have already heard
about different modes in the parallel plate or in the waveguide. So, but today, we will focus
upon the practical aspects of these transmission lines. So, let us start with the coaxial cable, I
am sure all of you are aware about coaxial cable.
So, a coaxial cable has a center conductor over here; on the center conductor there is a
dielectric insulator and then on top of that there is a it actually shows here braid wire mesh
that is not always necessary. It can be just aluminium thing also, aluminium rap or it can be a
copper foil along this one here and then this is actually put on the top is a plastic jacket which
insulates the whole thing. Now for this coaxial cable, we actually can define capacitors, we
all know that you know that you know that there is a center conductor and we have a metal
along that; then this will have a coaxial capacitance.
So, that capacitance is given by this particular formula where r is the dielectric concept of
this particular insulator. Majority of the time this insulator is of teflon material which has r =
2.1. However, there are some low cost coaxial cable where they use plastic as this dielectric
material; however, I do not recommend that because plastic is relatively lossy. So, what
happens? There are more losses in the coaxial cable; of course, there are some other materials
also. In fact, many a times, people do use foam here also and foam has a r = 1.05 up to 1.1
and the foam has an advantage that it has very low dielectric loss.
Now, any wire here will have an inductor so, the inductor of that is given by this particular
expression. Now these things you might have studied in your electrostatic course or
electromagnetic course; what we are interested today here is what is the characteristic
impedance of this particular coaxial cable. Now, characteristic impedance of a lossless line is
L . In fact, otherwise if it is a lossy cable, then the expression will be something

given by
√ C
R+ jωL
. So, if R = 0 and G = 0, then jω will cancel and that gives right to Z0 = L .
like
G+ jωC C √
So, L expression is there, C expression is there, we take the ratio.
So, this is the expression for characteristic impedance. So, let us see; what is this really
expression all about. So, you can see that r is in the denominator; that means, if r increases
then Z0 will decrease and Z0 is also you can see that as the outer diameter increases or if the
inner diameter decreases, then also characteristic impedance will increase.
So, just to give you some practical application or the just to give you practical example of one
of the coaxial cable which is RG 58 C slash U coaxial cable and show you the detail data
sheet in the next slide, this has the internal diameter of 0.91 mm and diameter of the dielectric
is 2.95, r = 2.1. So, that gives raise to Z0 = 48.7 Ω; though this is known as a 50 Ω coaxial
cable. So, you might wonder; why this discrepancy and see the reason for that is that when
this copper mesh or this particular copper foil is put here, there may be a small air gap over
here in between which will give rise to a slightly higher impedance value.
So, let just see different types of the coaxial cable and what are the typical attenuation here.
So, what we have here? along this axis we have frequency variation. So, one can see here this
about 500 megahertz going all the way to about 3000 megahertz or you can say 3 gigahertz
and along the vertical axis we have attenuation in dB per 100 meter.
So, if we now look at this particular cable RG 174, you can see that this has highest losses
among all of these thing; yet this is being used; one of the main reason is this is very very
thin. So, one actually use this particular thing at thin line wherever weight is important, but
otherwise you can see if I just look at it here attenuation dB per 100 meter.
So, for 1 meter attenuation will be of the order of say 1 dB at this particular point and that
frequency is around 750 megahertz. And, you can see that they themselves do not
recommend that you use this particular cable at very high frequency of even, let us say 2G,
3G, 4G, even Wi-Fi which comes somewhere over here. But yet, this particular thing is being
used in GSM module as well as GPS module because, there the wire length may be of the
order of 10 to 20 centimetre.
So, now let us see the example which I gave that is RG58 right over here, you can see that at
about 2 gigahertz, if you see this value here that is close about 85 dB per 100 meter. You can
see that these are different different things over here and that would give rise to a much
lower; you can say attenuation loss in this particular cable. Now just to give you little bit idea
about the prices, typically this RG 58 cable may cost about something like 10 rupees per
meter depending upon the quantity.
But it may even cost 100 rupees if you buy a smaller quantity. For example, if you want to
buy just 1 meter cable, they may charge you anywhere between 50 to 100 rupees. And some
of these other cables are very expensive. Just to mention a few years back, we actually bought
a network analyser which works at millimeter wave frequency up to 40 gigahertz and for that
for coaxial cable for 1 meter, they charged us about 1000 dollars. So, you can see that how
much price variation can be there depending upon the quality of the coaxial cable. So, it
would be a really good idea if any one of you wants to become an entrepreneur, the coaxial
cable requirement in India is huge and in the other countries.
Now, for these co-axial cables, let us see; how the data sheets are defined. So, this is RG58
and just to mention from where I took all those numbers. So, you can actually see here
mechanical specification diameter is given which is 0.195 from there I have taken the value,
it also gives us what is the weight of the coaxial cable per feet, it also mentions about what
are the power handling capacities and so on.
So, it is very important before you use these cables for specially commercial use, you must
study the data sheet properly and see what are the limitations of that particular cable. Now,
these cables cannot be used by itself they have to be connected by different types of RF
connectors. So, they are many connectors which are popular.
So, let us start with this here BNC connector, generally these connectors are good up to about
1 gigahertz and so on. One should not really use this type of connector for frequencies greater
than 1 gigahertz, then there are N-type connector; just to tell you N stands for navy.
So, from the navy, it came and this one also has male and female type. So, these type of
connector are female type and this is actually a male type connector and typically N-type
connector can be used up to 4 gigahertz. However, there are some good quality expensive N-
type connectors, which can be used up to about 18 gigahertz. Few other things I just want to
tell so that you also think about the making of this whole thing. So, you can see that this is the
outer body over here in between you can see there is a copper center conductor and around
that little bit white you can see over here and that is nothing, but suppose to be teflon.
Now, if you just use a normal co axial center conductor then there will be a problem that if
you use the connector several times this actually spreads out and then if this spreads out, then
when you make the connection it is not going to be a tight connection there may be a slightly
loose connection and then if you do that you will actually see that lot of power is getting loss
the signal is not going from point a to b and there may be a loss of 1 dB, 2 dB, or even 10 dB
if the things are not proper. So, what you can do if you this thing take a nose plier and the
thing which has spread out you tighten it. There is a alternate option is also there that instead
of using copper as the center thing here you use beryllium copper; beryllium copper has a
much better elasticity and in fact, that is what is generally used in a better quality connector.
So, you can actually have this thing connection open close open close especially for the
laboratory things where you may be doing this connection opening and closing several time
this is highly recommended. Now these type of connectors APC, there also know as sexless
connector; In fact, when I use the network analysers almost 4 decades back these network
analysers would come with these APC connectors, but nowadays these type of connectors are
more prevalent. And then smaller version of this is known as a SMA connector and these
SMA connectors again come in the form of male and female connectors.
And these are generally good up to about 18 gigahertz and then if you want to work at
millimeter ways, we have to use K connector; again in K connectors both the male and
female connectors are there and these can be used up to about 40 gigahertz of frequency.
Again just to tell you the typical price. So, these N-type connector may cost anywhere
between 1 to 5 dollar or if you want to convert into rupee, it may be anywhere between 50
rupees to even 300 rupees. SMA connectors again, it may cost 1 to 5 dollar or between 50 to
may be 1 or 2 hundred rupees, but this K connectors to the best of my knowledge nobody is
making these K connectors in India as of now.
So, if you are going to import these K connectors; these will cost anywhere around twenty
dollars or so. So in fact, you can see that it is very small and material cost will be very small.
So, all you require as a precision CNC machine and you can do the fabrication; all that design
details are generally available, you can just do the Google search and you can get all these
dimension.
So, all you need is a good mechanical engineer and who is familiar with the CNC machines
operation and in fact, these days lot of good softwares are available; one of the familiar one is
a solid works, you can use that which will draw all these 3D things and that will go straight
way to CNC. And you can get these connectors, any one of these connectors and if you make
these connectors yourself, it may not even cost more than 20 to 30 rupees per connector.
So, now from the coaxial line, let us talk about strip line. Now what is a strip line? Just see
over here, there is a one; you can see here rectangular shape shown over here. So, this is a
ground plane, this is a ground plane and sometimes, the side may also be grounded specially
when somebody puts a box around this thing, normally, this may not be there ok. The strip
line configuration is with this and with this, but of course, these 2 have to be grounded.
So, what we really have here? this is a strip here; to understand this particular strip line
configuration let us just talk about again coaxial cable. So, the coaxial cable what we have
this is a circular one and there is a center conductor; now you make the center conductor very
flat which is represented by this line here very flat and then the circular one you make it
rectangle. So, this is flat now flat and this is close here.
So, you can see that the strip line is somewhat similar to a coaxial cable; however, all the
design equations are slightly different and another thing is that these strip lines are printed on
a dielectric substrate. So, what we have here? there is a substrate over here and from that
substrate, you print this particular line and then you take a another substrate put on top of that
and then we have to ensure that when you put the 2 layers together, there should not be any
air gap.
So, you really have to tightly clamped from the top and the bottom side. Now for this
particular strip line, the characteristic impedance formula is given by this particular thing
over here. So, you can actually see that again Z 0 is inversely proportional to square root of r
and also if W increases, then Z0 will decrease. So, this is the expression this W is really here
is W effective; why W effective? because there will be some fringing fields from here.
So, because of the fringing field there will be fringing fields here; effective W is slightly
greater than W. So, W effective is given by this particular expression. So, here is the W
which is the physical dimension depending upon the value of the W you have to use either
this or this particular thing. But now, these days strip line instead of using strip line people
are actually preferring to use microstrip line, I will tell about what is a microstrip line, but
first let us just look at what are the different types of substrate used for these strip lines or
microstrip line.
So, these are the different types of substrate for example, foam substrate is there which may
have a r anywhere between 1.05 to 1.1; typical value is 1.07 and the tan delta is small you
can see 0.0009 and there are many manufacturers I did mention about teflon which is used
inside the coaxial cable.
So, r = 2.1, tan delta is 0.0004 and again there are many manufacturers. However, what are
more popular these days are these substrates most of these are available from Rogers; Rogers
is again not an Indian company and these substrates are in general very expensive for
example, RT5880 this has been approved for space application and I will also mention about
the low cost substrate first which is a glass epoxy substrate; this is the typical substrate which
you will see inside your mobile phone or inside laptop and other thing. So, typically for that
r = 4.4, but you can see here tan delta is 0.02 and there are several manufacturers in the
world, but compare to glass epoxy substrate all these substrate may be 30 to 50 times more
expensive. So, you have to now decide what is the application.
So, most of the time for commercial application we use glass epoxy substrate and for the
defence and space application where performance is really very very important, cost of
course, is important, but one can pay more cost to get a better performance. So, you can see
that there are different types of substrates are there r = 2.2, 3, 6, 10, 3.38, of course, there are
other competitors also Taconic; there was another competitor Arlon.
But now, Arlon has been bought by Rogers. So, competition has really reduced and these
substrates the standard dimensions of these substrates are typically 1 by 64 inches or 1 by 32
inches or 1 by 16 inches, 1 by 8 inches, 1 by 4 inches. Now also, these substrates are
available in different form also; sometimes, they also say 10 mil substrate; what is mil? m i l
is milli inches. So, if I said 10 mil; 10 mil is equal to 10 by 1000 inches which is 0.001 inches
and which really corresponds to 0.254 millimetre.
So, now let us just see what is a microstrip line and then let me first tell what are the
differences between a strip line and microstrip line. So, in the case of microstrip line, we have
a ground plane over here so that means you maintain the copper here and on the top you can
see this is the line and this of course, line will be something like this.
So, this shows the only this part here, but this line will be something like this going here and
then way will be propagating from here to this here. Now, in this particular case, what
happens? The fringing fields are shown over here, you can see that from this line, it is like a
parallel plate capacitance. So, if I have a metal plate and I put another metallic plate over
there will be fringing field and there will be a capacitance between the 2 plane.
So, one can actually see that these are the electric fields and you can see most of the electric
fields are confined within the substrate material, but part of that is actually in the air and these
are the magnetic field lines around the strip line over here. Now difference between
microstrip line and strip line is that in the microstrip line, there is a only 1 substrate, there is a
no top substrate, whereas, in strip line, there is a another substrate on top of that.
So; that means, strip lines will cost approximately double of the microstrip line because you
need 2 substrate; another problem with the strip line is that you have to mechanically align
the top substrate with the bottom substrate. So, there should not be any air gap at all; of
course, there are advantages of strip line that in that particular case, since we have a ground
here and ground here the radiation leakage is very very small, but over here now, there will
be some radiation over here. In fact, this is where the difference comes. So, for microstrip
line, we would like the radiation to be as small as possible, but there is a another type of
things which is known as a microstrip antennas and in this particular course, we will talk
about microstrip antennas also. So, in microstrip antennas we want most of this thing to
radiate whereas, when it is a microstrip line we want very little to radiate.
Now, since part of the fringing field is in the air and the wave is propagating here little bit is
in the air. So, now, instead of defining r, but now we have to actually define e. So, e is
given by this particular expression over here and just to make things little bit quick simple
here, suppose if W is infinity.
That means, if this is very very large; that means, you can say that fringing fields are almost
negligible. So, let us see what happens if W is very large if this goes to infinity this term will
be 0. So, this will be one and this term here now if you see if we add that to e will become r.
So, if W is very very large e will tend to become r; now think the other extreme case
suppose if W is very small if W is tending toward 0 then this term will become infinity; 1 by
infinity will be 0.
So, this term will be 0. So, e will be given by this particular expression, what this expression
tells here that now e will be average of the 2 medium. So, below it is r, above it is air. So,
εr +1
εe= , but in reality W will never be equal to 0. So, you can in general say that e will be
2
slightly less than or equal to r value. So, now for a given value of W depending upon
whether W by d; what is d here? d is this particular depth over here, but later on I am also
going to use another symbol which is h. So, h is height of the substrate. So, please do not get
confused because different books use W by d or some other books used W by h.
W
So, you should be familiar with both that things. So, if ≤1, you have to use this expression
d
W
to find the characteristic impedance and if ≥1, then use this particular expression. Now,
d
here the advantage of this particular thing is that you can design a microstrip line for almost
any characteristic impedance theoretically; practically you can design these microstrip lines
for characteristic impedance from 10 to 15 Ω up to 150 or 200 Ω. So, you can actually design
these microstrip line in wide variety of the cases. Now this is known as a analysis equation
where W is given, d is given.
Now, many a times, you may be actually asked that ok, for a given Z0 which could be 50 Ω or
100 Ω find out the value of W/d and generally speaking you will choose the substrate. So, as
I had mentioned there are substrates of different r and these substrates are available in
different thicknesses. So, you are going to choose the substrate thickness and substrate and
then for that particular case we know d. So, we have to find the value of W. So, for a given
Z0, you can find W/d by using this particular expression. So, you can see over here that this is
W W
a little bit over here <2 or >2.
d d
Now you may not know, beforehand which one to be used. So, you have to us any one of this
formula in the beginning and then check whether this is valid or this is valid and then you
may have to use another expression and you can see over here the term A is there and term B
is there. So, A is given by this expression and B is given by this particular expression.
So, let me give you actually a microstrip line design problem itself so that you can do little bit
practice for other value. So, here that design case, we have taken is for FR4 substrate r = 4.4,
1
we have taken height as 1.6 mm which really corresponds to inches. So, what we want?
16
we want to find the value of microstrip line width for characteristic impedance of 100 Ω.
So, here we find the value of A; you can see that A is required for the first part we will just
check it. So, A is given by this expression we substitute the values r = 4.4, Z0 = 100, we do
the simplification it comes out to be 2.899. And then, we find W/d which is given by this
W
particular thing and here we can see <2; so, hence this particular formula is valid.
d
So, for the given value of d or we can say h as I mentioned, these 2 are same thing, w is
coming out to be point seven one mm and we have also calculated e here which is coming
out to be 3.05. So, you can see that this value is definitely less than 4.4 and if I take the
average if the width is very small, then what would have been the average value (r +1)/2
which will be 5.4 by to 2.7.
So, have W been equal to 0, this would have been close to 2.7; since W is relatively small this
value is 3.05. So, let just verify this particular design thing, I have given you already that
W
analysis equation. So, here we are just showing you that. So, <1. So, we can use this
d
particular formula and you can see this value comes out to be 99.62. So, really speaking this
value is very close to 100, but if somebody is interested to calculate percentage error one can
see that this percentage error is very very small.
Now, there are variations are there in microstrip line also, there are something like known as
a slot line. So, where basically a slot is cut and that is what acts as a slot line and you can see
over here, these are the fringing field.
However, I generally do not recommend this particular thing specially for microstrip line
application because there is a radiation leakage from this side as well as radiation leakage
from this side so in fact, slot antenna is a better option rather than using a slotted line because
of the leakage and if there is a leakage then the power from point A to point B will not be
going properly; part of that will get radiated.
There is another variation also which is known as coplanar waveguide. So, in this case the
difference between the microstrip line and this particular thing is let us first see the what is a
microstrip line would be? microstrip line, would have been just this particular width here and
there would be ground plane down here. But in case of coplanar waveguide, there is no
ground plane at the other side, now there are ground planes on either side of this particular
thing over here ok.
So, now again let see what is happening? you can see that there is a lot of fringing field going
up and going down. So, I generally do not recommend again coplanar waveguide for
microstrip circuit because of the leakage here. However, it does have some advantages and
that is why it is being used. So, for example, let say this is wave is going from point A here to
lets say B and we want to add some series or shunt component. So, series component can be
very easily put.
So, what you do you remove this particular thing just etch it out and you can solder the series
component; you want to put shunt component? the shunt component can be easily put from
here to here because this is ground or you can put between this and this. So, component
mounting over here is much more easier whereas, in case of a microstrip line what you need
to do that ground plane is down here. So, putting a series component is not a problem, but if
you have to put a shunt component then there are certain issues are there because now, one
has to drill a whole here.
So, these days because of the plated through technology also known as PTH things are
become relatively simple. So, in a case of microstrip line what to you do? you make this lets
say patch here and you have multiple PTH here plated through whole and you can also have
multiple plated through whole.
So, now, this ground is basically come through over here; so, this also acts as a ground plane
and then you can connect shunt component or you can connect series component. So,
microstrip line in general has several of the advantages compared to some of these other
thing. So, in this particular course most of the time we will concentrate on the microstrip line.
Now microstrip line how we draw is also very very important. So, let us just look at 1 or 2
cases here.
Let us say we want to use a bend in a microstrip line; now one possibility is that we use right
angle bend. I generally do not recommend this particular thing. Because what happens the
wave is which is coming through here it gets reflected from here part of that will go back and
other thing will go there. In fact, sometimes to understand current flow in these lines you can
actually thing about a water flow in a pipe. So, if there was a pipe over here and if the water
is flowing like this there will be some turbulence over here. So, instead of using this if you
look at your home most of the time if there is a bend they never use bend like this they
always use something like this bend.
In fact, this kind of a configuration is highly recommended that when you are doing a PCB
layout try to use as much as possible this kind of a bend instead of this. However, if you are
not able to use this I strongly recommend you can use something like mitered bend. Just to
tell you so this is what has been proposed in one of the book over here. In fact, you might
remember that if I have a 450 cut over here at this angle, then what happens the wave comes
remember the optical laws; if the light comes here if it is a 45 0 it will reflect over here. So,
this is something similar to that slightly more than 45.
So, it goes here and comes here; however, I do not recommend this; the reason for that is
when wave is propagating it is actually let us say wave is propagating. So, field will be like
this. So, now, the field is travelling like this and then field will be going like this and it will
travel here. Now, at this particular point, you can see that it will see a much smaller width
compared to this width over here and we have just seen that if width is decreased impedance
will change. So, it is not going to see uniform impedance. So, this red line I have added over
here.
So, I strongly recommend use this particular thing wherever possible; if you can’t use, please
use something like this here so that you can see now the wave which is travelling like this;
most of the time it will see approximately this particular W. The same thing instead of 90 0
angle, lets say the angle is different, again and one of the book they have recommended
something like this but I actually recommend that you use something like this over here so
that you know that width seen by the this particular wave is almost uniform throughout.
Now, let us also look at some of the other discontinuities. So, there are several microstrip line
discontinuities are there like for example, there is a open end, we can see here that there is a
microstrip line. These are the open end; these are used as stubs; we will see later on all of
these things one by one. Again these are the examples of open end; you can see here that
these are the open end, these are known as coupled lines, now there could be a open end
resonators.
Now, there may be a gap between the different thing; now these gaps can be represented by a
capacitance. So, that can be used for coupling to resonator or that gap can be also used for
biasing the network
Let us look at some other discontinuities there may be a step in the width. So, for example,
this may represent lets say 100 Ω line this may represent for example, 70 Ω line this may
represent 50 Ω line and something like this is actually required for impedance matching; now
it just shows right angle bend, but as I recommended do not use like this; use curved lines.
Now, there are T junctions, you can see here T junction can be used as a stub; we will also
look into later on various application this is like a branch line circuit. So, there are 2 lines are
there and these are the branches coming through here. So, you can see there are several T
junctions are there and then of course, there is a cross junction.
So, today we have looked into various types of lines; we have looked into coaxial line, we
have looked into strip line. But we have looked more in detail about microstrip line, we have
looked into what are the analysis equations and what are the designed equation. I did take a
case of 100 Ω line, but I strongly recommend that you people practice for let us say 50 Ω line
and 70.7 Ω line when we take examples, later on you will realize the importance of these
particular thing. In the next lecture, we will also talk about now rectangular waveguide and
basic transmission line theory.
So, thank you very much, see you next time, bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 02
Lecture - 10
Transmission Lines - II: Transmission Line Model, Open and Short Circuited Lossless
Transmission Lines
Hello everyone. Welcome to today’s lecture on Transmission Lines which is continuation of

the previous lectures. So, in the previous lecture we had seen coaxial cable. We had actually
seen that what are the capacitances and inductance values, and from that, we found out what
is the value of the Z0, which is characteristic impedance of the line.
Of course, this one assumes it is a lossless line.

But then we did look into what are the losses. So, one can see that the losses can be very high
or losses can be even very low. And of course, you pay more price for these kind of coaxial
cable.
Then we did look at the specification of one of the coaxial cable, followed by different types
of connector.
So, I did mention to you about different types of connector, but just to tell you at RF these
days the maximum number of connectors, which are being, used are N type or SMA
conductor type; these are the two most commonly used. Of course, at millimeter wave you
have no option, but use these connectors.
Then we talked about strip line. So, I did mention to you how coaxial line can be represented
in terms of strip line, because there it is circular here it is rectangular.
Then from strip line we looked into different types of substrates; what are the substrates used
from low cost to very high cost. After that we talked about microstrip line; we do look into
what are the fringing fields associated with these thing.
And because of the fringing field effective dielectric constant is present which is slightly less
than dielectric constant of the substrate. Because now, wave is not completely confined inside
the dielectric material, part of the field is in the air.

And then we looked into for a given value of W one can find the characteristic impedance.
So, this is an analysis equation, and then we looked at the design problem, where Z 0 is given
and we need to find what is W/d or W/h.
Then we took one design problem so where we have taken a one particular substrate and then
for characteristic impedances of 100 Ω. We can find out the value of W which comes out to
be 0.71 mm and e = 3.05 which is less than 4.4. And we verified this design equation using
the analysis equation and we saw that the percentage error is relatively very small.

Then we also looked at some other variations like slot line, co-planer waveguide, but I did
mention that these lines are relatively more lossy in a sense that there will be more radiation
losses.
So, there many a times better option as an antenna than they are options as microstrip circuit.
So, I prefer generally microstrip circuit. So, that is why in this course we will focus more on
the microstrip circuit. Then I did mention to you about how to do a proper layout.

You will see later on that bends are very very common in most of the different configuration.
So, instated of using a bend like this use this bend which is most preferable one if not
possible use a bend which has something like this over here. So, right angle bend you use two
mitered bends over here. And if the angle is not 900 still I recommend that you use this kind
of a configuration then of using only this type.
Then we also looked at different types of microstrip discontinuities which are open and gap.
Then step in width, right angle bend, T junction, cross junction.

In fact, there are many other discontinuities are also there which we will discuss as we move
along in the course. But these are the most important ones or more commonly appearing in
different circuit configuration.
Now, let us move to the next one rectangular waveguide. You have already been introduce to
rectangular wave guide in the previous lectures, but I will just have a little bit of a repetition
but add a few additional practical concepts about this over here. So, a rectangular waveguide
is defined by its two dimensions a and b of course, then there will be a length of that. Now,
this a here basically defines the cutoff frequency. So, if we are going to operate at
fundamental mode TE10. What is 10? 1 basically means that there is a one half wavelength
variation over here.
So, what is half wavelength? Well, suppose if I take a wave. So, wave will be let us say 0
goes to maximum comes to 0 and goes back to 0. So, that will be a complete wave form. Here
what happen? The wave is going from 0 it goes to maximum and then it comes to 0 here.
Now, this is the distribution for voltage. Why voltage? Because this is a short circuit, so for
short circuit voltage will be 0 and it will be 0 here in between it will be maximum. But if we
look at the current distribution then the current will be a maximum over here. So, the current
will be let us say maximum then it will go to 0 and then it will go to minimum.
So, these waveguides are defined by at the cutoff frequency and the cutoff frequency first we
c
need to find out the cutoff wavelength λ c = . And once we know λ c ; we know that cutoff
2a
C
frequency is nothing but f c = and λ c =2a .
λc
Now, generally speaking waveguides are not used just immediately above the cutoff
frequency. So, for example, I will take an example and then I will explain you. So, suppose a
waveguide which is shown here as an example whereas, a = 2” and b =1”. So if a = 2” you
can actually do the calculation, so λ c =2×2=4 ; you multiply that inches into 2.54 to get cm
C
and then from that you use the concept f c = and then the cutoff frequency comes out to be
λc
2.95 GHz for TE10 mode.
However, you cannot use waveguide at 3 GHz or so, the reason for that this is here is the
attenuation curve versus frequency and these curves are given for different mode here TE 10
mode and other mode. Now, TE10 mode is known as dominant mode, majority of the
applications use TE10 mode dominant mode.
So, let just look into that here. Now, see this is frequencies 2.95 close to 3 GHz. So, let us see
here the frequency this is 3 GHz. So, if I go vertically up here at 3 GHz you can see that the
attenuation is relatively very high. And this attenuation now is decreasing, so you can see that
in this particular region relatively attenuation is small. So, you can see that these numbers are
very small compare to even coaxial line so in fact, in general rectangular wave guides have
much lower losses compare to a coaxial line or even a microstrip line.
So, here in general just to mention so this is 2.95 and generally this particular wave guide is
used in this particular frequency range which rarely corresponds to 1.3 fc to about 1.9 fc.
Now, there are two things are there one is of course, in this range there is a low attenuation
but if you see low attenuations stretches all the way to up to this point then why this limit.
a a
The reason for this limit is that if, let us say b= . Now, in that particular case if b= then
2 2
what happens at double the frequency this particular mode will start getting exited. So, this
mode is 10 but the other mode which can come over here that can be now, 01 mode.
Also at double the frequency this particular thing here we will not be 10 any more at TE 20
will be something like this maximum it will go to 0 and then it will come like this here. So
that means, higher order modes will start propagating which we really do not want hence
there is a limit of 1.3 fc to 1.9 fc.
I also want to mention that many waveguides are also defined by its numbers. So, for
example, standard available is WR 90; now, actually in this number itself the dimension of a,
is hidden actually. So, over here a = 0.9”. So, you have 90 you put 0.9”.
Now, just you tell you in this particular case b = 0.4”, so which is not really half of a but half
of a would have been 0.45” it is close to that. Just to give you some other numbers also for
example, at one time we did work on WR 2300. So, 2300 actually means 23”. So, that is
about this large waveguide ok and that one had a b which is half of that a. But, because this
a
size was so large there is a reduced height waveguide is also available where b= . So, again
4
when you are choosing a waveguide it is very important what is your frequency of operation.
For example, you can do the calculation for WR 90 you will see that the cutoff frequency is
actually less than 7 GHz. However, the operating range for this waveguide is generally given
more as 8 to 12 GHz which is what is X-band. So, be careful about this attenuation curve
even the cutoff frequency is 3 GHz you do not really use the waveguide at 3 GHz, because
attenuation will be very large at this particular frequency.
So, let us do a comparison of different transmission lines. So, for coaxial cable there can be
different modes which has been discuss in the earlier lecture. So now, let just look at some of
the important thing. For example, coaxial cable has a bandwidth high, but I just want to
mention here little bit be careful about it; a coaxial cable can be used right from dc up to
about 1 GHz or 10 GHz or even 40 GHz, but you have to pay lot of price for that.
Now, waveguide bandwidth as I mention it is generally low the reason for that is waveguide
is defined by its mode and you can say that the bandwidth will be generally limited to about
1.3 fc to about 1.9 fc. So, strip line you can see that the bandwidth is relatively high, here it is
slightly low again because of the dispersion or because of the radiation which is over there,
ok. So of course, loss coaxial cable has medium loss, waveguide has very low loss and these
have relatively higher losses.
Similarly, now, the power capacity coaxial cable can handle medium power again in this
particular case I want to mention there are several variations of coaxial cables are available.
There may be a thin coaxial cable or there may be a this thick coaxial cable also which can
handle several kilowatts of power also. But waveguide of course, can handle very high power
the reason for that is first of all there is a no canter conductor. So, center conductor being thin
in the other cases will have a high resistance. So, I 2R losses will be more here there is a no
center conductor and of course, the outer 4 walls are there which are made of 4 metallic wall
so they can handle higher power.
Of course, the disadvantage with this is that the physical size of this is relatively large, ok.
You can see the advantage over here integration with components. You can see that with the
microstrip line it is very easy to integrate; with strip line fair the reason why the fair is that let
us say if I have a one substrate then we have a line. If you want to put components on that
then putting another thing will be very challenging because the reason if you put the layer this
component or lumped elements will have certain thickness. So, there will be an air gap. So,
you really speaking have to be very careful when you want to mount the components. So, that
is why microstrip line is very very popular and these are really speaking used now, almost
you can say in all your laptops mobile phone and other cases.
Let us now look at the basic concept of lossy transmission line, ok. You might have studied
this particular thing in electromagnetic waves, but still we will look into some of the things as
we are going to use this transmission line for several applications later on.
So, little bit of a quick review. So, here what we have? a very small coaxial line represented
by the discrete values over here. So, what we have? A resistance and the length of the coaxial
line is dz. So, that is Rdz, then the inductor is let us say Ldz the capacitance. What is the
capacitance? You can say that capacitance is between the center conductor to the outer
conductor or the capacitance can be between the line and the ground. And this particular
thing will generally be there, because of the lossy substrate. So, the substrate is lossless then
this term will generally be not there.
So now let just look at what are the different thing. So, this expression is a general expression
which is a propagation constant and that is given by (R+ j ωL¿(G+ jωC ), where R is the you
can say the series resistance of the line, this is the inductor of the line, that is the conductance
which is between the line and the ground and the capacitance.
So, if you assume that R and G are very small. So, in that particular case we can make an
approximation over here. So, by making this approximation you can say that this term get
simplified to this over here and if we now, assume that if R → 0 then propagation constant is
really equal to this particular term over here.
R+ j ωL . If
Now, similarly we have characteristic impedance expression which is now (√ G+ j ωC )
you actually look at it these two things look kind of similar here it is a product here it is a
ratio of the two terms. So, if R = 0, G = 0 this will not be there; j ω, j ω will get cancelled
L.
and we get
√ C
So, now you might be again familiar with electromagnetic waves concept, so where we have
a transmission line of let us say length L and characteristic impedance of the line is Z 0 which
is terminated in a load impedance.

By the way all these formulations which we are looking at they are valid for all types of
transmission line. So, this concept is valid for all of these, particular thing so you do not have
to worry about whether it is good for coaxial or microstrip or strip line it is valid for all those
cases.
So now, for a loaded lossless transmission line what is generally done I will just give you a
typical thing; you define a transmission line in terms of let us say voltage at this port, voltage
at this port and that voltage you might have seen that is given in terms of cos hyperbolic term
and sin hyperbolic terms in terms of voltages and current. And similarly current is written in
the similar form. So, we take the ratio of v and I which gives us the value of Z input.
And the cos hyperbolic term and sin hyperbolic term which has let us say cos ⁡(hγl) and we
just saw that the γ=α + jβ and α =0 for lossless line which is jβ and that is what the terms are
γ is written in terms of β and that cos hyperbolic term and sin hyperbolic term get simplified
to cos term and sin term. And by taking the ratio of that we get this particular expression.
This expression if you have a little doubt you can refresh your old notes or you can look at
any one of these books which I have mentioned earlier you can read Pozar book or Collins
book or any other even Jorden Balmain book and so on which you might have studied.
Now, what we are interested today in is to use this particular transmission line to realize
different types of component. And as we will see at microwave we will see later on that we
require very small inductances or capacitances which are very difficult to purchase from the
market they are not available as of the shelf, so many a times we realize these inductors and
capacitors using these transmission line. So, let just look into it how we can realize inductor
or capacitor using these transmission lines.
So, let just look at this expression again. So, Z in is given by Z0 which is characteristic
impedance of the line you can see here there is a load impedance and then Z0 tan ( βl );  is
2π λ0
nothing but propagation constant. Just to tell you. So, β= , where λ= in case of
λ √εr
λ0
coaxial cable or in case of strip line, but for microstrip line λ= .
√ε e
So, now let just look at different cases. So, the case number one for a short circuited line so
that means, there is a transmission line over here which is short circuited. So that means, Z L =
0 and now, if you put ZL = 0 over here this is 0, this is 0. So, what happens now? Simplify Z 0
Z0 gets cancelled we get Z0 tan ⁡( βl).
Now, you can see that this particular term is j here and this term can be represented as ωL,
but there is a condition over here I will explain one by one what are these things. So,
remember if there is an inductance what is the impedance of an inductance is equal to j ωL.
What is this impedance? j Z0 which is somewhat similar to this, but this will happen only if
L< ❑ . Why this condition? So, let just look into this over here. So, β= 2 π . If L< ❑ then
4 λ 4
this term will be less than 900 and tan of anything which is less than 90 0 will be positive. So,
this will be a positive number j Z0 some positive number which is equivalent to this.
So, we can say that a small transmission line which has to be smaller than ¿ 4 which is short
circuited can realize an inductance. Now, you might wonder well if there is a short circuit
over here current will be flowing through here voltage is equal to 0 here how does it realize
inductor. Well, the reason let just look into here because we are working at a very high
frequency. And at high frequency what happen? If this is a short circuit this point may not be
short circuit because there will be a voltage wave form.
As I mentioned suppose if there is a short here, then from short it will go to maxima it will go
to 0, then it will go to minima it will go to 0. So, think about from 0 to ¿ 4 length it goes from
0 to maximum. So, a short circuit here really will become maxima over here if the length is
precisely equal to ¿ 4.
Now, let us see what happens if ¿ 4<l<¿ 2. If it is greater than ¿ 4 and the less than ¿ 2 then β l
will be between 900 and 1800 for that case this quantity will be negative and if this is negative
then this quantity will not be valid; so in fact, a negative over here will realize a capacitance.
So that means, a length which is between ¿ 4to ¿ 2 will actually realize a capacitance.
However, generally we do not do that as it will be obvious from the next one. So, we
generally use a smaller line which is less than ¿ 4 and if it is short circuited it can realize a
inductance.
Let us see the case number 2, case 2 is open circuit. So, for open circuit Z L=∞ . So, let us see
what happens in this case Z L=∞ . and Z L=∞ . Now, please do not try to cancel this infinity
infinity directly. First of all you have to see this is infinity. So, any term which is added to
infinity will be negligible. So, it goes away. Now, this is infinity any term which is added to
infinity will be negligible. So, this is negligible, this is negligible. So now, you can cancel Z L
Z0 1
with ZL over here. So, what we will get? . Now, this is equivalent to for
j tan ⁡( βl) j ωC
l<¿ 4. Again the discussion is similar to what I had mentioned over here. So, if l<¿ 4 this
particular thing will be less than 900. So, tan of less than 900 will be positive so that will be
equivalent to this.
So that means, I can realize a capacitance using a small transmission line which is an open
circuit. So, again if you just think from circuit theory point of view these things may not
make a much sense. Open circuit you always think current is not going to flow how it can
realize inductance again you have to think this way. So, if this particular thing is open circuit
and if the l ≈/ 4 then open circuit will become short circuit over here and anything in between.
So, what will happen? So, let us say if this is an open circuit. So, for open circuit what will be
the current, current will be 0 voltage will be maximum.
So, this current which is 0 here will try to go to maxima if it is ¿ 4; suppose if this length
l<¿ 8. but still it will go from 0 may be half the way of maxima maximum would have been
here but you will have a some finite value of the current. So, that is the difference in a normal
circuit theory and in at microwave because at microwave frequency is very high wavelength
is very small. And just to give you a little bit of an idea also see if you have working at let us
say 1 GHz, then what is ?  = 30 cm. What will be 30/4? 7.5 cm. Now, these things can be
put on a microstrip line or you can use a coaxial cable.
But if you try to realize inductor using this particular concept at let us say 1 MHz. Now, at 1
MHz wave length is going to be 300 m and 300/4 is 75 m. So, I do not think anybody would
like to use up to 75 m length just to realize a inductor one would rather by a inductor from the
market or of the shelf.
Then let just look at the third case here for a matched load which means Z L = Z0. So, if ZL =
Z0. So, what will happen? If Z L is Z0 here; ZL is Z0 this will get cancelled over here. So, we
can say Z input is equal to Z0 for all values of L. So, it is independent of L. In fact, it is
independent of frequency also.
So, what is the significance of this? Now, the significance of this is that if Z in = Z0 that means,
the source over here is equivalent to 50 Ω and this one here is terminated. So, what happens?
If this is 50 Ω here and if this is 50 Ω if you recall there is a maximum power transfer
theorem. What maximum power transfer theorem says, in order to transmit the maximum
power from the source to the load, load impedance should be equal to source impedance. So,
now, you can see that Zin = Z0, even though there is a transmission line in between but the
power transfer will be now maximum, so whatever we give at the input side all the power
will go to this particular thing and that is the significance of this here.
Let us look at two more cases here. One case is where length is actually equal to /4. So,
when l=¿ 4 that will be tan( βl) which is tan900 this term will become infinity. And if you
2
Z0
now, substitute this particular thing in the previous equation then Z¿= and this particular
ZL
thing is known as quarter wave transformer. Let just take an example.
Suppose if ZL =100 Ω and we need Zin = 50 Ω. Why we need Zin 50 Ω? Because majority of
the sources have the output impedance which is equal to 50 Ω; so if I want to connect one
particular source to this particular load 100 Ω then maximum power transfer will not take
place.
However, if we use this concept of quarter wave transformer and let us see what happens
now. So, we know ZL = 100, desired is 50 Ω we use this particular equation. So, if I use a
characteristic impedance Z0 of impedance 77.7 Ω that means, a load impedance 100 Ω is
transferred to source impedance or input impedance of 50 Ω which will be matched to this.
And since the line is lossless there will be no losses in the line, so that means now whatever is
the power coming from the input side will be deliver to the load because the transmission line
is lossless.
I just want to mention one more case over here this particular case is useful many a times
when you want to have a proper layout of the particular system. So, for example, if l=¿2. So,
if you now put in tan( βl) it becomes 0 and if this is equal to 0 then Zin = ZL so that means,
input impedance will be equal to load impedance if you choose l=¿2, and this particular this
is independent of the characteristic impedance of the line.
In fact, something like this we had used specially in one of the application using series fed
microstrip antenna array and in between we have to use the length which was ¿ 2 to provide
1800 phase shift. So, one can provide a 1800 phase shift at the same time input impedance
remain same as load impedance. So, if we use l=¿2 then input impedance becomes equal to
load impedance.
So, today we have looked into coaxial line, microstrip line, strip line in brief and we saw little
bit in detail about the waveguide. We looked into the comparison of different transmission
line, and after that we talked about simple model of a transmission line, and then we looked
at different cases case 1 2 3 4 5. And we actually saw that by using a small shorted
transmission line we can realize a indicator or if we use small open circuit line we can
actually realize capacitor. And we can use a ¿ 4 line to transform any arbitrary impedance to
some other impedance by using the characteristic impedance of the line. So, any load
impedance can be transfer to the desired input impedance by using a properly design
microstrip line or strip line or coaxial line of a given characteristic impedance.
So, in the next lecture we are going to look at varies things related to quarter wave
transformer, single section, multiple section; we will also look at smith chart, reflection
coefficient, VSWR and so on.
So, thank you very much. See you next time. Bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 03
Lecture – 11
Smith Chart and Impedance Matching - I: using Quarter Wave Transformer
Hello everyone. In the last few lectures, we have talked about transmission lines and in the
transmission lines, we started with coaxial cable, then we talked about strip line, microstrip
line as well as wavguide. Then we had taken a case where a transmission line is loaded with
the load impedance which is equal to ZL. We took a few cases of that; for example, we saw
that a small transmission line which is shorted; that means, Z L = 0 behaves as an inductance
as long as the length of the line l< λ /4. And if the line is open circuited, it behaves like a
capacitance. Case 3 was where we had terminated the line with load impedance Z 0 and in that
case, we saw that the input impedance always remains at Z 0 irrespective of the length of the
line.
The fourth case we had considered where the length of the line l=λ/ 4 and we had seen that
any arbitrary load impedance can be transformed to any other impedance. Now, this
transformation happens only at single frequency. So, what happens at other frequencies? So,
today we will look into different things like Smith chart, impedance matching because if the
load is not matched with the source impedance, then maximum power transfer does not
happen.
So, let see one by one, all these things, so first of all how do we define input impedance?
So, input impedance of any particular line or it can be of an antenna or an amplifier or other
components can be defined in terms of real and imaginary terms R A and j XA. So, from this
input impedance, we can find out the reflection coefficient. The reflection coefficient is given
Z A −Z 0
by Γ = .
Z A +Z 0
So, just let us take a very simple case of if ZA is real value; that means, XA = 0. We will take
other cases also one by one. So, if ZA is equal to let us say 100 Ω and if we say that the
characteristic impedance of the line is 50 Ω, then from this equation we can calculate the
100−50 50 1
reflection coefficient, so which will be . So, that is = .
100+50 150 3
Let us also define another quantity which is VSWR. It stands for voltage standing wave ratio.
V max
This is defined as VSWR= and the expression for VSWR is given by this equation. You
V min
can see here that this one here is actually taking magnitude of Reflection Coefficient.
Reflection Coefficient here is a complex number. Of course, I took example of Z A = 100 Ω
hence it was a real quantity, but Z A in many cases will be a complex number. So, then
reflection coefficient will also be complex number but however, over here we take the
magnitude of the reflection coefficient.
So, from here, we can calculate the value of VSWR, but just you look at the limiting cases, so
if reflection coefficient Γ =0 and this is 0, VSWR will be equal to 1 and if reflection
coefficient magnitude is 1, then 1 + 1 will be 2, but 1 - 1 is 0. So, that goes to infinity; so that
means, VSWR can vary from 1 to infinity. So, let us see what happens in this particular case.
1
So, reflection coefficient is 1/3. We substitute the value. So, from here we can say
3
.
( )
1+
1
1−
3 ( )
4
So, this will be

( 3) 1
which comes out to be 2. So, for reflection coefficient Γ = , VSWR
2 3
(3)
comes out to be 2.
Let us also define one more quantity which is a power reflected. So, what is power reflected?
Let us say if we are giving an input and that one is going to some load, the maximum power
transfer theorem says that the maximum power will get transfer if the load impedance is
equal to source impedance. But if load impedance is not equal to source impedance, then part
of the power will get reflected back.
2
So, let us see what is the power reflected back? power reflected back is given by P r =|Γ| .
Again you can see, it is magnitude of the gamma. So, if we now take this particular case, so
2
1 1
here Pr is nothing but |Γ|2 which is equal to ()
3
= and if you see the percentage wise, it is
9
actually 11.1%.
Now, many cases this particular VSWR equal to 2 is acceptable. So that means, really
speaking we are accepting 11.1% reflected power. Though many a times, they do talk about
this is approximately equal to 10, ok. So, just remember it is 11.1, but many times VSWR
equal to 2 is approximately considered as reflected power less than 10% which is not really
the case.
So that means, you can see here if load impedance is 100 Ω, we are going to have this much
of a reflected power. Suppose, if the load impedance was 50 Ω, so what would have
happened? So, 50−50=0, then reflected power would be P r =0. So, let us see now, we had
seen in the previous case that a quarter wave transformer can be used to transform the load
impedance to 50 Ω. So, let us see what happens now.
So, we will take a case where we want to do impedance matching from 100 Ω to 50 Ω.
Now, one of the simple things you may thing that if the load impedance is 100 Ω, I can put
100 Ω resistor in parallel and I would get Zin = 50 Ω. Now, that is a bad solution because if I
put a 100 Ω resistor in parallel with load impedance of 100 Ω, then 50% power will get
dissipated in that 100 Ω resistor. So, that is not a good solution at all.
So, let us see if you use single section which we had done in the previous lecture of a quarter
wave transformer. So, let just go through the step. So, let us say this is the load impedance,
λ
that is a transmission line of characteristic impedance Z 0, length is l= and this is where we
4
2
Z0
want to know what is Zin. So, for λ/ 4 transformer, we had seen that Z¿=
ZL
So, here ZL is given to be 100 Ω, Zin desired is 50 Ω. So, we can calculate the value of Z0. So,
this is Z0 which is √ Z ¿ Z L . So, √ 50 ×100, we get 70.7 Ω.
λ
So, if we use a transmission line of length l= at a given frequency, then we can transform
4
this 100 Ω impedance to 50 Ω impedance. Now, remember one thing; this particular thing
λ
will happen only at a single frequency where this length l= , ok. So, for example, assuming
4
that this is everything is in the air and we are designing let us say quarter wave transformer at
30
1 GHz. So, at 1 GHz wavelength will be 30 cm. So, =7.5 cm.
4
So, let us say we have chosen this length to be 7.5 cm. So, now, this 7.5 cm will be λ/ 4
only at 1 GHz. So, what will happen at 0.9 GHz or 0.8 GHz or 1.1 GHz or 1.2 GHz? We will
see that in the next slide what happens as the frequency changes; however, let us look into
one more thing here which is using double section quarter wave transformer. So, what is
being done over here compared to this instead of using a one λ/ 4 section, now we have used
two λ/ 4 section.
So, here the characteristic impedance of this particular transmission line is Z 01 and the
characteristic impedance of this line is Z 02. So, we want to find out what is Z input here and
we want to this Z input to be equal to 50 Ω. And we know that Z L = 100 Ω in this particular
2
Z01
case. So, let us see first what is Zin1 at this point. So, Zin1 will be Z¿ 1= .
ZL
2
Z 02
So, now from here, we can go to the next step and that is Z in. What will be Zin now? Z¿= .
Z¿ 1
So, we substitute Zin1 over here and now we substitute the value of Zin1 from here. So, if we
put over here, this will become now Z 02 and this term will come here which is Z 01 and this
2
Z02
term will go to the numerator. So, the term which is now equivalent to Z¿= ( )
Z01
ZL
So, for this particular case now, we want to find out what are the values of Z 02 and Z01. We
Z 02 Z ¿1
can see from here ZL is 100, Zin1 is 50. So, from here you can say that
Z 01
=
√( )ZL
. So, if
1
we substitute the value now, this is equal to . Now, you can see over here that there is
√2
only one equation ok and there are two unknowns. So that means, now we have to choose one
of the value. So, you have all the freedom to choose different values of Z01.
So, let just take some cases here. So, if I take Z 02 = 50, then Z01 will be 70.7 Ω. We can take
Z02 = 100. In that case, this will be 100 √ 2 that will be 141. We can take Z 02 as 10 and then
this will be 40 known. So, now, among all these choices which one is the best choice? So,
you really have to understand some of these things. So, many a times analysis problem is
relatively simple, but design problem is where there are certain challenges and you have to
really think what value is the perfect value.
So, here I just want to mention you here. So, this is one of the best option and will show you
later on why these are the best option. So, this one here we have taken as 60 Ω and that gives
Z01 =60 √ 2 and that comes out to be approximately equal to 84 Ω. So, let see here. So, this
was 100 Ω. So, from 100 we went to 84, then we went to 60 and then we went to 50. So that
means, we are moving from 100 to 50 in two steps from 100, we use 84 and then from 84, we
use 60 and then we went to 50 Ω.
Now, suppose if we had taken this as 100 only, so this would be 100 then this will be 100 and
now this is going to be calculate from this particular case here. So, this will be then 70.7. So,
in reality if I use 100 here we are not really using advantages of two section quarter wave;
100 here, 100 here; that means, this particular thing has not done anything. So, we actually
speaking are getting only one quarter wave doing its effective job.
Now, suppose if you take this as lets say 10 Ω over here and 14 Ω over here, so let say then
from 100 we are going to 14, then coming to 10 and then getting 50. Now, that is again a not
a very good idea because let us say thing about us, we want to go from let say 100 to 50 ok.
So, that is our step. So, it is always better from 100 you take step in between and you go
between; think this way that we want to go from point a to point b, what do you generally do?
We will like to use the shortest path. What you like to go from here 100, go to may be 120,
then may be some 150 and then come back to 50 not a good idea. Similarly, from 100, it is
not a good idea to go to 10 and then you come to 14 or then come to 50.
So, try to go step by step process. So in fact, you can actually just you tell you also there are
other things also to be done; something like we can also use a tapered line which will have an
impedance of 100 Ω over here and the impedance of 50 Ω here. So, you can simply use a
tapered line. So, as we discuss in the transmission line case for 50 Ω, width will be more and
for 100 Ω, width will be less. So, all you do width is you take a larger width here and taper it
down to this and taper it down to this here. So, that will be 100 and this will be 50.
Now, you thing the same thing now, this is 100 Ω tapered to 50 here. So, if you try to take
approximate average of this that may come around this here and then from here to here, you
try to take approximate average it will come out to be roughly 60 Ω. So, now, let me show
you if you use multiple quarter wave sections what can happen?
So, these results I have taken from this particular book here. I have even given the reference
page number also. So, if we use one quarter wave transformer, so this is what is being used
over here. So, if you use one quarter wave transformer, so let us see what we have shown.
f 1 5
This is the frequency ratio , this is , this is .
f0 3 3
So, if you really take the ratio of this to this so; that means, if I can achieve this particular
bandwidth this can be 5 is to 1 bandwidth and the advantage of this normalized thing is you
can design this particular quarter wave transformer at 1 GHz or 100 MHz or 500 MHz or 3
GHz; whatever is your desired frequency, this concept will be valid.
So, what we have here let see first the response of a single quarter wave transformer. Now, I
have drawn this dotted line over here. This dotted line corresponds to reflection coefficient
Γ =0.1. So that means, reflected power will be only 1%; so that means, here in this particular
case, we are allowing that 1% power can reflect but 99% power will get transmitted to the
load.
So, you can see that in this particular case for n equal to 1, this will be the bandwidth over
which reflected power will be less than 1 percent. So, you can draw a line from here to here
and you can see that this bandwidth will be relatively small. If we took n equal to 2, this is
what I was I had shown you in the previous slide that two quarter wave transformer. So, if
you use two quarter wave transformer, this will be the response and you can see now the
bandwidth is definitely much larger.
Now, instead of using 2, if you use 3, so this will be the response, if you use 4 quarter wave
transformer, then you can see that the bandwidth obtained will be all most ( 53 ) which will be
¿¿
1 is to 5 ratio. So, this bandwidth can be from 1 GHz to 5 GHz or it can be let us say, 100
MHz to 500 MHz. In fact, at one time, we had a one very broadband requirement. So, I had
designed even n equal to 10 quarter wave transformer.
Now, actually people start thinking then if we use too many quarter wave transformers, my
overall length increases. That is not really the case actually speaking because these quarter
wave transformers when you keep adding on the thing. Your center frequency is also
changing. So, it is not really that at that particular frequency, it will be very very large. As I
mention, for a tapered line itself if you just take a length about λ/ 2, it will do a fairly good
job of impedance matching over very large bandwidth.
However, I want to also tell you the best possible solution. The best possible solution is that
from this part which is let us say 50 Ω to 100 Ω, instead of using tapered line, if you use
exponential line like this and exponential line. So, if this is a exponential variation that will
give us the largest bandwidth, the only thing you have to do it is the length of the exponential
line should be greater than λ/ 2 at the lowest frequency ok.
So, remember it is at the lowest frequency not at the highest frequency. If you do that, you
can actually design a very broadband impedance matching. Now of course, this matching is
only good for real impedance as we mentioned but impedance can be a complex number and
for complex number, calculations become little bit more involved. So, there is a graphical
way of doing the whole thing and let us see what is that.
So, one can actually use Smith Chart. Now, Smith chart can be used to plot impedance,
admittance, reflection coefficient as well as VSWR. I am sure many of you would have
studied Smith chart in the electromagnetic waves or some other course, but since we are
going to use Smith chart in this particular course very heavily.
So, let me just give little bit of a more brief overview of Smith chart. So, let us say this is the
Smith chart and on this Smith chart, you can see various these lines are there. So, let us see
first of all this horizontal line; what is written over here. So, it is 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 5 and this
becomes infinity. So, you can actually think about this as a real axis. So, let me first talk
about only impedance and then we will talk about other thing.
So, when we look at this part here, think about this as a real axis. Now, most of you are
familiar with let us say if we want to plot real and imaginary, generally what you do? You
draw a real line and you draw vertical line which is a imaginary axis. So, here real axis is
very similar to that horizontal line which you do except that do not now think about a
negative R. I will tell you how this Smith chart can be used for negative R value also, but
here it is only for the positive R value. But you can also see here this is from 0 to 1, what
actually this is? This entire Smith chart is a normalized plot.
So, for example, lets say if the load impedance is suppose 100, then you normalize with the
respect to characteristic impedance let say that is 50. Then the load impedance divided by the
characteristic impedance 100/50 = 2. Suppose, if the load impedance is 10 Ω, so 10/50 = 0.2.
So, 0.2 will be somewhere here, ok.
So, now this is the plot you can say for real impedance. So, what happens if the impedance
has inductive or capacitive part? So, the above portion is basically for positive portion, the
lower portion is for the negative value. So, same thing if you recall again this is the real and
imaginary. So, even imaginary we generally put positive numbers above and negative
numbers down below. The only difference over here in the normal Cartesian or x, y
coordinates is all the imaginary numbers go vertically up or vertically down. Here, these
things go in circular fashion.
So, lets see now what we have here. So, we will just go with this 0, 0.1, 1.5, 1 and so on and
then you see this number here 0.2. Actually this is a part of the big circle which is not shown;
it is only shown up to here. So, you can call it a arc of a big circle. So, along this entire line
the imaginary part remains 0.2; again these are normalized value, along this entire thing this
is 0.5, along this it is 1. So, this is the plus part, here is the negative part. So, along this
particular thing, this is -0.2, this will be -0.5, this is -1, this is -2. You see also these other
circles here. So, these are known as constant R circles for Z, it can be constant G circle for Y,
but let us first focus only on Z. So, you can see that these are the constant R circles. What is
that mean? So that means, if you look at this point or this point or this one or here
everywhere, the value of the R will remain 0.1. If you look at this here 0.5, if you move along
this or along this, the real value is always going to be 0.5 and these are the constant X as you
can see here or here. So, for impedance, it will be constant X; of course, here X is positive,
here X is negative.
So, this is the general Smith chart. So now, you might wonder where is a reflection
coefficient. So, this one here just to repeat one more time, so all of these things will show the
real positive value, all these are imaginary positive value, all these are imaginary negative
value and for Z, this is 0. So, 0, Z equal to 0 implies short circuit, Z equal to infinity implies
infinity.
Now, if we thing about again the Z part. So, all these positive numbers will actually imply
inductive values and all these negative values will imply capacitive values. So, will take
examples of these things one by one; suppose, we want to now plot Y, so again these
numbers remain as it is, the significance only changes, that is Y is equals to 0, but Y equal to
0 now will represent open circuit not short circuit as Z equal to 0 and this is Y equals to
infinity. So, Y equal to infinity will represent short circuit. So, remember that the numbers
which are written here will remain same; interpretation you have to do.
So, same thing here now Y is positive. Positive Y means it is capacitive and negative Y
would mean inductive ok. So, please remember this particular thing. Now, let us see where is
reflection coefficient. Now, one of the interesting thing you can see that below this there is a
line shown over here. In fact, this particular horizontal line which is shown that actually is a
reflection coefficient equal to 0 point and this is a reflection coefficient equal to 1. And
anything along this reflection coefficient will vary. So, suppose this is 0, it will be 0.5, this
will be say 0.5, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9 and so on.
So, the reflection coefficient equal to 0 over here and you can even correlate. What is the
Z ¿−Z0
reflection coefficient expression? . What is Zin is equal to? Zin = Z0 here, so that
Z¿ +Z 0
means, reflection coefficient is 0 and this one here is reflection coefficient 1 and this angular
thing will give the angle of the reflection coefficient. Suppose if the point is here which is
then reflection coefficient 1, suppose if it is somewhere here, then the reflection coefficient
value can be correspondingly measure from here. But now suppose if the reflection
coefficient is somewhere here, so what you do? You actually draw a line like this and
measure this particular angle and that will give the angle of the reflection coefficient.
Now, where is VSWR? In fact, VSWR whatever are these numbers here, so suppose it is 1,
then the VSWR will be 1, at this point VSWR will be 2; over here, VSWR = 5. Let us take an
example where we can look at all these things one by one.
So, here is an example where input impedance is given by Z A =20+ j 30 Ω and the required
parameters are that we want to calculate reflection coefficient and VSWR. Of course, we can
use the conventional thing and that is we can use this particular formula for reflection
coefficient. So, Z A =20+ j 30 Ω and Z0 = 50 Ω. We substitute this value over here, solve these
complex numbers and from here we can calculate what is the reflection coefficient and that
comes out to be 0.56 angle 1120.
And from here we can calculate the value of VSWR which is given by this particular
expression and so, what we need? We only need magnitude of the reflection coefficient
which is 0.56. So, you put 0.56 and here and that would give us the value of VSWR = 3.55.
So, this is the way you can do the calculation; now, will tell you, how to do the calculation
using the Smith chart or using the graphical way.
So, here what you do? You take this particular impedance; the first step would be to
20+ j 30 20 30
normalized. So, we normalized this impedance. So, . So, =0.4, =0.6. Now,
50 50 50
we need to plot this particular thing on the Smith chart. So, what you do step by step thing,
first look at the real part which is 0.4.
So, along this Smith chart, you see from here 0 then you know it is 1 and you know it is
infinity. So, you locate the point which is 0.4, then you locate the other part. Other part is
plus which is imaginary plus. So, for plus we need to go up. If it was divided, we have to
move downward and then what you do? You locate + j 0.6. So, from here you actually move
and then from 0.4, you move and you stop at a point where you can see that these are the
constant reactive circle. So, you stop at a point which is 0.6.
Now, this point here what you do? Now, you draw a circle. So, when you draw the circle
here, what you can see whatever is this value which is crossing the real axis that value here
will directly give you the VSWR value which is 3.55. Now, from here you can draw the line
and you can draw the line so that axis is from 0 to 1. Whatever is this value, you can note
down that value and that value will be 0.56 and you can now measure this particular angle
and that will be 1120 and you can see that this angle is exactly same as this particular angle
here.
So, there are two ways to calculate reflection coefficient and VSWR; one is you can calculate
using these expressions; another one is you can use Smith chart and plot these values and use
graphical way to calculate reflection coefficient and VSWR. We will take more cases in the
next lecture.
So, thank you very much. We will see you next time, bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 03
Lecture – 12
Smith Chart and Impedance Matching – II: using Lumped Components
Hello everyone. In the last lecture, we had started discussion about Smith Chart and
Impedance Matching.
So, let us have a very quick overview of what we had seen in the last lecture. So, we had
actually started discussing about input impedance which is a complex number and from there
we had actually also defined few other quantities like a reflection coefficient, VSWR and
reflected power and we had also seen that if the load impedance does not match with the
characteristic impedance then power reflector is not 0 but it has a finite value.
Ideally, we would like power reflector to be equal to 0 or as low as possible.

Then we had seen two cases; one was single section quarter wave transformer and then we
had seen double section quarter wave transformer.
After that we saw the frequency response and we had seen that for a single quarter wave
transformer, bandwidth is relatively less compared to two quarter wave transformer which
has a larger bandwidth and if we use larger number of sections, we can get a much broader
bandwidth and it also mention that you can use tapered line or exponentially tapered line to
realize much larger bandwidth.
Then, we had looked into the Smith Chart and we took an example of the Smith Chart also.
So, we had taken the example where the input impedance is given by this particular
expression. So, we had done the calculation using two method; one was the calculation
method. So, from this ZA and 50 Ω of Z0, we have calculated reflection coefficient of this
value and VSWR of 3.55.
Now, the same thing can also be done using the graphical method by using Smith Chart. So,
the first step in that case would be is we get the normalize value. So, you get the normalize
value. So, ZA/Z0 which is this value and how do we plot this on the Smith chart, you locate
0.4 on the Smith chart and then you move along the constant resistance circle and stop at a
point where the value is + j 0.6 which corresponds to the reactive curve here and after
stopping this point, you take this particular point as a radius value from here to here and draw
the circle.
So, once you draw the circle wherever the circle cuts the real axis on the right side, remember
on this side also, there is a real axis point, but this value will be a less than 1 and we know
VSWR is always greater than 1. So, this one gives us the value of VSWR and the reflection
coefficient magnitude can be found in actually two ways; one is you actually draw this line
over here and then the draw line from here and look at this horizontal axis. So, wherever it
cuts here that will straightway give us the reflection coefficient value which is the amplitude
and the angle can be measured.
So, what you do? You simply extend this line over here and measure this angle, whatever is
that angle will be the actually reflection coefficient angle. Now, magnitude can also be
measured slightly different way, you can do the calculation. So, what you do? You measure
from here to here, what is the value of this particular thing and you measure this value, take
the ratio of this divided by this value over here and that will give the value of the reflection
coefficient.
So, either you can draw the vertical line, read it from here or you measure this value and
measure this value; take the ratio. So, both ways you can find the reflection coefficient.
Let us take one more example. So, here is an example where the load impedance is given as
50 + j 100 Ω and desired is 50 Ω. Now, in this particular case, what we can do that we can
locate this particular point over here. So, how do we locate? We actually do the
normalization. So, you divide this whole thing by 50 which is the characteristic impedance
50 10 0
that will give me =1 and =2.
50 50
So, 1 + j 2, how do we do that? I have shown you different different types of Smith Charts so
that you know depending upon what is available to you, but this one here is relatively better
to you know look at because locate the points because it has a much larger number of circles.
So, let us see here what you do? You locate 1. So, 1 will be the center point and then we have
a plus. So, what you do? You move in the direction above and there you stop at a point where
this curve corresponds to j 2.
So, this will be the point where you stop and then you take this point with this particular
radius draw the circle. And once you draw the circle, wherever this point is cut, you can see
that I have put this thing here vertical line from the reflection coefficient if you see that will
give me the reflection coefficient value which is 0.71. So, you can see here reflection
coefficient is 0.71 but the point at which it is cut, you can see this value corresponds to 5.8.
So, that is the value of VSWR which is 5.8.
Now, for this particular thing to measure the angle what you do; you measure this particular
angle ok. So, this one and this one, so this angle is nothing but angle of 45 0. So,
corresponding to this ZL, these are the values of reflection coefficient and VSWR. Of course,
Z L−Z0
you can do this calculation using the equations also, reflection coefficient Γ = and
Z L + Z0
this will be the same answer you will get by using that equation.
So, let us now look at the impedance matching. Why impedance matching is important? What
will really happen if you do not do impedance matching or what will happen if you do lossy
impedance matching? So, let us just take a case where ZL is given by 10 + j 10 Ω and what
we want? We want the impedance to be 50 Ω. So, let us see what we have, let us say this is
the amplifier. So, that amplifier actually has an output impedance of 50 Ω.
So, for maximum transfer to the load, it will be better that the load impedance is equal to 50
Ω; well, but the load impedance is not 50 Ω but we would prefer that impedance looking
from here should be 50 Ω. Now, one of the solution, this is I have already written here it is a
bad solution, but let us see one of the solution. This is 10 + j 10 Ω. So, we add something in
series which is - j 10 Ω. So, - j 10 + j 10 will become 0. So, the reactive part will become 0
and this is 10 Ω, we add a 40 Ω. So, that will become 50 Ω over here.
Now, this is definitely a definitely a not a good solution because the power will be absorbed
in this particular resister. So, this is not at all a good option, ok. So, what we generally do?
We would like to design a lossless impedance matching network and what are the lossless
impedance matching networks? Well, we can use inductors and capacitor. Now of course,
inductors and capacitors also have small losses. In fact, you might be knowing that an
inductor is generally represented by series resistor and series inductor. Of course, series
resistors value is generally very small that can be maybe 0.1 Ω to maybe 0.5 Ω but that can
be negligible.
And all the capacitors are generally represented by a parallel resistor but generally speaking
that parallel resistor value is in general greater than 10 KΩ or even a 100 KΩ ok. So, again a
parallel resistor can be ignored. So, we can say that most of their time inductors and
capacitors are relatively lossless. So, let us now see how we can do lossless impedance
matching for this particular case so that maximum power transfer takes place from here to
here.
So, we are going to take the same problem. So, Z L was given as 10 + j 10 Ω and we would
like to have Z0 = 50 Ω or you can say we want input impedance to be 50 Ω. So, let us see
how this Smith chart can be used for proper lossless impedance matching. So, let us go again
step by step. So, the first step is we normalize with 50 Ω which is Z 0. Now, all the time, we
do not have to normalize with 50 Ω. So, please read what is there? suppose if Z 0 is 100 Ω,
then you have to normalize with 100; if Z0 is suppose 70 Ω, then you normalize with 70 Ω.
10 10
So, you have to see what has been defined or given. So, in this case now, =0.2, =0. 2;
50 50
so 0.2 + j 0.2 and z0 is now equal to this is also normalize 50/50. So now, let us locate this
particular point on the Smith chart and let us see how we can use impedance matching
concept using Smith chart. So, zL = 0.2 + j 0.2, so how do we do? First locate the real part 0.2
on the Smith chart. So, this is 0, you know this is 1, infinity.
So, from here you locate 0.2. So, that is the first step, then since it is plus, we will go plus, we
will go up here and this is that reactance 0.2 circle. So, we stop at this particular point and we
gave a nomenclature here which is nothing but z L as you can see here. So, that is a step one,
locate zL on Smith chart. Now, what we do? We actually draw a another circle. So, you can
see there is a this circle here. This is known as r = 1 circle. So, you draw another circle like
this which has been shown in the dotted line.
Many Smith charts do not have this dotted line. So, you have to draw it yourself and many a
times people ask how do you draw this, well it is simple. This is the you can say the diameter
so you take the center point of this and then go from here, take the center point and draw the
circle here. So, this is the circle which we name as g = 1 circle, right. Now, remember
everything is in terms of impedance right now because we have plotted impedance. We will
actually show you also how impedance and admittance can be interchanged.
So, first locate zL. Now, we move along the constant r circle, it is very very important you
move along constant r circle. So, what happens if you are moving along constant r circle; that
means resistive value has not changed; only thing which is changing is the reactive value. So,
you move from here, go up to a point where this dotted line is there. So, you stop at this
particular point, designate this point as z1. So, for this z1, the real part has to be exactly same
as the previous real value if you are getting a different value; that means, you are made a
mistake, you have not moved along the constant resistance circle.
So, you have to move from here constant resistance circle, stop at a point where this dotted
line is there. I will tell you the reason also after few minutes, why we stop here. So, read the
value so, this value is 0.2 + j 0.4. So, this is the step move along constant resistance circle to
reach point z1 intersecting g = 1 circle which is a dotted line. Now, at this particular point,
what you do? You take from here you go to a diagonally opposite point.
So, you have to move, take a scale, draw the line from here passing through the center and
you draw the line here. This line will definitely cut this particular circle here. If it is not
cutting at this particular point and either you have not drawn the circle properly or you have
not drawn the line properly through the center ok. So, from here basically what it is z 1 now
becomes y1. So, it is in fact a one of the very very simple way that you can get 1/z simply by
moving in the opposite thing.
So, whatever is the impedance value, you can get the admittance value. Now, since this
particular point lies on this circle, remember this point will always be a real value be 1 a few
things you have to remember. Now, this is y ok, this was z, we have move opposite this is y.
So now, read first real part which is equal to 1, imaginary part you can read from here this
particular thing and that value comes out to be 1 - j 2.
So now, locate y1 at a radially opposite point from z1 on r = 1 circle. So now, at this point we
know what is y. So, when we know y this is 1 - j 2. Now, just think about if I add + j 2, what
will be the value then; if I add + j 2 total y will become equal to 1. So, from here you move
along this particular constant r circle or here it is r = 1. So, again you have not added any
resistor value, you are simply moved over here and move along r = 1 circle to reach z 0 = 1
point.
So, you have reached at this particular point and at this point, what is input impedance now?
equal to 1; what is the reflection coefficient here? equal to 0; what is VSWR? equal to 1. So,
what we have done? let us go step by step again from here we have to go to point here we
took the reflection and then we moved along this.
So now, let us see how these things happen. Now, first thing we are going to do here is we
are adding basically a lumped element values we need to calculate that. So, what we did,
from 0.2 we went to 0.4 so; that means, what is the difference of these two, the difference is +
j 0.2.
So, at this point, we have to add + j 0.2 and these are the impedance values. So, if you want to
add something in the impedance, then what you do, you add the element in series. So, and
this is a plus value; that means, you have to add inductance in series to reach from here to
here ok. So, step 1; then from here we take a reflection, we had seen the reflection and this
we had seen as 1 - j 2, from here we need to add + j 2. So, remember now, this is y.
And in y we have to add + j 2. So, in y what is plus it is capacitance because y= jωC. So, we
have to add a capacitance in parallel because anything you want to add in y, in y we have to
put the elements in shunt, then they get added.
So now, let us see the next step now. So, the next step is conversion to the absolute values.
So, we know that the first thing which was j 0.2, but that was normalize value.
So, we have to multiply with this value as 50 so that it becomes now denormalized value and
this is equivalent to jω L. So, let just calculate this is j 10 Ω and what was y, y= jω C= j 2
and in y we have to divide with 50. Remember in impedance, we have to multiply with 50
and in y we have to divided by 50 and again this 50 is only because our Z0 was 50.
If our Z0 was suppose 100, then these would have been 100; so from here we can calculate
this value is 0.04 over here the unit is Ω, here the unit is mho. Now, till now frequency has
not come into picture. So, we can now, substitute the value of the desired frequency. So, till
now, you can actually see that this design is valid whether you do at 1 MHz or 10 MHz or
100 MHz or a 1 GHz; do not try to do this at 10 GHz or beyond because beyond 10 GHz or
so, these lumped element values are very very small.
So, let us see even at 2 GHz, what are these values ok. So, we now put frequency as 2 GHz.
So, ω=2 πf ,ok. So, do not put here f = 2 GHz, this is not correct, ω=2 πf , So, 2 π ×2, GHz
will be 109, you substitute that value and then calculate the value of L from here, C from here
and that comes out to be 0.8 nH and C = 3.2 pF. You can see that these are very small values
of inductor and capacitor at low frequencies, you are probably used to of using inductors of a
µH or even mH and capacitance, you are probably used to of using µF or nF.
But over here, the inductor and capacitor values are very very small. Now, just to tell you
suppose your frequency was instead of 2 GHz, suppose if it was 0.2 GHz; that means, 200
MHz, then this value will become 8 nH and this will become 32 pF. Now, let us try to
complete the design. So, from here we have added something in series and that was
impedance. So, impedance addition will be series. So, here is the load impedance, we added
something in series which is inductor. So, that will be the inductor value of 0.8 nH.
Then from here, we had taken the reflection and in y we are adding something. So, remember
in y whenever we want to add, this has to be in shunt. So, from here we have added in shunt
and what we had to added + j 2 which is equivalent to the capacitance which we have
calculated here so, that is 3.2 pF. So, you can see now 10 + j 10 Ω has been transferred to 50
Ω.
So now, this is the another concept which lot of times students ask me. This was the amplifier
here. So, amplifier now sees a 50 Ω impedance and this is 50 Ω. So, maximum power
transfer takes place from here to this particular point, but the load impedance is 10 + j 10 Ω.
So, how maximum power transfer gets over here, well you have to actually think of this as
concept point of view.
So, from this point maximum power got transferred from amplifier or any other particular
device. So, from here maximum power got transferred. So, what will be the power loss in
this? If we assume that these are the ideal components, then there will be a no power
dissipation here, there will be a no power dissipation here but maximum power transfer has
taken place. So, from here all the power will go to this particular load impedance which is not
50 Ω, yet because of this matching technique, we have transferring; of course, as I mentioned
earlier inductors and capacitors are not going to be ideal but I did mention that these
inductors and capacitors have generally low losses or at least choose inductor and capacitor
which have a low loss values.
So, you have to be careful when you are choosing these matching circuit and by doing this
particular thing, you have actually brought the load impedance from here to this particular
thing not directly from here to here, but you have used the zigzag path from here, then here
and then coming over here. Let us take a one more example so that you know that our
confidence gets built up. So, the one thing here is that instead of moving up, let us move
downward. So, what will happen?
So, you can use either this approach or you can use this particular approach, both the
approaches are correct. Later on we will tell you what are the differences and what are the
pluses and minuses. So, in this particular case what we did? So, located again the same thing
0.2 + j 0.2, so this is the point which has been located, so from here instead of a going up, we
are going down, we stop at a point where it cuts this g equal to 1 circle up. Now, instead of a
writing z1, I have written z2 just to be different, read the value; real part should be exactly
same as the real value which was here which is 0.2.
The imaginary part is now you can see this is - j 0.4. So, we add something in series and that
difference will be now equal to - j 0.6 because this was + 0.2 we have to reach to a - 0.4. So,
we have to do - 0.6 and - j 0.6 can be realized using a capacitor, why? because −z=− jωC,
This is the normalized value, you multiplied with 50 because it is impedance value.
So, from here we can calculate their capacitance value, then from here what you do, you go
through the center point go over here and you can see that real value of the y 2 will be equal to
1, it has to be if otherwise you have made a mistake and read the corresponding value of the
imaginary value. So, you can see here that imaginary value is + j 2. Now, we have to reach to
the central point here.
So, + j 2 if we add - j 2, then what will be the actual value, that will be 1. So, we need to add
a - j 2. Now, in y, - implies inductance; so, y=− jω L=−2 and y we divide by 50. So, this is
the value corresponding to this here. So, at f = 2 GHz, again you can see till now, frequency
has not come into picture. So, at f = 2 GHz you can now calculate the value of the inductor,
the value of the capacitor.
So, again now, what we did? So, from here, we went to this, we added a capacitance in series,
took a reflection. Now, it is y, so in y we have to add something which will be in shunt. So,
this is now the solution ok, so now, the question is between the first solution and this solution
which one is better. So, let us look at a comparison of these two.
So, here is the design one where we are added a inductor and then we had a added a capacitor
in shunt. Here capacitor was added in series, inductor was added in shunt.
Now, this is a actually known as a low pass design. Actually we are going to cover low pass
filter, high pass filter later on. But just to check quickly, you can do a very quick check also
for a low pass. Generally, what is a low pass design? A design which passes the low
frequency and blocks the high frequency; what is a high pass design? It passes high
frequencies and blocks the low frequency. So, you can quickly check here what happens at
low frequency. So, you can take the lowest frequency as ω=0or DC.
So, at DC inductor will act as a short circuit. So, whatever we give here comes here; at DC,
capacitance will be open circuit. So, nothing will go here; everything will come over here ok,
but at infinity what will happen? This will act as a short circuit the power will try to go over
here and if anything which is going through this inductor will act as a open circuit because
infinity multiplied by inductor will act as an open circuit. So, nothing will go here, that is
how it is low pass design. Let us look at a high pass; at high pass again test at two extreme
frequencies DC which is ω=0.
So, at ω=0, this will act as an open circuit so, nothing will go there. At ω=0, this will act
short circuit. So, most of the power will go through here and at ω=∞, this particular thing
will act as an open circuit because z= jωL. So, if ω=∞, this will be open circuit and this
1
particular thing z= ; so, this will act as a short circuit. So, at high pass everything will
jωC
go through. By the way, this low pass design is also known as a integrator and high pass is
also known as differentiator.
Now, generally low pass designs are preferred as high pass matching network have more
noise because all these things are acting as a differentiator and we know that differentiators
are always adding noise whereas, integrators are always smoothening out the noise. So,
generally speaking, low pass design is preferable compared to high pass design.

Let us take a one more example. We will just introduce this thing quickly and this example
here is ZL is equal to 100 - j 30 Ω and that is to be matched to 50 Ω.
So, what is the first step, you normalize ZL. So, zL is now 100/50 is 2 - j 0.6 and z 0 = 1. So,
what you do? you locate this particular thing on the Smith chart. So, z L you locate over here.
Now, in this particular case it is different now, you cannot just move along this particular
circle because it will never ever cut this particular circle here. So, what you do? From here
you take the reflection. So, you have to ensure that you keep writing the thing. So, this is z L,
take the reflection, now you write this as y1. So, this is zL, this will become yL. So, read the
value, so you can read the value as this here. So, if at this particular point you move along the
constant conductance circle and that particular thing over here will cross at this particular
point where it is this here. So, this value you read it so, that is now + j 0.5.
So that means, from here to here, you are going to move and add this particular value. So,
what is the difference between the two? that is 0.36. So now, from here you take the
reflection, so this was y1 now, you write this as z 1. So, at this point, you add this value here
which is + j 1.1 and you will reach the central point. In fact, many a times I call this as Bull’s
eye also. So now, let us look at the solution. So, from here we went to y, in y we added
something. So, if you are adding something, in y it has to be in shunt and then from here you
went to z, we have to add something in z. So, that will be in series. So, this is what the design
which is in series ok.
So, please look into this particular thing. In the next lecture, I will go through this particular
design one more time, but till then do little more practice so that you have more confidence.
Please remember impedance matching is very very important in most of the amplifier design
or in most of the system design ok. So, you cannot ignore impedance matching and in fact, in
the next lecture, I will talk about some different impedance matching technique. So, till then
please read it and do some practice with arbitrary load impedance and see if you can do the
final design.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 03
Lecture - 13
Smith Chart and Impedance Matching – III: using Short and Open Circuited Stubs
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture. We will continue our discussion on lossless impedance
matching network. So, let us have a little bit review of the previous lecture.
So, in the previous lecture we had taken Z L=10+ j 10 Ω and then we had located that on the
Smith chart. One of the important thing I want to mention that any impedance value inside
this particular circle, you can use this particular technique where what you do? you locate the
impedance value here, you can go up or you can go down; the point can be here or here or
here or here ok. So, you can go either up or down and then from here take the reflection and
then reach to the center point which I always call bull’s eye. Think about this you know that
you are targeting something so, you reach to this thing. So, what you need to do then? You
need to do correction from here to here so that the losses are minimal and maximum power
transfer takes place.
So, or in a game of a dart what happens? You get less marks here and you get maximum
marks here. So, there you try to maximize your marks here we try to maximize that power
transfer. So, any impedance value within this particular circle this approach can be used.
Then we had seen two possible design in one case we had gone up and we realized this
particular network.
In the other case we had gone down and realized this particular network.
And then we had looked at the comparison low pass design versus high pass design and I had
mentioned that low pass design is generally preferable then the high pass design.
Then we took another example two; in this particular case now impedance was not here.
Impedance is actually within this particular circle. So, when the impedance in this particular
circle now I am taking an example ZL which is 100 - j 30, but you can have any other
impedance value in this particular region this particular concept will be applicable. So, from
ZL you cannot move in this here because you are not in this particular circle. So, take a
reflection through the central point reach to point 2, at point 2 read the corresponding value
of yL which is given by this particular value here.
Then now you move along this particular constant circle and when you move along this here
you can read the new value which is y1; remember real part will be same as this, imaginary
part will only change. So, what we need to do? We need to add something in y. So, anything
which need to be added in y has to be in shunt.
So, what we need to add from 0.14 to 0.5. So, what will be the difference? Difference will be
0.36, and in y we want to add +0.36 and in y it is always capacitance so that will be the
capacitance I have shown the step here. So, the shunt capacitance you can see that b value
will be 0.36 and we can say that jωC or j is omitted from both the side. So, ωC will be
0.36/50 that is the denormalized value and then from here we can calculate the value of C at 2
GHz. So, this is the value of the capacitance which has to be put in shunt.
So, now from y1 we took the reflection went to z1. Now, the real part of z1 has to be one, ok
otherwise you have made a mistake. Now, read the imaginary value which is -j 1.1 we need
to add +j 1.1. So, we need to add +j 1.1 and we have to add in impedance. And anything in
impedance to be added it should be in series and +j value will imply ω L or j ω L; j will be
here also and that is comes out to be 55 Ω and from here we can find the value of inductance
and this is in series.
So, this one here completes the design ok. So, what we have z L in parallel with capacitance
and then in series with inductance. Now, you can see that these values are very small ok and
which does happen, that is why we do not generally recommend lumped impedance matching
beyond 1 or 2 GHz, ok, because these component values become very small these are good
designs at lower frequency.
So, generally what do we do at higher frequency? I will tell you that little later on, but let us
just look at the alternate design for this also.
And this time what we have done? This z L go to here instead of going up we are going down.
So, if you are going down this was +j 0.14 you read this value so that means, now we have to
add -j 0.64 you have to add that and since we are adding in y and negative value it will be a
shunt inductor. And from here you can calculate the value of inductor which is given by this.
And then from here go through the central point reach to point z 2; it is very very important
whenever you are trying to do this impedance matching please remember one thing locate the
numbers in the title itself ok. For example, number 1 you write z L; number 2 write yL, you are
moving this write y2 from here you have taken a reflection write z 2. And then now at this
point we have to add -j 1.1. So, -j 1.1 will be capacitance and it will be in series so that is a
series capacitance which we have to add and this is the capacitance value. And this relatively
completes a design, these values are more readily available compared to the previous value,
but again this design is not a very good design in a sense that this is more like a high pass
filter whereas, a previous one was low pass filter.
So, so far we have taken two different design using lumped element in one design we had the
zL value inside this particular circle. In the another design we had to the load impedance
inside this particular circle. So, now, suppose what happens in the impedance is somewhere
here or somewhere here ok, in that case you can actually use either of these two approaches
ok. So, what were that these two approaches? Suppose if the load impedance was in this
particular circle generally what we did we added something in series and then we took that
reflection and then y was in parallel. In this case what happened? We took the reflection, we
reached to y and then we added something in y which was shunt.
So, suppose if the point is somewhere here that at this particular point, what you do? You add
something in series at and reach to this particular point; from here take the reflection come to
this point and this will be y = 1 - jb; you add + jb to the y and that will be a capacitance you
will reach to the center point.
Suppose the point was somewhere here then what you can do? You can again add something
in series and then reach to this point; take care reflection come back over here. However,
from here you can also do another thing instead of going in series like this you can actually
take a reflection go to y and then you can add something in shunt and then reach over here
then you add something in series. So, there are multiple ways to solve the problems when the
impedances are neither in this circle or in this particular circle here.
So, you always have the option when the impedances are here or else here you can add first
component and series then in shunt or the first component can be in shunt or second
component can be in series ok.
Now, once that design is complete now we have to design a PCB. PCB is Printed Circuit
Board. So, let us see how do we do that.
So, here let us look at this is the load. So, from the load we have to add a let us say a chip
inductor this is the previous design, this is that a low pass filter design, but it can be chip
capacitor this can be chip inductor depending upon whatever the case may be.
So, now we are going to add a chip inductor. So, this is what is the PCB layout; that is an
amplifier. In fact, it can be part of the same PCB after the amplifier has been designed you
actually use the same substrate. So, what we need to do? Generally, this is used as a 50 Ω
line. So, you calculate 50 Ω line width corresponding to whatever the substrate you have
taken and I have given you the formula for micro strip line because this is 50 Ω it is better to
use this 50 Ω. So, this width will be same and now we put the chip inductor and now we have
to put a chip capacitor here.
Now, grounding in the micro strip line as I had told you can use a PTH which is known as
Plated Through Hole. But however, if you see I have not just used a single PTH I have used
multiple PTH over here. So, what is the reason for putting multiple PTH or plated through
hole. Now just to tell you, so what are we doing? Suppose if you use only one particular PTH
ok, instead of using 6 shown over here if you use only one so what will happen? Let us say
this is the upper part of the substrate and the lower part of the substrate is all ground and
basically this capacitor is to be grounded.
So, what you do? You put a plated through hole and through this hole what happens and what
is the plated through hole technology, basically you can give it to the PCB manufacturer who
will fabricate PCB for you and you actually have to put the plated through hole. So, basically
in that hole the copper is actually speaking put around that. So, the top connection is
connection to the ground connection.
But now there is a certain height of the substrate. So, this particular single hole actually
speaking adds a inductance from this point to the ground point ok. So, in a reality if you put
only one, what the circuit will see a chip capacitor in series with the inductor from here to the
ground. And I just want to tell you that this inductor can be of the order of 0.5 nH to 1 nH and
at very high frequency, that can be very detrimental in the design.
So, what we have done here by putting 6 of these. So, what happened? So, from here to
ground there will be 1 inductor this will have another inductor and all that. So, we have now
6 inductors in parallel and inductors in parallel there inductor value will reduce and if the
inductor value reduces Z= jωLwill reduce and that will be closer to the short circuit.
Now, these chip components whether it is a chip resistor or chip inductor capacitor they come
in different sizes, ok. So, you will actually see that many a times you see it says 0402 or
0603, 0805, 1206 and so on. Now these are basically not like a normal resistor or a normal
inductor you would have seen; a normal resistor if you see that is you know a resistor is like
this and there are two leads are there or inductor you would have seen a inductor which is
wrapped around those are very large inductor values. Here we need very small values of
inductors and capacitors and they are available in the form of the chip. And what these
numbers really say actually speaking these numbers signify their size.
So, what you see? The first two digits; the first two digits basically are equivalent to you put
a point before here. So, this if this is the number this is 0.12” length. If this is the number
0.04” is the length. Now, just to tell you 0.04” will correspond to 1 mm ok, 0.06” will
correspond to about 1.5 mm. And then the last two digits basically correspond to the width of
this particular chip component.
So, if it is 0 2 that means, 0.02” or 0.03” or 0.06” and you can multiply this with 25.4 to get
the value in millimeter. So just to tell you now up to what frequency which one is preferable
and how. So, generally speaking 0402 is preferable at higher frequency little bit lower and
lower and lower.
So, if you are designing at a high frequency I have written the comment also here that up to
2.5 GHz, 0603 is preferable than 0402 as it has higher power rating. So, in general this one
will work at a higher frequency this one little lower this will lower, but still these are all good
even in the GHz frequency range but the power dissipation rating is very small.
So, typically these values of 0402 or 0603 they can handle only about 0.1 W. But do not be
afraid most of the time when we are dealing with the microwave circuits if you are not
looking at the output power sight; if you are looking at the input power most of the power
levels may be of the order of 1 mW or even 10 mW, except at the last stage high power
amplifier which can be 1 W or 10 W or 100 W. So, there definitely please do not use these
components for impedance matching.
So, now we will look into the another scheme which is known as single stub matching. So,
the examples are here we are using a short circuited stub I just want to mention here that in
the microstrip technique we do not use series stub matching. You might have studied in your
electromagnetic wave course series stub matching or shunt stub matching, well in microstrip
we do not use series stub we actually use a shunt stub matching also it is much easier to
realize; you can see here this is all the impedance matching technique is it does not require
any inductor or any capacitor, but let us see step by step how we can do that.
So, here let us say the example is that Z L is 60 -j 80 Ω and that has to be normalized with Z 0 =
50 Ω. So, the normalized value is 60/50 =1.2; 80/50 =1.6, now you locate this value on the
Smith chart. So, this value 1.2 you locate here you have to -j, you go down and that is value is
over here zL. Now, here all the techniques which we have discussed for lumped impedance
matching are not at all applicable. So, please do not get confused between the two techniques.
So, here you locate zL. Now, take this as a center point and this as here radius; you draw this
particular circle, ok. So, that is the step two that you draw the circle, ok. So, from here now
the next step is you take the diagonally opposite point which will be y L. So, that is a step
number 3.
Now, this yL at this particular point what you do? We need to do the single stub matching. So,
at this point this is what it is which is zL and now we have reached to yL and why we did that?
it is not same as before that you have to go to the constant r circle or constant g = 1 circle
nothing like that over here, ok. So, here we simply go to this and now on the Smith chart you
will actually see that it is also written that this is a measurement toward generator or this
point here it will be measurement towards load. So, from the load we are moving towards
generator or we are moving towards amplifier.
So, at this particular point just on this circle itself you keep moving moving moving till you
come to this particular circle which you know it is a r = 1 circle. So, come to this particular
point. So, from here to here we have to add the line length. How do we measure or calculate
the line length, what you do? From here you draw the line up to this here wherever it is
cutting from the center, you put it over here and then you can measure the length from here to
here; all these things are actually mentioned on the Smith chart.
So, just to tell you suppose this is the point you can see over here I have shown here this
particular point as open circuit and this point as short circuit. Why I have done that? Because
we are doing all the matching using shunt stub. So, in shunt if we are adding that shunt we
can add only when it is in y. So, in y, y = 0 implies open circuit, y=∞ implied short circuit
and from here also I want to mention. So, if you look at this scale here it will actually show
you 0, 0.25 and comes back here which is 0.5. So, from here to here half will be something
like 0.125. So, this you can just see read this value, read this value, take the difference and
that comes out to be L1 = 0.1126.
So, what you do at the load? We are moving along the generator. So, you move along this.
Now, remember these are all 50 Ω line; you move along this particular thing. So, that length
is 0.1126 and we have reached at this particular point.
Now, remember right now everything is in y ok. So, y 1 is equal to what? 1 + j 1.45. Please
ensure this has to be 1 ok, if it is not 1 again you have done something wrong. Now, you read
the corresponding value which is +j 1.45. Now, what is our objective? Our objective is to
reach bull’s eye which is the central point. So, from here we have to move along this
particular thing, but we can also do the same thing using a transmission line let us see how
we can do that. So, this is a +j 1.45.
So, we have to add -j 1.45 to this and that minus addition has to be done in shunt because we
are adding something in y. So, what you do? You locate -j 1.45 on Smith chart not 1 plus, but
-j; 0 -j because 1 you do not have to add anything. So, -j 1.45 actually all this thing will be at
the outer of the circle. So, you locate this point here which is -j 1.45.
And then what you do? You draw the line from here and if it is a short circuit line you take
this thing from here to this because this is a short circuit point. I will also give you the design
for open circuit stub here also. So, if you have decided to take this particular thing as a short
circuited because I have taken example using short circuited stub. So, from the short circuit
which is this point here we are moving towards generator. So, if we move towards generator
we stop at this particular point which will be -j 1.45. Read this length ok; again you can read
the length from here to here and that length is L2 which you locate here.
So, now this is the length L2 which is 0.096 and that is a short here. So, this is the length L 2.
So, how do we realize the short circuit? Again short circuit can be realized using a via now I
have shown here only single via, but you can actually use even two shorted via or two PTH
here also and that length will be nothing but equal to L2.
So, let us just look at the design, what we have here is a unknown impedance. From this
unknown impedance we took the reflection along this particular circle; the radius of that is
given by this; so you go to this opposite point. So, till now we have reached from 1 to 2 to 3
then from yL you move along the same circle till you reach this particular circle, read the
value of y1 which is this and by doing this particular thing from here we have come to this
particular point here.
At this particular point the value is 1 +j 1.45 and from here we are looking at this particular
point. So, input impedance we have to look for here or you can say input admittance we have
to look from here and the value of that, what we have to do? we have to add -j 1.45. So, from
short circuit starting point we reach to this particular point here. So, that basically completes
the design ok.
Now, we will take another example of this whole thing except that instead of a short circuited
line. This time we will take the open circuited line and then will also look at what are the
variations possible.
So, let us just take example using open circuited I have taken exactly the same problem. So,
ZL is same as before, Z0 same, normalized 1.2 -j 1.6. So, let us see the step wise they are very
similar step. So, this part also looks very similar. So, z L locate on the Smith chart using this
particular distance as a radius draw the circle which is step 2 then take the diagonal point
which is 3 the yL, from yL you move along this you reach to y1.
Now, till this point this everything is same as in the previous case. So, there is a no change at
all ok, but now the change is that we have to add what we have to add? we have to add at this
particular point -j 1.45. So, you locate -j 1.45 as before, but now we have a open circuited
stub where is a open circuited stub point this is the open circuit point, ok.
So, from here do not move in this direction ok because this is a movement towards load we
have to move towards generator. So, from here you actually move along this and this and this
and this length comes out to be 0.346, ok. So, by putting this particular thing here the design
is actually complete, ok.
So, you might now wonder that which one to be used when. In fact, for this particular design
I do not recommend this particular solution; it is better to use shorted stub. Why? The reason
for that is that this length is very large this is now 0.346, in the previous case that length was
0.25 smaller. So, depending upon you should always see what is the problem and
accordingly you choose the solution. So, the better solution instead of using an open circuited
stub it is better to use short circuited stub because the length of that short circuited stub will
be 0.25 smaller than this over here.
Let us take a different example instead of ZL over here suppose if the ZL was somewhere here
ok, then what will you do ok. So, let us just look into this thing. So, Z L is here instead of here,
ok. So, we locate the zL over here then what we do? We draw the circle like this it will be
little bigger circle now. So, from there zL you are going to take a diagonal opposite point and
that will be over here at this particular point.
So, now, from here you have to move in this direction ok, because you have to move towards
the generator design. So, from here you move till you cross the circle. So, you do not have to
go all the way to cross at this point, even crossing at this particular point is actually
acceptable anywhere on this circle you cross.
So, from here we moved along that circle only we reach to this particular point; now again
everything is y. So, we can say that y2 will be 1 and now the value will be minus. So, this will
be 1 -j b let us say, where b is the corresponding imaginary part. So, this is 1 -j b. So, you
locate +j b on the Smith chart. So, +j b on the Smith chart will be somewhere here. So, now,
+j b we have to add, ok.
So, now you have to see which one is a better thing, it is better that you start from open
circuit you because you have to move to this point. So, this length will be relatively shorter
compared to if you take a short set get stub then you will have to move all the way around.
So, for this particular problem where let us say z L is somewhere here, then reach to this point
move over here, stop at this point read the value locate the point over here and then you can
use open circuit stub.
So, for this particular problem this is not a good solution because it uses a larger length, a
short circuited thing is better option, but the design which I just showed you that would be
better for a open circuit stub because that will use a smaller length.
In the last few lectures we talked about various lossless impedance matching network using
Smith chart. Using lumped elements, we talked about two configurations one was low pass
network another one was high pass network. I also mentioned about what are the advantages
and disadvantages of these two approaches. After that I talked about single stub matching
technique in which a shunt stub is placed along with the transmission line to do the
impedance matching.
So, in the next lecture I will talk about ABCD and S parameters followed by various
applications of microwave circuit. So, till then bye, enjoy yourself, work hard. See you in the
next lecture; bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 03
Lecture – 14
ABCD – Parameters
Hello, in the last few lectures we have been talking about transmission line. We saw different
types of transmission line like coaxial line, microstrip line, strip line and waveguides. After
that we looked into transmission line loaded with a load impedance ZL, then we took
different cases of ZL for example, ZL = 0, Z L=∞ , ZL = Z0, and then we took 2 special cases of
length equal to /4 and /2. And we saw that when the length is /4 it acts as a quarter wave
transformer.
After that we discuss about Smith chart, and we actually saw how easily we can plot complex
impedance values and also how impedance matching can be done using Smith chart. So, we
looked into two different techniques one was lumped element technique and the second one
was single stub matching. Today we are going to talk about ABCD and S parameters.
So, no, we are not going to learn what you studied in your very low class which is ABCD, but
we are actually going to look at the ABCD parameters which are defined in terms of voltages
and currents. And then we will talk about S parameters which are defined in terms of wave
parameters because at microwave we actually are more interested in the waves then just in
voltages and currents. Then you might wonder then why we are discussing about ABCD
parameters which are mainly concerned with voltages and currents. So, I am going to show
you how ABCD parameters are very convenient to solve a complex network, and then we
will talk about how ABCD parameters can be converted to S parameters.
So, let us first look at what is the definition of the ABCD parameter. So, here we have a two
port network, so port 1, port 2 and this is a linear network and let us see that the input voltage
here at port 1 is V1 and at port 2 voltage is V2.
Current is coming into the port 1, and current is also coming into the port 2. In fact, this has
been a general definition you might have studied Z parameters or Y parameters. In case of Z
parameters just to refresh your memory. What we have generally for Z parameters? V 1 and V2
are on one side, I1 and I2 are on the other side and in between there is a Z matrix Z 11, Z12, Z21,
Z22. In terms of Y matrix or Y parameters we have I 1, I2 on the left side and V 1, V2 are on the
right side and then there is a Y matrix.
In fact, there are hybrid parameters are also there which actually consist of voltages and
currents and you might have studied those hybrid parameters for transistors. Here we are
going to look at ABCD parameters and the way ABCD parameters are defined which actually
becomes easier later on as we will see to solve a complex network. So, let us see what ABCD
parameters are related to.
So, voltage at port 1 and current at port 1, relate to voltage at port 2 and current at port 2.
Now, you might see there is a minus sign over here this minus sign is coming because we
have taken this current as in coming at port 2. If we take this current I 2 as outgoing then this
will become plus. So, in fact, many a times you can just think about it that if this is I 2 which
is coming in just think about this is current let us say I2’ and which is leaving here, then I2’
will be nothing but minus I2 and that will be here then + I 2’, ok. So, it just a matter of
notation.
So, how do we define ABCD parameter? Let us open the matrix first. So, V 1= A V 2 −B I 2 .
And what is I1? I 1 =C V 2−D I 2. So, these are the ABCD parameters. Now, by using these 2
equations we can find out the ABCD parameter. So, let us see what is A? We can say from
V1
here a= provided I2 = 0. So, if we put a boundary condition is I2 = 0 which is what has
V2
been put over here, then what will be A? V 1 / V 2 So, you can actually think about A is
nothing but voltage ratio provided I2 = 0. And in what condition I2 = 0? If this particular port
is open circuit then I2 = 0.
Now, let us see how we define B. B=V 1 /−I 2 provided V2 = 0. So, if we put V 2 = 0, so we
can see here if V2 is put 0 here then V 1 /−I 2 will be equal to B. Now, as you can see this is
voltage divided by current. So, the unit of this will be ohm or you can say this will represent
the impedance value.
Now, let us see what is C. So, to define C you can see from this particular expression, if we
put I2 = 0. So, what I2 = 0 would mean? This term will become 0. So, we can say from here
C=I 1 / V 2 provided I2 =0. So, I2 = 0 means open circuit, and this unit will be now I divided by
V. So, that will be equal to mho. So, the unit of the C is mho. What is D? So, again from here
we can find the value of D. If we make V 2 = 0, if V2 = 0 then this term will become 0. So,
I1
then =D. So, you can see that this is the expression provided V2 = 0 and what V2 = 0
−I 2
would mean that you actually short circuit the port 2. So, this is how we can actually define
ABCD parameters.
Now, let us just take some example and see how we can find out ABCD parameter. To start
with will take a very simple problem and then we will built up on these small small little little
things to analyze a more complicated configuration. So, ABCD parameters for series
impedance, so you can see here there is a basically port 1 you can say this is port 2 and there
is a only single element which is a series impedance.
So, now for this particular case we can write the voltage equation and current equation and
you have to remember basically that we have to write V 1 and I1 on one side and V2 and I2 on
the other side. So, with that objective in mind let us say what is V 1. So, V1 is nothing but we
can say this voltage plus voltage drop over here. So, V 1=V 2 +I 1 Z or I 1 Z=−I 2 Z . So, we can
say that V 1=V 2 −I 2 Z . So, that will be this voltage equal to this voltage drop plus this voltage
over here. And what is I1? Again why we are writing in this particular form because, we have
to write in this particular fashion.
So, what is I1 equal to? I 1 =−I 2. So, from here you compare this particular thing with this
particular equation over here. So, we can say that V 1 = A V2. So, what is coefficient of V2? 1.
So, that is 1 here. What is now V 1 = B (-I2) and what will be B here then? Z. So, now, let us
see I1, I1 = C V2 well there is a nothing corresponding to V2 that means C = 0.
And then from here we can say I1 = D (-I2) the term. So, from here we can say compare this.
So, D = 1. So, we can say that ABCD matrix for this particular case is nothing but 1 Z 0 1.
Please try to remember this because we are going to use this later on, few properties of
ABCD parameter. So, one of the property is that if the network is symmetrical, then A = D.
As you can see if you look on this side or you look from this side the network is nothing but a
symmetrical network. So, A should be equal to D, you can see that A and D are 1 and 1. So,
they are equal.
Now, for reciprocal network it is AD−BC =1. Actually this term really corresponds to the
determinant of matrix ABCD. So, what will be the determinant? AD minus BC. So, the
determinant of the matrix if that is equal to one this is a reciprocal network. What reciprocal
network means? That if I give a input on this side whatever the output I get if I give the same
input on this side then I should get the same output here. So in fact, all these networks will be
reciprocal which have let us say resistor, inductor, capacitor, transmission line other thing.
So, of course, if it consists of active network then it will not be reciprocal.
So, now let us take another example. So, this time will take an example of ABCD parameters
for Shunt Admittance. So, we have here again as before port 1 here, port 2 here, now instead
of having a series impedance in the previous case, now we have a shunt admittance.
So, now we want to write ABCD parameters of this; I have just written it again. This is how
we have defined ABCD parameter. So, again we want V 1 I1 on the left side. So, what is V 1?
This voltage is same as this voltage which is equal to V 2. So, V1 = V2. And, what about the
current I1? So, you can say that just general you think about, this current and this current
these 2 currents are going into this. So, we can say that I 1 + I2 will be nothing but this
particular current and that current will be nothing but V2 Y and then we can write I1 + I2 was
written there; I2 goes to the other side.
So, now this is similar to the form which we wanted, V 1 I1 on the left side, V2 I2 on the right
hand side. So, again now comparison let us say now ABCD. So, you look from here. So, V 1
is nothing but A V2. So, the coefficient of V2 will be 1, so it is write here. Now, V1 = B I2
when there is a no term of I 2 that means, B = 0. For now C let us say what is I 1 = CV2, so C
will be Y and then I1 is this expression here from here then I1 = C V2 - D I2. So, we can say
from here D = 1. So, this is ABCD matrix for shunt admittance which is nothing but 1 0 Y 1.
So, again you can say that this is symmetrical network why because A = D; it is also
reciprocal network because AD−BC =1. So, 1 into 1 is 1 minus 0. So, AD−BC =1.
Let us just take now another case of a transmission line. You might have studied about
transmission line and you know that let us say if we want to define a voltage V 1 then voltage
V 1=V 2 cosh ( γl ) + Z 0 sinh ⁡( γl), similarly one can write expression for I 1. Now, in this particular
case here we are assuming that this line is lossless or we can say most of the time line losses
will be very very small. So, that cosh ( γl ), what is gamma? γ=α + jβ. So, α will be negligible
or α =0 for ideal transmission line. So, cosh ⁡(γl) will become now cos( β l), and sinh(γl) will
become j sin (β l) l. So, this is what is the ABCD matrix for a transmission line.
We will take one of the special case as we will see later on when we take on more circuit
examples that this will be a one of the special cases which will come several times. So, let us
look at that right now, when l=λ/ 4. And if we substitute l=λ/ 4what will happen to βl? So,
2π π
β= ; l=λ/ 4we substitute that. So, β l= .
λ 2
So, cos ( π2 )=0, sin ( π2 )=1, so we will be left with j Y and cos ( π2 )=0. So, this will be the
0
ABCD matrix for transmission line of length λ/ 4. I just want to mention a few additional
things here; many books instead of writing β they write k. So, β=k=2 π / λ.
Again one more thing I want to mention here. So, λ=λ 0 in free space, but otherwise say for
λ0 λ0
coaxial line λ= ; for microstrip line it will be λ= . And we have given you the
√ϵ r √ϵ e
formulas how to calculate ϵ e for microstrip line. So, please use that when you are designing
something for microstrip line.
Now, let us just take a another case now; here it is ABCD parameters for cascaded network.
So, what we have here? We have two series impedances Z 1 and Z1 here and we have a1 shunt
admittance which is Y2. Now, this particular problem can be solved if we want to write
voltage equation and current equation you can solve that. So, you can actually write here let
us say here node equation here so which will be let us say some node 3. So, we can say that
V 3−V 1 ( V 3−V 2 ) , and then you can solve the equation or you can write a loop
V 3 Y 2+ +
Z1 Z1
equation here loop equation here.
However, we are not going to use that technique that can be done there is no problem at all,
but since we have already studied ABCD parameters for series elements, we have also
studied ABCD parameters for shunt element. So, now, we are going to use the concept of
ABCD parameters of cascaded circuit which can be obtained by multiplying individual
ABCD parameters. What it really implies?
First let us just see, we have 3 different circuit element. So, what we do? If you recall
Britishers used to say divide and rule. Well, I have modified that particular statement I say
divide and solve. So, you divide this particular network into 3 different networks. So, this
will be from here to here, one network which consist of only series impedance, then from
here to here it will be the shunt admittance network and then from here to here we will have a
series impedance network.
So, what is this cascaded business? So, let just see from here just recall now we had taken I 1
as here and just imagine that the current was entering here. Now, the current which was
entering here which was minus, but that minus current can be thing about positive current
over here. And then the current which is leaving here which was actually minus which will
act as a entering here. So, if you look at just this particular network. So, V 1 I1 for this let us
say I did mention a V3 node here. So, that will be V3 node over here.
So, we can actually say that ABCD parameter of this, whatever is the current going out from
here will become input current and input voltages over here so that means, this ABCD matrix
can be multiplied with this. And then again whatever is the current coming in the same
current is going just the directions are different. So, you have to take care of that part which is
inherent of ABCD matrix. So, what we can do actually? That to find out the overall ABCD
matrix what we simply need to do it is multiply ABCD matrices of these 3 separate elements.
So, let us see for the series impedance, what we had seen? ABCD parameters are 1, Z 1, 0, 1;
for shunt we had 1, 0, Y 2, 1; for series this 1, Z1, 0, 1. So, now, all you have to do it is
multiply these 3 matrices; of course, you do one by one. So, first you multiply this matrix
with this matrix here and then after that this resultant matrix is to be multiplied by this matrix
here. So, just one step in between, you simplify this is the expression you will get. And just
you see whether you have done any mistake or not you can make a quick check whether the
network is symmetrical or and reciprocal or not. You can see from here if you look from this
side or we look from this side, network is symmetrical from both the sides.
So, hence A = D. Let us see whether we have got that or not. So, this is 1 + Z 1 Y2, this is 1 +
Z1 Y2. So, we can say A = D. Now, this network is reciprocal because all these are nothing
but RLC component. So, that is reciprocal network. So, let us see AD - BC = 1 or not. So,
now, you multiply this with this here what we will get? 1+2 Z 1 Y 2 +Z 21 Y 22. Now, minus this
term here 2 Z1 Y2.
So, you can say that 2 Z1 Y2 will get cancel by these two terms combined together and this is
now Z21 Y 22. So, we had also got Z21 Y 22. So, subtraction from here to here will lead to a value
which is equal to 1 so that means, this is a reciprocal network and that really means that so far
we have done the correct calculations.
Now, we are going to take many many more examples later on about ABCD parameters,
especially just to mention that I did take an example of transmission line. So, we will see
many cases later on where this particular component may be a transmission line or this
component may be a transmission line or there may be some lumped element. So, you have to
wait for few more lectures, and then we are going to take several examples where we are
going to use these properties of ABCD parameters and specially we will use the concept of
divide and solve the problem.
Now, we are going to the next particular topic which is S parameters. Here we have defined S
parameters for 2 port network, but by the way S parameters are valid for n port network also.
Just to tell you that ABCD parameters are defined only for 2 ports, but S parameters are
defined for n port, but for simplicity let us just take 2 port and then we will extend this
concept to n ports.
So, let us see what we have here. So, here a 1 is the incoming wave. So, it is not same as
current it is a incoming wave and b 1 is reflected wave. So, we are talking about now
microwave frequency, where we do not talk about voltages and currents whereas, there we
call let us say an antenna which will receive the signal and through the antenna we can
transmit the signal. So, there are incoming waves or outgoing waves. Similarly, for an
amplifier there will be a incoming wave there will be outgoing wave. So, generally speaking
when we deal with S parameters they are dealing with waves.
So, a1 is incoming wave, similarly a2 is incoming, so a parameters are incoming. So, over here
b1 is outgoing sometimes just they say or leaving wave. So, this is the outgoing wave or
leaving wave, ok. Sometimes in some books they also talk this as a transmitted wave also ok
or over here they use the term reflected wave. So, in this case if this is incident, this is you
can say reflected and if this is incident this can be transmitted wave, ok. So, it all depends
how you look at it, but basically we just say that a1 or all a’s are incident wave all b’s are
reflected wave.
Now, we will define the S parameter. So, we can actually define b 1, b2 on this side that
means, there are the reflected wave these are the incident wave and this is how we define S
parameters, ok. We can open the matrix let us look at here. So, b1 =S11 a1 + S12 a2, we can write
b2 =S 21 a1 +S22 a2. So, now, from here just as we did in terms of ABCD parameter will just do
exactly the similar thing. So, let us say from here how we can find the value of S 11? So, we
b1
can find S11 by making let us say a2 = 0. So, if a2 =0 then S11= . So, you can see that S11 is
a1
nothing but b1 divided by a1 provided a2 is equal to 0.
Now, here unlike the previous case where voltage equal to 0 implied short circuit, current
equal to 0 implied open circuit; here a2 = 0 implies matched load termination. If you recall
when we had mentioned about it that if something is going from here and over here, so
nothing should reflect back and if nothing will reflect back only when it is terminated into a
matched load, ok. And here we are defining everything in terms of characteristic impedance
Z0. So, if this particular port is terminated with a characteristic impedance of Z 0 that means,
load is equal to Z0 in that case nothing will reflect. So, a2 will be equal to 0.
So, please remember when we define S parameter we are not dealing with short circuit or
open circuit we are more dealing with the matched load termination. So, now, let us see from
b1
here how we define S12. So, S12= ( )
a2
provided a1 = 0. So, you can see that S12 = b1/a2 when a1
= 0. So, what a1 = 0 really means? that means, now port 1 is terminated into matched load and
what it really means here. So, this means that when we are giving input at port 2 what is the
output at port 1 or what is the wave going out here.
b2
Now, let us see what is S21, S21 = provided a2 = 0. And similarly we can find out S 22. What
a1
b2
is S22? S22= provided a1 = 0. So, please remember these thing. So, S 11 actually can also be
a2
termed in a slightly different way that is look at the port 1 here this is S 11. What is b1?
Reflected wave. What is a1? Incident wave.
So, what we are basically saying S 11 is nothing but reflected wave at port 1 divided by
incident wave at port 1. Let us see what is S 22. S22 we have to look at the port 2 here what it
shows here this is a incident wave, this is the reflected wave provided this is terminated with
b2
the match load to get a1 = 0 so that means, S22 is nothing but a reflected wave which is . So,
a1
this is same thing as reflection coefficient at port 2. This is the same thing as reflection
coefficient at port 1.
b2
Now, let us see what is S 21. S21 is defined as . What is b2? Wave going over here. What is
a1
a1? Incident wave over here; provided a2 = 0 so that means, if we terminate this thing into a
matched load, then what is the transmitted wave to this particular value divided by the
incident. So, hence this you can say will actually give the gain of the amplifier or loss of any
given circuit. So, that is why many a times b2 is mentioned as transmitted wave when a1 is the
b1
input here ok. But if you look at S 12, what is S12? That is provided a1 = 0. So that means, if
a2
input is given at port 2 which is a 2 then what is the wave going towards this. So, in this
b1
particular case if the input is at port 2, then b1 becomes transmitted wave. So, , ok.
a2
So, in the next lecture we are going to talk in more detail about S parameters, how these
reflection coefficients and transmission coefficients are defined. So, just you summarize
today’s lecture. So, we actually started with the very simple ABCD parameters which are
defined in terms of input voltages and current and output voltages and current. And the
benefit of that is that for one network if this input voltage and current is defined in terms of
output voltage and current then that output voltage current becomes input voltage and current
for the next port, and then we can find the next to next port output voltages and currents. So,
you can keep cascading these things and simply by multiplying ABCD of first to second to
third or fourth or nth different components can be there and you can find ABCD parameters
of the entire network simply by doing the matrix multiplication.
And then we did look at a few simple examples, one was series impedance, then another one
was shunt impedance, then we looked at the transmission line, and then we also looked at one
case with consisted of series shunt series, ok. And after ABCD parameters we looked at S
parameters. Now, ABCD parameters are defined in terms of voltages and currents, S
parameters are defined in terms of incoming wave and outgoing wave. And in the next lecture
we will see that how ABCD parameters are related with S parameters. How we can convert
from ABCD parameters to S parameters and also we will look at what are the different
properties of S parameters, and what happens when you go from 2 port to n ports. So, what
are the different things we will look into that and we will also see how to calculate S
parameter for a given network.
So, with that thank you very much. See you next time. Bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 03
Lecture - 15
S - Parameters
Hello everyone. So, welcome to today’s lecture on S-parameters. In fact, it is a continuation

of the previous lecture.
In the previous lecture we had seen ABCD parameters and what are its properties and we had
seen that A is equal to D for symmetrical network and AD minus BC is equal to 1 for
symmetrical network. And then we actually calculated ABCD parameters for a few cases and
these were series Z impedance or shunt Y admittance. We also looked into the transmission
line what are the ABCD parameters of that and then we looked at the cascaded network. And
we had started our discussion on S-parameters so let us continue from where we left in the
last lecture.
So, we actually define S-parameters in terms of incoming waves which could be a 1 and a2
and outgoing waves b1 and b2. So, S-parameters are defined by this particular expression here
or this was expanded over here. And then we took the cases where a2 is equal to 0 or a 1 = 0
and we had defined S11=b1 /a1. Now, b1 /a1is nothing but reflected wave divided by incident
wave. So, hence S11 is reflection coefficient at port 1 and this is now reflection coefficient at
port 2.
And in this particular case S21 is you can say b2 is the outgoing wave in this case we would
say it is a transmitted wave divided by incident wave. And S 12 will be transmitted wave at the
port 1 when the input is given at port 2.
So, let us go through these things one by one again. S 11 is reflection coefficient at port 1, S 22
is reflection coefficient at port 2 and S21 is a measure of gain or loss from port 1 to port 2. So
that means, if we give a input at port 1 what is the output at port 2.
So, if it is an amplifier it will be a gain, if it is some other circuit, it can be attenuator, it can
be a power divider, coupler, filter and so on that will be then loss. So, this is now, from port 1
to port 2. The opposite of this is S12 which is a measure of gain or loss again from now, port 2
to port 1 so that means now the input is given at port 2 and we are looking at the output at
port 1.
So, now, these S-parameters can be written in a slightly different way in a sense that S 11 is
reflection coefficient. And I just want to mention here earlier we had used the symbol gamma
for reflection coefficient, but in some books they use the expression for rho as a reflection
coefficient. So, you just please remember rho is same as gamma depending upon which book
you are going to read or which book you read. So, we can write here S 11 as reflection
coefficient at port 1.
What is S12? So, that is a transmission coefficient that 1 2. What is S 21? Transmission
coefficient, 2 1 that means, input is given at port 1 output is taken from port 2 and this is you
can say reflection coefficient at port 2. So, the same S-parameter matrix now can be written
in the form of reflection coefficient at ports 1 and port 2 and transmission coefficients at port
1 and 2. So, it is just the another way of representation of S-parameters.
Now, let just look at S-parameters for N port network. Now, just to mention again ABCD
parameters were defined only for two ports, port 1 and port 2. But S-parameters can be
defined for N port so we can see here port 1 incoming wave outgoing wave then port 2
incoming wave outgoing wave.
Similarly, you can follow so port N so incoming wave and outgoing wave. So, in this
particular case now we can write b1 =S11 a1 + S12 a2 +… S1 N aN . Now, similarly b2, bN.
b N =SN 1 a1 + SN 2 a2 + …+S NN aN . In fact, just to tell you we will be looking at several examples
where there may be a 5 ports or there may be a 4 ports or there may be 3 port; in fact, we had
designed at one time a power divider where input was only one port and there were 38 output
ports. So, for that S matrix will have a size of 39 x 39.
Let us first look at what are the S matrix properties.

So, for N port we can now write in a very simple way instead of writing b 1, b2 to bN and S11,
S12, S1N we can write in a very simple form which is b = S a.
Now, here just like in terms of ABCD parameters we had seen A = D and AD - BC = 1; here
we have a slightly different way of expressing the thing. So, for symmetrical network if [S] =
[S]T that really means Sij = Sji, where i and j can be anywhere from 1 to 3 up to N. So, if this
property is satisfied that means, it is a symmetrical network.
And for lossless network just imagine first a lossless network will be a network where there
will be no losses within the network. So, actually speaking it leads to two different properties
we will just see one by one. But how we define lossless network? Basically S and that is S
conjugate matrix and transpose of that, that product of these two matrices will give a unit
matrix over here which is given symbol as I. So, from here we can actually get two different
properties one is known as a unitary property, another one is known as orthogonal property.
Let me explain one by one what is unitary property. Unitary property is that we will start with
an example let us say S211 +S221 + …+S2N 1=1 ;so, that is a unitary property. Now, we will define
this thing little later on but first let us just do this time we will use a bottom up approach.
So, let see if I give a input at only port 1 so that will be a 1 square. So, power is equal to a 12.
So, if we give a power only at port 1. Then what will happen? If there is a no loss within the
network then this power will get distributed to all the other ports. So, the power output at port
1 will be b1 square at port 2 b2 square and bN square. So, we can say that the input power at
port 1 is equal to sum of all the power outputs at ports 1 to N so that means, there are no
losses within the network.
So, now, from here divide everything by a1 square. So, this will be b1 by a1 square which is
equal to S11. This will be now b2 divided by a1 square that is S21. This one here will be bN
divided by a1 that will be SN1 square and a1 square divided by a1 square will be 1. So, this is
what we get from here to here. Now, let us write this particular thing in this particular form or
you can look into later on this here. So, what we have here this case was taken for j equal to
1. So, where j can be from 1 to n let just look at this term here.
What this term says? Summation of i equal to 1 to n Sij magnitude square is equal to 1. So,
over here if we take j equal to 1 which is what is shown over here. So, what will happen now?
i will vary from 1 to N, so 1 1 which is here, then i will be 2, 2 1, then 3 1, and then N 1. So,
this particular thing is actually same as this which is same as this over here.
And this whole thing can also be written in the form of Sij multiplied by Sij conjugate. We
know that complex number multiplied by its conjugate will give the magnitude square. So,
that is the unitary property which basically is nothing, but you can say that summation of all
the S-parameters for given j equal to 1 will be equal to 1 which is unit.
What is the orthogonal property? Orthogonal property is something similar to which is a

basically 0, what it really means is that if this is a lossless network. So, if a network is
lossless what will be the power dissipated in the network, it will be equal to 0. So, that is
what this term comes from and here what we have Sij you can say i and i common, so i will
vary from 1 to N.
And this is j, this is k, and in this case condition is j should not be equal to k, ok. So, that is
very important if j is equal to k then actually speaking we are getting this condition, ok. So, j
is not equal to k. If you take k equal to j this becomes unitary property. So, over here
orthogonal property is nothing but since a network is lossless, losses within the network will
be equal to 0. So, just to give you an example here, we have taken here let say j equal to 1
and k equal to 2.
And if we take j equal to 1 and k equal to 2 expand this whole thing so we can say i is going
to vary from 1 to N. So, 1, j is 1 so i is 1, k is 2. In the second case now, i is equal to 2, j and
k remain 1 and 2 and in this particular case now, i is equal to N and j and k will be 1 and 2.
So, these are the two properties which are useful and even this one is useful to know whether
the network is symmetrical or not.
Now, let just take an example. So, this is the example where it is given that S-parameter
matrix of a 3 port network is given below. Let us just look into it carefully. So, what is this
here? This is S11, this is S12, this is S13. So, this is S21, S22, S23, S31, S32, S33. So, there are now,
several questions, the first question is this network reciprocal.
Now to check whether the network is reciprocal or not; we have to check whether S transpose
is equal to S or not. So, let us see whether that is valid or not. So, you can see that S 12 is same
as S21, S13 is same as S31 and this term here S23 is same as S32 so which means that this
property is satisfied. So, we can say that this network is reciprocal.
Next question; is this network lossless? Well, in order to find out whether the network is
lossless or not we can use the unitary condition also or we can use the orthogonal property
also. So, let just apply only unitary condition. So, what unitary condition says,
2 2 2
S11 +S12 + S13 =1. Let us first check whether it is 1 or not. So, 0.1782 +0.6 2 +0.4 2 you add up all
these things it comes out to be 0.55, ok. So that means this particular network is not lossless
because it is not equal to 1 hence this is a lossy network.
Now, we would like to know what is the return loss at port 1 ok. Now, I just want to mention
here because the term return loss is mentioned, ok, see there are two terms which are used in
the literature, ok, sometimes they say return loss if they say return loss that is minus 20 log
S11. First of all why 20, why not 10? Because S 11 is not a power, see, had this been S 112 then it
will be 10, ok. But for power we always take 10 log for a square root of power unit we take
20 log.
So, this minus sign is coming over here because we are calculating return loss. Now, many a
times they also say reflection coefficient. Now, reflection coefficient you do not put minus
reflection coefficient is only this much here, ok. So, please remember the difference between
reflection coefficient and return loss in case of return loss you add a minus. So, now, minus
20 log S11 we know what is S11 = 0.178 you take the log of that that comes out to be
approximately 15 dB. Now, the question is now, insertion loss and phase delay between ports
2 and 3.
Again I want to mention if we say insertion loss; insertion loss is minus 20 log of S 23 why.
Because we want to find out between ports 2 and 3, if it was just the transmission coefficient
then this minus sign will not come. So, please read the problem carefully whether they are
asking for transmission coefficient or whether they are asking for insertion loss; insertion loss
will have minus. So, now, S23 we know what is the value of S23 which is 0.3 you take the log
of that that comes out to be 10.5 dB.
Now, again here what is phase delay? So, when we talk about again phase delay, so delay has
already built-in because we are talking from point a to b what is the delay. So, here this is S 23
parameter, but when we talk about the delay will be negative of that so which is going to be
plus 450.
So, please take some different examples and do some own calculation. You can try also
applying orthogonal property to this also and you will see that orthogonal property is not
valid for this particular case. You can just see there multiply this with this plus this plus this
plus this plus this term will be 0, this term will be 0, but this is a nonzero term so hence that
product is not equal to 0, ok. So, please apply these things carefully you can solve the
problems in a very simpler manner.
So, now, we want to actually see how ABCD parameters can be related with S-parameters.
So, for that we are going to define these waves in terms of voltages and currents.
So, let us just see first a simple transmission line which has been terminated with a load
impedance ZL. This particular thing we have done earlier also, when we were talking about
transmission line. So, here we can say that this is the incident wave which is shown by the
sign plus and this is the reflected wave which is shown by a sign minus, ok. So, you can say
incident wave reflected wave, ok. So, now, this particular term is defined in this particular
form here so that voltage is some constant and e− jβx term comes because x = 0 over here.
Now, you can see that further reflected wave from here it will be the opposite. So, this is a
plus sign here. Now, I just want to mention. So, plus sign does not mean over here that it is
going to be positive, no, x is negative when you are going from this particular direction. And
so what will be the total voltage? total voltage at this particular point will be summation of
these two voltages which is incident voltage and reflected voltage. So, that will be the
summation of the voltage. So, which is something similar to we are talked about V 1 for port
1.
Now, similarly now, the current we have not shown it over here, but current in the same
fashion is defined. So, current will be again I + and I- and the currents are related to the
voltages. So, V +¿ / Z ¿ and V −¿/ Z ¿. So, now, at any port of the network, so we have just shown
0 0
here the generalized form a b, but suppose if it is a port 1 then this will be a 1, this will be V1,
if it is port 2 this will be a2 and this will be V2 and so on.
V +¿ V −¿
So, here a is defined in terms of ¿ and b is defined in terms of ¿ . So, now, from
√ Z0 √ Z0
here you can actually see that if we take the ratio of the two, so we know that reflection
coefficient which is let us say S11 or S22 S33 depending upon which port we are looking at. So,
reflection coefficient is nothing but reflected divided by incident. So, which is b/a we had
seen earlier but now, let us just look at over here also if I take the ratio of b/a, √ Z 0 will get
V −¿
cancelled. So, what we are left with this? ¿.
V +¿ ¿
So, now, the difference is simple reflection coefficient let say port 1 will be Γ 1 =b1 / a1 or Γ 2.
Now, from here you can also see if we try to define these things you come over here and look
at the terms here. So, we have seen that voltage. So, V +¿=a √ Z ¿ . What will be V −¿ ¿? V −¿=b √ Z ¿.
0 0
Now, what will be I? You can say that we substitute the value over here. So, we can say that
now, V +¿=a √ Z ¿ ; divide it by Z0. So, the term will be nothing, but now, this divided by
0
√Z0
and that will have a negative term. So, this will be nothing, but now, in the form of a and b; in
between we will have a negative term. Whereas, over here it will be a and b term but in
between the term will be positive term. So, now, I am going to show you the relation which is
ABCD to S-parameters.

Now, the detail derivation you can find in any one of the books which I had mentioned for
example, you can see Pozar book or you can see Collin’s book and other book. So, I am not
actually showing you the detailed derivation of that but what we are interested now, is ABCD
to S-parameter conversion. Why we are looking into that? Because we had seen earlier how a
larger network can be divided into smaller network for which we know ABCD matrix
individually. By multiplying ABCD matrix of individual network we can find overall ABCD
matrix.
But our objective is not ABCD when we are talking about microwave. At microwave we are
talk about incident wave reflected wave. So, we are more interested in finding S-parameter.
So, you can say that all that ABCD we discuss about that was an intermediate step to reach
the final goal of finding S-parameters. So, here you can say S 11 is given by this particular
expression but I will try to make things little simpler for you. So, just recall now, what was
the unit of A? It was a dimensionless. What was the unit of D? It was dimensionless. What
was the unit of b? It had a unit of impedance. So, you divide that by Z 0 so that become
dimensionless.
(Refer Time: 21:57)
What was the unit of C? It had mho. You multiply with this impedance, now this become
dimensional so in fact, it is sometimes easier to remember instead of a writing capital ABCD
if you write in terms of let us say normalized value. So, if it all these are normalized then this
will become let us say normalized value if you represent as small abcd, then this will become
a + b + c + d. So, you do not have to worry about remembering these Z 0 or you just think
about these are all normalized thing.
Now, if you look for all these S-parameters that denominator is exactly same which is
nothing, but a + b + c + d. Now, let us look at the numerator. So, first we will look at the
numerator for S11 and S22. If you see here this is like if we again think normalized a + b - c -
d.
Now, you look over here, here A has become - A, - D has become + D, otherwise these two
terms are exactly same. So, we can now, say if A =D, if A = D and we have seen that is the
condition for symmetrical network. And if A = D this term will get cancel this term will get
cancel so that means, S11 = S22. So, we can define either way you can say for symmetrical
network you can say S11 = S22 or A = D you can drive either from here or from there.
Now, let just look at S12 and S21. See the numerator this is 2( AD – BC ) and this is only 2. And
we have seen that for reciprocal network AD−BC =1. So, if I put AD−BC =1. So, this will
be 2, this will be 2. So, you can say that S12 = S21. So, if the network is reciprocal then S21 =
S12 or we can say AD−BC =1, ok. Now, of course, in the books they have also given how to
convert from S-parameter to ABCD but actually speaking most of the time that is not
required but if at all you require for some other purpose you can always see the textbooks
which I have mentioned to you, ok.
So, now, let just take an example how to find S-parameters.
So, we are going to actually solve this problem in two different approaches. So, first approach
is we are going to actually find out first ABCD parameter and then we use the formulas to get
S-parameter. So, let us see what is the simple problem we have taken.
So, this is a series impedance. So, we had seen that a 1 and a2 incoming waves, b1 and b2 are
the outgoing waves ok. And for this particular network we had actually done the derivation
for ABCD parameter for a series impedance it was 1, Z, 0, 1.
Now, we are going to use ABCD to S-parameter conversion formula. So, this is the ABCD to
S conversion formula. So, let us see what is A. So, A = 1, D = 1, so 1 – 1 = 0, so that term
will not be there and what about here? B/Z0. What is B? Z. So, Z/Z0 will come here. And
what is C? C = 0. So, there is a nothing else there. So, now, in the denominator A = D, and
that is equal to 1. So, 1 + 1 = 2 and this term here B/ Z0 +C Z 0. So, B is nothing, but Z so Z/Z0,
C = 0. So, S11 is given by this particular expression and we can multiply numerator and
Z
denominator by the term Z0. So, what do we get? .
2 Z0 + Z
Now, we will try to find out S 21 using the same concept of the ABCD parameters to S-
parameter transformation. So, the formula is given by this here. So, this two remains two and
2+ Z
the denominator will be same as what we had over here which is . If you know
Z0
2 Z0
multiplied by Z0 that will be . So, these are the S11 and S21.
2 Z0+Z
Since the network is symmetrical as well as reciprocal. So, we can say that S 11 will be equal
to S22 and S21 will be equal to S12 which will be same as this here. Now, this is a problem
which we solved using ABCD parameter. In fact, this was very simple and this simple
problem can be also directly solved also. So, let us look at the direct solution which is an
another approach. So, let us say what is reflection coefficient. It’s nothing, but equal to S 11.
So, we can find reflection coefficient equal to S11 by this particular expression.
So, what we need to know? We need to find what is Z input. So, Z input looking from here
that is this impedance Z. And remember S-parameters are defined when this port is
terminated into the characteristic impedance which is Z0. So, this is Z0, this is Z. So, looking
from here Z input will be Z + Z0.
So, now, we substitute this value over here. So, Z in = Z + Z0. So, if you look into this term
Z
here you will see that this term is exactly same as we had defined earlier.
2 Z0 + Z
Now, be careful when you are going to use this particular expression. See this is S211 +S221 =1 ,
but this is valid only if Z is lossless. Please do not use this particular concept if Z is lossy that
means, if Z is a resistor you cannot use this particular thing because for lossy network this is
not at all valid, ok; please remember that. However, you can apply this for inductor, capacitor
or a transmission line which is lossless you can apply this particular condition. So, let us see
2 2
how we can solve this assuming that Z is lossless. So, |S21| =1−|S11| . So, S11 we have
already done the calculation you put it over here and now, if you solve this you will get this
expression which is same as before.
Now, I just want to again warn you one more time this you will get the derivation only when
Z is not resistive, ok. So, please apply these things little bit more carefully and that way you
can solve the problem. Of course, we can solve it directly if it was simple series element but
now, imagine if it had a another thing here another here, another there and multiple elements
are there then solving using this particular approach will become very very complicated.
So, for all these cases it is better that you use this particular approach where you find ABCD
matrix of the cascaded network. So, let there be n number of terms over here multiply all of
those, find overall ABCD matrix and then yes just use particular formula to find out overall
S-parameter.
So, we will conclude today’s lecture at this particular point. So, today we talked about S-
parameters and what are its various parameters we looked at how to convert from ABCD
parameters to S parameter.
Now, in the next lecture we are going to take several practical examples of how to realize
different circuits. For example, power dividers, couplers, filters and so on and where we are
going to apply the concept of ABCD matrices of different smaller components multiply them
and get the overall S matrix.
So, till then study hard and we will see you in the next lecture; bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Module - 04
Lecture - 16
Power Dividers – I: Two-way, Three-way and Four-way Equal Power Dividers
Hello. In the last few lectures we have been talking about transmission lines, impedance
matching, Smith chart, ABCD parameters, and S parameters. Now we are going to talk about
applications of all those things. So we will talk about the first application today which is
power dividers and combiners. So, let us see where we need power dividers and when we
need combiners. So, first we will actually going to look at 2-way equal power divider.
So, let us say if we are giving a input at this port here, then the half power should go here
ideally and half power should go over here ideally and nothing should reflect back. So, where
we need this kind of a power divider; for example, just to mention one of the applications that
if you want to feed let us say 2 element antenna. So, what will you do? so we actually give
input at one place and then the power is divided equally and that is given to the 2 elements.
Now, there may be a element array could be 8 x 8 array or 16 x 16 array. So, in that case we
will need large number of power dividers and majority of the time we feed these arrays using
equal power division. So, that is one of the simple application, but this power divider may be
required at many other places which maybe a equal power divider or even unequal power
divider. So, let us start with the simple most thing which is a 2-way equal power divider.
So, let us see what we have shown over here. So here is the input port, this is the output port,
this is the output port, and here we are assuming that all the 3 ports have a input impedance
which is equal to Z0 and majority of the time we take this as 50 Ω. I mean just to tell you
most of the microwave generators really use 50 Ω impedance source impedance or in fact we
use load impedance also, so that there is a standardized process.
So, accept in Russia where they do not use 50 Ω, almost all the other countries in the world
use 50 Ω as standard for microwave. So, let just see what we had studied in the previous
lecture. That we had seen that for a lossless network this is a unitary property and we have
written it for all the 3 ports. So, S211 +S221 + S231 =1and the same thing you can write it over here
for S12 S22 S32 and then S13 S23 S33.
So, this is the lossless network property, and here is this a lossless network? Well, we are
going to assume that these transmission lines are lossless or in general also the transmission
lines have very very low loss. And what we have shown over here this is a microstrip
realization of a 2-way equal power divider. We will take real simulated examples also, but let
us first look at the concept part.
So, ideally what do we want we want S 11 = 0; that means, the reflected power at this port
should be equal to 0 and the half power should go here, half power should go over here. So,
for S11 = 0, Zin = Z0 and that should be equal to 50 Ω. So let us say the input impedance here
should be 50 Ω. Now we can see that a one branch is coming from here, another branch is
coming from here, and we can see that these 2 branches are coming in parallel at this
particular point.
So, if the two things which are coming in parallel and we want equal power division. So,
what we really want that the input impedance looking from here, and input impedance
looking from here should be equal and that should be equal to 100 Ω because, then we can
say a 100 Ω in parallel with the 100 Ω will be equal to 50 Ω. So, now let us see how do we
get 100 Ω over here, we know that this is 50 Ω impedance we need to transfer this impedance
from 50 Ω to 100 Ω. And we had studied when we talked about transmission line that a
quarter wave transformer can transform one impedance to the other impedance. And the
2
Z1
formula for that is Zin1 looking from here is given by . So, Z1 is the characteristic
ZL
impedance of this particular line. And we have taken these 2 equal because, we want equal
power division. If we do not want equal power division then Z 1 will not be equal to this
particular impedance which maybe let us says Z 2. We will see that later on let us first
complete this particular thing now.
So, Z input 1 we want that to be 100 Ω, Z L we know is 50 Ω; all the 3 ports are terminated
with 50 Ω. So, from here we can calculate the value of Z 1 square which is Z¿ 1 × Z L . So, Z
input 1 we want this to be a 100, so 100 ×50 and then we have to take square root of that
which comes out to be 50 √ 2and that comes out to be 70.7 Ω. And this length should be λ/ 4.
Now, if you recall we did mention about single quarter wave transformer and 2 quarter wave
transformer. So, here this part is only single quarter wave we will take example of 2 quarter
wave also and we had seen that the single quarter wave provides impedance matching only at
a single frequency. So we will see these results one by one. But now what we have here? so
for equal power division and lossless network. What will happen now since nothing is
reflected back and this is a lossless network.
So, half power goes here half power goes here, so that means S 21 which is power going from
1
1 to 2 and then from 1 to 3 which is S 31 that should be equal to ; I will talk about this term
√2
1 1
little later on. So, means that square of this will be . So that means half power goes
√ 2 2
here half power goes here; now what about this term here? so you can see here that from here
λ
to here the length l= .
4
So, length λ/ 4 if you look at the phase delay because of this length will be equal to , which
2π λ 2π λ
is equal to × . So, × will give us 900. And since the delay is from here to here we
λ 4 λ 4
have a minus sign. So, minus comes because of the phase delay and a 90 0 can be represented
by a j term. So, we know that 0 + j 1 has nothing but you can say that will have 1900, so
that is how this term - j comes over here and since the network is reciprocal as you can see
that there are no active components over here. So, whatever we give if I give the same input it
will come over here. So, we can say that S 21 = S31 = S12 = S13. So, we have now found 1 2 3 4
and this is 5 so out of this 9 component we have now found 5 components. Now, we need to
find other 4 components also, so let us see how we can do that.
So, this one here we are now going to try to find out the input impedance at this particular
port over here. So, to find the input impedance at this particular port we have to look from
here, so then we come at this point and then we have to look at this here. So, let us first
calculate what will be this value of the input impedance. So, we can see that from here if I
look at the input impedance, so this is 50 Ω and that impedance in parallel with so, we had a
50 Ω quarter wave transformer had transform this impedance to 100.
So, what this one sees here is a 100 // 50, so we can actually find out Z L12 which will be 100 //
50 and that comes out to be 100/3 Ω. Now we need to find Z in12 at this particular thing here,
so that can be found as Z12/ZL12. So, that is Z12/ZL12 and Z12 we know is 50 √ 2 which is 70.7 Ω.
So, square of that divided by 100/3 we simplify that comes out to be 150 Ω.
So, now we can find out what is the value of S 22, so what is S22 same as reflection coefficient
at port 2 and that can be written in this particular form here. So, if we now substitute the
value Zin12 = 150 - 50. So, the numerator will be 150 - 50 = 100; the denominator will be 150
+ 50 = 200, so 100/200 = ½. So, if we are look from this side we can say that S 22 = ½ and
same way we can do the derivation or by symmetry we can say S 33 = S22 and that is equal to
half.
So, now we can use the equations 2 and 4 and equations 2 and 4 basically are related with
you can say here S212 +S 222 +S 232=1 and this is the equation 4. So, if we now substitute these
values so what we can find out is that |S32| = ½ = |S23|; so that means, the power from here to
here is equal to you can say ¼ because, power will be square of this and from here to here
will be ¼.
Now there will be a phase difference from here to here; we had seen that this phase difference
is 900, so this will be 900 and this will be another 900. So, the phase difference between these
2 ports will be 1800 which is represented by minus sign. So, now we can complete the S
matrix, so S matrix when we are feeding at input port 1 so that is 0, half power goes here half
2
−j −j 1 1
power goes here. So, that is ,
√2 √2
. ( )= ; -j is coming because of the - 900 phase
√2 2
delay.
Now, because of the symmetry this component will be same as here this component will be
same as here. Now S22 we had seen that is equal to half same as S33 and then S going from 2
to 3 and 3 to 2 they are equal to - ½ over here, so that is the S matrix of 2-way power divider.
Now let us see whether this particular thing can be used as a power combiner, so we can give
input here half goes here, half goes here.
Now, is this a good power combiner? so suppose if I give a input at port 2. So, what will
happen? if I give a input at port 2 you can see that S 22 =½ so that means one-fourth of the
power will reflect back that is not a very good thing and out of that rest of it. So, one-fourth
2
1
goes over here and over here again this is ()
2
. So, that will be ¼, so ¼ reflects back ¼ goes
over here and ½ power goes over here. So that means this is not really a very good combiner;
it is a good power divider but not a good power combiner. So, what we need to do as a power
combiner we will see that little later on.
Now, let us first look at if we want 3-way equal power divider what do we need to do. So, let
λ
us see in order to design a 3-way equal power divider. So, we have l= section another λ/ 4
4
section another λ/ 4section and just we have written here Z1 Z2 Z3, but we know that for
equal power divider Z1 = Z2 = Z3.
λ
Now, you can see that this l= , but since it is bent. So, you can see that the length will be
4
same λ/ 4, but it is now little bent over here. So, you can say that all these 3 ports are not
properly aligned, so these things can be aligned by using this particular concept also. So,
where you can see that this is bent here this is bent like this here and this one over here, so the
all the 3 ports are at the same level ok. This will be required more when you are actually
going to have a physical PCB layout and you want to put a connector. So, you do not want a
PCB to have a something like this kind of a shape, majority of the time let us say a nice PCB
will be more like let us say a rectangular shape over here and then you can put a connecter
here connector here and connector over here.
But now let just look at the design since we want 3-way equal power divider. So we will say
that Z1 = Z2 = Z3 and in that case we can say a Z in1, Zin2, Zin3 should be equal and these should
be equal to 150 Ω; why 150 Ω? because now 3 of these are in parallel. So, if there are 3
things in parallel which are equal then the net input impedance at this port will be a 150 Ω /3
= 50 Ω. So, now we want desired impedance at this point is 150 Ω this impedance is 50 Ω, so
2
Z
we need to use a quarter wave transformer we know the formula. So, Z¿ 1= 1 Zin1 desired is
ZL
150, ZL = 50.
So, from there we can calculate Z1 =50 √ 3 and we have Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = 86.6 Ω; so that means,
we can design a 3-way equal power divider in a very simple manner that we design these
microstrip lines for an impedance of 86.6 Ω and this will work as a equal power divider;
again this is not a good power combiner ok. So, we will tell you later on how to design power
combiner.
Now, suppose if we had not used these quarter wave transformers then what would have
happened? let us say that these 2 3 4 are connected right here at this point without using a
quarter wave transformer. Then what would have happened? then 50 Ω then this 50 Ω then
this 50 Ω, the 3 50 Ω will be in parallel. So, what will be the equivalent impedance at this
point if they are combined together and we say that the port one is here then it will be 50/3 =
16.67 Ω and that means that input port will not be matched, so lot of power will get reflected
back. So, it is required that we design these things properly choose the impedance values
carefully, so that we can design a equal power divider.
So, from 3-way let us go to another thing which is a 4-way power divider. I have shown here
2 different configurations, let us first look at the configuration 1. So, what is the configuration
1? well we have a λ/ 4 section, another λ/ 4 , another λ/ 4 . Now, this is a general case; we
have written Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4, but for equal power divider these should all be equal and you can
2
Z1 1002
see here I have written here as a 100 Ω why 100 Ω? Well, let us see now = , so that
50 50
means input impedance here will be now 200 Ω. So, this is 200, 200, 200, 200: 4 impedances
of 200 Ω in parallel will be equivalent to 200/4, so we get 50 Ω. So that means S 11 = 0 and
since all the 4 impedances have been taken equal, so equal power division will take place and
as I mentioned earlier these outputs can be connected to 4 different antennas and that will
form an array of 4 different antennas.
Now let us try to do the same thing in a slightly different way; so this is a configuration two.
So, let us see what this configuration 2 is, so you can see here that we have got a 2-way
power divider, we have written a general case where Z 1 Z2 Z3 Z4 Z5 Z6. So that means this
configuration can be utilized for unequal power divider also. But here we will first take the
cases where the power divisions from here to all the 4 ports are equal.
So, let us see what happens now? so we are giving a input at port 1, so half power goes here
half power goes here. So, from here then ½ power goes here, ½ power goes here and ½ power
goes over here, ½ power goes over here and in fact if you just do little bit of a simplification I
will just give you a little hint here. So, now what is the input impedance at this port, so let us
say if you take all the impedances equal as we will see it works out fine so which is equal to
2 2 2
Z Z Z
Z. So, this will be now then this will be now 2 are in parallel. So , this is , so in a
50 50 50
2
Z
reality it will be .
100
So, now if we look at this here so this impedance is again Z. So, the input impedance looking
2
Z
from here will be this Z2 divided by the load impedance and what is the load impedance?
100
, so Z2 Z2will cancel and we will get 100 Ω over here. So, 100 in parallel with a 100 and that
will be equal to 50 Ω. So that means, this particular configuration you can choose any value
of Z and this will work and this is where the design concept comes into picture. So, what
should be the value of Z, shall we take all these lines 50 Ω that will do the job shall we take
all these impedances as 10 Ω that will also do the job, shall we take everything to be 100 Ω
that will also do the job. So, now the question is which is the best choice ok, so for that you
have to remember few things; see what is we are really doing. So, on 50 Ω let us say we are
going to some value, but ultimately we are going to 100 Ω and these 100 // 100 = 50.
So that means, from here 50 Ω we are going to 100 Ω. So, it is always better that let us say
we are going from 50 to 100, say it is better that we take a intermediate step and then go over
here ok. Suppose if you have taken this as 50 and 50, so this 50 and 50 we will get here as a
25 Ω and if this is 25 Ω this is 50, so 50 2/25 = 100. But in reality we have not really use the
transforming property of this thing which we had done for a 2-way. So, by using this 70.7
what we did from 50 we went to 100, then 100 // 100 = 50 then from 50 we went to 100.
So, we are moving between 50 to 100 rather than going to some different values because, if
we had taken 50 50 from 50 50 this would have become 25. So that means, objective was
from 50 to go to a 100 but what we did from 50 we went first down to 25 Ω and then we are
going to 100. So, whenever there are larger variations it will give rise to smaller bandwidth.
So, if you use this kind of a value here 70.7 Ω for all the impedance value we will actually
get the relatively broader bandwidth compared to if you take any other value of Z.
Now, let us see how we can use this equal power divider as a combiner ok. So, we are
actually put over here a resister R and that is also known as isolation resistance ok. We will
look at the concept little later on, but first just see what really this isolation resistance really
do, what it actually does it makes S 22 = S33 = S23 = S32 = 0; provided we take this isolation
resistance value equal to 2 Z0 = 100 Ω.
If we take this particular thing we will get this particular equation and you can actually see
that all these parameters are not equal to 0. What is this really mean first; let us just look at
the concept point of view. So, now if we feed the input at this port here, so what will happen
you can see that nothing is reflected back and what is happening from here to here well
nothing is going there because S32 = 0. So that means, if I am giving a input here nothing is
reflected back and nothing is going over here. So that means, that isolation between the 2
ports is very good and also the ports are matched.
So, if you look at the S matrix here 0 0 0, so that means all the 3 ports are now matched ok
and let us see another thing, so from here if I give the input half power goes here half power
goes over here. So, which is same as before except the modification is that these components
are become 0. Earlier if you recall these components had the magnitude of half ok, which
really meant one-fourth of the power was reflected and one-fourth of the power was
transmitted to the other port ok.
So, now the question is what really this is and how that really happens. So first again let us go
to the power divider concept first, so from here we gave input power here. So, let us say half
power comes here half power comes here. So, if you think in the form of the voltage suppose
whatever is the magnitude and the phase at this particular port let us say V 2 that will be
exactly same as V3. So, if the 2 voltages are exactly same and they have the same phase
difference, what will be the current flowing through the resister? there will be no current so
hence there will be a equal power division.
So, now how these things are happening why these things are becoming 0, so let me just
explain in a very simple manner now; let us say we are giving a input at this particular port
here, so what happens? from here to port 3 there are 2 paths are there; there is a one path
from here and there is a another path from here. So, this path you can see that this will
provide a phase difference of one 1800 and assuming that this path is very very small the way
I have shown it looks little larger but we will show you how the practical realization takes
place.
So, this path length is generally taken very very small if we do not take small, then also I will
show you what really happen. But assuming that this path length is very small or negligible in
comparison to this, so this will give me 180 0 phase shift, this will give 0 0 phase shift. So,
what will happen in that case this power will be out of phase of this particular thing, these 2
will cancel and nothing will come over here ok. So, now this whole thing can be used as a
power combiner, ok, so what is a power combiner? Now let us say if I give 1 W over here
and if we give 1 W power over here. So what will happen? now do not look at always the S
matrix ok, because see if the way S matrix is defined the S matrix is defined that when we are
feeding it here all the other ports are matched, when we feed here all the other ports are
matched when we feed here all the other ports are matched.
So, here the situation is slightly different, we are giving a input here also and we are giving
input here also. So, if you apply the S matrix blindly it’s not going to do the job you have to
now apply the logic. So, let us say if I am giving a 1 W power here and a 1 W power here,
you have to ensure that these 2 powers are exactly at the same phase. So, assuming that again
if they are in the same phase so this voltage V 2 let us say that V2 has a phase angle, V2 00
this is also V2 00.
So, if the 2 voltages are same and they have a same phase, so what will be the current flowing
through this? there will be a no current flowing through that. So, what is the coupled power?
there is a no coupled power, so where the power will go from here. So, power from here
nothing is reflected, nothing is going over here and these are relatively lossless line. So, this 1
W will come over here and this 1 W will also come over here, so we will get affectively 2 W
of power. So in fact you can actually feed let us say a 10 W of power, 10 W of power; you
will get 20 W of power. So, this is the 1 of the effective way of designing a power combiner
circuit.
Now, over here you have to ensure that the 2 inputs here are at the same phase, just look at
the extreme case here suppose the input of this 1 W power is let us say a 100, but the input
at this thing is 11800. So, if I will look at the voltage here so this will be V 2 and this will be
-V2; even though the power is same V 22 and (-V2)2 ok. So, power remains same but, because
now there is a phase difference if this is V 2 and this is -V2, you can now see that there will be
a large current flowing through the resistor and there will be a huge power loss and when
there is a power loss you will not get 1 W input 1 W input and 2 W output over here it will
not really happen ok. So, as a power combiner you have to ensure that the 2 inputs are exactly
at the same phase ok.
So, I am just going to show you one practical example here and that is you can see here, input
is given over here this is actually a 2-way power divider, there is a isolation resistance is
connected over here and then this one over here is divided equally further and there is a
isolation resistance here, there is a isolation resistance over here and this is now you can say
connected to the 4 connectors.
So, from here one way to 2-way and then 2-way to 4-way and these are the SMA connectors
as I have shown you earlier you can use SMA connector or N-type of a connector. Now
eventually you are not going to buy a component which has a open PCB like this, this has to
be put inside a box. So, just you give you so basically what this box shows only this
particular portion over here, of course this is designed for slightly different frequency.
So, you can see that there is a 1 input here and there are 2 output ports over here. So, this is
the simple way you can do, but I also just want to mention now see what will be the cost of
this particular thing, it is going to be very very small, ok. And yet if you want to import these
2-way power dividers or 4-way power dividers it may cost you anywhere between 50 dollars
to 100 dollars.
So, in the next lecture we will actually see how to practically realize these power dividers
combiners. We will also look at unequal power divider and other cases.
Till then thank you. And we will see you again next time. Bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 04
Lecture - 17
Power Dividers – II: Unequal, Broadband and Compact Power Dividers
In the previous lecture we had discussed about power dividers and combiners. So, we have
stared with the 2-Way equal power divider and then we had finally derived its S matrix.
And we had actually seen that this is a good power divider, but not a good power combiner
because if we give a input at port 2, then one-fourth of the power reflects back, one-fourth of
the power goes to port 3 and ½ power goes to port 1, ok. So that means, the reflection
coefficient is not good and also coupling between the two port is there which means that
isolation between these two ports is not very good.
But after 2-way we had looked into 3-way and we had actually seen that for 3-way Z 1 = Z2 =
Z3 = 86.6 Ω.
We had looked at two different configurations for 4-way power divider, one configuration
had only single λ/ 4 section, second configuration had 2 λ/ 4 section. In general, this
particular design will have a more bandwidth compared to this particular section.
And then we looked at the equal power divider with resistor and basically the resistor value is
equal to 100 Ω. And in fact, when we discuss about even and odd mode analysis then you
will understand how this value comes into picture so you have to wait for one or two more
lectures.
So, by choosing this isolation resistance we can actually see that S 22 also becomes 0, S33 also
becomes 0, and also the coupling from port 2 to port 3 is 0 that means, the isolation between
ports 2 and 3 is very good. Then we also discussed about when we use as a power combiner,
so let us say if we put 1 W here, 1 W here you have to ensure that the 2 input powers have
equal phase, ok. So, they should have equal amplitude as well as equal phase.
If they do not have equal amplitude even then the current will flow. Suppose if you give 1 W
here and 0.8 W here. So, whatever is the corresponding V2 will not be same as V3. So, if the
two voltages are not same then the current will flow through the resistor and there will be
dissipation in the resistor. And I had mentioned also that how the phase cancels from here to
here this is a 1800, and from here to here the phase difference is approximately 0 assuming
this is negligibly and then the output here will be 0.
Now, after that we looked at the example. So, this is the fabricated one and this is the inside
PCB layout for 4-way. I just want to mention over here, this is not necessary that you always
put the ports on this side only. So, just to give you a little bit of a different idea, suppose it is
if it is acceptable that the port 2 ports can be one this side and 2 ports can be on this side then
what will happen. So, from here only this section is actually not required from here only you
can actually use power divider like this, and from here you can use a power divider like this
and then you can have a connector right here.
So in fact, the overall PCB size will be only now this much. So, depending upon the
requirement if people want or if the application requires all the 4 port should be on the same
side this is one of the solution. But if the 2 ports can be on this side and 2 ports can be on this
side that will result in to a relatively smaller PCB, and smaller PCB would also mean smaller
box size also, and that would also mean smaller cost also.
So, let us just now look at the practical realization of these power divider. So, we have
actually taken an example of FR4 substrate, this is a normal glass epoxy substrate which is
generally used for PCB manufacturing or all those your mobile phones or laptop generally
use this FR4 substrate these are readily available, and they are relatively very cheap.
So, r = 4.4 we have taken, though in reality r can be from 4 to 4.6. So, please check before
you know, you start using this particular thing. Here we have used thickness of the substrate
as 0.8 mm and this particular substrate has a tan delta of 0.02. Just to also mention that there
are many FR4 substrates their tan delta may vary from 0.01 to 0.025 also.
So, here this particular simulation we have done using IE3D software. So, let us see what we
have here; here is a port 1 define, this is a port 2, and port 3 over here. And you can see that
there are 2 ports are defined over here there are port 4 and 5. These are basically to put a
isolation resistance. In fact, in IE3D you actually have two different thing first thing is you
use mgrid which is for layout and simulation; later on you can do the processing of the
simulated results. So, that is known as modua. And then in modua you can go replace these
ports 4 and 5 and connect a resistor 100 Ω over here. So, let us see what result we get here.
So, just to tell you r = 4.4 and we had designed this particular thing around 900 MHz. So, we
know that what is the wavelength at 900 MHz it is approximately 33 cm; divide that by 4, so
let us say approximately 8 cm, divide that by √ ϵ e and you actually see that including this port
termination also the total length here is about 57.5 mm, ok. So, that you can say it is slightly
more than 2”, ok.
So, now let us see the simulated result. So, you can see from here input is 1. So, port 2 and
port 3. So, that is S21, S31 shown by the green color over here this is - 3.2 dB. Ideally it should
have been - 3 dB and - 3 dB but because we have used a lossy substrate some losses do
happen and that is why instead of - 3, - 3 it is coming out to be - 3.2 dB.
Now, let us look at the reflection coefficient. So, reflection coefficient plot is shown by this
purple color right over here and I have mentioned here the bandwidth for - 20 dB. S 11 < -20
dB actually imply 1% reflected power, ok. So, that is why also these values become little
lesser also. So, 1% power is reflected rest is transmitted.
So, you can see from here you can read the value from here to here I have drawn this
horizontal line at - 20 dB and one can see that the bandwidth obtained is about 36%. So, just
to tell you this bandwidth is actually sufficient to cover let us say 900 MHz. Why we chose
900 let me also tell you. So, we have a band of GSM 900 which is from 890 to 960. We also
have CDMA which is from 820 to 890, so if you really see this band covers right from 820 to
960 which covers both CDMA as well as GSM 900 band and we have sufficient margin also.
Now, let us see what is the isolation between this and this. So, you can see that this is the
isolation curve and you can actually see that this isolation curve is slightly shifted compared
to what is the minima of the reflection coefficient curve. The reason for that is that this
particular length is not 0 it has a finite length, ok. So, what is happening let us say this is a
1800, ok, at let us say this particular frequency but this is not 0. So, what is happening? That
is why perfect cancellation is not taking place at this particular frequency but it takes at a
slightly different frequency.
So, I just have shown you this particular thing mainly that what this particular dimension can
do, it can actually shift the thing. But let us see also what are S 22 and S33? S22 and S33 are
actually fairly good; you can actually see that here, if I look at a just say - 20 dB bandwidth
then these are much below that, ok, so that means, S22, S33 if I actually look at - 20 dB this
bandwidth is huge, ok. So, matching at the output ports is actually pretty good, matching at
input port or even this isolation is fairly decent over the desired 890 to 960 MHz.
So, now the layout of these microstrip lines is very very important. Here we have shown you
the layout where these are more like a straight line.
Let us see if we use different type of layout what happens. Here instead of using a straight
line like this we have actually used a we can say more like a circular ring which is of course,
certain portion is removed from here.
So, if you use a circular ring now this is that length is λ/ 4. So, we can see that now the total
length has been reduced from, if you remember the previous case the length was 57.5 and
now it is 36.6 so that means, the size is reduced. You can say that yes this size is slightly
increased, but then connectors have to be connected over here and that will occupy certain
space, ok. So, one can realize the little bit compact at least in this particular direction.
Now, this simulation is done without the isolation resistance, you can see that there is a no
isolation resistant. This is just to show you what happens if you do not put isolation resistant.
So, in this case you can see S 21 = S31 = - 3.17, earlier it was - 3.2 dB. So, the performance is
almost similar.
Now, you can see that S22 ≅ S32. You can see the curve from here these are the curves for that
and that is equal to - 6 dB. So, - 6 dB implies one-fourth power is reflected back and one-
fourth power is going over here. So, now let us see what happens.
If you put isolation resistance, so you can see that in the same ring now we have defined 2
ports in between here and then in modua we remove these two ports and we put a resistance.
You can see here this is the modua part of the IE3D software. So, you can see that port 1, 2, 3
are shown over here put 4 and 5 which are over here, we have deleted that and substituted the
value of resistor R1 = 100 Ω.
So, let us see now what is the performance. They can see that S21, S31 they remain same as
before which is - 3.17 dB. Let us see now S 32, you can see S32 is this curve here which I have
shown as a blue, S22 is over here, you can see that S22 is very good over this entire bandwidth.
And what is S11 < 2? That is again this bandwidth is almost similar as in the previous case
because by adding isolation resistance nothing really happen.
But what has been improved? S22 has been improved, S32 has been improved, ok, and also
now since this particular length has been reduced compared to that tapered section which we
had taken, so we can see that now the 2 bottom peaks are very very close to each other. You
can see that the frequency shift is very very small. So, if we can make ideally this to be close
to 0 even little more smaller these two will become almost closer to each other.
Now, let us just look at another design which is a 2-way broadband power divider. So, we
have still used the same FR4 substrates, so that is same. But now you instead of using 1 λ/ 4
section we have actually used 2 λ/ 4 section of ring power divider and I have added the term
combiner because of the isolation resistances we have put here.
Now, we have to define two different things here. So, this is here you can see that these are
the ports here and these are the ports in between over here and here you can see that port 1,
this is port 2, port 3. So, between port 4 and 5 which is right over here we have a put a
resistance of 200 Ω, over here it is 70.7 Ω. So, this is basically to improve the bandwidth
using two section for power divider, these two isolation resistance are required to improve the
bandwidth for power combiner.
So, let us see now what is S21, S31, this is now - 3.3 dB if you recall earlier one of this ring had
given 3.17. So, now, we have a additional thing. So, we have a little more loss. So, that is
why path loss has increased. So, that is why it is - 3.3 dB.
Now, let us see S11 < - 20 dB. This is actually a much broader frequency scale compare to
what we had shown over here. So, you should see what is the scale, but I have given the
numbers here. So, for S11 < - 20 dB you can see over here this is that isolation which is
actually fairly good now, it is even broader than S11. So, S32 < - 20 and S22 is less than even 25
dB over this entire range. And you can now see that this particular thing is giving as from 618
to 1068.
So, if you can calculate the percentage bandwidth it comes out to be 53%. How do we
calculate percentage bandwidth? It is actually simple, P
Bandwidth
ercentage bandwidth= ×100. So, to calculate the bandwidth take the difference of
f0
these two and f0 will be the center frequency of these two thing and center frequency can be
obtained as sum of these two divided by 2. So, that comes out to be 53%.
So, just to tell you that not all the time we have to design glass epoxy substrate which is a
lossy substrate, there are application which do require a good quality substrate for better
performance. So, just to tell you here design example of 2.8 GHz; in fact, this particular thing
was the requirement from one of the defense organization. So, we had use a duroid substrate
here which has a very low tan delta as you can see this is 0.001 r = 2.33 we took substrate
thickness same as before which is 0.8 mm, ok.
So, now because r has reduced so that would actually increase the width of the 50 Ω line
compare to when r = 4.4. So, again isolation resistance has been put over here which is 100
Ω as before. So, you can see that we have used this circular ring. So, let us just see the
results. So, this is the simulated result, the designed frequency is around 2.8 GHz.
So, let us see what we have got here. S 21, S 1 is - 3.06 dB, ok. So, instead of - 3 dB we are
getting 3.06 dB because there are some losses do happen which are going from here to here,
there are fringing fields are there which may also amount to small radiation losses also, ok.
So, but still ideal is - 3 this is 3.06.
Now, if you compare this with the lossy substrate for that case instead 3.06 we got 3.17. So,
really speaking the differences only about 0.1 dB. So, one can still use low cost and just to
also mention whenever we design things for let us say defense organization or for satellite
communication their performance is very very important, cost is not that important. Whereas,
when we design for commercial application which could be for telecom operator band
CDMA, GSM, 900, 1800, 3G or 4G or for Wi-Fi band generally we use low cost substrate for
that particular case.
So, now you have a little idea about what really happens. So, in this case again you can see
S11 < - 2, so this is the S11. And S32 is the plot over here you can see that matching has been
done properly you can see that the size over here is very very small and then S 22 again is
fairly large. So, the bandwidth obtained here for all these parameters is from 2.36 to 3.25 and
that is about 32%, so which is fairly large bandwidth, ok.
So, now, instead of using these quarter wave transformer sometimes we can use lumped L
and C components also, ok. And this is generally done when size is really of important
consideration. And also suppose you want to design something at let us say 100 MHz, at 100
MHz, what will be the wavelength? That will be 3 meter. What will be λ/ 4? That will be 75
cm. And even if you use a very high dielectric constant substrate the size is going to be very
large.
So, at some of those applications it is better to use lumped L and C elements which will give
us the required performance. But, nevertheless here I have actually shown you the example of
a design at 1.5 GHz so that is the central frequency. Let us see what this whole thing is and
how do we do it, ok.
So, let us say this is 50 Ω, this is 50 Ω, this is also 50 Ω. If we connect directly this and this it
is not good idea because 50 in parallel with 50 will give me 25 Ω and then the input
impedance seen here will be 25 Ω that will give me a VSWR = 2, ok. Means 11.1% power
will be reflected back. So, that is not a good solution. So, what is this here? Lumped L and C.
So, just to show you first, since it is an equal power divider you can see that a inductor L 1 is
connected from here to here, next inductor L2 is connected from here to here. This is now
same 5 nH; you can actually see that between this port and this port and this port and this port
we have connected inductor.
Now, form where this inductor comes? Now, you have to recall we did mention about
impedance matching technique, ok. So, in the impedance matching technique just imagine
now what we have to do. We have to transfer this impedance of 50 Ω to 100 Ω, ok. So, what
you do? Now, my Z0 at this point required is even though we say Z input, but for the Smith
Chart you think about at this point we want the impedance to be 100 Ω and this is 50. So, 50
has to be transfered to 100.
So, what you do? You normalize 50 with 100 now. So, 50 will be equal to 0.5, locate 0.5 on
the Smith chart, now recall the lumped impedance matching. So, what you do? This is the
normal circle and then you draw a dotted circle. So, 0.5 will be on the real axis, you go up
that means, you are adding a inductor in series, take a reflection then add capacitance in
shunt. So, this is what has been done.
So, inductance has been added in series and the capacitance. So, one inductor from here,
another inductor from here, now you can actually see we have added only one capacitance
because there will be one capacitance from here to ground, one capacitance for this from here
to ground, but the 2 capacitances are now in parallel that can be replaced by a single
capacitor, ok. So, this capacitor will be from here to ground. By using these values now let us
see what we have got, ok.
So, this is the reflection coefficient plot you can see that the bandwidth obtained is from 1.3
to 1.73 so that is about 28% bandwidth. Now, recall when we had used the quarter wave
transformer we were getting slightly more bandwidth than this, but even this bandwidth is
sufficiently good for majority of the application.
Now, few other things I want to mention you can see S 21 = S31 = - 3 dB. In fact, it is actually
better than that other results because in the other cases we had a longer transmission line. So,
longer transmission line means there will be losses. Here the total size of the whole thing is
just about 4.5 mm. So, you can really see it is a very tiny small power divider, ok. So, this is -
3 dB and by the way all these designs are done again on glass epoxy substrate. So, it is not at
all a lossy substrate.
Now, since there is a no isolation resistance over here. So, you can see that S 22 = S32 = - 6 dB
at center frequency which is right over here, otherwise you can see that blue is this is S 32 and
this color here is this one here, but at the center frequency they are about - 6 dB.
So, this is the simple way you can make a compact thing. Now, just to tell you now instead of
5 nano Henry and this is 5 nano Henry. If you increase the value of inductances let us say 5
becomes 10. So, what will happen? And also correspondingly you have to change the value
of the C this whole thing can be shifted to the lower frequency also.
Now, let us just look at alternate way of doing. So, we had seen that in the previous case we
can use inductor and capacitor. Here I have shown you a compact power divider design at
900 MHz. Again we have used the low cost substrate and what has been done over here. So,
this is a 50 Ω, 50 Ω, that is a 50 Ω.
Now, here that series inductor has been realized by this thin line and that is the series inductor
realized here and the capacitance is realized by using this thing here. You have to actually
now recall the transmission line concept. So, open small line will act as a capacitance and
open small line will act as a capacitances, ok.
So, here series inductor is realized with width of 0.4 mm which is 0.4 mm here and shunt
capacitance is realize with width = 2 mm. You can see now the overall size is 21 mm only,
and even if the smaller size is required one can actually use a little bend over here and a little
bend over there, so then you can reduce the size also.
Let us look at the performance of this particular thing. So, you can see that this is the S 11 plot
we are getting about 31% bandwidth, you can see that this bandwidth is comparable to λ/ 4
transformer, just slightly smaller. S21 and S31 you can actually see is - 3.12 which is actually
smaller than what we were getting for a λ/ 4transformer which was 3.3, and S22 S33
approximately - 6 dB at center frequency because we have not put isolation resistance over
here.
So, now let us just look at 2-way unequal power divider, ok. Now, I have given all these
steps, but what I just want to tell you here conceptually that let us say we are giving a input
power P1 over here. Then what we want P2 = x P1 and P3 should be equal to (1 – x) P1. So, if
you add the two you will get P1 that means, we do not want anything to be reflected back and
we want the power loss in this particular transmission line network to be as small as possible.
So, our objective for this is that S 11 = 0 so that means, what we want input impedance at this
point should be 50 Ω and that input impedance is given by Zin1 in parallel with Zin2. So,
2 2
Z1 Z
what is Zin1? That is Z¿ 1= . What is Zin2? That will be Z¿ 2= 2 .
Z0 Z0
So, we have to put those values and now we have to also write in the form of the voltages.
2
V0
So, let us say what is P1? if we define this voltage as V0, P 1= . What will be P2? We can
2 Z0
calculate from here, so if this is a lossless line and if this is also a lossless line. So, we can
2 2
V V
define P2 at this point will be P 2= 0 . What will be P3?P 3= 0 , and you put this as (1 –
2 Z ¿1 2 Z ¿2
Z0
x) P1 you put this as x P1, simplify this, you will get an expression for Z1 as Z1 = , Z2 you
√x
Z0
will get as Z2 = .
√ 1−x
So, I have given a problem statement here desired is that ¼ of the power should go here, ¾ of
the power should go over here. You substitute these values, what we can see that now, Z 1 =
100 Ω, Z2 = 57.7 Ω which is here. Now, you should be little careful here; just to check So, ¼
power means lesser power is going here. So, less power is going here that means, this
impedance is high impedance high means width is small. So, smaller the width lesser power
will go, here impedance is small width will be larger, so more power will go.
You can actually think about this whole power flow as a power going through the two pipes.
So, if the width of the pipe is small here or the diameter of the pipe is small then lesser water
will go, diameter of this pipe will be more; more water will go. So, the same thing here, if the
width of the line for Z1 is small less power will go.
So, you can practice these things, but I also want to show you now the simulated results. So,
corresponding to the same design one-fourth and three-fourth we have done the simulation of
that. So, corresponding to 100 Ω width 1 comes out to be 0.4 and for this it is 1.2 mm, you
can see this is 0.4, this is 1.2. ¼ of the power is approximately - 6 dB and ¾ of power is
approximately this here. You can see that the matching has been obtained and the bandwidth
obtained here is about 42%.

We can also show you some broadband tapered line power divider thing. So, what you do
concept is very simple. So, this is a 50 Ω and desired here is 100 Ω. So, take a microstrip line
which has a width here belonging to 100 Ω impedance, width here corresponding to 50 Ω.
So, you can see here what we have done. So, w = 1.6 mm for 50 Ω tapered to 0.4 mm. So,
that is all, this is the linear tapered line and let us see what do we get over here.
So, for this particular case you can see S 21 = S31 = - 3.2 dB over here, but this here shows
from 0 to 10 GHz that is a very large frequency range. So, that is what you can see it is
decreasing to this particular value here which is - 5 dB each. Now, S 22 = S32 because we have
not put any isolation resistance. So, you can see that at this point it is - 6 dB which decreases
to about - 10 dB.
I just want to mention here because this whole thing is decreasing significantly the reason for
that is we have taken a lossy FR4 substrate, which has a very high tan delta. In fact, one
should never be using this particular substrate at this particular frequency, ok.
So, generally FR4 substrate I do not recommend that you should use it beyond 2.5 GHz. So,
if one uses good quality substrate this decrease will be relatively smaller. But what you see
here, S11 you can see that S11 if we take -17.5 dB line you can say everything is less than that
value up to even 10 GHz. Even if I see 20 you can see here that except for this small thing
this whole thing is less than - 20 dB.

I will also show you quickly 2 ultra-broadband resistor power divider also. What are these
two ultra-broadband power divider? So, here actually speaking if you just put a 50 Ω resistor
here and a 50 Ω resistor here. So, what we will happen? This is 50 + 50 = 100, 50 + 50 = 100,
100 // 100 = 50. So, that is the circuit.
Now, if you look at the response of this same 0 to 10 GHz, you can see that S 11 < - 20 dB in
this entire frequency range. See the size, very very small. So, now, the question is then why
do not we use it. The reason for that is and if you use 50 Ω resistor, 50 Ω resistance, then ½
the power will be lost here; ½ the power will be lost here ok. So, the total let us say then ¼
will go here, ¼ will go there, ½ of this part which is one-fourth and one-fourth so that means,
if you look at totality total ½ power will be lost in the resistances over here. One-fourth will
be delivered, one-fourth will be delivered, and that is why you see that S21 = S31 = - 6 dB, ok.
So that means, ¼ is going, ¼ is going over here, ok.
So, only in some situation where you do not mind extra power loss you can use this kind of a
configuration, ok. So, for lab purposes these things are very simple to use. And you can also
see what is the cost of this particular thing. It is very very small. A typical 50 Ω lumped
resistor may not even cost 1 rupee. So, it is a 1 rupee, another 1 rupee, this is a small PCB
which will not even cost you more than few 10s of rupees. So, the entire thing cost very little
money, but the same thing if you want to import from other countries, it may cost you
somewhere of the order of 50 dollar or even more and that is very high.
So, that is why you know I emphasize that please start doing design in India. If you do design
in India then only we can do make in India, and you can get all these things at a very low cost
price.
Thank you very much.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Electrical Engineering Department
Module - 04
Lecture - 18
Microwave Couplers - I: Coupled Line Directional Couplers
Hello everyone in the last few lectures we talked about microwave power dividers where we
had seen 2 way, 3 way, 4 way power divider. And we had also seen unequal power divider
today we are going to talk about Microwave Couplers. So, let us start with first one which is a
Coupled Line Directional Coupler.
So, first of all what is really a directional coupler let me just explain that part. So, let us think
about that there is a one microstrip line which is going here let us say we are giving a input
here and the output is taken from here. And let us think about one of the application that a
power amplifier is connected to an antenna and antenna is transmitting.
Now supposing that if you look at a telecom sector application where they are transmit about
20 watt of power. And that is transmitting through the antenna now how do we ensure that it
is exactly 20 watt or it is less or more. So, what we do we can use something like this which
is known as a directional coupler, the concept is simple that if you have a current carrying
conductor and if you put a another wire next to that so what will happen. The current is
flowing through this in this direction and there will be induced EMF which will be coming
through this one here.
So, the same thing let us see over here. So, we had giving a input here this is known as port 2
which is a through port or also known as coupled port. So, this is where the directly coupled
port is there, now because of this particular flow there will be an induced EMF which will be
like this. So, this is known as coupled port and generally this particular coupled line
directional coupler is good for typical range is minus 10 dB to about minus 30 dB of course,
minus 40 dB is possible and also minus 6 dB or minus 5 dB or minus 8 dB is possible. But
generally we do not design this particular coupler for less than minus 10 dB. The reasons will
be obvious after we cover the basic concept of this.
So, again so if you are feeding it over here this is the coupled power which is going through
here or this is known as isolated port which is port number 4. And generally what we want is
that S41 should be as large as possible. So, let us look at the basic concept, but however, to do
the analysis of this particular thing you can see that this is a 4 port problem. So, this 4 port
problem can be divided into two 2 ports problem what we do here is that think about if we
draw line over here we can say that with respect to this line this particular configuration is
symmetrical. So, we say that this one here is 1 so this will be 1 port, 2 port and this is a
symmetrical port, so we can apply the concept of the symmetry.
So, what we do in that so just to give you little bit of an idea. So, what we want to do here let
us say input is 1 and the input at all these other ports is 0. So, now, applying only input of 1
suppose we say that we apply input of half here and half here. So, plus half plus half actually
gives us a even mode symmetry, then we do the second time plus half apply here minus half
apply here. So, now, that is known as odd symmetry and then the final analysis is done that
you take the sum of these two things. So, we had taken plus half plus half, so that will be
equal to 1 and here we had taken plus half and minus half the sum of that will be equal to 0.
However many a times when we talk about S parameter we generally talk about input as 1.
So, we give a plus 1 here plus 1 here then this will be even mode, in the second case we give
plus 1 we give a minus 1 that is a odd symmetry and then we take the average of the 2. So,
plus 1 plus 1 divided by 2 and then plus 1 minus 1 divided by 2, so that will be 0 this will
become 1. So, let us look at what are these odd mode and even mode things.
So, here the same coupled lines are shown slightly different way now. So, coupled lines are
actually shown here, so this is the one microstrip line and there is another microstrip line kept
next to that. So, now, as I said even mode excitation its assuming that this is plus 1 fed here
plus 1 fed here, and for odd mode excitation what we are going to do we will say plus 1 here
and minus 1 over here.
So, now you can apply its concept of the charge theory, so if there is a plus charge here plus
charge here. So, that will be the field distribution and over here we can say current will be
equal to 0, a 0 current at this particular periphery can be also termed as H wall or magnetic
wall.
So, let us see from here we can say the equivalent capacitance. So, let us say C 11 is the
equivalent capacitance for this particular microstrip line and C 22 is the equivalent microstrip
for this, most of the time these two will identical, so we can say C 11 will be equal to C22. Now
this capacitance is shown over here, but that capacitance would not be there because there is
an open circuit. However, when we look at the odd mode excitation, now let us say this is
plus 1 this is minus 1, so there will be field going from here to here. So, just think about if
this is a plus 1 voltage and this is a minus 1 voltage here we have a 0 volt. 0 volt is equivalent
to short circuit and short circuit can be represented by electric wall.
So, now in this particular case we will have this capacitance C 11, we will have a capacitance
C22, but from here to here there will be equivalent capacitance which is actually let us denote
as C12, but here we have shown that as 2 C12 in series with 2 C12. So, in series we know that
capacitances get divided. So, the equivalent capacitance will be C12 and this is one since it is a
shorted wall, so that is going to ground. So, one can see that in case of the even mode the
equivalent capacitance of this line will be let us say C 11, but for odd mode equivalent
capacitance will be C11 in parallel with 2 C12. So that means, the equivalent capacitance here
will be C11 plus 2 C12.
So, now we will define even mode and odd mode impedances, but first let just look at
conceptually. So, we know that impedances given by 1/jωC. So, compare to this, this
capacitance is going to be large, so if the capacitance is large that means, Z =1/jωC will be
small. So, for this if we define even mode impedance and for this we define odd mode
impedance. So, since odd mode impedance has larger capacitance odd mode impedance in
general is smaller than the even mode impedance.
So, coupling is maximum when the length of the coupled line is equal to λ/4, we will see
some simulated results and then I will show you what happens when the length is different.
But just to tell you the derivations are there in many of the books you can have a quick look
into that, but here we want to tell you the concept part. So, coupling is maximum for l equal
to λ/4 and then for desired coupling this is the expression given ok.
So, odd mode impedance and even mode impedances are given by this, now this formula is
valid for l equal to λ/4 not valid for any other value of l, because we had designing it for
maximum coupling. So, let us see what we have here, so this is a even mode impedance
which is equivalent to characteristic impedance of the line multiplied by you can see over
here C is coming in the numerator here C is in the denominator plus and minus sign is there
and these 2 are reversed. So, we can say that since the numerator has a plus sign this value
will be greater than Z0o of course, if coupling is negligible. In that case we can say Z 0e will be
equal to Z0o and the characteristic impedance then is defined as a you can say square root of
Z0e and Z0o. So, Z0e and Z0o are even and odd mode characteristic impedance.
So, now let just look at the design, so for Z 0 is equal to 50 ohm we substitute here and then C.
Now I have put here C minus 6 minus 10 minus 20 minus 30, but I just want to also mention
that many a times they talk about 10 dB coupling or 20 dB coupling. So, when they said 10
dB coupling that does not mean that you will get more power or 20 dB coupling means more
power no that is just a notation they generally use that coupling is 10 dB.
But in reality coupling is minus 10 dB and this coupling is basically ratio of voltages. So,
what you have to do to find the numeric value you apply to this 20 log of this value which is
equal to minus 20 dB ok. So, please ensure that do not apply 10 log formula for this because
10 log of 0.1 this will be minus 10 dB. So, which is not correct you have to use 20 log 0.1
which is minus 20 dB. So, for the desired value of coupling we first find the numeric value of
C. Then we substitute these values over here and then calculate even mode and odd mode
impedances which are given over here. So, just to bring to your attention as you can see that
coupling is reduced from minus 6 to this you can say Z0e is also reducing where as if the
coupling reduces Z0o is increasing.
And you can see that as the coupling becomes weak instead of minus 30 if we take minus 40
you will see that these two impedances will become approximately equal. And the reason for
that is let us say I have a one coupled line and the another line is put quite far away. So, if the
other line is put far away then what will happen the coupling between the 2 will be very, very
small. So, whatever is the characteristic impedance of this line will not be equal to Z 0 the
characteristic impedance of this line will also be equal to Z0.
However when we bring them closer then we will have even mode and odd mode
impedances. So, now, for minus 10 dB just remember these two number, so Z 0e is 69.4 Z0o is
36. Now you will take a design example for these values of even and odd mode impedances.
So, these are coupled microstrip line even mode and odd mode impedances. So, what we
have the curve here even mode is shown on this side, and odd mode impedance is shown on
this side. Now you see multiple these lines over here we will try to make things simple for
you.
So, here what it shows here s/d, so s is the gap between the coupled line and d is taken has
depth of this particular substrate. I just want to mention some books use the symbol d some
books use the symbol h. So, for d is the depth and h is height of the substrate. So, one can see
that here s/d is increasing, so as s/d increases what we can see at this point you can say Z.
Even mode is higher and Z odd mode impedance is relatively lower, but as we go on
increasing the value of s/d you can see that Z even mode decreases and Z odd mode
increases. So, we can say now at as s/d increases Z0e decreases and Z0o increases.
Now, let just look at what are the other plots here, so here was the plot of w/d w/d is
increasing this way you can see that. If w/d is increase from let us say 0.1 to let us say 1, one
can see that from here if you look at corresponding value of even mode and odd mode
impedances they are relatively higher compared to if you look at the Z even mode and odd
mode impedances corresponding to w/d equal to 1.
So, we can say that as w/d increases both even mode and odd mode impedance decrease. So,
now, recall from the previous example for 10 dB coupling. Now you can see that I have not
written here minus 10 dB ok, but it should be obvious that coupling is going to be less this is
just a general nomenclature 10 dB coupling or 20 dB coupling. So, that is why I wrote there,
but please remember C is equal to minus 10 dB and for that we had seen Z even mode was
69.4 and odd mode was 36 ohm.
So, let us try to locate this on this particular curve here. So, this is 69.4 so, we draw a line
from here close to 70 draw horizontal line and then 36 ohm. So, corresponding to 36 ohm we
draw a vertical line see this value. So, from here we can read the value of s/d you can say it is
0.4. So, that is s/d equal to 0.4 and this particular point corresponds you can see here w/d is
this particular curve for 0.7 and this is 1, so you can say that this is approximately 0.75.
I just to want to mention, so this particular curve is not for all values of εr this is specifically
given for εr equal to 10 and Z0 equal to 50 ohm. Now this is about even mode and odd mode
impedances, similarly we have even mode and odd mode dielectric constant also.
So, this is the curve for even mode εe, so what we have here let us see these are the different
values along this it is w/h is increasing along this axis. And s/h is increasing along this axis
and this one here is a even mode effective dielectric constant.
So, this plot is for even mode for εr equal to 9.6. So, let us see if we increase w/h along this
thing you can see that the εe is increasing ok. So, we can say safely as w/h increases εe
increases and that should be obvious in if you recall as the width of the microstrip line
increases. So, what happens the mode wave is confined within the dielectric and we had also
taken a general case if w/h becomes infinity then εe becomes εr. So, as w/h increases εe
increases.
Now, you can see that these are the values for s/h s/h is increasing. So, let us see here as s/h
increases in the beginning the relation is almost close to flat, but for larger value of the gap s/
h greater than 1. You can see that these values are decreasing of course, there is a little bit of
a different variation for very small values of width. But in general we can say as s/h increases
beyond certain value εe decreases.
Now, let us look at the odd mode ε0, so again the plot is for same value of εr equal to 9.6. So,
see here what we have odd mode ε0 is shown over here this is s/h and this is w/h. So, we can
see again as w/h increases we can see that the ε0 keeps on increasing. So, we can safely write
now as w/h increases ε0 increases.
Now, this is here s/h increasing along this particular axis. So, we can say that as s/h increases
we can see that ε0 also increases. However, when we do the analysis we do not really
speaking take all the time even mode or odd mode ε0, what we take generally is effective
value of the dielectric constant. And that is given by
ε eff =√ εe ε 0
So, even mode and odd mode you multiply them take a square root and that will be epsilon
effective. So, this is the value which is generally used for designing the coupled microstrip
line, so let just take a example now.
So, here is an example where we have taken a microstrip line which is for coupling equal to
minus 20 dB. So, please don’t get confused sometimes I write minus 20 dB or sometimes
write 20 dB. So, generally speaking remember they do write coupling equal to 20 dB, but it is
always minus 20 dB.
So, here the design let us see what we have done, so we have designed this coupler for 800 to
1000 MHz frequency range this basically covers the you can say GSM 900 band as well as
CDMA band also. So, we have taken and low cost substrate because this is required for
commercial application which is very price sensitive. So, here normal glass epoxy substrate
which is also known as FR4 substrate. So, εr is 4.4 thickness is 0.8 mm tan is 0.02. So, for
this we have to calculate the length, so length should be equal to λ/4.
So, if you take a approximate the center frequency is 900 MHz at 900 MHz wave length is 33
cm. 33 divided by 4 will be let us say approximately 8 cm then divided by square root of εe
comes out to be a about 46 mm, so width of the line is 1.5 mm. In fact, if this particular width
is almost same as a microstrip line width for 50 ohm ok, because the gap is relatively large
you can say here the gap is 1 mm because the coupling is for minus 20 dB.
So, now let us see the results you can see here this is the plot for the coupling. And one can
note that coupling is maximum around this frequency which is about 0.9 GHz, and because
we had design this whole thing for 900 MHz. So, we can see that the coupling is maximum
here around 900 which is λ/4 coupling is minimum around 1.8 GHz. Which corresponds to l
equal to λ/2 and then again coupling becomes maximum at 3 λ/4 and that curve will keep on
repeating. So, we need to focus at this particular point.
So, now let us see what are the other plots over here S 11, so S11 is this plot in the purple color.
So, one see that S11 is very good it is less than minus 35 dB over this very large bandwidth.
Now, let us see what is S21 S21 is this curve here you can see that S 21 is also relatively flat
which is around 0.2 dB. Ideally it should happen 0 dB, but because we have taken a lossy
substrate and also there will be small radiation from these lines hence it is about 0.2 dB, but
still it is very small.
You can see here this is the coupling value which is 20.6 dB. So, even though you may say
we had designed for 20 dB this is 20.6 which is very, very close to that. However, just to tell
you instead of taking 1 mm if you take 0.9 something mm then you can get minus 20 dB. We
did not optimize this particular thing for whether I will tell you the reason and the reason is
the last curve here which is the blue curve. Now this blue curve is nothing, but you can say
S41 which I had mention earlier it is supposed to be an isolated port. And isolated port should
have ideally minus infinity dB or may be minus 50 dB or minus 100 dB, but you can see it is
only minus 23 dB.
Now, will define a term directivity, now directivity defined here is the difference between the
coupling and the isolation. Generally we take a magnitude of that and the difference over here
if you see it is just about 2.4 dB which is very, very poor. Ideally we would like this
directivity to be 30 dB or 40 dB or more, I just want to tell I mean if you have taken a
antenna course in fact we are going to cover antennas later on.
There we are going to define directivity in a different way. There the directivity will be
something similar to gain of the antenna here please do not mix up with that it is not the gain
of the antenna or gain of the microstrip line or a coupler here directivity is as simple as the
difference between C and I and this is very poor.
So, as I said generally we would like directivity to be high. In fact, if you read some of the
books they do mention that if you design a coupled microstrip line this is the isolated port
value may be of the order of 100 minus dB and so on. But as you can see it is not so good the
reason for that is that the microstrip line configuration. Especially when you take a different
εr than 1 value then what happens because of this different εr than 1. So, epsilon odd mode
and epsilon even mode values will be different whereas, when we do the calculation we take
epsilon effective.
So, for odd mode as well as for even mode the epsilon effectives are different so, that lengths
behave differently for even mode and odd mode values hence its generally speaking
microstrip lines are not very good when it comes to the directivity. So, one should think about
the alternate thing the two possibilities are there, one is if you use a very small value of εr.
Suppose you use εr close to 1 which will be like an air substrate. So, if you use air then what
happens? Even mode and odd mode epsilon will be exactly same you can get a better
directivity.
So just to illustrate that here is an example using strip line. So, what is a strip line as I had
mentioned when I talked about transmission line a microstrip line requires only one substrate.
So, we have a ground plane and we has a microstrip line whereas, a strip line has a another
substrate put on top of that and there is top one will be now ground plane here the bottom is
ground plane.
So, here what we have done the strip line has been used in a slightly different fashion, here
we have used εr equal to 1. So, this is air and 2 h which is the total thickness of the strip line
is about 8 mm which is from ground to ground. And here since it is εr equal to 1, which is air
what we have actually taken we have actually taken a metallic plate of thickness 1 mm.
So, now metallic plate is taken here another metallic plate is taken thickness of 1 mm width is
given over here which is about 6.9 mm. And the gap between the two which looks very small
over here is about 0.6 mm. So, these two metallic plates are kept in parallel with each other
and fed at that ends ok. So, now, there are these 4 ports are there let us see what results we
get over here. So, let us see S11 which is less than minus 44 dB over this entire frequency
range which is from 0.5 to 1.5. You can see here this is a minus 40 dB line another minus 45
dB you can see that S11 is less than minus 44 dB so that is absolutely fantastic.
Let us look at S21, S21 is 0.5 dB and you can see that it is relatively flat, now you may think
that S21 is large which is point 5 dB so insertion loss is more. Now that is not correct actually
if you define coupling as 10 dB then approximately 0.5 dB will go to the direct port ok. So,
there is actually speaking no additional loss and by using a strip line configuration we have
also ensured that there are no radiation losses, because there is a ground at the bottom ground
at the top and we also enclose the whole thing in a box. Now here S 31 is actually equal to
minus 9.3 dB again you might wonder well we had a design objective of minus 10 dB.
Here we are getting minus 9.3 dB, I just to want to mention that this design is still better the
reason for that is that. We are getting from here to here minus 9.3 dB, but then we will be
connecting connecters are the two end. So, connecters may have a loss of 0.2 dB or even 0.3
dB depending upon the quality of the connecter or may be even that connected coaxial lines
also will have some additional losses. So, this S 31 effectively may lead to approximately
minus 10 dB.
Now, let us see what is S41 here S41 here is less than minus 50 dB over this entire range you
can see that this is the minus 50 dB line. So, over this which is less than that, so let us see
what is directivity you can see that the difference between this and this is about 40 db. So,
that is a very good value of the directivity, let us take one more example.
Now, here the example is for coupling of 30 db. So, for 30 dB we have kept all the other
things same frequency range is same εr is same. So, only thing what it changes now is that the
gap is now much larger earlier the gap was small, now the gap is larger let us see what results
we get here.
So, let us start with S 11 S11 is less than minus 47 dB. So, here is a line for minus 40 dB, this is
minus 50 you can see that this is less than minus 47 dB over the entire range. Let us see what
is S21 you can see that S21 is 0.01 dB ok. So, you may again thing over losses are very small
insertion loss is very small. No, the reason is since we have designed for minus 30 dB very
little power is going to the coupled port. So, most of the power then goes to the port 2, now
let us see what is S31 it is about minus 29.7 dB the desired was minus 30 dB, as I mentioned
that connecter losses may be there. So, that will compensate connecter losses say 0.1 to 0.2 or
0.3. So, that will result in to approximately minus 30 dB Now, let us see what is S 41, S41 here
is less than minus 76 dB if this is the curve here you can see this is minus 70 this is minus 80.
So, if you now take the difference of these two that 46 dB. So, you can see that the directivity
here is very, very high and that is what is the desired characteristic.
A few things I want to mention, so we have manufactured these things we tested these things
also. There was a one small problem which we actually experienced and that was aligning
these two lines exactly you know at a separation of 5.2 mm. So, what happens the two lines
have to be really put exact parallel and there is all the possibility when you are trying to align
this there may be an error of even 0.1 or 0.2 mm.
So, what we notice that because of the miss alignment this number S 41 does not come out be
minus 76 dB, but it actually becomes poorer. So, I can tell you a better way to do the
fabrication is that instead of fabricating then one strip separately and the another strip
separately. What you do, you actually get it fabricated let us say we had use CNC machine to
do the fabrication.
So, what you do instead of fabricating these two separately what you do? You join two thin
lines very thin lines let us say over here and over here very very thin may be of the order of
0.1 or 0.2 mm and then get it fabricated and then put it on the connectors at the end
connectors these thing will get supported. Once you have done the soldering and other thing
mounted then you just remove that very thin connecting strip.
So, this way what will happen you just you know take it knife and cut it out. So, now, what
will happen during the fabrication itself the separation has been maintained very good. So, if
you just remove that now the fabrication will not lead to much of a alignment error at all and
you can get a much better result.
So, today just to summarize we talked about coupled microstrip line these coupled microstrip
lines are actually speaking good for realizing coupling of minus 10 dB or minus 20 dB or
minus 30 dB. They are not very good for realizing tighter coupling which is let us say of the
order of minus 3 dB or minus 6 dB. The reason for that is if you want to design very tight
coupling then the gap between the two lines become very, very small.
So, in the next lecture we will talk about another type of a coupler where we can get a tighter
coupling may be even a 0 dB to minus 1 dB to minus 2 dB up to about minus 10 dB. So, till
then have a good time we will see you next time bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 04
Lecture – 19
Microwave Couplers – II: Branch Line Couplers
Hello, in the previous lecture we have talked about Coupled Line Directional Coupler, so
where we had seen that there is an input from port number 1 which directly goes to the port 2.
And if you put a another line which is close to this particular line, then because of this current
flowing in this direction induced EMFs is in this direction. So this becomes coupled port and
this is an isolated port.
The analysis of this was actually done by using even an odd mode concept. So, I had
explained you the concept very briefly, but today I am going to talk about that same even an
odd mode concept in much more detail.
But let just have a quickly look into what we had covered in the last lecture; so then even
mode excitation then odd mode excitation.
After that we had seen that the coupling is maximum for length equal to λ/4 and these are the
expressions for even mode and odd mode impedances in terms of characteristic impedance
and coupling.
So, after that we had looked at the basic design concept that for 10 dB coupling, these are the
values of even and odd mode and from the graphs we had read what are the values of w/d and
s/d.
Then we looked into the even mode εe as well as odd mode ε0 and we had also talked about
that the effective εe is nothing, but the square root of εe and ε0.
Then we looked at the design example of a microstrip line for a 20 dB coupler and we had
noticed that the directivity of this particular thing was very poor and that is not acceptable for
many of the applications.
So, we looked at the concept of the stripline and we had used air as a substrate or you can say
that we had used two metallic plate which were suspended in the air and we had a ground
plane on the top as well as at the bottom. And in this case for 10 dB coupling, we got about
40 dB directivity; even for 30 dB coupling we got more than 40 dB directivity.
Now, these couplers are good for generally speaking coupling of minus 10 dB to minus 20 or
minus 30 dB, but many a times there is a requirement that we want the coupled power to be
high or we can call it a tight coupling also known as strong coupling. So, what can be done to
increase the coupling between these two coupled lines? So, of course, we can keep on
reducing the gap which increases the coupling. Another way is that we actually connect one
line over here and let us say another line over here. So, what will happen there will be now,
direct coupling here direct coupling here. So, this is the concept which is the topic of today
and that is a two branch line coupler. So, let us see what it is.
So, here we have a port 1 you can say port 2, port 3, port 4. Now, here we know already that
maximum coupling takes place when the length is equal to λ/4. So, this length is λ/4 this
length is λ/4 and now, we have put two branches in between these two lines and these lengths
are also equal to λ/4. Let us just see first the concept part and then we will try to complete the
S matrix for this 3 dB coupler.
So, let us start with let us say we are giving the input at port 1. So, when we give the input at
port 1 part of the power will go here and part of the power will go here. So, this power when
it reaches here it experiences a phase delay of minus 90 degree. Why? Because length is λ/4
2π
and phase which is θ=β l. So, βis into λ/4 will be 90 degree since there is a delay angle
λ
will be minus 90 degree.
So, then at this point again the power gets divided part of that goes here part of that comes
over here. So, phase difference at this point will be from here to here 90 degree, another 90
degree so this will be minus 180 degree; or you can say 180 degree. Let us see now, what is
happening at port 2. So, one path comes from here which is 90 degree; another path which is
there from here to here 90 degree another 90 degree, another 90 degree. So, the phase delay
from here is minus 270 degree from here it is minus 90 degree. Now, minus 270 can also be
represented as plus 90. So, we have a one path which is giving minus 90 degree another path
which is giving plus 90 degree, and if we design this particular coupler such a way that the
power coming from here and power coming from here these two things are of equal
magnitude. Then what will happen? Path from this and path from this will cancel each other.
So, there will be no power which is going to port 2.
And we can also design now, that we can send half power here half power here. So, if we
send half power here half power here this is known as a 3 dB coupler. We will also talk about
other values, but a 3 dB coupler is a very very commonly used thing and it has many
application. And here one thing I want to emphasize again from here to here it is minus 90
degree phase difference, from here to here minus 90, minus 90 minus, 180 degree. So,
between these two ports phase difference will be 90 degree. So, now, let us try to build the S
1
matrix here. So, is taken outside which is corresponding to half power here half power
√2
here remember as I mentioned this is 3 dB coupler.
So, what we have designed for that there should be no reflection. So, no reflection means S 11
is equal to 0. So, from here to here no power goes here. So, that is also 0. So, in this particular
case port 2 is known as isolated port, this is direct coupled port and this is coupled port. Then
from 1 to 3, so the path is 90 and 90, 180 degree. So, there is a minus 1 1 by square root 2 has
been taken outside path from here to here is minus 90 degree phase delay. So, there is a term
which is minus j. So, similarly you can complete the rest of the terms you can use the
symmetry of this particular network and complete the rest of the matrix.
So, now, let us see how do we do the analysis of this? Now, this is nothing, but a 4 port
problems. So, this 4 port problem is simplified by using a symmetry. So, we can see that
there is symmetry along this particular axis. So, by using the concept of the symmetry and as
I mentioned for the coupled line what do we do instead of feeding only port 1 which is value
let us say 1, this is 0, 0, 0. Now, we will think about that we are feeding let us say plus 1 here
plus 1 here and then that will be a even mode symmetric second time we think about feeding
here plus 1 and minus 1 this will be odd mode symmetry and then take the average of the
two, so plus 1 plus 1 divided by 2 will be 1 and plus 1 minus 1 will be equal to 0 over here.
So, that is the basic concept for the even and odd mode analysis.
So, let us see what we have here now. So, that is a normalized circuit. So, we have here
instead of writing Z0s, Z0 we have written here 1 and these impedances are normalized. You
can see that these are Za, Za and these are Zb, Zb.
So, now, just to tell the concept what we do? So, 4 port networks is decomposed into set of
two decoupled two port network because of the symmetry along this particular axis here. And
then what we do? We use even and odd mode circuits using symmetry and anti symmetry, ok.
And then actual responses obtained by using some of the responses of even and odd mode
excitation.
So, now, let us go step by step. So, here is a even mode excitation odd mode excitation. So,
here this is the line of symmetry. So, for even mode its written here plus half plus half or you
can say 1 1 and then you later on divide by 2.
So, here when we give the input plus, plus so along this particular axis you can say that there
will be if this voltage is same here there will be no current over here. So, we can say that this
will be resulting into open circuit at this particular point for odd mode excitation. Now, this is
plus half this is minus half the voltage you can say that at this particular point will be equal to
0 which is replaced by a short circuit.
So, what do we do? We actually first of all find the ABCD parameters of this particular
network here and ABCD parameters for this network and from ABCD parameters we can
find the reflection coefficient. If you recall earlier it is written as A+B/Z 0-CZ0-D but here we
are actually writing these thing as normalized with respect to Z 0. It is easy to remember then
A B C D, ABCD here sum of A plus B plus C plus D and this is A plus B minus C minus D
and this is the transmission coefficient or you can say this is S11 and this is S21, ok. So, this is
how we can do the analysis. Again now, let us move on.
So, even mode analysis how do we do it now? So, this is the open circuit think about, now
this does not exist at all. So, from here you can see that there is a one branch over here and
then there is a transmission line and then there is a another branch over here. So, now, recall
ABCD parameters. So, we can actually speaking divide this problem into 3 separate
segments. So, one segment will consist of this another segment will consist of this line and
the third segment will consist of this line here, as I mentioned divide and solve the problem.
So, over here now, we can look from the input impedance this is an open circuit. So, we can
find out what is the input impedance from here which can then be replaced by a shunt
admittance. So, for shunt admittance we had seen the formula is [ 1y 01 ]. Now, this one here is
a transmission line. So, for transmission line we had seen that the impedance is represented
here as Za which is the characteristic impedance of the line but the ABCD parameter of this
0 j za
will be
[ j ya 0 ] . Remember these are normalized values, and then 0. For this again what
we see there is a shunt element so that will be [ 1y 01 ].

So, these j terms are coming because you are looking from here equivalent thing. So,
remember open circuit line if you look from here and since this length will be now, equal to
what? It will be half of λ/4. So, this length is λ/8, λ/8 is less than λ/4 and open transmission
line will act like a capacitive. So, we can say that jy b is nothing but capacitive term in the
form of y, ok. In y we write capacitance as jωC, ok, so that is why there is a j term over here.
So, now, all we need to do multiply these 3 matrices simplify which leads to this particular
expression here and this is for even mode ABCD parameter.
Now, let us do for odd mode. In case of odd mode what we have here? There is a short circuit
here short circuit here. So, you can actually neglect this particular part, ok.
So, now, we looking from here if we look at the input impedance from here since this is a
shorted input impedance of this will be inductive. So, in terms of y will have a negative sign
ok. So, this is something similar to –j/ωL, ok. So, that is what is the capacitive admittance.
So, again this is a shunt y, so [ 1y 01 ]. then this is a transmission line and then there is a shunt
element here. Multiply the 3 matrices we get ABCD for odd mode. Once we have done that,
now we have to find the S-parameters from these ABCD parameters. So, how do we do that
now? We have to apply the principle of superposition. So, let us see S11.
What will be S11, now? So, that will be half of why we are taking half, because it was 1 and
then minus 1, ok. So, when we did the analysis for even mode it was plus 1 plus 1, so that
corresponds to e. For odd mode it is plus 1 minus 1. So, for S 11 we have to add the two and
take the average. For S21 port 1 was here port 2 was down below. So, for that now, again we
are looking at a reflection, but plus half here minus half here. So, we have to take the
difference that gives me S21. For the transmission coefficient now, S31, 1 was here, 2 was
here, 3 was here. So, this is not transmission coefficient and this is the transmission
coefficient for port 4. So, above it was plus so we have a plus term and down below when the
other port it was a minus, so this is where the minus term is.
And where just to rewrite again reflection coefficient is given by this, transmission
coefficient is given by this particular expression. So, we already know ABCD parameters for
even mode odd mode. So, from even and odd mode ABCD parameters we can find out
reflection coefficient even mode odd mode and transmission coefficient even mode and odd
mode and from that we can calculate all the S parameters.
So, after that now, we apply various design condition. So, the first design condition is we do
not want any reflection at port 1 so that means, S11 is equal to 0. The second design condition
is we would like to have a complete isolation that means, S21 is equal to S 12 is equal to 0.
Now, of course, these conditions will not happen at all the frequencies, ok. So, we are putting
this particular condition only at the center frequency, ok. So, away from the center frequency
things will be different, ok.
Now, by putting these two conditions S11 equal to 0 and S21 equal to 0 in the previous
equation we can simplify that and that leads to y 2a − y2b=1, of course, this whole thing can be
written in form of the impedance also. So, simply change this y a is 1/z a, yb is 1 by 1/zb
simplify this you will get this particular condition.
Now, we are adding a third design condition. Now, this is the first time we are putting a
condition that we want to design 3 dB coupler. This condition is valid for any other coupling
value also. So, you can design it for 1 dB or 2 dB or 3 dB or 5 dB up to 10 dB. So, what
happens beyond 10 dB? Actually speaking beyond 10 dB the line width of the branches line
will become very very thin which are not practically realizable. So, if you want a coupling of
minus 10 dB or minus 20 dB it is better to use coupled line directional coupler. And if you
want a tight coupling do not use coupled line directional coupling because there the gaps
become very small you use branch line coupler.
So, here is the condition for 3 dB coupler that means, the power will be given to the two
2 2
output ports which are equal. So, |S31| =|S31| =1/2 and if you put this condition and simplify
1
what do we get; z b=1 , za = .
√2
Now, these are normalized value when we denormalize we can say that Z a is equal to Z0 by
square root 2 and Zb is equal to Z0. So, if we take Z0 as 50 ohm then Zb becomes 50 ohm and
Za becomes 50 divided by square root 2 which is 35.35 ohm. So, let us see the realization of
this with the design example.
So, here is a two branch line coupler at x band we have taken center frequency as 9.3 GHz
which is within the x band of 8 to 12 GHz. Now, since the frequency is very high please do
not take a glass epoxy substrate because losses will be very high. So, here we have taken
now, I would say an expensive substrate, so which has an εr 2.2 thicknesses you can say
0.787 mm or close to 0.8 mm which actually corresponds to 1 by 32 inches tan is relatively
small 0.001, ok.
So, since the frequency is 9.3 GHz we have to take these length as λ/4, ok. So, one can do the
calculation corresponding to this find out first lambda 0 by 4 and then you have to first
calculate corresponding to 50 ohm what is the line width ok, from the line width calculate
what is ε effective and corresponding to this 35 ohm calculate what is the width. And then
from that calculate ε effective and these things will then give you the exact length of the main
line and branch line.
So, please remember this length will be slightly different than this length here. Even though
we say these things are λ/4, but please remember for this ε effective is different compared to
this particular branch line, ok. So, the lengths will be slightly different, ok. You can see that
at this particular thing the entire size is you can say less than 10 mm by 10 mm, so 1
centimeter by 1 centimeter.
So, let us see the results for this particular case over here, ok. So, let us first see this is the
input here port 1, port 3, port 4. So, at port 3 and 4 since we have designed it as a 3 dB
coupler you can see that S14 or you can say S41 they are symmetrical S41 and this S31 or S13,
these two you can say here that the power is almost equally divided and this value is about
minus 3.2 dB. Ideal would have been minus 3 dB there is a additional loss the main reason is
that there are some radiations from these microstrip lines, ok. And of course, there will be
small conductor loss and very small dielectric loss.
Now, let us see what is S11. So, this is here is S11 and this is the plot you can say for S21. So,
we can see from here they are fairly symmetrical to each other and we can say that S 11 as well
as S21 means this is the reflection coefficient this is the isolation they are less than minus 20
dB from 8.75 to 9.75 GHz. You can see that it has a bandwidth of approximately 1 GHz
which is about 10.8 percent.
Now, the same thing let us see a low cost realization at 900 MHz. So, I just want to tell you
know you should use a expensive substrate mainly for applications at very high frequency or
applications which are mainly for either defense or space because their cost is not that much
important as much as performance is important, ok. And for commercial application cost
becomes always very very important and a minor sacrifice can be done to the performance,
ok, but that does not mean you do over compromise on the performance, ok.
So, let us see over here. Now, this is the again same two branch coupler. So, we know that
this is 35.35 ohm, this is 50 ohm. So, for 35.35 ohm you can see that the width is large here,
for 50 ohm this width is relatively small. We have used a low cost substrate which is FR 4
substrate also known as glass epoxy substrate. So, these are the parameters and these are the
plots. So, you can see here that the from here to here just notice that the port numbers are
defined differently, ok. So, it is not always that we should say 1 2 3 4, ok. So, here it is 1 2,
you can say 3 4. So, look at the port numbers, whatever the numbers are there the response
will be corresponding to that.
So, let us see here what are S21 and S31. You can see here these are the two curves and you
can see that at the design center frequency they are approximately same and instead of minus
3 dB these are about close to minus 3.2 dB or so, which is not so bad. Now, let us see S 11 plot
which is shown in the black color and this is S 41 plot which is shown in this particular color
over here. So, one can see that for minus 20 dB or below S 11 or S41 less than minus 20 dB the
bandwidth obtained is from 846 to 948 or 846 to 942 because we had designed at 900 MHz.
Now, of course, of this can be scaled slightly let us say if you want a GSM band which is 890
to 960, so bandwidth required is 70 but here we are getting a bandwidth of approximately you
can say 100 MHz which is more than 70. So, all you need to do it is that if you want the
design specification from 890 to 960 all you do it is you reduce these branches slightly, ok.
Now, we notice that the two branch couplers do not give too much bandwidth typical
bandwidth obtained is of the order of 10 to 11 percent and many cases you may require larger
bandwidth. So, here is an example of 3 branch coupler and for this 3 branch coupler let me
first show the concept point of view. So, here is a input 1, there is a output 2 3 4. So, first
concept point. So, from here to here 90 degree, another 90 degree, so phase will be minus
180.
So, from here to here there are 3 paths, so path one 90, 180, then 90, 90, 90, then 90, 90, 90.
So, all the 3 paths basically give me the phase difference of minus 270 degree. So, this is
minus 180 this is minus 270. So, the output will have a phase difference of 90 degree.
Now, let us see what is happening over here. You can see that this is relatively thin line this is
thicker this is relatively thin line; why we have chosen that I will explain that now. So, from
here to here the path is minus 90 degree, so from here to here to here 90 90, 180; 180 90, 270;
270 90, 360. So, we can say 360is equivalent to 0. So, then the path is minus 90. So, one path
here minus 90 this path here minus 90, so these two paths will add up.
But now, let us see what is happening here this is 90, another 90, another 90. So, that is minus
270 degree which is equal to plus 90 degree. So, now, the way these impedances are designed
that the path from here to here will add up, but path from here will subtract. So, what we want
is that these two impedances should be large that means, the width should be small. So, less
power comes from here less power comes from here, but larger power comes from here. So,
that the output at port 4 is equal to 0.
So, again analysis is very similar to two branch analysis what you do would draw a dotted
line over here. So, this is a symmetrical configuration. So, now, we will have a one branch,
one line, one branch, one transmission line, one branch. So, now, we actually have to
multiply 5 matrices. So, one for this, second, third, fourth, fifth, you multiply all those 5
matrices, do the solution for even mode odd mode and then put the boundary condition, solve
the values and this is what you will get. So, what we have here? Zs is 50 ohm which is series
impedance that is over here.
Now, Za is 120.7 which is over here and here and Z b corresponds to 70.7 ohm. Now, again all
the lengths are λ/4. So, let us see the response here, you can see that these two are outputs at
port 2 and 3 you can say that they are almost identical within very small error. And let us see
what are the bandwidths corresponding to minus 20 dB and minus 20 dB for S 11 and S41 and
we can see that the bandwidth is much larger than two branch coupler here the bandwidth is
of the order of 27 to 28 percent so which is much larger than two branch coupler.
Now, instead of using two branch coupler one can get even a larger bandwidth by using 4
branch line coupler, ok. So, here again let us see the concept point of view. So, we have input
at port 1 going to port 2, port 3 and port 4 here. So, let us see from here 90, another 90,
another 90, so phase delay here is minus 270 degree, but to this point that is 90, 90, 90,
another 90, minus 360 degree, but the phase difference at these two port actually remains 90
degree so which is same as port 2 or same as port 3.
Now, over here we want the output power to be close to 0 at this particular point here, ok. So,
now, again we have multiple paths here. So, these are one path, then another path, then
another path, then another path. So, again what we have to ensure that the paths are leading to
the 0 value here. So, here just to mention again now, so this path is 90 degree which is minus
90 degree we can say 90 degree delay. So, this is minus 90, so from here to here, to here, to
here, to this here. So, this path here again leads to minus 90 degree. And the path from here to
here to here lead to plus 90 and path from here to here leads to plus 90.
So, now, one signal is coming from here one signal is coming from here which are getting
added up and one signal coming from here one signal coming from here they are getting
added up. So, you can see that this impedance is same as this. So, these two will cancel each
other and this impedance is same as this these two will cancel over here and the net resultant
is that S41 will be equal to 0.
So, let us see the response. So, we can again see that power going to 2 and 3 you can say that
it is fairly flat, and let us see now what is the bandwidth for S 11 and S41 we have kept the same
criteria as for two branch coupler or 3 branch couplers which is minus 20 dB minus 20 dB.
Now, you can see here in this particular case bandwidth obtained is of the order of 40 percent
and 43 percent. So, this bandwidth is much larger than 3 branch coupler.
Now, as far as design is concerned it looks very nice, however, when we try to do the
implementation there is a serious problem and what is that serious, problem the serious
problem is this value, ok. So, Za is equal to 213 ohm. Now, that is a very high impedance, and
this very high impedance will lead to this very thin line. In fact, this line may be of the order
of 0.1 mm to 0.2 mm depending upon the substrate specifications ok. So, the realization of
this particular thing becomes very very poor, ok.
So, in the next lecture we will see how this particular problem can be overcome and what we
did to solve this particular problem, ok. So, just to summarize in the last two lectures we have
talked about coupled line directional coupler. So, we had seen that coupled line directional
couplers are good for coupling of minus 10 dB to minus 20 or minus 30 dB whereas, branch
line couplers are good for minus 2 dB or minus 3 dB or up to minus 9 dB or so, ok. And then
we had seen 2 branch line coupler, 3 branch line couplers and 4 branch line coupler. And we
had noticed that from two branches if you go to 3 and then when we go to 4 bandwidth
increases. However, for 4 branch line coupler we notice that the impedance is very high so
the line width becomes very small. So, in the next lecture we will see how to solve this
particular problem.
Thank you very much. We will see you next time. Bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 04
Lecture – 20
Microwave Couplers – III: Rat race Coupler and Applications
Hello, in the last lecture we had talked about branch line couplers. We had started with a 2
branch line coupler, we actually saw the configuration.
Here the lines are λ/4, this main line as well as the branch line; and we had seen what are the
S parameters for this particular branch line coupler.
So, from here we had done the analysis by decomposing a 4 port network into 2 even mode
as well as odd mode excitation ok.
So, for even mode analysis first we find ABCD parameters for even mode and then find out
ABCD parameters for odd mode.

And after that apply the principle of superposition to find out the S parameters, by using
ABCD parameter conversion to S parameters.
And then we had applied the boundary condition we require S 11 equal to 0 isolation to be
equal to 0, and for half power to the 2 output ports this was the condition put.
And for that particular condition we have seen that the impedance has come out to be 35.35
ohm and 50 ohm.
And then we had taken an example at X band and we had seen that the bandwidth is of the
order of around 10 percent or so.
After that we saw a low cost realization using FR4 substrate or a glass epoxy substrate for
commercial application. And again here we had seen that the bandwidth is limited to about 10
to 11 percent. So, from two branch we went to 3 branch line coupler.
And we had seen that for 3-branch line coupler, bandwidth increase from 10-11 percent to
about 27 to 28 percent for S11 and S41 less than minus 20 dB.
So, after the 3-branch coupler we went to 4 branch line coupler, and for 4 branch line coupler
we had seen that the bandwidth is now much larger 40 percent to 43 percent. However, we
had noted that there is a small problem, and the problem is that this impedance Za is 213 ohm,
which is very very high which results into a very thin microstrip line, the width of that may
be of the order of 0.1 to 0.2 mm depending upon the substrate parameters. So, this was
covered in the last lecture so, today let us see how this problem of very high impedance can
be solved. So, here you can see Z s is equal to 50 ohm and most of the literature actually talks
about this 50 ohm.

However what we did? We actually designed this whole thing for Z s equal to 45 ohm and
when we took Zs equal to 45 ohm, in this particular case now Z a is 144 ohm and Zb is 97.2
ohm and these are realizable ok. So, after doing that we did the simulation, so here is the
design for that, you can see the various parameters are shown over here, thicknesses are
shown, the various dimensions are shown over here and this is the fabricated thing and these
are the now measured results. Again, the fabrication was done on FR4 substrate and let us see
what kind of a bandwidth we get over here.
So, here if you see for this particular case we are getting a much larger bandwidth, 636 to
1215 MHz, this is you can say of the order of close to 600 MHz or over here, it is more than
500 MHz bandwidth. So, this bandwidth is much larger than even the earlier 4 branch line
coupler. A few other things I just want to mention that here you can see that the total size in
this direction is relatively large ok. You can say that this dimension is λ/4, but here it is λ/4
another λ/4 another λ/4. So, the total length becomes now 3λ/4 so, by overall size increases.
However, you can do a few simple things also which we have also done, and that is instead of
using this length as a straight line, you also use this whole thing in the form of a u shape ok.
So, something like that. So, if you use something like a u shape here, and this also can be
used like a inverted u shape here and the all these lines can be done. So, then what will
happen? The entire dimension along this direction can be reduced ok. So, you can say that
instead of now just think about it that, if I just go in this direction then down below and down
below. So, we can say that by using a u section, we can actually speaking reduce the overall
length of this particular coupler.
So, here is a another design, where we had actually designed a compact two branch, just to
tell you that those four branches which were actually shown earlier as horizontal line, here
they are shown in the form of the rings. So, this dimension here is λ/4, this is also λ/4. just to
tell you there was a requirement where we wanted a compact 2 branch line coupler, but the
shape required was a circular shape.
So, this one here even though we have used a square substrate, this is just for the testing, but
ultimately the whole thing will be actually speaking cut from over here ok. So, this is here
circular form and to make it compact, we had used a very high value of εr which is about
10.2. So, by choosing a larger value of the εr, the size is reduced. Of course, you can further
do the reduction instead of going λ/4 like this; you can go here then go here then go like this.
So, instead of this curved line, you can always use a u shape line and that way the size can be
reduced even further. So, in this particular case we can see that λ/4 lines are bent in circular
ring shape, and the bandwidth obtained is of the order of 80 MHz, the required bandwidth
was only 50 MHz for this particular application. So, in this particular case now, if this is the
input we take it. So, this is the you can say a direct coupled port, this is the coupled port and
this is the isolated port.
So, the power going from here to here and here to here you can see that it is relatively
constant, and this is the reflection coefficient and which has a similar value for S 41. So, only
one curve has been shown over here.
Now, we will go to the another configuration, this is actually known as a hybrid coupler and
there is a another name given, which is known as a rat race ok, but this rat race is the special
name only given when we designed this whole thing for equal power division. So, why it is
called a hybrid coupler? Just recall now in the case of two branch or 3-branch or four branch
couplers, we had seen that the 2 outputs had a phase difference of 90 degree. But in this
particular case we can design in such a way that when you give a input at one port, let us say
port 1 then the output goes to let us say port 2 and port 4, but they are now at a phase
difference of 180 degree.
And when we give input at port 3, then the output at port 2 and port 4 are in the same phases.
So, let us see what it is and how it really works. So, let just go with a simple thing first. So,
port 1 here port 2 port 3 port 4. So, this length is λ/4, this is λ/4, this is λ/4 and this is 3 λ/4
ok. So, do not compare with the 2 branches coupler; 2 branch couplers had all the things as λ/
4 here the difference is this branch length is 3 λ/4. Now the general case is that this Y a and Ya
these 2 are same and Yb and Yb are same over here. Now, but for a special case I just want to
mention for half power going here or half power going here, in that special case Y a actually
becomes equal to Yb. But we will see that one by one how do we do the analysis of this
particular thing and what are the concept.
As far as the analysis is concerned you can see that along this particular thing, there is a line
of symmetry. So, you can see that with this line, you take it on the left side or right side it is
symmetrical. So, the analysis of this is let us say if we start from here. So, you can say that
there is a port 1. So, from here this length will be now 3 λ/8, then there will be a transmission
line and this is the port 2 and at port 2 there will be a λ/8 line. So, when you do the analysis,
it will not be same as for 2 branch coupler, but it will be similar. In case of 2 branch coupler
these 2 branches have the exactly same length which were λ/8 and λ/8. But in case of hybrid
coupler or rat race, this branch is now λ/8 and this branch here is 3 λ/8. So, that is about it so,
now, we do the exactly the same thing.
So, for this particular network do the even mode analysis as well as odd mode analysis find
out ABCD parameter, from the ABCD parameters find out S parameter and then put the
boundary condition that we want a port 1 to be matched and S 11 should be equal to 0. And by
putting that condition that half power goes here and half power goes here, we get the
characteristic impedance to be equal to 70.7 ohm. But now let us just look at the overall
concept now. So, when we give input at port 1 so, this one here sees a 90 degree phase delay.
So, this will be minus 90 degree.
So, now, from here this is 3 λ/4. So, phase delay is 270, then another 90 360 degree which is
equivalent to 0 and then 90 degree. So, path from here sees a 90 degree delay, path from here
also sees a 90 degree delay; so, this path and this path they will get added up and phase
difference will be minus 90 degree. So, from here to here what is the phase delay? Minus
270; from here to here to here to here this is also minus 270 degree; that means, net is plus 90
degree now let us see what happens over here. So, from here to here phase delay is 180
degree, from here to here phase delay is 360 degree. So, they will cancel each other.
So; that means, if we give a input at port 1, no output goes to port 3 and then half power goes
here, half power goes here because we have taken Y b equal to Ya or Za equal to Zb. So, let us
first try to complete the first row of this S matrix. So, let us say what is S 11, S11 is equal to 0
what is S21? Remember here this minus j is written outside. So, 1 by square root 2 will be
corresponding to half power minus j shows minus 90 degree phase difference here.
Then from port 1 to port 3 there is a 0; then from port 1 to port 4 the phase delay is minus 270
degree ok. So, already minus j is out there. So, there will be a another minus here. So, if you
multiply the 2 it becomes plus j by square root 2 and minus 270 is equal to plus 90 degree.
Now let us just do other way round now, suppose if we give a input at port 3 let us see what
happened. Now for port 1 we had seen port 3 is an isolated port, there is a no power going to
this. So, when we give a input at port 3 now. So, let us see to port 2 what happened.
So, this delay is minus 90 degree, from here 90, 270, 360 degree which is 0 and then a 90
degree so; that means, this path and this path will add up, and the phase delay will be minus
90 degree. So, from here this is minus 90 degree and this one here is also minus 90 degree.
So, they will add up. So, when we give a input at port 3, these 2 outputs are now in same
phase and the phase delay at this is minus 90 and minus 90 and what happens here at port 1?
Well this is 180 degree this is 360 degree so, the net output will be 0 here. So, now, think
about an application, if we give a input at both port 1 as well as port 3 so, what will happen?
So, because of the port 1 output here will be minus 90, but because of the port 3 it will be
minus 90 so; that means, we will get some of these 2 ports at this one.
But because of the port 1 this is at 270 degree, but this is at minus 90 degree so; that means,
output at 4 will be the difference of these 2 port. So in fact, that is what this hybrid coupler is
all about; that if we give a input here the 2 outputs are at out of phase. If we give input at this
port, the 2 outputs are at the same phase and if we give input at both the ports here, then the 2
outputs will be sum and difference of these 2 input. And you can apply the rest of the
symmetry for other thing and build the S matrix yourself ok. So, just you summarize if ports
1 and 3 are used as input ports, then port 2 will give sum and port 4 will give a difference of
these 2 inputs.

So, now let just look at the design and analysis of this one. So, rat race is designed again at X
band. So, that there will be a good comparison. So, earlier we had designed 2 branch coupler,
now let us look at the design of a rat race at the same frequency of 9.3 GHz same substrate
has been taken over here. So, let us see the plot over here now. So, when can see 3 different
plots over here so, this is the plot which corresponds to S 13, S24. You can see that S13, S24 will
be same and you can see that they are exactly same. And in this particular case you can see
that this line is drawn at minus 25 dB. And for minus 25 dB the bandwidth obtained is from
8.5 to 10 GHz of course, if we choose minus 20 dB then bandwidth will be much larger ok.
But it is not that we define bandwidth for just individual thing, we have to look at the overall
bandwidth for all the other performance parameter. So, let us see the power divided output at
the 2 ports, you can see that one response is going like this other response is going over here,
and this is the reason mainly because one path is longer than the other path. So, if you look
from here this is the one path, and this is the longer path over here going to this particular
side here. So, that is why effectively this is a 90 degree phase delay, effectively this is 180
degree.
So, because of the different path length so, one response is in the opposite direction of the
other response. But still if you see right from 9 to 10 GHz, the difference between the 2 is
very very small and this one here shows S11 and S33 you can see that for less than minus 20
dB bandwidth obtained is from 8.5 to 10 GHz ok. So, actually speaking just to tell you in
general rat race has a larger bandwidth and 2 branch line coupler. However, this bandwidth is
still relatively small compared to 3 branch line coupler or 4 branch line coupler. So in fact,
broadband rat race is a very good research topic so, I urge the listeners, you can do little bit of
your own search.
In fact, just to give you a little bit of a hint also, instead of using a 4 port there are papers
which use 5 ports one of the port is terminated in to matched load, and that gives rise to larger
bandwidth. There is a another concept what they do in that one they replace this 3 λ/4 section
by a λ/4 coupled line section ok. So, you do a little bit of a research on your own, but this
area is wide open. So, you can think about some more innovative design, which will lead to
larger bandwidth. So, a quick comparison of branch line coupler and rat race coupler.
So, here 2 branch 3 branch 4 branch and in 4 branch we have taken two different cases one
was series impedance of 50 ohm and another one was 45 ohm. You can see that the two
bandwidths are defined here, one bandwidth is for S 11 less than minus 20 dB, another
bandwidth is designed for isolation S41 less than minus 20 dB.
So, you can see that the bandwidth increases from here to here and bandwidth increases from
here to here. The comparison of a rat race should not be done with these cases, it should be
compared with 2 branch line or maybe say between 3 branch line because of the total size.
So, you can see that this bandwidth is more than a two branch line coupler. Let us look at
different applications of a rat race also and one of the application which I would like to
mention is a mono-pulse comparator.
What is really a mono pulse comparator I will go through that one by one, think about first
we have two antennas; antenna A and antenna B and they are pointing in one particular
direction, and let us say we want to track a target. So, what they do? Through these antennas
we actually send the same signal, it goes there and from the target the signal reflects back.
Now, that reflected signal what it does? We actually come through these 2 antenna and this 2
antennas come to the sum and difference network, and one will give the sum another one
gives the difference ok. So, this way we can track the object in single plane, but if you want
to track the object in 2 planes that means, you want to track in this direction as well as in this
direction this direction is known as Azimuth plane and this direction is known as Elevation
plane.
So, in that particular case we actually need 4 identical antennas. So, what is done over here
let us see. So, antenna A antenna B we have a sum and difference network, and we have just
covered rat race. So, you know that rat race generates sum and difference network. So, one
rat race will do the job of single plane tracking, now here we need actually 4 different rat
races let us see why. So, one rat race here will give A + B and A - B, now we have two other
antennas C and D. So, another rat race will give C + D and C - D.
Now these 2 signal will go to another rat race, then what we get? A + B + C + D over here.
So, that gives us the sum pattern, and over here A plus B minus this that gives the Azimuth
difference. And here we have the difference of these 2 difference of these 2 this gives us
Elevation difference and this is terminated in matched load it is not required. Of course,
instead of using a rat race coupler, one can use other things also one can use branch line
coupler with 90 degree delay, but generally it is not very preferable; one can use waveguide
magic tee, but generally the size is very large and these are very bulky where a rat race can be
printed on a substrate. So, let just look at what is really there now. So, we will just go through
one by one now.
So, here are those 4 antennas you can say radiating or receiving part. So, here 1 2 3 4 of
course, this one shows here horn antenna; however, I will show you the results using
microstrip antenna, and these are the basically rat race couplers which are put together, but let
just first look at the concept point of view. So, let us say this A, B, C, D 4 of these antennas
are transmitting signal, and then that signal is reflected back. So; if Azimuth difference as
well as Elevation difference both are 0 that means, target is right at the center. Now if
Azimuth difference is not 0, Elevation difference is 0 so; that means, target is aligned in the
elevation, but it is not aligned in the Azimuth direction. So, you can see that target is shifted
here.
If Elevation difference is not 0 then the target is not aligned in Elevation direction and both of
them are not equal to 0 then the target is not aligned. So, what happens? Basically this
particular output goes to the servo controller, then servo controller will accordingly move in
the Azimuth or Elevation direction to track the target properly. So, now, let us see how this
thing has been achieved.
So, here are the 4 rat races you can see over here. So, just to give you a little bit of an idea
here. So, that antenna A, B, C, D are connected over here the outputs of the antenna, and here
you can see that if you take input at these 2 port, this will be the sum port this will be the
difference port. So, from here for these 2 input this will be the sum port and then from here
you can generate the sum over here and the difference over here and similarly this one here is
put in to matched load and this one here is the difference. So, this is the S matrix for 8 port
because you can see that there are 4 input ports and 4 output port.
So, these are the simulated results for this particular configuration here. So, we obtained the
bandwidth of about 21 percent for VSWR less than 1.5. Now isolation is very important
between these ports. So, you can see that the isolation is between sum to differences greater
than 20 dB and this is difference to difference is greater than 40 dB.
So, we have done the experiment also. So, you can see the fabricated rat race, you can see the
dimension here it is just about 101 mm by 38 mm. So, there was a small discrepancy in the
measured results and simulated results ok, but still the results were fairly good bandwidth is
of the order of 19.5 percent. So, isolation was you can see that greater than 18 dB over this
entire bandwidth.
So, this one shows over here planar monopulse antenna using electromagnetically coupled
array. So, we are going to discuss this thing in more detail when I talk about microstrip
antenna, but here just look at the concept point of view. So, here what you see at this
particular level? These are the feed patches along with the power divider network. These are
the parasitic patches or we also call them electromagnetically coupled patches. So, there is a
no feed network for these things over here. Now the entire array here is on one side of the
ground plane which is on the above side, and the ratrace hybrid power divider network is
actually speaking on the other side of the ground plane here.
So, the ratrace hybrid over here is shown this is what you see over here, that is printed on the
other side so, let us see what are the results we got over here. You can see that the bandwidth
obtained here is 21 percent, for VSWR less than 2 what is null depth it will be clear in a short
while when I show you other result. So, gain for this particular antenna array is of the order
of 24 dB. So, we have first done that design, after that this array has been fabricated.
So, these are the different snapshots, this is the backside layer, this is the in between layer and
this is the top layer which shows the parasitic patches over here. So, you can see all the
results over here. So, measured results let us see peak gain is 24.3 dB whereas; the design
was for 24.6 so, which is very very close.
Bandwidth is almost similar except there is a small problem that we had designed it for S 11
less than minus 10 dB, but because of the fabrication error it came out to be minus 8 dB.
Isolation is as good as we had designed so; the results were pretty good ok. And these are the
measurements done at different ports some port and Azimuth difference and Elevation
difference ports.
See these are the results which we can say for S parameters, but ultimately what is important
is whether we are getting a decent radiation pattern or not and this one here shows the gain.
So, you can see that over the bandwidth the gain is fairly flat. So, it is actually a fairly good
design, you can see that from 9 to 10 GHz almost for 1 GHz bandwidth gain is relatively flat,
but let us see the performance for sum and difference pattern.
So, here only 2 of these antenna, antenna A and B, and here is the result for sum of Elevation
in this particular thing and here is the difference. So, where we take that difference? We take
the difference in the Azimuth direction of these 2 antenna, and along the Elevation we take
the difference in this particular direction.
So, you can see that here the some patterns are almost identical for Azimuth as well as
Elevation of course, the net pattern will be sum of these 2 also ok. And SLL is better than 15
dB, you can see that that is a side lobe level which is less than minus 15 dB, but what is really
important is the null depth. In fact, generally better than 20 dB is considered decent, but we
got over here less than 35 dB, you can see that compared to here see how sharp the null depth
is.
Now, sharpness of null depth is very very important, because this tells us whether the target is
within the proper region or not, whether the antenna is tracking the target properly or not ok.
So, we conclude at this particular point. So, just to summarize so, in the last few lectures we
talked about couplers. So, we started with the coupled line directional coupler, which is good
for coupling from minus 10 dB to about minus 30 dB, then we talked about two branch line
coupler, 3-branch line couplers, four branch line coupler. And these are generally good for
coupling of minus 1 dB to up to about minus 9 dB; and then we talked about a rat race
coupler the difference between branch line coupler and rat race is in case of branch line the 2
outputs are at 90 degree phase difference.
But in case of a rat race the 2 outputs can be in the same phase or they can be out of phase
depending upon where we are feeding it, and also if we feed at those 2 isolated ports let us
say port 1 and port 3, then at port 2 and 4 we can get sum and difference of those 2 signal.
And then we saw an application for monopulse comparator, where we looked at an antenna
design and then that antenna was fed with these 4 rat race coupler and we saw that fantastic
results came for very good null depth ok. So, the null depth was very good, the gain was also
similar to what we had designed leading to a very good performance.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 05
Lecture – 21
Microwave Filters – I: Filters and Low Pass Butterworth Filter
Hello everyone, today we are going to talk about Microwave Filters. You might have
studied about filters in circuit theory course; where you would have heard about low pass
filter, high pass filter, band pass filter, band reject filter and all pass filter. But today we
will see how these filters can be realized at microwave frequencies. So, let us start low
pass filter.
Basically a low pass filter is a filter which passes low frequencies. High pass filter passes
higher frequencies. Band pass filter passes a particular band of the frequencies. Band
reject filter which actually rejects a certain band. In fact, it is also known as a band stop
filter. Sometimes you may think about this as a border security force, but that is a band
stop filter here and then notch filter.
Then we have another one which is a all pass filter. Now, but in general I want to tell you
we never ever design all pass filter at microwave frequency. The reason for that is in
general all pass filters are designed for providing a phase delay. But at microwave
frequency we can provide the phase delay by a simple line length. For example, if we
want a 90-degree phase delay at a let us say f equal to 1 Gigahertz. So, at a 1 gigahertz
wavelength is 30 centimeter. So, lambda by 4 will be 7.5 centimeter that will provide 90-
degree phase difference.
But if you want to do the same thing at 1 Megahertz, at 1 Megahertz wavelength will be
300 meter. So, lambda by 4 will be 75 meter. And you do not want to have a PCB with
75-meter length, ok. So, that is why all pass filters are designed at lower frequency, but
never ever at microwave frequency. So, I have shown one example of a 7th order low
pass filter. So, here is a photograph of the 7th order low pass filter. You can actually see
here there is a no inductor there is a no capacitor. Inductors and capacitors are realized
by using transmission line concept.
You just recall when we were talking about transmission line, I had mention that a small
transmission line if it is shorted it behaves like a inductor. And a small transmission line
with an open circuit behaves as a capacitor. The same concept is used to realize a low
pass filter, by using these transmission lines and hence you do not see any inductor and
capacitor. So, we will see one by one how to do these things.
So, let just first look at the amplitude response of ideal filters so, here is an ideal low
pass filter, which will pass all the frequencies up to frequency ωc and nothing will be
passed beyond that. Now this is an ideal characteristic it does not really happen in a
reality. So, ideal situation would be that there is absolutely no attenuation; that means, if
input is let us say one output will be equal to 1, or if input is 10 output will be equal to
10. And there will be a shaft cutoff at ωc. And after that nothing will be pass, but as I
mentioned this is only an ideal response. Practically if somebody wants to achieve this
we would require a filter of the order of infinity. And you know that infinity does not
exist in the real world.
So, from low pass filter we can just shift to the high pass filter, you can see that it is a
reverse of that in fact, you can actually think about plotting as 1 by ωc. So, high pass
filter passes all the higher frequencies beyond ωc and does not pass any frequency below
that again it is an ideal characteristic. A band pass filter will pass the frequencies
between ωc1 and ωc2 without any attenuation. And it will provide complete attenuation
at other frequency band.
And a band reject filter or band stop filter or notch filter will actually provide a notch or
you can say it will reject the frequencies between ωc1 and ωc2. And it will pass all the
other frequency. So, if you just look at it from low pass filter we can see that the
transformation is very simple. If we just make s over here whatever is the value of s, and
we know that s = jω. So, if we substitute s equal to 1 by s we will get a high pass filter.
And a band pass filter you can see that the inverse of band pass filter will realize band
reject filter. So, we will see these things one by one.

First let us start with the very simple low pass filter. This is not the circuit which is used
at microwave frequencies, but I have taken deliberately this particular circuit, because
you might be familiar with the RC circuit. RC circuit is nothing but a first order low pass
filter. In fact, it is also known as integrator. Now to find the transfer function H(s) it is
very simple a transfer function is given by
V 2 ( s)
H ( s )=
V 1 ( s)
So, this is the output voltage divided by input voltage in s domain.
So, we can find the voltage ratio in a simple way impedance of this which is 1/sC
divided by the total impedance which will be 1/(sC+R). And if we multiply numerator
and denominator by s divided by R so, if I multiply this s divided by R it will become 1/
RC. And again we multiply s/R, this will become s and we multiply this with s/R it will
become 1/RC.
So, if you actually look at the plot of this particular thing which can be done using Bode
plot. So, we can actually say that the cutoff frequency is nothing but ωc is equal to 1/RC;
however, we will take a normalized frequency situation here, because once we deal with
the normalized frequency, then we can design a filter at any desired frequency. So, in
fact, most of the things as we will see that we have going to do for normalize frequency
ωc = 1, and then we use the frequency transformation to design the desired low pass
filter at the other frequency.
So, for normalized frequency we can say 1/RC is equal to 1. And if 1/RC is equal to 1,
we can say H(s) is nothing but
1
H ( s )=
s+1
And sometimes it is very easy to actually find out whether this transfer function
represents a low pass filter or a high pass filter or a band pass filter. You can do a quick
check by substituting let us say s equal to 0. So, if you put s equal to 0, this will be equal
to 1. And if you put s equal to infinity 1 by infinity will be 0.
So, you can actually get a little bit of an idea that at low frequency amplitude is nothing
but one at very high frequency amplitude goes to 0, which is a characteristic of a low
pass filter. So now, let us put the values of s = jω. Or just to tell you a general case, s =
σ +jω. σ represents the attenuation part, but here assuming that it is a lossless situation.
So, sigma becomes 0. So, s = jω. So, if we substitute the value of s = jω over here, we
can say H(jω) is nothing but,
1
H ( jω )=
1+ j ω
And if we now take the amplitude or magnitude of this particular thing, then we can say
magnitude of this will be nothing but
1
¿ H ( jω )∨¿
√ 1+ω 2
So, this is a first order low pass filter. In fact, this type of the filter realization is also
known as maximally flat low pass filter, or it was invented by or proposed by
Butterworth, it is also known as Butterworth filter. And for nth order low pass filter
1
¿ H ( jω )∨¿
√ 1+ω 2n
ok. So, that n is the order of the filter. So, let us see a typical response so, this is a
¿ H ( jω )∨¿ versus frequency.
So, this will be the transfer coefficient plot, which is |H ( jω )| plot. But since we are
going to design things at microwave frequencies so, we are going to represent these
things in terms of S-parameters. So, the transfer function from here to here can be
represented by S21, and the reflection coefficient at this particular thing can be
represented by S11. So, the cutoff frequency which is ωc over here at that point, you can
say that the amplitude which was 1 or in terms of dB it will be 0 dB.
So, half power point will be minus 3 dB. So, this is where the cutoff frequency is
defined. So now, let us see how we do it in microwave frequency and I am going to just
tell you beforehand, at microwave frequency generally we do not use resistor, but we use
inductors. So, instead of using a resistor here we will be using inductor, capacitor,
inductor, capacitor. And why do we do that? The reason for that as because of this R; if
you think about voltage V1 and voltage V2 see if this derivation, which has been done it
assumes that the load is infinite. But the moment we put a load over here and at
microwave frequencies most of the time input and output impedances are 50 Ω.
So, think about it if I put a 50 ohm, resistor over here and if this resistor is suppose 1 kΩ,
then what will be V2 by V1 50 divided by 50 plus 1,000. So, the output voltage will be
very very small it will never be equal to 0 dB or gain equal to 1, ok. And even if it is 50,
and if this is 50, 50 di vided by 50 will be still half value here, ok. But if we have a
inductor, then the dissipation in the inductor will be relatively small.
So, let us see how we can realize a nth order low pass filter using inductors and
capacitors.
So, over here we have a source we are assuming in the beginning that the source
impedance is equal to 1 and we will also take later on that load impedance is also equal
to 1. Now 1 is just again a generalized case, or you can say it is a normalized impedance.
Later on we are going to use impedance transformation technique also; to transfer this R
equal to 1 or g equal to 1 over here to the desired impedance values.
So now let us see what is the difference between these two so, here the first element is
capacitance then inductor then capacitance and so on. In this particular circuit here the
first element is inductor, then capacitor then inductor. Now you can use either this
configuration or you can use this configuration both of them will give you exactly the
same result, ok. So, it does not matter you can start with either first element which is
series element or you can start with the first element as a shunt element, ok.
Now, what do you see over here is, I have written g 1, g2, g3, ok. And again here starting
point is g1, g2, g3. And you know in Hindi g 1 also means jivan chalane ka naam, right.
So, you can actually you know anything which start with starts with g 1 right. So, you
can think in the lighter sense also. So, we now need to find the values of g 1, g2, g3 to
realize a low pass filter. Now there are several techniques to realize a low pass filter, and
these have been proposed by different people. So, let us see what are these different
techniques to realize these g-parameters.
So, one which I had mentioned to you that was that the responses something like
1
¿ H ( jω )∨¿
√ 1+ω 2n
That response is known as maximally flat response or proposed by Butterworth hence
also known as Butterworth filter. But here you see the responses of 3 different filters, but
later on I will also talk about the 4th type of the filter also.
But first let us focus on these 2 types which is a maximally flat or Butterworth filter. The
response of that is starting from here, you can see it is flat and then it is coming down
over here. So, this is the response for a 5th order Butterworth filter. Let us see what is
this Chebyshev filter. Chebyshev filter has a ripples in the pass band, and then it is going
over here. Now what is the difference between these 2 then? So, in this case we have a
maximally flat. So, this is the frequency range where you want to pass the frequency. But
you can see that the attenuation in the stop band it is relatively slow, it is moving slowly
and attenuating the frequencies relatively slowly.
Whereas for the same 5th order that equiripple or Chebyshev filter. In fact, again
Chebyshev I want to mention that this spelling in different books it is used slightly
different because it was a Russian scientist. And in fact, the spelling given in some of the
other books is starts with Tsch, ok. But if you make that Ts relatively silent in fact, now
it is more known as che, so, Chebyshev filter. So, the main point or the advantage of this
Chebyshev filter is that the response from the pass band to the stop band the transition is
relatively faster.
The disadvantage of maximally flat or Butterworth thing that the response is relatively
slower from pass band to the transition band but the disadvantage of Chebyshev filter is
that there are ripples in the pass band, ok. Now this is the amplitude plot now let us look
at the phase plot. So, this is the phase plot or you can say that is a group delay just to tell
−dϕ
you, the group delay is nothing but defined as , ok. So, sometimes it is known as
dω
phase plot or sometimes known as group delay plot.
So, generally what we want we want group delay should be constant relatively, ok; that
means, that all the frequencies in this particular region should reach the output with the
same delay, ok. So, let us see what are the responses of these 2 cases first. So, here is the
response you can see that this is the response for maximally flat. And this particular filter
has been designed for a frequency of 2 Gigahertz. You can see that the cutoff frequency
is 2 GHz here. So, we have to see the phase response more from here to here, ok.
So, you can see that the group delay is not really 100 percent constant. But the variation
is relatively small and then of course, it this is the response in the stop band. Let us say
what is the response for the equiripple or Chebyshev filter; just because you can see here
that there are ripples in the pass band here also there is a ripple in the group delay also,
ok. And then at the transition level you can see that the group delay increases
significantly and then there is a large variation over here, ok.
So; that means, the Chebyshev filter also has a disadvantage of a relatively larger
variation in the group delay compared to maximally flat. But still if you see what is the
value of the group delay. These values are in nanosecond, ok. So, you can see that this
delay is relatively very, very small. So, think about let us say if we are talking on let us
say a mobile phone. So, if the signals are delayed by different time you will actually here
different frequencies at a different time delay. But when you are listening to something a
group delay of a nanosecond will not make any difference at all, ok.
So, even though there is a group delay over here it is not significantly bad; however,
there are certain applications where even at this kind of a variation or if this variation is
also not acceptable. So, to achieve relatively constant group delay of Bessel filters are
there. A Bessel filters are also known as a linear phase or you can say a group delay is
constant. So, as you can see for this particular filter the responses almost flat.
But if you now look at the amplitude response so, here it looks like a maximally flat, but
you can see here that the transition is very, very slow. Even at this particular frequency
you know at 4 Gigahertz. So, it was supposed to work at 2 Gigahertz, but even at 4
Gigahertz the attenuation is only 3 dB whereas, if you look at this frequency 4 Gigahertz,
a Butterworth filter would actually do the attenuation by almost 30 dB. Whereas, a
Chebyshev filter if you try to extend this further you can say that maybe close to 50 dB.
So, in fact, sometimes I actually say again in the lighter mode you can think about this
particular fast response as something like a very fast sports car. So, which goes from 0 to
let us say 100 kilometer per hour in, let us say a few seconds. And this is relatively as
slow car which actually speaking goes from 0 to certain speed at a longer time. So, of
course, the faster transition you pay penalty. So, very fast sports car would actually have
you know larger petrol expenses. And even the car would be expensive. So, you pay the
price over here in terms of larger ripple. Whereas, a slow vehicle over here will give you
a very good thing; that means, maybe a better fuel efficiency or a lower price.
But the thing is you actually pay in terms of lower attenuation from here to here. In fact,
I am going to show you later an example, that where if it is defined that we want certain
attenuation. For example, just look at it at 3 Gigahertz, suppose we want an attenuation
of more than 30 dB. So, here if I just look at even a line of 3 you can see that 30 dB will
be somewhere here which is coming at 2.8 GHz. But corresponding to 2.8 GHz you can
see what is the attenuation provided here maybe 12 to 14 dB.
So, if we want attenuation at certain desired frequency, then we do not have much choice
if you want to use a smaller order filter it is better to use Chebyshev than to use
Butterworth filter. But we will see later on that if you want this kind of a transition from
pass band to the stop band, then we may have to use a much larger order of Butterworth
filter, ok. So, what is elliptic filter? So, elliptic filter even though I have not shown the
response, but let me explain you.
So, elliptic filter has this equiripple response in the pass band. As well as it has the
similar response in the stop band also. So, that means, there is a disadvantage over here
also, but the advantage of the elliptic filter is for the same 5th order that response will be
very, very sharp, it will come something like this here. And then it will have equal
ripples like this here, ok. So, that means, basically you can actually attenuate certain
undesired frequencies in this band very fast.
So, we will see these examples later on. So now, let us just look at the maximally flat
Butterworth in more detail now.

So, we have seen that
2n −1
ω
2
¿ H ( jω )∨¿ = 1+
( ( ))
ωc
¿
I have just written this in a slightly different form. Square root term is not there because
here we have squared it. So, here n is order of the filter ωc is cutoff frequency, but
remember this is not really frequency in terms of Hertz, it is actually the unit of ω is a
radian.
So, ωc = 2πfc. So, when you are designing your filter let us say at 1 GHz. Please do not
put ωc equal to 1 Gigahertz, but you have to put fc as 1 GHz multiplied by 2π. So now,
order of the filter now the thing is many a times you may be just ask design a 5th order
filter or 10th order filter, ok. But that is probably an analysis problem. But majority of
the time people will actually specify that we want certain attenuation A in dB at ω1
frequency.
So, this is the cutoff frequency ωc this is the frequency ω1 and at ω1 it is desired that
attenuation should be A dB, ok. So, for example, this may be 0 dB, this may be minus 30
dB or minus 40 dB or minus 20 dB. Suppose if this is 1 GHz, this may be 2 GHz or 3
GHz or depending upon the application to application. So now, this equation actually
speaking can be simplified to this particular thing over here. I will give detailed example
later on, but right now you can take this particular thing. In fact, all you have to really do
it is take logarithm on both the sides and simplify and solve it for n.
So, n will give you order of the filter and what we have here 10 to the power a by 10
where A is now attenuation in dB. So, you can see here it is written as minus A. So, this
will be minus a 20 dB or minus 30 dB but A is a plus number. So, if it is 20 dB you are
just going to put 20 here. If it is 30 dB, you just put 30 over here. And this one here is the
ratio of ω1 and ωc. ω1 is the frequency where we want attenuation to be A and ωc is the
cutoff frequency.
So now what we need to do we need to find out the g parameters, ok. So, for Butterworth
low pass filter we can actually find the g parameters in a very very simple manner. So,
here g0 = gn+1 = 1, ok. So, g0 if you recall it is a source resistance which we are taking as
1; gn+1 corresponds to the load resistance which is equal to 1. And these are the different
g parameters given by simple expression which is gk. And if you know my name, my
name is also g k Girish Kumar and of course, g k also stands for general knowledge.
So, gk actually is given by this very simple expression
( 2 k−1 ) π
gk =2sin [ 2n ]
where k is 1, 2, 3 and n is the order of the filter n will be the number of elements. So, let
take a simple example of n equal to 5. So, if you put n equal to 5, 5 into 2 will be 10, and
now all you do it is put first k equal to 1 so, this will be 2 minus 1. So, that will be pi
divided by 10. So, put it over here simplify you will get 0.618, then in this particular case
now all you have to do change the value of k.
So, 2 into 2 4 minus 1 will be 3. Then for the third one it will be 3 into 2 6 minus 1 so, 5
then 7 then 9. You can see that 0.618, 1.618, 2, 1.618 what I want to just mention here
that the filter is symmetrical so; that means, g 1 is equal to g5, g2 is equal to g4. Now of
course, you can do the calculation by using this simple expression.
However, you can actually use this particular table. And what this table gives you? It
gives you straightway the g parameters value for different values of n 1 to 10.
So, what we have just done? You can calculate g parameters using this particular
expression or you can use the table to find out the g parameter. So, this table gives g
parameters for n equal to 1 to 10. And g 1, g2, g3 all the parameters are given in this
particular table.

So now after we find the g parameters, now as I mentioned these g parameters are
defined for normalized impedance which is R equal to 1 and normalized frequency
which is ω equal to 1.
So, we have to do the impedance scaling as well as frequency scaling. So, what we do
actually? So, we change all the components by same impedance factor. So, let us say
instead of one we want the resistance to be equal to R 0. So, then all the impedances
should be changed accordingly. So, for example, what is the impedance of L? That is
equal to Z = jωL. So, if you want to increase the impedance by a factor of R 0 so; that
means, the original value of L should be modified by a factor of R 0 so, that the
impedance increases.
Now, for capacitance we know that the impedance is given by Z = 1/ jωc, ok. So now, to
increase the impedance we have to decrease the value of the capacitance. So, the
capacitance should be decreased by a factor of R0 so, these are the newer values. So, this
we need to do for impedance scaling. Then we do frequency scaling in case of frequency
scaling what we do we keep the impedance value same, but we only change the
frequency.
So, for example, again what is the impedance of inductor, it is equal to Z = jωL. Now
since ω has increased we have to decrease the value of l by the same factor ωc.
Similarly, the impedance for capacitance is given by Z = 1/ jωc. So, to keep the
impedance same, but frequency is increased hence we have to decrease the value of the
capacitance. Now we combine impedance scaling as well as frequency scaling it is
known as impedance and frequency scaling.
So, we combine both the factors over here so, the new value of the inductor will be R 0
divided by ωc. The new value of the capacitance will be R 0 and ωc will be coming in the
denominator. So, just to mention again so, the value of the new inductor will be obtained
from the older inductor value or from the g parameters in a simple way by multiplying it
with R0, which is the load impedance or source impedance divided by ωc. Whereas, from
the g parameters which are given by Ck or g1, g2, g3 which will be in the form of Ck. And
those things have to be divided by R0 and ωc.
So, in the next lecture, we will take more practical examples. So, we will see that how to
really design a low pass filter. So, just to make a quick summary of today so, we started
with an ideal response of low pass filter, high pass filter, band pass filter, band reject
filter. And I did mention that we do not design all pass filter at microwave frequency,
because the phase delay can be obtained simply by using a smaller line length.
Then we looked at the comparison of different types of low pass filter. Say for example,
we looked at maximally flat or Butterworth filter, or equiripple also known as
Chebyshev filter, Bessel filter and elliptic filter. After that we look at g parameters of
Butterworth filter or you can say a maximally flat filter. And after that we looked into
frequency scaling. So, in the next lecture we will look at some of the real design, and
how to do the simulation of these kind of a filters and obtain the desired results.
Thank you very much. We will see you next time, bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 05
Lecture – 22
Microwave Filters – II: Low Pass Chebyshev Filters
Hello, everyone. In the last lecture, we had started discussion about filters. So, let us start
with quickly what we had discussed in the last lecture.
So, we had started with the ideal filter response. Here is a response of ideal low pass filter
which passes all the frequencies up to ωc and blocks all the other frequency A high pass filter
passes all the upper frequencies beyond ωc, a band pass filter passes all the frequencies
between ωc1 and ωc2 and a band reject filter or band stop filter blocks all the frequencies
between ωc1 and ωc2.
Then, we had seen a simple example of RC filter and I did mention that we do not use RC
filter at microwave frequency because this R here gives additional loses.
So, instead of using RC filter we in general use inductors and capacitor. So, one can start with
the capacitor and then go to inductor or when can start with the inductor and then go to the
capacitor.
So, the objective is now to find out these g parameters g1, g2, g3 and so on.
Then, we looked at four different types of realization. One was maximally flat or
Butterworth filter, the response of that was given by this curve here; then we looked into
equiripple or Chebyshev filter, the response of that has equiripple in the past band and then
relatively sharper transition compared to the Butterworth filter.
Then, we had also looked at the Bessel filter, but we saw that the response is very very poor
as for as the amplitude response is concern; however, phase responses nearly perfect. But, I
just want to tell you very rarely people use Bessel filter because of this particular reason that
the responses very very slow.
Elliptic filters in general have equi-ripple in the pass band as well as they have equi-ripple in
the stop band also, but the advantage of elliptic filter is that the response transition from pass
band to stop band is very very fast. So, suppose so, the same fifth order this is the response
for maximally flat, this is the response for equi-ripple, but for elliptic filter the response will
be even sharper and that will be something like this and then there will be some ripples in this
particular region here.
And, from here we actually defined another thing which is attenuation at frequency ω1. So, if
the cut of frequency is ωc so, it is generally desired that at a given frequency ω1 how much is
the attenuation, because there may be a some interfering single over here which needs to be
attenuated by may be 20 dB or 30 dB or more and the order of the filter can be obtained by
using this particular equation which is obtained by taking log on both the sides and solving
for n.
Then, we looked at the g parameters. So, how to find out the g parameters for Butterworth?
So, we saw that g0 = gn+1 = 1. These are nothing, but corresponding to input and output,
source as well as load impedances and g parameters can be found by using this simple
expression and we had seen that these are the typical values for a fifth order filter.
And instead of using this particular expression one can use the table to find out what are the
different g parameters.
So, after that what we need to do we need to do impedance scaling as well as frequency
scaling. Why we have to do that because we had taken input and output impedances to be
equal to 1, but in the reality that will never with the case and we had taken an normalize
frequency which is ω equal to 1, but we need to design filter at the desired frequency. So,
ultimately we combine impedance as well as frequency scaling and what we had seen that the
g parameters which are given by Lk or Ck we will see the example in a short while.
So, those g parameters have to be modified for inductor and capacitors. Slightly differently
for case of g parameters which realize inductor we have to multiply by R0 divide by ωc
whereas, for the g parameters which will represent capacitance those things have to be
divided by R0 and ωc to realize the real capacitance.
So, let us take now an example.

So, we will start with than example that we need to design of low pass filter with the cutoff
frequency of 400 MHz and we want attenuation of 20 dB at 1 GHz and it is given that the
source and load impedances are 50 ohm.
So, the first thing what we need to do is we need to find out what is the order of the filter. So,
we had seen the expression to find out the order of the filter n given by this particular
expression. So, let just substitute the various values. So, log 10, 10 to the power A what is A?
20 dB. So, you do not convert into numeric value, that conversion is done by this particular
expression here.
So, 20 comes right over here then for ω1 we want attenuation of 20 dB at one GHz. So, that
is 1000 in terms of MHz divided by ωc which is 400 MHz. So, that comes over here. So, this
comes out to be 2.51 of course, we come take real number for order of the filter we have to
take the higher value compared to this one here. So, we choose n equal to 3.
So, the next step could be is to find out the g parameters. So, we know that g 0 is equal to gn+1,
here n is 3. So, input and the output source impedances at equal to 1. We will do the
impedance scaling as well as frequency scaling in the next line. The next step is now to find
out g parameter. So, g1, g2, g3, n here is equal to 3, you put the value we find out the
corresponding g parameters which are 1, 2, 1.
Now, let us do the impedance and frequency scaling.

Here we have taken the first component as inductor, second capacitor, third inductor will also
show you the design where we take first component as capacitor and then inductor and
capacitor, but let just look into this design now. So, L1 is equal to L3. So, there I had written
R0, but here R0 is equal to Z0 which is given as 50 and we had seen that g 1 is equal to g3. So,
that is equal to 1. What is ωc? 2πfc. So, 2 π into 400 MHz.
So, simplify this that comes out to be 19.9 nH for capacitance again for the g parameter g 2 if
you recall g2 was equal to 2, Z0is 50 ωc is 2πfc which is 400 into 10 to the power 6 so, that
comes out to be 15.9 pF. So, this is the actual circuit which will meet the requirement of the
400 MHz cut off frequency and at least 20 dB attenuation at 1 GHz.
So, let us see the response of this particular filter.

So, here is the response of S21 which is a low pass filter and this is the reflection coefficient
for this given low pass filter. So, let us first look at S 21. So, we had design this particular filter
with a cut off frequency of 400 MHz which is 0.4 GHz. So, if you look at from here 0.4 GHz
we go up here. So, this is the cross over point and that corresponds to about minus 3 dB.
I just want to mention here if S21 is equal to minus 3 dB correspondingly S11 also will be equal
to minus 3 dB and remember the circuit consist of only inductors and capacitors, hence there
is a no insertion loss in this particular filter. Of course, this is an ideal response practically
inductors and capacitors will have some losses. So, the response will not be exactly 0 dB, but
it may be a 0.1 dB or 0.2 dB, depending upon the losses in the inductors or capacitors.
Let see what is the response at 1 GHz? So, at 1 GHz if you see this value, that is about 24 dB.
Now, you might wonder we had actually designed it for minus 20 dB, but this is giving as
minus 24 dB. The reason for that is minus 20 dB was obtained for a filter order n equal to 2.5,
but you cannot have a 2.5. So, we took a higher value which means we took third order filter.
So, for third order filter response will be little more steeper.
Had we take in suppose fifth order then this response will be steeper, here had we take n
equal to 2 then the response would be like this here, you would not have got a 20 dB
attenuation which was desired. So, if the attenuation desired is 20 and if you are getting 25 or
30 or 35 it is acceptable all the time.
So, now let just look at alternate way of realizing; that means, here first element has been
taken as capacitor, then inductor and then capacitor. Just recall previously we had taken first
element as inductor then capacitor then inductor. So, in this case what happens now g1 is
equal to g3 and we are now realizing capacitance. So, for capacitance what we do, we start
with the g parameter we divide that by Z0 and ωc. So, g1 is equal to g3 equal to 1. So, Z0 is 50 ,
2πfc. So, that comes out to be 7.95 pF.
Similarly, we find the value of the inductor we start with the g 2 parameter multiply this is Z0
or R0 divided by ωc. So, 2 into 50 divided by ω that comes out to be 39.8 nH. In fact, I
would like you people to compare this particular circuit with the previous circuit and you will
actually see that if you look at the equivalent inductance and equivalent capacitance they are
coming out to be similar ok.
So, I want you to check that let me just tell you for one case inductor we had seen that this
was 19.9 and this was 19.9. So, 19.9 plus 19.9 is equal to 39.8 nH. You can verify the same
thing for the capacitance value, ok. So, let see the response. So, you can see that the
responses exactly the same. There is no difference at all.
Now, I just want to also mention. So, how do we get these responses? Of course, this
particular thing has been done using ADS software, but in the beginning we had used freely
available software the name of the software is RFsim99 dot exe. You can download from the
internet it is freely available and in fact, what you do in that particular software you can just
give that just analysis and then you can look at the design part you can do the simulation of
filter.
In fact, it would be very very easy you simply have to say which type of filter you want to
design, low pass, high pass or band pass and then what you do you give the frequency what is
the cut off frequency of course, there you have to define what is the order of the filter. That
software will not calculate for you order of the filter and then it will give you the response
which is very similar to this.
It will also give you the inductors and capacitors value. It will also give the circuit diagram.
And, then you can actually go and edit those components also. I just to mention to you for
example, if you go to the market you would not get any capacitor which has a value of 7.95
pF, you may get at pF or 7 pF or may be 9 pF or 10 pF.
Similarly, you may not get 39.8 nH you may get 40 nH or may be 39 nH and so on. So, what
you need to do then these are the design values, but these are not the practical value. So, you
go in that particular software you can click on that particular component double click on that
and then you can change the value of the inductor or change the value of the capacitor and
then simulate, you will know what is the response.
And, then check those things and depending upon whether it meets your requirement or not,
you can keep on doing the modification and sometimes may be you can add inductors in
series or in parallel to realize the desired value of inductors. Same thing you can do for the
capacitor. You can use two capacitors in series or parallel to realize the desired capacitance
value.
So, now let see the response for Chebyshev filter which is also known as equi-ripple filter.
Now, for low pass filter the response of the Chebyshev filter looks something like this over
here. Now, try to compare this with the previous configuration which was for Butterworth
1
filter. So, for the Butterworth filter if you say this is the -1/2 this can be written as ,. So, in
√2
the case of Butterworth this expression was
2n −1
ω
2
( ( ))
¿ H ( jω )∨¿ = 1+
ωc
¿
but here we have a F0 component as well as C 2n component which is
−1/ 2
ω
( 2
¿ H ( jω )∨¿ 1+ F 0 C n
( ))
ωc
So, this is not really coming as ω by ωc, but it is the function over here let just look at what
are these different things here. So, Cn(x) is Chebyshev polynomial of order n and let me just
tell you this Chebyshev polynomial actually is defined in two different limits. One limit is for
ω less than ωc, or if it is normalized then ω less than 1. So, in that particular region the
variation is cosine, and in the region of stop band which is for ω greater than ωc or you can
say normalize case ω greater than 1.
This Chebyshev polynomial is nothing, but cos hyperbolic function. So, n of course, is order
of the filter as before ωc is cutoff frequency and what is F0? F0 is constant related to pass
band ripple. In fact, you can actually choose how much ripple you want in the pass band. So,
generally speaking if you look at the low frequency component most of the time they actually
define minus 3 dB as pass band ripple, but I want to tell you please at microwave frequency
never ever designed a Chebyshev filter for minus 3 dB pass band, ok. The reason for that is
minus 3 dB for S21 will also correspond to minus 3 dB for S 11 so that means, in the pass band
half the power will reflect back only half the power will transmit.
So, majority of the time when we design microwave filter we never ever design Chebyshev
response for higher than 0.5 dB pass band ripple. Why cut off of 0.5 dB? In fact, 0.5 dB pass
band ripple corresponds to S11 approximately equal to minus 10 dB or approximately equal to
VSWR equal to 2.
So, here is the expression for F0
Lr
F 0=10 10 −1
Lr is the ripple attenuation in pass band and as I mentioned please do not take Lr as 3 dB
which is generally done at lower frequency at microwave frequency please never ever do.
Majority of the times we take this Lr value to be may be from 0.1 dB to about 0.5 dB.
So, how these Chebyshev polynomials are simplified? In fact, this is the one of the simplified
version of that which actually speaking does not even mention anything about cosine
variation or cos hyperbolic variation. So, let see what is this very very simple thing. C 0(x) is
equal to 1. So, that is the C0 value. Then, what is Cn(1), which is equal to 1 which is
corresponding to a general time again the last term and then let us see how are the other
parameters here. So, C1(x), what is x here? x is defined by this particular term over here and
this simplification is please remember it is for ω equal to ωc. So, when ω is equal to ωc this
term will be equal to 1. So, you can say x is equal to 1.
So, we know now what is C0 which is 1 we can use C1(x) which is nothing, but equal to x and
then all the other Cn parameters can be obtained by using this particular expression. I will just
make it simple for you people let us say we want to find for n equal to 2 let say we want to
find what is C2. So, for n equal to 2 let see what will be that this will be 2 into 2 minus 1 C1.
So, C1(x), what is C1(x) is equal to x. So, this term will become 2 x minus C n minus 2 will be
2 minus 2 is 0. So, that will be 1. So, we can say that C 2(x) is nothing, but 2x - 1. Then when
you want to find C3 what you do now for C3 this will be 2 and this will be one and I have just
mention how to calculate C2. So, this is the way you can find out all the Cn parameters.
Now, in this particular case again when you want to find out the g parameters it is now not as
simple as finding g parameters for maximally flat. Here many more steps are required to find
out the g parameters. So, let see what are these steps here.
So, g1 expression is given by
a1
g1=
F2
So, what is a1? You can see from here you can find the value of a1 from here. What is F 2 ? F 2
you have to use this particular expression, but in this expression there is a F 1, so you have to
calculate F 1 and in F 1. You can see that there are losses in the ripple, or you can say
attenuation in the ripple, and you can see that there is a cot hyperbolic function cot hyperbolic
function is nothing, but cos hyperbolic divided by sin hyperbolic.
So, you have to do these calculations in general to find out the g 1 parameter as well as other g
parameter. So, you can see from here if you want to find g k it requires a k minus 1 into a k
divided by b k minus 1 into g k minus 1, ok. So, you can find the values of a k from here
and b k from here.
So, let just look at a quick design of a third order Chebyshev low pass filter. So, here the
order is defined which may not be always given to you ok, but let say we want to design a
third order Chebyshev low pass filter that has a ripple of 0.05 dB. You can see that it is a very
very small ripple value the cut off frequency is 1 GHz. So, the formulas which has given in
the previous slide you use that. So, first we calculate F 1, then we calculate F 2 then we
calculate a1, a2, b1 then g1, g3 which are equal and g2.
Once you find these g parameters then after that we can use frequency and impedance
scaling. So, we know that for inductor L1 equal to L3 which will be corresponding to g1 equal
to g3. So, here this value is 0.8794 and to find the value of inductor we have to multiply with
the impedance which is 50 ohm here, divide by the frequency, which is 1 GHz. So, that will
be 2π into 1 GHz this comes out to be 7 nH.
To find the value of the capacitance you use g 2 parameter. So, this is g2 divided by R0 or you
can say Z0 which is equal to 50 ohm multiplied by ωc which is 2π into to 10 9. So, that comes
out to be this value over here. So, this is the actual circuit simulation for third order
Chebyshev filter with the response of 0.05 dB ripple in the pass band and cut off frequency of
1 GHz.
So, let see the response of this particular filter.
You can see that here this is the frequency versus S-parameter plot here. So, this is the plot
for S21 now you can see here there is a very little flip over here actually speaking that flip here
corresponds to 0.05 dB, it may not be even visible over here and then this is the response. So,
that is S21.
Now, this is the response for S11 you can see that this response is slightly different than the
maximally flat. In case of maximally flat S11 actually looked like this here, but over here. In
fact, this value corresponds to which is minus 20 dB. This minus 20 dB actually speaking
corresponds to the ripple at this particular point over here.
So, corresponding to this little dip over here S11 is about minus 20 dB. Now, just you tell you
had we taken this as a minus 3 dB then S11 will also what have been minus 3 dB, had this
been 0.5 dB then S11 would have gone up to about minus 10 dB. Now, again I want to
mention here that we had design this filter at 1 GHz. Now, do not look at the cross over point
because the cross over point corresponds to about minus 3 dB,.
Remember, this we had design for 0.05 dB ripple. So, corresponding to this 1 GHz, so, this is
where that 0.05 dB ripple would come into picture and that is how the response is there, ok.
Now, of course, you can do the calculations by using the formulas given to you or
alternatively you can use these stables.
So, here is a table given for 0.5 dB ripple. N parameters are given from N equal to 1 to 10
corresponding g parameters are given over here. So, you can actually do the checking. So,
depending upon the order of the filter let say your designing for a fifth order filter you can
calculate g parameters from here. g6 is equal to 1, which is the terminating impedance. Now, I
just also want to mention that there is a book Matthaei, Young and Jones book which has
given many of these tables for different values of ripple, and then either you can used that
book took find out what are the g parameters or you can use the formulas given in the
previous slides to find out what are g parameters,.
Now, we are going to look at a one comparison thing. So, for example, what is the order
required for a low pass filter realized using Butterworth or Chebyshev configuration. So, here
we are taking a little different problem in a sense that a larger attenuation is require at
relatively closer frequency to the cut off frequency.
So, let’s say the desired value is 30 dB attenuation at ω by ωc equal to 1.2. I just to mention
in our earlier slides we had mention this as ω1, ok. So, please do not get confuse that is the
same thing ω by ωc or you can say ω1 by ωc. So, this is what is the frequency ratio equal to
1.2 you can think this way ωc may be 1 GHz then this will be 1.2 GHz if it is 2 GHz; that
means, ω will be equal to 2.4 GHz ok.
So, for now 30 dB attenuation we can now look at step by step. Earlier I had given you the
formula for n, but now will show you all the steps how that formula comes into picture and
you need not remember the formula all the time you can use this particular simple expression
to do the derivation.
So, let say we want ¿ H ( jω )∨¿2 ¿to be equal to 30 dB, which is in reality minus. So, you
calculate the value that comes out to be 0.001 and please note this is a square term. Now, this
term here is given by this particular expression over here. So, now, substitute different values.
So, this one here is 0.001, 1 divided by ω by ωc is 1.2 to the power 2n. Now, what should
you do you take log on both the sides, but before you take log you take this one this side, this
divided over here. So, 1 divided by 0.001 will be 1000 and then this one comes on this side
which will become triple 9 then take a log, ok. So, that will be 2n log 1.2 and the right hand
side that time would be 999 take that and now you simplify this n comes out to be 18.94.
So, that means, to realize this particular thing you need a 19th order Butterworth filter. Let
see what happens if you want to realize using Chebyshev filter here in this particular example
we have assumed 1 dB ripple in the pass band. So, L r is equal to 1 dB. So, now, first calculate
F0. F0 is given by this expression substitute the value of Lr 1 you will get F0 equal to this.
Now, in the stop band I had told you C n function is nothing, but cos hyperbolic function. So,
this is the expression for that. So, what we do now? We write the same thing ¿ H ( jω )∨¿2 ¿ is
given by this particular expression is substitute the value 0.001, this is 1 divided by 1 plus F 0
just the expression of Cn has been written over here which is right here.
Now, we try to simplify this particular thing over here, right. So, substitute the value of F 0
0.2589 and this term is transferred over here with simplification you get over here and then
what should you do for this particular term next simplification is you take cos hyperbolic
inverse of this particular term after taking a square root. So, this is what the term is that is on
the left hand side, simplify for n you will get n equal to 8.
See you can actually see that to realize this particular response if we use Butterworth concept
you would need and order of filter which is 19 whereas, if we use a Chebyshev filter we
would require and order of only 8. Of course, I just to want to mention here we had assumed
ripple to be equal to 1 dB. Now, if it is 0.5 dB you will see that the number of elements
required will be more.
So, this is an exercise for you people please find out take this as 0.5 dB ripple and see what
would be the value of n, but you can see the big difference if you use n equal to 8; that
means, total number of inductors and capacitors required will be only 8 here total number of
components required will be 19. So, you can say that the cost of this particular thing will be
much larger even the circuitry realization will be larger.
So, in the next lecture I will show you what is the response of these two filters,. So, just to
summarize today’s lecture we started discussion about the Butterworth filter, we use that
concept which we had discuss in the previous lecture of frequency scaling as well as
impedance scaling and then we designed a low pass filter using Butterworth and we saw that
whether you take first element as inductor or capacitance response remains exactly same.
Then we looked at the Chebyshev filter and for Chebyshev filter we saw that the finding g
parameters required more steps, but however, Chebyshev filter as an advantage that for this
particular specification given here you would require only 8 number of elements compare to
19 element. So, in the next lecture we will see what is the response, how the two responses
compare with each other the till then thank you very much. Enjoy yourself, work hard, will
see you next time. Bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 05
Lecture – 23
Microwave Filters – III: Microstrip Realization, Transformation from LPF to other
Filters
Hello, in the last two lectures we have been talking about mainly low pass filter realization
using Butterworth and Chebyshev responses. So, we had seen that for Butterworth filter or
also known as maximally flat filter the responses relatively flat in the pass band, but the
transition from pass band to stop band is relatively slower than the Chebyshev filter which
has equiripple in the pass band, but the transition from pass band to stop band is relatively
faster.
And, then we had seen how to calculate the g parameters for Butterworth filter as well as for
Chebyshev filter. For Butterworth filter g parameters can be obtain in a very simple manner
whereas for Chebyshev filter we have to do little bit more calculations. However, instead of
doing the calculations you can use the tables given in the various books or in the literature
and then we had looked at the comparison of the low pass filter realization using Butterworth
and Chebyshev filter.
So, in the last lecture we had discussed this particular example here, where we had taken an
ω
example of 30 dB attenuation at equal to 1.2, and we had seen that if we use Butterworth
ωc
filter we need a filter order equal to 19, whereas if we use 1 dB ripple in the passband for
Chebyshev then we need a filter order equal to 8. As I mentioned that if you take this as 0.5
dB ripple in that case number of order will be more than 8, but definitely much lesser than 19
and also now show you the responses for these two particular cases and I will also tell you
what is the disadvantage of using 1 dB ripple.

So, here is the response of the two types of filter realization one using Butterworth another
one using Chebyshev and for Butterworth we have used a 19th order filter, for Chebyshev we
have used 8th order of filter over here and you can actually see that the response for these two
cases. Let us look at the response of the two filters for S 21 first, ok. So, you can see this black
color you can see it is maximally flat in the passband and this is the response in the stop band
if you look at the response of 8th order Chebyshev filter whether ripple equal to 1 dB in the
passband. So, you can see that this is 0 this is minus 5 so, this is corresponding to 1 dB, ok.
So, you can see that there are ripples and this is the transition. You can see that in the
ω
transition region and specially if you recall what we had taken the frequency ratio as
ωc
equal to 1.2 you can see this is 1.2 we designed it for ω c equal to one and corresponding to
this point you can see that the attenuation is of the order of minus 30 dB. So, you can see that
these two filters will give you somewhat similar response specially at the attenuation level,
but let us see what is the response in the passband as far as the S11 are concerned,.
So, this is the S11 for 8th order Chebyshev, you can see this is the response over here. You can
see that S11 is very poor this is of the order of approximately minus 6 dB. The reason for that
is this design was done for 1 dB rippled. So, corresponding to 1 dB ripple this is what it
would be. That is why I had told you if you take 0.5 dB ripples so, this will be 0.5 dB then S11
will comes somewhere around minus 10 dB. So, that is the disadvantage of a Chebyshev
filter if you design for a ripple of 1 dB in the passband, whereas you see the response of S 11
for Butterworth filter you can see that it keeps going down down down only, right.
So, this is the main problem with the Chebyshev filters that is why we do not recommend that
you design a Chebyshev filter for more than 0.5 dB ripple in the pass band.
So, now let us see something different. So far what we had done, we had actually found out
the values of C1, L2, C3, L4 and so on. and these values were obtain First what we did we
found out the g parameters, and it does not matter whether you have use Butterworth filter or
whether you have Chebyshev filter all you need to do what is you need to find out the g
parameter. So, in this case the first parameters since we have taken as C 1 so, this would have
been g1, g2, g3, g4 and so on.
Now, when you look at these capacitance values or inductor values, you might have noticed
as we did it in the previous example these are very different values and they are not readily
available and as you go to the higher frequencies specially these components values will
become very small and they may not be readily available in the market also. So, specially at
microwave frequencies instead of using these lumped L, C elements you can realize all of
these things using microstrip line.
So, let us see how we can do this particular thing. You have to recall simply the concept
which we discussed that is small transmission line, if it is terminated in a short circuit it
realizes inductor and a small transmission line if it is open circuit at actually realizes a
capacitance. So, let us see how we can use that concept over here. So, first let us see C 1; C1 is
between this line and the ground. So, this C 1 can be replaced by this simple patch over here.
So, this patch will have a capacitance with the respect to the ground plane. Just to tell you, so,
this is the top view of this low pass filter, underneath of this low pass filter we will have a
ground plane.
So, think about a printed circuit both. So, that will be a bottom will be a ground plane and on
the top or you have to do it is etch out this particular pattern of course, in this particular
pattern it is very important to determine all these lengths l1, l2, l3, l4 and all these widths over
here for l1, l2, l3 and so on. So, I am going to tell you now step by step process.
So, now let us see we need to realize C1, ok. You can think realization of C1 in two different
ways. So, first thing we will look at is the parallel plate capacitance. So, parallel plate
capacitance will be from the top to the bottom, ok. So, the parallel plate capacitance for this
particular thing will be given by length l1 and if you see w1. So, the parallel plate capacitance
for a rectangular shape is given by
ϵ 0 ϵ r Area
C=
h
So, here for a given substrate we know what is ϵ r and we know what is the thickness which is
h. So, the area of that particular patch will be nothing, but equal to l1 x w1.
Now, here the problem is not over yet the reason for that is that there will be some fringing
fields for this particular patch over here. So, you do not take the physical dimension to realize
the value of C1, what you have to do it is you have to take the practical values corresponding
to the fringing field. So, what will be the effective dimension? So, you have to think about the
effective dimension will be nothing, but fringing field will be there. So, we can say that
instead of l1, we take l1 affective instead of taking w1, we take w1 affective and that should be
equivalent to the capacitance C1 now, this is the one way to look at it.
Now, let us just look at the other part which I said think about a transmission line concept.
So, now, this particular line is actually terminated in a very thin line a very thin line will have
a very high impedance. So, you can approximately think about that this particular line is
terminated into when open circuit situation, you can think about that this transmission line of
length l1 is terminated into a very high impedance line which can be thought of as an open
circuit.
So, here just to tell you few design steps here in general we take the width of this particular
patch here which corresponds to the capacitances to be much lesser than the impedances of
these inductors. So, just you tell you since this is of the order of 50 Ω input and output line
typically we take the impedance of these lines; that means, the width is calculated for
corresponding characteristic impedance of may be 10 to 20 Ω. So, that is a general design
concept, you do not take less than 10 because then the width will become very very large.
So, now comes the part of the inductor we know that a very thin line represents an inductor,
but you can now again apply the concept of the transmission line. So, let us say this inductor
is terminated in a relatively low impedance. You can see that this particular transmission line
is terminated into a low impedance value. A low impedance value can be approximated as a
short circuit of course, approximations are required, but these things can be optimize later on
when you do the simulation.
So, a capacitor is between this one and the ground plane then we have a series inductor. So,
this length here and the width so, generally speaking we take a very high impedance
corresponding to this line length l2 and why we take very high impedance? The reason as I
mentioned that this high impedance will appear as open circuit for this particular transmission
line and these we take low impedance of the order of 10 to 20 Ω, they will appear as a short
circuit for this particular transmission line.
So, generally again to repeat you take the impedances of this 10 to 20 Ω and generally
impedances of the line lengths l2, l4, l6 you take anything greater than 100 may be 100 to 150
Ω. Of course, you can take 200 Ω also, but that is not very practical because corresponding to
200 Ω impedance the line width may be of the order of 0.1 to 0.2 millimeter depending upon
the substrate specifications. So, generally we try to limit these impedances to about 100 to
150 Ω and these impedances to 10 to 20 Ω.
So, you can see that first step would be is that you find the g parameters for a given
Butterworth or Chebyshev filter then you use the frequency and impedance transformation to
get these values and then corresponding to these values you can find out the dimensions of
these patches. So, just you tell you one way to do this particular thing is
ϵ 0 ϵ r l1eff w 1 eff
C1 =
h
Alternatively, you can apply the transmission line concept also since we are making an
approximation this is terminated in open impedance. So, for this particular thing you can
think about input impedance at this particular point Zin is equal to nothing, but
Z0 1
Z¿= =
j tan β l1 jωC 1
So, Z1 corresponding to this impedance your assuming may be 10 Ω or 20 Ω, then

correspondingly you can find the length l1. For this particular case over here for finding
length l2 or l4, l6 what you really do? Since this particular line is terminated in a relatively low
impedance you can think about that as a short circuit. So, for a short circuit here input
impedance is given by
Z¿= j Z0 tan β l 1= jω L2
So, we know already L2 we can find out the value of l2 over here because you are choosing
the value of Z0 between 100 to 150 Ω.
Now, do not get confused with the Z0 because I am using Z0 for different things here, but just
to tell you this is the input and output here. So, Z 0 for this two is 50 Ω Z 0, for this is 10 to 20
Ω, Z0 for this is between 100 to 150 Ω, ok.
Let us see now microstrip realization for elliptic filter.

So, far I have not discussed much about elliptic filter in fact, most of the time people do not
use elliptic filter at lower frequencies. The reason for that is as follows what you can see that
the series inductors are very similar to maximally flat or equiripple case you can see here L 1,
L3, L5. However, the shunt capacitance is now replaced by a combination of inductor and
capacitance. So, why we do this thing here the reason for that is that if you look at the
impedance of this. So, impedance of this will be equal to
1
Z= jω L2−
jωC 2
1
So, at a frequency ω 2= this particular impedance will be equal to 0. So, now think
√ L2 C2
about when the input is coming from here inductor, through the inductor it will go through,
but then this is preciously shorted. So, this particular thing is generally done not in the
passband at all so, the value of ω 2 to be chosen which is greater than ω c where we want
largest attenuation in the stop band.
Let us see fc is equal to 1 GHz then you can take corresponding to this f2 may be 1.1 or 1.2.
So, correspondingly choose the value of L2, C2 then you put another null at frequency
corresponding to this here. So, that frequency if we term as say ω 4 which is 1 by square root
of L4 and C4. So, this will provide another null in the stop band just imagine here. So, if this is
the response for a filter so, we will have a elliptic filter response ripples in this one then it
will come down to close to 0 value corresponding to this frequency ω 2, then it will go up, it
will go to 0 corresponding to the frequency. So, it will again go to 0 corresponding to the
frequency given by 1 by square root of L4 C4, ok. So, that is how you can provide sharp
attenuation in the stop band.
Now, as I mentioned generally we do not do this kind of a realization at lower frequencies

because component cost increases, but in microstrip these inductors and capacitors can be
realized in a very simple manner let just see step by step here is a series inductor L 1 which is
realized by this transmission line then we have a inductor in series with capacitance and that
is going to the ground. So, this inductor is realized by this thin line of length L 2 terminated
with the patch which corresponds to the capacitance C 2 and this patch will have a parallel
plate capacitance between the top layer and the ground layer. So, that will provide the
shunting or you can say the grounding part. Then we have a L3 which is realized by this series
transmission line and then L4 C4 you can see that L4 is this inductor representation and C4 is
represented by this particular patch.
Now, you can take these two things on the same side also, but I have shown it on the opposite
side mainly to reduce the cross talk between this because what happens if this particular thing
is taken on this side. So, you can see that try to imagine then this will be very very close to
this particular patch here. So, there may be a coupling between the two capacitance C 2 and C4
because of the fringing field and that may change the values.
So, just to avoid the coupling between this and this one here it has been put on the other side.
However, if there are space restriction you can always try to put on the other side, but ensure
that the gap between the two is greater than 2 times the substrate thickness, if you do that
coupling will be relatively small.
Now, let us see the practical example of the filter. So, here we have a 7th order low pass filter
using microstrip line and here we have use the relatively low cost substrate which is FR 4
substrate ϵ r = 4.4, h = 0.8 mm and tan is 0.02. You can actually see that this particular thing
has been designed at a frequency around 3.5 GHz or so you can see that is the transition thing
here. So, at this particular point S21 is minus 3 dB S11 is also minus 3 dB over here.
So, this design was done for approximately Butterworth response, but you can see that a
Butterworth response would have S11 continuously going over here. There is a small ripple
over here there is a very very small ripple over here also, but that is more because of not a
complete optimization of this particular configuration, but you can see that this S 11 is less
than minus 25 dB so, which is acceptable for almost all practical applications.
Now we can see that this entire 7th order filter is fitted within 32.5 mm dimension. So, you
can see here that this one here realizes the series inductor. This one here shunt capacitor,
series inductor, shunt capacitance, series inductor, shunt capacitor then series inductor over
here and one thing I also want to mention that the first component will be identical to the 7th
component, second is identical to 6th, third is identical to 5th and this is the central
component over here.
Now, just to tell you what we have chosen over here the line widths are 1.6 mm this 1.6 mm
corresponds to 50 Ω impedance over here, then we have chosen 0.5 mm to realize the
inductor and 4.4 mm is use to realize the capacitor. Now, let us see the response. Now, we
see little interesting thing over here and that is it behaves as a nice low pass filter you can see
that it is passing the lower frequency and then the response is going over here, we can see
that it is providing the attenuation here let us say about 20 dB or so, at this particular
frequency.
But, after that you can see that the response is going up, and then coming down. So, it almost
looks like that in this particular area it is behaving more like a band pass filter or if you just
look at this particular response then it looks like this is something similar to a high pass filter.
So, why all these things coming into picture the reason for that is since we are realizing
inductors and capacitors using transmission line and I had mentioned that all these lengths
must be less than λ/4 to realize inductor or capacitor.
Now, what happens at higher frequencies as frequency increases then λ will start decreasing.
Now, these lengths are actually fixed. So, if the lengths are fixed what will happen?
Corresponding to the smaller value of λ these lengths will not become greater than λ/4 and
the moment these lengths become greater than λ/4, you can say that this particular length
here if this is greater than λ/4 which is terminated in let us say a short circuit this length will
start behaving like a capacitance. So, a capacitance in the series path will actually behave
more like a high pass filter. So, that is what is happening this particular things starts behaving
like a high pass filter.
Then why a band pass filter in this particular region? The reason why it is behaving more like
a band pass filter where these lengths become equal to λ/2. So, when the length becomes
equal to λ/2, they start acting like a resonator. So, resonator is nothing, but more like a band
pass filter. So, when I talk about band pass filter, then you will understand these things in
more clear terms.
So, then the next question comes well we wanted to design a low pass filter, but here we have
kind of a high pass filter or band pass filter and so on. So, that means, at this particular
frequency it is behavior is very bad or you can say it is a pathetic low pass filter at that
particular frequency region. So, I just want to tell there is a solution to every problem. So,
what one can actually do that you design a low pass filter something like this over here there
is a no inductor, there is a no capacitor.
Now, what we can do actually here that at this particular frequency where you can see that it
has gone up to as high as minus 5 dB which may not be desirable. So, sometimes what we do
we actually put a band reject filter at this particular frequency. Suppose, if you put a band
reject filter at this particular frequency which is you can say that greater than 9 GHz band
reject filter size will be very very small. So, this entire response instead of going like this will
actually go like this over here. So, many a times combination of these concepts can be used.
So, now I am going to show you a another example how this low pass filter has been
integrated with a high pass filter to realize one of the practical problem given to us.
So, here is a one example which is a 7th order low pass filter integrated with high pass filter.
In fact, before I talk about all these things let me tell you in fact, we had actually got one of
the problem and the problem which was given to us by one of the labs was that they wanted a
very broad band filter, ok. Filter which works from roughly around 300 kHz up to about close
to 3.5 GHz now that is a very very broad band band pass filter, and when we talk about band
pass filter you will realize at this particular filter is extremely broad band.
So, well we did look into the project will did look into the problem and then we found a very
very simple and unique solution. So, what we did actually? We designed a low pass filter
with a cutoff frequency of around 3.5 GHz you can see that this is the response for that. So,
what we did? We designed a low pass filter with the cutoff frequency of approximately 3.5
GHz, then along with that low pass filter we actually added a capacitor at the input and the
output stages over here and to realize that high pass filter we had actually put a 10 nF
capacitor, ok. The value of this capacitance was calculated for the given value of around 319
kHz.
So, just you tell you how we did that. So, we know that the cutoff frequency is given by
1 . So, here the source impedance and load impedance has both are 50 Ω each. So, what
ω=
RC
we did we put the capacitance of 10 nF, 10 nF and you can calculate for this particular
combination you will see that the cutoff frequency comes out to be this particular number
over here. So, let us see the first simulated response then we will see the practical response.
Now, just want to tell you here this is a log frequency scale over here. So, first of all let us see
the transmission coefficient which is given by this green color over here. So, you can see that
this has a behavior of high pass filter. So, it is blocking all the lower frequencies. So, from
here to here you can see that it is behaving more like a band pass filter and then this is over
here there is a dip and it goes up little bit above here. So, this response is exactly same as
what I had shown you in the previous slide for the low pass filter realization.
So, now this one here is given in log frequency scale. Here is the fabricated thing you can see
what is the size of this particular filter and these are the measured results and just I want to
mention here this is the linear frequency scale and this is a log. So, n log each one of these
divisions are increasing by 10 times ok, but here it is a 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 GHz.
So, try to imagine that in your mind. So, you can see here that close to 0 frequency there is a
sharp transition which is actually corresponding to this one over here. This is somewhat
similar to a low pass filter response and this thing peak which we had seen earlier over here is
what is coming at this particular point here and this is the response for the S 11. So, you can
see that corresponding to this S11 short up, but in this entire particular region over here where
most of the power is going from here to here reflected power is very very small.
So, that is how we actually realize the practical problem of a band pass filter by combining a
low pass filter response with the high pass filter response. So, now let us just see how we can
find out and design other type of filters.
So, we can actually use the g parameters of low pass filter and by using those g parameters of
low pass filter we can actually design a high pass filter, band pass filter and band stop filter.
Let us first look at the concept part ok. So, we had seen that for a low pass filter
1
H (s)=
s+1
Again, you can do some quick checking over here put s equal to 0, so, that will be 1 by 1 ok.
So, H s is 1 at low frequency put s equal to infinity 1 by infinity is 0. So, the response is 0 at
very high frequency.
Now, how to get high pass filter? So, high pass filter if we just use a very simple
transformation instead of putting s here if you put s as 1 by s then what will happen. So, let us
substitutes s as 1 by s. So, 1 divided by 1 by s plus 1 this becomes the transfer function of
high pass filter. Again, quickly check put s equal to 0. So, at s is equal to 0 this will be 0; that
means, at lower frequency output will be 0. When s is infinity this term will become 1; that
means, at very high frequency response is equal to 1.
Now, for band pass filter what we do, we use the transformation something like
2 2
s +ω0
s→
Bs
ω 0 is the center frequency of the band pass filter B is the bandwidth of the bandpass filter. So,
if we substitute s equal to this here in this particular expression so, s put over here simplify
this is what is the transfer function of band pass filter. Again, you can make some quick
check put s equal to 0, if s is equal to 0 this whole term will become equal to 0. If we put s
equal to infinity what will happen this goes to infinity, this will be infinity square. So, you
can say it will become 1 by infinity it will become 0. So, that means, the output is 0 at lower
frequency, output is 0 at very high frequency. So, in between it will go up and come down.
For band stop filter you actually use reverse of that so, instead of s transformation like this
you use reverse of that so, this is B s divided by this here.
And, if you substitute this value of s in this expression it becomes like this here. Again you
can use the concept of put s equal to 0 and then you put s equal to infinity and you will see
that in fact, for both s equal to 0 as well as for s equal to infinity it is equivalent to
approximately 1 and at the center frequency ω 0 output will be very small.
So, in the next lecture we are going to see how to realize from a low pass filter a high pass
filter or band pass filter or band stop filter. So, just you summarize so, today we discuss about
the practical applications of the filters we actually saw that the response of the Chebyshev
filter and Butterworth filter and 19th order Butterworth filter is almost equivalent to 8th order
Chebyshev filter, but the Chebyshev filter had a problem that it had a 1 dB ripple in the
passband.
And, then we also looked at how to practically realize a very broad band band pass filter by
integrating a low pass filter with the high pass filter and in between we also saw how these
lumped elements can be realized using a microstrip configuration so, then you do not need a
inductor or capacitor simply by using microstrip line you can actually design of filter. In fact,
we will use the same concept of microstrip line to realize high pass filter or band pass filter or
band stop filter also. So, thank you very much. We will see you next time, bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 05
Lecture - 24
Microwave Filters - IV: Band Pass Filters
Hello, in the last few lectures we have been talking about low pass filters. In the low pass
filter we discuss about different types of filter realizations, such as Butterworth, Chebyshev,
Bessel filter, and elliptic filters.
We saw how to find g parameters for these different Butterworth and Chebyshev filter. For
Butterworth the expression for g parameters was very very simple. However, for chebyshev
we have to first define how much ripple we want in the pass band? And, as I mention please
do not design for ripples more than 0.5 dB, in the pass band because more than 0.5 dB ripples
in the pass band will lead to very poor VSWR in the pass band region.
And, we had also seen that for a faster transition from the pass band to stop band, where we
had taken that design example of ω1/ωc = 1.2, where we wanted attenuation of 30 dB. We
saw that a Butterworth filter would require and 19th order filter. Whereas, a chebyshev with
the ripple in the pass band of 1 dB would require only 8th order filter.
So, you can see that if you use chebyshev filter, you can reduce the number of components.
So, we noted that for the chebyshev filter the order required was only 8th order whereas, for
Butterworth the order required was 19th. So, that means, you will require 8 LC components
for the chebyshev filter and 19 LC components for Butterworth filter.
So, depending upon the requirement one should do that design accordingly. So, we had also
seen that instead of realizing these filters using lumped elements like, inductors and
capacitors, we can also use microstrip lines, we had earlier seen a small transmission line of
length less than λ/4, if it is shorted it realizes inductor and if it is open circuited, it realizes
capacitor.
So, we had used that concept to a design low pass filter. Now, let us look into how we can do
the transformation from low pass filter to high pass filter or bandpass filter or band stop filter.
In fact, we had seen in the previous lecture that a transfer function of a low pass filter is given
by this particular expression. And since we know that high pass filter is nothing, but inverse
of low pass filter all we have to do what is in this s over here, which we have designated as
capital S over here. If, we change this S to 1 by s, then we can realize a high pass filter and
we had seen very quick example let us just go through it quickly. So, if you put a S equal to 1
by s, 1 by s over here.
So, that is the high pass filter expression for bandpass filters, what we have to do? We have to
transfer low pass filter which was from 0 to normalize value of 1 to a bandpass filter, with the
center frequency of ω0 and bandwidth equal to B.
So, all we have to do it is shift this one to the central position, where center frequency is
equal to ω0. So, we use the transformation that is s we use this particular expression
2 2
s + ω0
Bs
So, that is the transfer function of bandpass filter. And, the transfer function of band stop
filter can be obtained by knowing the fact, that band stop is nothing, but inverse of band pass
filter. So, we use the inversion of this one here which is
Bs
s + ω20
2
And, we get the transfer function of band stop filter.
Now, comes the next part how do we design these filter? Since, we have already found out
the g parameters for low pass filter. We can use this concept of frequency transformation to
design, high pass filter, band pass filter, and band stop filter. So, let us see how we can do
that?
So, here let us see what we have, how to transform low pass filter to high pass filter to
bandpass filter and band stop filter. Let us just go step by step. So, for low pass filter
wherever we have a inductor, that inductor is to be replaced by capacitor. Why? we had seen
that for the impedance Z is equal to sL.
And s has to be replaced by 1 by s. And, we know that for a capacitance Z is equal to 1 over
sC. So, that is how we can actually find out, the value of the capacitance. So, we can find the
value of the capacitance by using this particular expression or I will show you in the next
slide, how to use the g parameters itself to find the new values of the high pass filter
component.
So, inductor becomes capacitor, capacitor becomes inductor. For bandpass filter, wherever
there is an inductor that is to be replaced by series L and C and wherever there is a capacitor
it has to be replaced by parallel L C combination. For band stop filter inductor has to be
replaced by parallel combination of inductor and capacitor. And, the capacitor has to be
replaced by series combination of inductor and capacitor. As, you can see again from band
pass filter to band stop you have to do, you can say the cross of this. So, this is because of the
reason that band stop filter is nothing, but inverse of band pass filter.
Let us just see now one by one how to realize these components for different filters.
So, for low pass filter to high pass filter transformation, what we need to do? Let us first look
at the low pass filter circuit configuration. So, what you do for the design? Let us say we
want to design a Butterworth high pass filter. So, the first step would be actually speaking
you design a Butterworth low pass filter.
Similarly, suppose you have to design a chebyshev filter of let us say ripple 0.5 dB in the pass
band. So, what you do? First you design a low pass filter find all the g parameters; so, g 1, g2,
g3, g4 and so on. So, now, as I mentioned earlier so, inductor is to be replaced by capacitor,
capacitor is to be replaced by inductor.
Now, you do not have to find g parameters again. These g parameters which are here g 1, g2, g3
and you can see that instead of writing here small gs we have written here capital C and
capital L. So, here for these particular things all you need to do it is for low pass filter to high
pass filter transformation. So, G k which is of course, again gk happens to be my initials also
Girish Kumar. So, capital Gk can be obtained by 1/gk. So, this small gks are corresponding
values of g parameters.
So, for example, C 'kis nothing but equal to 1/g1, this will be 1 by g 2 1 by g 3 and so on. And,
after that once you know what is Ck, which is equal to 1 by g1 simply use that impedance
frequency scaling transformation to obtain the values of C.
Let us see, how now we can do the thing from low pass filter to bandpass filter.
Again what you do? You have to design let us say a Butterworth bandpass filter. So, you
design a Butterworth low pass filter or you want to design a chebyshev bandpass filter, then
you design first chebyshev low pass filter find all the g parameters. So, g 1, g2, g3, g4, not this
g1 which I have actually represented here as L k, but this inductor has to be replaced by
combination of inductor and capacitor.
So, do not get confused this L'k does not mean inductor and capacitor, but actually speaking
this is simply representation of this over here ok. So, inductor has be replaced by series,
inductor and capacitor and the capacitor over here which has been now termed as C k, that
capacitance corresponding to this number here is to be replaced by parallel combination.
So, how does this really happen? How this g1 which is inductor gets transformed to series
component. So, for that let us just see what we had done? For the transformation from low
pass filter to band pass filter, we had used the expression that S was transformed to this
particular expression.
Now, for inductor we know that what is Z? Z = Sg1, because here g1 represents inductor. So,
now, substitute the value of S by this particular expression, which is the transformation from
low pass filter to bandpass filter. Now, simplify this here we can see that there is a s square in
the numerator and in the denominator we have s. So, separate this out this will become
2
s g1 ω 0
Z= + g
B Bs 1
Now, for impedance we can represent these terms as series combination of inductor and
capacitor. Inductor is defined as s L, where as a capacitance is defined as 1 by s C. So, if you
now compare this equation with this here we can say that L is nothing but equal to g 1/B and
B
what is C equal to you can see that 1/sC. So, s is here. So, C will be ok. So, this is how
ω20 g1
you can find the values of L and C.
So, now let us see we have to transfer. The capacitance into this particular combination here
for that I suggest, that you do these steps yourself, but to do that step let me just give you
little bit of a hint, that for capacitance, you can write instead of Z write y. So, y is equal to S
multiplied by g 2. So, over here then S will become this particular term and this will be g 2,
remember now this is y.
And, in y if we have to add the two components, they will be in shunt. So, that is how these
two comes in parallel or we can say these two are in shunt, then only they are added ok. So,
this process is similar. So, you follow the same thing for inductors and capacitors for all these
components and that way you can find out, the corresponding values of L C components for
bandpass filter.
Now, for band reject filter I leave that exercise for you people to do it. So, we know that band
reject filter is nothing, but inverse of bandpass filter. So, simply use the inverse of this
particular transformation, simplify in this particular manner you can find out the components
of band reject filter.
So, now let us just take an example. So, this is a third order Butterworth bandpass filter which
we took as an objective to be designed at 100 MHz, because that is easy then to transfer to
any other frequency. So, the first step is that you actually design a third order low pass filter
ok. At, 100 MHz or you can actually speaking design it for the normalized frequency ω equal
to 1.
So, the first step would be that you design a third order low pass filter at normalized
frequency ω equal to 1. And, here just to show you what we have here? So, think about a low
pass filter would be a capacitor, then inductor capacitor.
And, now you just look at the transformation inductor was replaced by series combination of
inductor and capacitor, a capacitor what was supposed to be here is now replaced by parallel
combination of inductor and capacitor. It is just shown slightly a different way you can see
here this is ground this is ground. So, how do we drawn this particular thing on this side this
capacitor will be over here and this capacitance will be over here.
So, capacitance in case of low pass filter is replaced by inductor, in parallel with capacitance,
inductor in case of low pass filter is replaced by series inductor and capacitor, and the
capacitor for low pass filter is replaced by inductor in parallel with capacitor.
And, now for the transformation we have used the bandwidth as 20 MHz. Now, I just want to
tell you that whatever those design value comes out to be they are not practically available in
the market ok. So, what we have done? We have actually chosen L and C values which are
practically available and these values are chosen close to what were the designed values. So,
you can see here these are the values, which are relatively available in the market. So, you
can see here this is 27 nH this is a 100 pF 8.2 pF. So, this is a 330 nH inductor and these
values are same as this value over here.
Now, these are readily available component values. However, when you take these values as
you will see in the next slide, the center frequency does not remain precisely 100 MHz, but
we will see what are the shift?. Now, this particular thing has to be now fabricated. So, we
have actually designed a general purpose PCB and I just want to mention to you that this
general PCB we had designed for low pass filter, bandpass filter, band reject filter,
attenuators also which we will discuss in the later lectures.
So, let us see what we have done here? So, here this is the input port this is the output port.
And, the width of this particular line must be chosen corresponding to 50 ohm characteristic
impedance. So, you can see here corresponding to this point here a SMA connector has been
connected here, the center of that pin is soldered over here for the output, you can see that at
the output SMA connector is connected.
So, now what you see over here these are the basically pads, where we can put the
components. Now, what we have here you can see at the bottom side there are several plated
through holes ok. So, basically these are done to provide proper grounding from the top to the
bottom. Same thing has been done over here also.
Now, multiple plated through holes have been taken, the reason for that is if we just put only
let us say 1 plated through hole over here. Then shorting happens at this particular point
whereas, if we are going to put a component over here, it will see the path length something
like this. And, that path length may provide additional inductor ok.
So, this is a general purpose thing and now you can see from here how we have done the
realization? You can see here from here there is an inductor. So, this inductor is realized by
this air core inductor over here. In fact, this kind of a thing can be very easily realized or you
do it is take one of those transformer windings, and what we have done over here is that just
take the refill of the ball pen and wrap it around that. And, then of course, you have to do
little bit of a calculation to find out the desired value of the inductor.
However, as I also mentioned that these inductor values are readily available, you can also
purchase a lumped equivalent of this particular thing here. And, that can be soldered between
this particular point over here, to this particular point over here. And, then the capacitor can
be soldered between this and this and you can do a shorting over here. And, then you can
keep following this particular thing. So, we have a capacitance over here you can see there is
a capacitance.
And, since it is a large inductor, again this large inductor has been realized using a air core
inductor, but again you can buy a chip inductor also. So, that is the air core inductor, then
after that we need an inductor, which is going to ground, we need a capacitance which is
going to ground. So, that is going to ground. And, whatever things you do not need to use
simply put a copper strip and solder that particular portion.
So, let us see now what we got?. So, first let us see the simulated results. Now, these
simulated results are not for the designed value, these simulated results are for the available
component values. So, you can see here this is the plot for as you can see from here dot
purple line here is for S21. So, this is the S21 simulated. I want to bring to your attention even
though we had designed for 100 MHz, but because of the available component values the
simulated values shifted slightly, but since this was just for testing the concept it is. So, it is
fine, we can do that.
Let us see corresponding to this particular simulated S 11. So, S11 is shown by blue color. So,
this is the S11 plot you can see that most of the time it is less than minus 15 dB in the desired a
passband.
But, when we did the fabrication, so, you can see that there is a little bit of a shift in the
resonance frequency. So, this is the S21 measured. So, you can see that this is the measured
plot, one can actually see that there is a small shift in the resonance frequency. And, also
there is a small shift in the measured S11 value also.
So, why there is a shift, because the reason for that is that, even though when we buy these
readily available components. They do not have 0 percent tolerance majority of these
components have 5 percent to 10 percent tolerance. So, because of those component
tolerances resonance frequency can change.
Another thing I want to mention that we had taken those finite lengths in between which were
acting as pad for this component. So, that also provides series inductor or maybe parasitic
capacitance. So, because of that also generally speaking, resonance frequency decreases
slightly.
So, when you have to design your next band pass filter or low pass filter remember that you
have to take some of these precautions that all those line lengths do have parasitic inductance
and capacitance and invariably, they try to reduce the designed resonance frequency slightly.
So, please take care of these things when you actually do the design.
Now, you can see here that lot of inductors capacitors are required. And, then component
tolerances and other things play very important role. So, now, we look into some of the
designs, where you do not need inductors and capacitors, but use simply transmission line or
modifications of transmission line to realize various filters.
So, let us look at these things now.
So, here 3 different configurations are shown over here. So, let me go through these things
one by one. So, this is the end coupled bandpass filter and this is generally designed, when
the bandwidth required is less than 5 percent. I just want to mention here what is percentage
bandwidth; percentage bandwidth is defined by bandwidth divided by center frequency
multiplied by 100. So, end coupled filters are generally designed for narrow bandwidth,
which is less than 5 percent.
So, what is this configuration here and why these are known as end coupled? So, I just want
to tell you. So, each one of these things here are approximately λ/2 resonators. So, these
resonators will act like a bandpass filter, we know that a λ/2 resonator will actually speaking
have a bandpass filter response like this. And, when you use multiple of these bandpass filter
section basically what happens, if you use only 1 section the transition from the pass band to
the stop band will be relatively slow, but if you use larger number of these resonators then
basically what happens, we can will have a sharper transition from the pass band to the stop
band.
So, since these resonators are coupled at the end that is why these are known as end coupled
bandpass filter.
Now, just I want to mention here that if you want to increase the bandwidth, while there is a
problem the problem is that this gap here specially the gap between the first element and the
last element becomes extremely small. In fact, this gap may become even of the order of 0.1
mm or sometimes even smaller, and you know that if you want to realize a 0.1 mm and do
you go for a PCB fabrication there are chances that 0.1 mm gap may not be there and that two
things will get shorted.
So, that is why generally speaking end couples are used only for smaller bandwidth.
However, to increase the coupling the next step is we use coupled line band pass filter. And,
generally these are designed for 5 percent to 20 percent bandwidth. So, here let us see what
we have again these are λ/2 resonators, somewhat similar to this concept over here, but now
instead of end coupled like this they are coupled like this, when we are talked about the
coupled line micro strip and we had also talked about coupled line directional coupler I had
mentioned to you, that the coupling is maximum between the resonators, when this length is
equal to λ/4.
So, you can see that the total length is lambda by 2. So, this λ/4 is coupled with this λ/4. So,
that becomes one coupled line configuration, this becomes another coupled line
configuration, this becomes another coupling configuration and by using this particular
configuration. What we are doing we are increasing the coupling between the input port and
the next element. And, then similarly we keep on increasing the coupling and by increasing
the coupling we are able to increase the bandwidth from 5 percent to 20 percent.
However, there are applications where we need bandwidth for more than 20 percent. So, in
that particular case we can use the concept of direct coupled. So, let us see what it is?. So,
you can see here this one here shows only 1 section of course, you can see here there are 3
sections over here, there are multiple sections over here, right now let me explain you the
concept with the single section. So, here this length is λ/4, which is shorted to ground.
Now, think about the transmission line theory. So, transmission line theory if you recall. So,
2
Z
if there is a λ/4 length, then the input impedance becomes 0 . So, if ZL= 0, which is shorted
ZL
to ground what will happen over here? It will become open circuit. So, that means,
corresponding to this particular length, where it is λ/4. So, that particular frequency when we
give input here, this will act as a open circuit. So, everything go from here to there. At other
frequencies loading of this short will come over here and that will get attenuated.
As I mentioned this is only a single section multiple sections can be realized using this
particular configuration here. So, you can see here this is input, this is output, and we have
several λ/4 sections over here. So, you can see here 1 2 3 4 and in between each λ/4 section,
we have another λ/4 transformer in between.
So, these things generally are designed for sharper roll off and for wider bandwidth
requirement. Of course, just to mention here instead of using a shorted λ/4 section, you can
also use open ended λ/2 section also.
So, in case of open ended λ/2 section what will happen, this length will be let us say λ/2 and
we know that for λ/2 section transmission line, whatever is the load impedance will become
source impedance. So, in this case load impedance is open. So, source impedance will
become open. So, if these things are open circuited whatever is the input that will go to the
output. At other frequencies these things will provide attenuation to the signal.
So, let us see now how we can realize a band reject filter, we have to just remember the
concept that band reject is nothing, but opposite of band pass filter. So, I have just shown the
direct coupled concept here for other configuration, you can actually try to visualize yourself.
So, here we have again a λ/4 section, but now this particular end is open circuited.
Since, this is λ/4 this open will act as a short over here. And if it is short so, whatever the
input is given at that particular frequency it will get shorted. So, that will not go over here.
So, basically it will act as a band reject filter at a frequency where this length is equal to λ/4.
Now, instead of having a length like this, you can always use a bent length also and the same
thing can be done even for bandpass filter. Now, here depending upon how close is this bent?
Ok. Suppose you make a bent very very close to it and the length is let us say λ/4. Then, there
will be 2 modes of coupling g1 coupling will be of course, direct coupling like this here, other
coupling can be because of the fringing fields, especially if this length is very very close to
this here. So, you can basically increase the coupling and also you can make the filter instead
of this width you can now make it relatively compact.
So, we will look at a one designed example and let us see then what kind of a results we get?.
In fact, I have given a title slightly different here this is a bandpass filter and band reject filter
depending on length. The reason will be clear in a few minutes. So, let us see what we have
done here? So, we have used the low cost FR4 substrate, these are the substrate parameters
and what we have chosen here line width, which is 1.5 mm here for the 50 ohm line. And,
this is a λ/4 resonator width of that has been taken as 0.5 mm.
In the next lecture, I will show you, what is the effect of changing this particular width. But
right now just to tell you we took this length of the line as 42 mm. Let us see the frequency
response of this particular configuration. So, we are giving input here this is the output all we
have here is a open circuited line, which is of length 42 mm. So, see here this is frequency
and this is the S parameter response. So, let us just look at the green color which shows S 21.
So, for S21 I have written here bandpass filter, when l is equal to a lambda by 2, I have written
here band reject filter, when l is equal to λ/4 or when l is equal to 3 λ/4.
So, let us see what are these things. So, let us just think about this is an open circuit. So, this
open circuit will act as a short circuit at this particular point, when this length is equal to λ/4.
So, if these open here acts as a short circuit that will become like a band reject filter.
So, this is the response corresponding to when length is equal to a λ/4, you can quickly check
now frequency is approximately equal to 1 GHz. So, at 1 GHz wave length is 30 cm, λ/4 will
be thirty divided by 4 which is 7.5 cm or you can say 75 mm. Now, 75 mm is to be divided
by square root of ε effective of this particular line, not this line because this is acting as a
resonator.
Since the line is very thin, it is ε effective is also relatively small you can see that this is εr 4.4
ε effective will be much smaller than 4.4. So, 75 mm is divided by this ε effective, which
actually gives to the length of 42 mm.
So, when this length is λ/4, it acts like a band reject filter because this is open will act as a
short. When this length is λ/2 and when this length will become lambda by 2, when the
frequency is doubled which is approximately 2 GHz. So, at 2 GHz length becomes lambda by
2. So, open becomes open over here, when the length is 3 λ/4 what happens now? Open over
here will act as a short circuit. So, you can see here this will again behave like a band reject
filter and you can see approximately this frequency is around 3 GHz this is around 1 GHz.
So, you can actually see that this particular simple thing here can act as a band reject filter or
band pass filter or band reject filter, depending upon the frequency of operation and you can
see the corresponding S11 plot. So, when bandpass filter characteristic is satisfied; that means,
everything is going from here to here; that means, nothing is reflected back. So, reflection
coefficient is very small.
In case of band reject filter nothing is going over here. So, almost everything is reflected
back. So, you can see that S11 is very high at this particular point. So, we will continue from
here in the next lecture, we will take more examples of how to realize these bandpass filters
and band reject filter.
So, thank you very much we will see you next time, bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 05
Lecture - 25
Microwave Filters - V: Coupled Line and Tunable Band Pass Filters
Hello everyone. In the previous lecture we had seen how low pass filter can be transformed to
high pass filter.
So, for example, if you want Butterworth or Chebyshev high pass filter. Then, we start the
design with corresponding Butterworth or Chebyshev low pass filter and all the g parameters.
And, then what we need to do? We need to do 2 things.
First is all inductors in case of low pass filter will become capacitors. And all capacitors will
become inductors. And for the high pass filter the capital G parameters can be simply
obtained by 1/gk where g are the parameters corresponding to low pass filter.
And, once you get the new G parameters were C s and L s, then you can use the impedance
and frequency transformation to get the values of C s and L.
And, from low pass filter to band pass filter transformation, what we need to do? Every
inductor is actually replaced by a series inductor and capacitor. And every capacitor is
replaced by parallel inductor and capacitor. Then, we had seen an example of band pass filter
at 100 MHz where, we had modified the components.
So, then we saw third order Butterworth band pass filter design at 100 MHz. The process is
again simple that you with a Butterworth low pass filter, and then transform inductor and
capacitor in the low pass filter to the corresponding parallel or series combination for band
pass filter.
So, this was the realized circuit. However, that original design circuit was then changed to the
available practical values of inductors and capacitors.
And, this is the corresponding PCB, where I had mention that these are the plated through
hole, and number of plated through holes are created here also. So, that it provides proper
shorting to the ground.
Then, we had seen both simulated and measured results we did notice that for measured
results, there is a small difference in the frequency in fact, most of the time we will see that
there is a decrease in the frequency, this is mainly because of the all that printed circuit board
provides parasitic inductances and capacitances.
So, when you are designing band pass filter you must consider, that there may be some
parasitic inductances and capacitances associated with the PCB so, you must take
corresponding precaution.
Then from here we are shifted to the next concept where we had the microstrip lines to
realize band pass filter we talked about end coupled filter, where coupling is done at the end
of the resonator. I did mention that this is good for Bandwidth less than 5 percent, because
coupling is relatively weak. By using coupled line, we can increase the coupling between
different resonators and then bandwidth can be increased from 5 percent to up to about 20
percent.
For larger bandwidth generally direct coupled band pass filters are used and again to look at
the simple concept. If, there is a short at the end of a λ/4 length, then short will act as an
open circuit. So, input will go to the output side.

So, this as a single section this is an example of multiple section. So, multiple λ/4 sections
have been used which are shorted at the end. Of course, instead of using λ/4 shorted section,
you can also use open ended λ/2 section.
We looked at the design of band reject filter; we can use same line length of λ/4, but instead
of shot circuit over here if you make it open.
So, if it is open and if the length is λ/4 open will act as a short circuit here. So, nothing will
go from here to here.
Then, we had taken the example, where we had a simple transmission line going from port 1
to port 2 and then resonator was connected and you can see over here. So, corresponding to
50 ohm line impedance, we had calculated the line width which is 1.5 mm that corresponds to
the chosen FR4 substrate, width of this particular resonator was taken as 0.5 mm.
And, a length of the line was taken as 42 mm. So, I had shown you the response first look at
this S21 response. So, you can see that this is the S 21 response. So, when this length becomes
λ/4 and if the length is λ/4 here is an open circuit open circuit will act as a short circuit. So,
nothing will go from 1 to 2.
So, you can see that the output which is S21, it is very very small, you can see the number here
is around minus 25 dB. Then at double the frequency this length will become lambda by 2.
So, you can see that around 2 GHz, when this length becomes lambda by 2.
So, open here will act like open over here. So, whatever is the input will go to the output you
can see here this is a band pass filter. Now, at triple the frequency, which is around 3 GHz,
we can see that length becomes now 3 λ/4. The response becomes of that of a band reject
filter. So, this is the corresponding response for S11.
So, when nothing is going to the output everything will reflect back. And, if everything is
going to the output nothing reflects back. Now, you can see over here for band pass filter
bandwidth obtained is very large. And, you may have application where we want smaller
bandwidth.
So, let us see how we can get smaller bandwidth we will see the effect of the width now.
So, in this particular example there is only one thing which we have changed, instead of 0.5
mm width here that has become now 3 mm. And, when the width is increased you can see
now that the bandwidth of the band pass filter has reduced.
So that means, by increasing this width here, we can actually speaking decrease the
bandwidth of the band pass filter. So, let just take another example, where we have simply
replaced this open circuit by short circuit. So, please recall here around 2 GHz it is acting like
a band pass filter, around 1 GHz it is acting like a band reject filter, but now when we do the
short let us see what happens.
So, when this is shorted you can see that at length equal to λ/4 this becomes band pass filter
the reason for that is when this is shorted and if the length is λ/4 short will act like open
circuit. So, whatever is the input goes to the output. So, this is the band pass filter response at
double of this particular frequency.
It will act like a band reject filter, because short here will act as a short when the length is
equal to lambda by 2. Again this particular configuration will act like a band pass filter, when
length is equal to 3 λ/4; that means, approximately triple of this particular frequency.
So, we can see that this particular configuration will go from band pass filter to band reject
filter, to band pas filter and then band reject filter. Now, this may not be practical most of the
time, because suppose you are passing the frequency let us say in one GHz region, but it will
also pass the frequencies in 3 GHz region also.
So, let us look at some alternate solutions for this particular problem. So, here is a band pass
filter using 2 λ/4 shorted coupled line.
So, let us see what we have here. So, here this length is actually taken as λ/4 and over here
we have a short circuit we have a short circuit over here. Now, we have to actually decide
where to feed this particular resonator.
So, you can see here that this is short circuit. So, at short circuit input impedance will be
equal to 0, because we know that impedance is nothing, but voltage divided by current. So, at
short circuit voltage is equal to 0.
At this particular point impedance will be very high, because again impedance is V divided
by I and here current is equal to 0. So, impedance is 0 here impedance is very high over here.
So, somewhere in between we can find a point where the impedance is of the order of 50
ohm.
So, we have to do little bit of a design and then optimisation also. So, here is a 50 ohm line
feed input here, here is the output at this particular point. Again, we have used as before FR4
substrate.
In this particular case length is equal to 40 mm for here to here the reason is the band pass
filter has been designed at 1.05 GHz, previous case the design was around 1 GHz. So, since
frequency has increased length has to be reduced slightly. So, here gap between the 2
resonators is of the order of 0.5 mm. So, this is the current distribution for this particular
configuration.
The analysis has been done using IE3D software. So, let us see what this current distribution
shows over here? So, blue colour here shows 0 current and red here shows maximum current.
So, we know that this is an open circuit corresponding to open circuit current will be very
small or negligible, which is represented by blue colour this is short circuited here current
will be maximum. So, that is shown by the red colour and you can get the feel that, this whole
thing is varying from very small current to very high current.
So, you can say that this is nothing, but if we take a wave form like this. So, from 0 to peak
will be λ/4. So, this lambda corresponds to λ/4. So, let us see now the response of this
particular configuration. So, this is S21.
So, you can see that this is acting like a band pass filter. And, since most of the power is
going from input to the output side you can see that S 11 is very good, you can see that the
reflected power is very very small as S11 is even less than minus 30 dB.
However, you can see one small problem over here and that is there is a insertion loss, you
can see that this value is not close to 0 dB, but it has a finite loss. So, why there is a insertion
loss. The reason for that is we are feeding this particular resonator.
And from this resonator coupling is happening through the gap, which is coupled to this
particular configuration and then power goes over here. And, we have taken a lossy substrate
which is a glass epoxy substrate.
So, if we use a relatively good quality substrate then this insertion loss can be reduced.
Another thing what you can see here, that after this decrease it is increasing. In fact, I will
just tell you that at around triple of this particular frequency. This will gain become more like
band pass filter ok, but you can see that the response here is relatively good. But the
transition from here to here is still not very fast. So, instead of using 2 section over here.
Now, let us see what happens if we use 3 λ/4 section. So, again you can see here one section
here another section here the middle length here is slightly optimized.
So, that S11 becomes better the coupling is done from here to this particular port here. Even
the feed point had to be modified slightly; you can see that earlier this number was slightly
different; now the number has change.
So, little bit of optimization has to be done to optimize the reflection coefficient, I can give
you little bit of a hint instead of always looking at S 11 try to look at the input impedance plot
on the Smith chart. So, then if the input impedance on the Smith chart shows that the
impedance value is small; that means, that the port here is relatively closer to the short point
here because impedance is small.
So, suppose when you start doing the simulation you may not know where to put this
particular thing. So, you may take some arbitrary value, but you should know that this is 0
this is very large. So, 50 ohm should be relatively closer to 0, but let us say we took this
particular point to feed here and take the output from here. So, look at the input impedance
value, suppose instead of 50 ohm it is coming have to be let us say 40 ohm.
Then, you shift this particular thing above it where impedance will be higher. Suppose at this
particular point you find input impedance to be 60 ohm, then you shift the port little bit down
here where impedance will be relatively small.
So, let us see now what is the response of this 3 section filter. So, you can see there now the
response is relatively steeper and compared to then we have taken only 2 λ/4 sections. So,
you can compare that you can see that, this is much below compare to the previous one, but
again I want to tell you all these things will start resonating again at around triple of this
particular frequency.
Now, that may not be desired for several application. So, in that particular case what you
need to do, you may have to put a band reject filter at third order filter or maybe you can
integrate a low pass filter. So, which will attenuate higher frequencies.
Now, let us just take an another example, it is not always that you should take λ/4 shorted
line. Here is an example where we have taken an example of 4 λ/2 open coupled line. So, the
length over here now is lambda by 2. Now, let us see how we have chosen the feed point.
I just want to mention here you have to be very careful where to feed, you first should
understand what is the field distribution? So, over here and now since the length is λ/2 it is
open circuit this is open circuit. So, current will be 0 over here; that means, impedance will
be very large over here the current is 0 impedance is very large. At this particular point we
can say that the impedance will be close to 0. So, this is a 0 impedance this is maximum
impedance and this is maximum impedance.
So, compared to this particular 0 point here you can find the 50 ohm point somewhere here,
you can go to this side it is a symmetrical configuration. So, it does not really matter you can
chose either way. So, by using this particular configuration you can see that you got an S 11,
which is fairly good over the desired bandwidth.
So, this is the simulated configuration, here we have done the fabrication of this particular
thing. So, that is measured response. That the 2 responses are actually reasonably ok, it is just
that this scale is different than this particular scale over here. Otherwise matching is
reasonably good.
Now, may a times we do not take these λ/2 resonators as straight line, because this will
occupy larger space. And, there may be space restrictions in some of the application. So, in
that particular case instead of using this straight λ/2 resonators, you can us bend
configurations also.
So, here is an example where instead of using straight configuration, we have actually use U
shaped resonator. Now just to tell you this configuration is similar to the previous
configuration, the design frequency is around 1.05 GHz.
So, in this particular case here this is λ/2 length, then there is a another resonator put over
here, then there is a another resonator and this is the output and input feed points. Now, how
do we chose again the feed points again recall. So, this is lambda by 2. So, current will be 0
here, current will be maximum here, current will be 0 here corresponding to a maxima of
current voltage will be 0. So, impedance will be 0 here, impedance will be maximum here.
So, between 0 and maximum impedance we need to optimize, this particular location where
we get approximately 50 ohm impedance matching. So, you can see here this is the S 11
response, you can see the matching is fairly good everything is less than minus 20 dB in this
particular region.
So, this is the response for S21, you can see that there is a small insertion loss, we can see here
this is 0 dB this is about minus 5 dB. So, there is an insertion loss of the order of minus 2 dB
or so.
So, this has been again fabricated. So, this is the fabricated PCB and this is the measured
response you can see here this is the S 21, which look similar to this particular response over
here. And, this is corresponding S11 response. So, this is a minus 10 dB line you can see here.
And, this is the response for S11, you can see that the matching is fairly decent over the
bandwidth, which is given by this particular section here. You can see that relatively it is a
flat response in this particular pass band.
Now, there are many applications where you have to tune the frequency. So, in that particular
case you cannot use fixed microstrip line, because fixed microstrip line will give you the
fixed response you cannot change those things ok. Of course, when we did the inductor and
capacitor realization, which was the lumped element realization, there of course, you can put
tunable inductor or tunable capacitor, but again the problem becomes at how you do the
tuning of multiple section?
So, instead of using those tunable inductors or capacitors and many a times those inductors
and capacitors are tuned manually. So, somebody has to change the value of inductors and
capacitors manually. So, instead of using manual changing we can use varactor diode for
changing the frequency.
So, let us first look at what is really a varactor diode. Now, the details of varactor diode will
be discussed in the next lecture, but today I will just tell you what are the specifications of a
given varactor diode? Ok.
So, here is a varactor diode from Infineon, a number is given here. So, let us see what is the
response of this particular varactor diode. What you see along X axis here that is a reverse
bias voltage. And reverse bias voltage is changed from 0 to 4 volt.
And, this is the corresponding capacitance. And, you can see that if the reverse bias voltage is
0 volt here. The capacitance value is 30 pF and as the reverse bias voltage increases from 0 to
4 volt. The capacitance value decreases from 30 pF to around 5 pF.
So, the biasing circuit for the varactor diode is shown in the next slide.
So, here we have taken an example of a simple filter. So, let us see here what we have done
this is the port one, you might see that we have actually put a DC block capacitance I will tell
you that why we have put it. So, this is that input going to the output. We have that length,
which we are taken an example and at the end of the length we have put a Varactor Diode.
So, as I mention Varactor Diode is actually nothing, but a variable capacitor. So, this is the
biasing circuit for that particular varactor diode. So, let us see what we have here this is the V
bias, where is a series resistance inductor, which is connected to this particular varactor
diode.
Now, let us see here what should be the value of R end inductors? See that depends upon
now, what is the current required for this particular varactor diode? So, you have to study the
specks of the varactor diode they will actually tell you that you need a biasing current of 1
mA or may be 0.1 mA or 10 mA depending upon diode to diode.
So, please check what is the biasing current required for that? Accordingly chose the value of
the R, this inductor here basically is acting more like a RF chock that means very high
inductance. So, here we change the bias voltage, let say we had seen that if it is a 0 volt the
capacitance for this particular thing will be 30 pF and if this V bias voltage is around 4 volt.
Then the capacitance offered by this particular varactor diode is 5 pF. And, you can see here
now we have put a resistor here, basically this is for limiting the current inductor here is
nothing, but a RF chock or in general we take a large value of inductor.
So, that it acts as an open circuit corresponding to this AC signal. Otherwise, if you do not
put this particular here this AC signal may get shorted through this DC bias.
Now, why do we capacitance over here? The reason we put these capacitor is. So, that this
DC voltage should not go to the input side or should not go to the output side hence we put
the DC block capacitance. Now, what should be the value of this block capacitance.
Now, just I will force of you questions for you to think about. So, this be a 1 uF. So, this be a
100 uF. So, this be a 1 nF. So, this be a 1 pF. So, what is the right value for DC block
capacitance? Now, just you tell you the purpose of this Dc block capacitances that this should
at as a short circuit at the desired frequency.
So, then we know that Z is equal to 1/jωC. So, larger the value of C smaller will be Z. So,
intuitively we may think, that let us go to this capacitor as 100 microfarad or 1 microfarad. I
just want to tell you those are not right values of the capacitances, because these capacitances
do not work at microwave frequency.
See at microwave frequency majority of these capacitance as may, even work like an inductor
ok. See all these capacitors have parallel resonances and all these inductors are series
resonances. So; that means, up to certain frequency it will work as inductor, beyond that
frequency it will act as a capacitor.
So, the right value for these coupling capacitors would be that you calculate, what is the
corresponding impedance at a given frequency. So, we know that the input ports are generally
50 ohm.
So, this impedance should be always less than 5 ohm, because this is 50. So, 5 ohm at least
will be 1 tenth of that, but generally speaking if you chose this impedance to be around 0.5
ohm to 1 ohm it is more than sufficient. So that means, if you are operating at 1 GHz, you are
not going to choose 1 uF or 100 uF, even 1 nF will be slightly on the higher side 100 to 500
pF will be good choice to connect over here.
Similarly, for inductor here, inductor should act as an open circuit. Now, Z = jωL, So,
intuitively again we thing inductor should be as large as possible, again I want to tell you if
you take let us say 1 uH. A 1 uH inductor may not even work at 1 GHz it may behave like a
capacitance. Why a inductor behaves as a capacitance you think about that there is a wire like
this here.
So, we always think about that inductance. What about the capacitance between each turn.
So, generally speaking that is negligible at lower frequency, but at higher frequency, that
become comparable.
So, generally speaking most of these inductors have series resonances. So in fact, after a
certain frequency, they may not work as an inductor. So, again choosing the right value of
inductor is very very important. So, what is the criteria for choosing the inductor?
As, I mentioned Z = jωL. So, for they given frequency we know what is omega, choose the
value of Z which is 10 times greater than the port impedance. So, we know that port
impedance is 50 ohm. So, chose the value of this Z greater than 500 ohm, but definitely not
greater than 5 kilo ohm.
So, correspondingly chose these values. So, please understand this thing these are very very
important thing at microwave frequencies, that how carefully you chose the values of
inductors and capacitors.
So, now, so, what we have done here? So, this particular thing has been simulated using IE3D
software. Now, in the IE3D software we have not simulated the DC biasing circuit all we
have simulated here is this is the input port output port. So, we have assume that these
capacitances are offering very low impedances. We have assumed that this particular thing
will act as an open circuit. So, the only thing which we have taken here is that this is a
variable capacitance. So, for the simulation what we do we take a input port output port.
Here we take a another port over here that is for simulation. Then in the software we do the
change. So, this port 3 is deleted and there what we so, we connect a capacitor C1, which
corresponds to the varactor diode capacitance. And, then that is shorted to ground as you can
see here this is shorted to ground. So, now, let us see what is the result of this particular
configuration.
So, this is the S21 response for 2 values of the capacitance, C equal to 5 pF C equal to 30 pF.
And, you can imagine in between response for different biasing. C equal to 30 pF
corresponds to reverse biasing voltage as 0 volt and C equal to 5 pF corresponds to reverse
bias voltage of 4 volt.
So, you can see that this is the response of the S 21. So, black colour here is the response for C
equal to 5 pF red colour responses for C equal to 30 pF.
So, you can see that the band is shifted may be more clear picture you can see from S 11 plot.
So, corresponding to this if you look at the S 11 plot, we can see that as the capacitance
decrease from 30 to 5 pF. So, this is 30 going to 5.
So, if the capacitance decreases what will happen to the resonance frequency just think about
1
a general concept ω0 is given by . So, if C decreases frequency will increase. So, you
√ LC
can see that as C decreases from 30 to 5 frequency increase. You can also see corresponding
response of S21 for band reject filter also.
So, as I had mention a length will act as a band pass filter or band reject filter, when the
equivalent length becomes λ/4. Here, I want to mention that it is not precisely λ/4 length,
length is loaded by the capacitance. So, the capacitance value is fixed for a given biasing
condition. So, please do not think that now it is not precisely half of this value.
The reason for that is the lengths are not λ/4 or λ/2 these are loaded line lengths. So, the ratio
is not 1:2, or if you look at this one here is a band reject filter this is also band reject, but this
value is not 3 times like this here. Because, the reason for that is this is not λ/4 length only, it
is a loaded line. So, for the loaded line response will be different.
But, you can see that it is very clear cut over here that as the capacitance decreases from 30 to
5 resonance frequency increases from here to here. So, you can think about this particular
portion as a band reject filter or this particular portion as a band pass filter, and again it acts
as a band reject filter.
So, by using the concept of the varactor diode, you can do the tuning of the band pass filter or
band reject filter. So, I just showed you one of the examples.
You can use multiple section and by using multiple sections and the multiple varactor diode,
you can do the tuning over a larger bandwidth or over a larger range.
So, with that we conclude filters in the next lecture in fact, one of my TAs will give a lecture
on different types of diodes. After, that I will come back and talk about some of the
applications of those diodes such as attenuators switches and phase shifters. So, till then work
hard enjoy your life and we will see you next time. Bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 06
Lecture – 26
Microwave Diodes: PN Junction, Varactor, Schottky, PIN, Tunnel, and GUNN.
Diodes
Hello, I am Rinkee Chopra. I am a Ph.D. student at Electrical Engineering Department IIT

Bombay. Also, I am a Teaching Assistant for this course. I am working in the area of RF and
Microwave. So, today I will be taking a lecture on Microwave Diodes.
So, let us start the lecture. Firstly, I will give you the brief outline of this lecture, we will be
starting with semiconductor materials. Then, we will talk about n type and p type of
semiconductor materials. After, that we will discuss about PN Junction Diode, then Varactor
diode, Schottky diode, PIN diode, Tunnel diode, and finally, GUNN Diode.
So, let us start with semiconductor material, we know in any atom electrons can occupy only
discrete energy levels. Now, if 2 or more such type of atoms are brought in close vicinity,
then the electrons at the similar level should shift to the higher energy level. Now, many of
such atoms are if brought in the close vicinity, they form an energy regions, these regions are
called as bands; 2 of the bands are the conduction band and the valence band.
.
And they are separated by a forbidden region. This forbidden region is also known as the
energy band gap or forbidden gap. The band gap defines a significant role in defining the
conductivity of the material. Now, the materials are divided into 3 types. First one is metal,
then semiconductor and insulators. So, in case of metals the conduction band and the valence
band, overlap with each other. So, an electron can move from the valence band to the
conduction band at 0 K. In this case, electrons play main role in the conduction.
So, the only type of carriers is the electrons. So, this is a material which has only one type of
charge carriers that are electrons; the next type of material is insulator. In case of insulator,
the band gap between the conduction band and the valence band is relatively high it is of the
order of 4 to 9 eV. So, electron cannot move easily from valence band to the conduction
band. It requires a sufficient amount of energy to move an electron from the valence band to
the conduction band. So, they are not a conducting material.
The next type of material is the semiconductor material, the band gap in the semiconductor
material is between the insulators and the metals; it is of the order of 1 eV. Now, at room
temperature the electrons gain sufficient energy from the thermal energy. So, that they can
move from the valence band to the conduction band, and when an electron moves from the
valence band to the conduction band it leaves behind a hole.
Now, if you supply some energy in this particular case this vacancy is filled by another
electron. So, it looks like that they movement is also taking place because of holes. So, in the
semiconductors there are 2 types of charge carriers holes and electrons. Now, the
concentration of holes in any band is defined by the Fermi energy level. So, Fermi level is an
energy level, which would have 50 % of probability of occupying at any instant of time.
Now, I will talk about the semiconductor materials, which are used by the industry. So, the
most commonly used semiconductor material is silicon; the band gap for Si is 1.12 eV, for Ge
the band gap is 0.66 eV, for GaAs, it is 1.43 eV for InP, it is 1.27 eV.
Now, among these semiconductor materials, silicon is the most widely used semiconductor
materials. And, most of the electronic devices are made using silicon materials. And, few of
the active devices are also made using the semiconductor material, but they are not suitable
candidates for the microwave frequency range, because they suffers with the a problem of
minority charge carriers storage, which will not provide the desirable performance at the
microwave frequency region.
Now, if I see these 2 types of materials. They are the compound semiconductor materials.
Now, if you see the energy gap for these materials are relatively high, but they offers the
significant advantages over these 2 materials like they provide low noise figure, high power
handling capability and they can operate up to very high frequency range maybe up to THz.
Now, if I want to increase the conductivity of the semiconductor material. So, the
semiconductor material conductivity can be increased by adding the small amount of
impurity in the semiconductor materials. So, there are 2 types of impurities, which can be
added to semiconductor materials. The one of the impurity is the n type of impurity which
belongs to valence 5 groups. So, let us take an example of an atom from valence 5 groups.
So, phosphorus is the example from valence 5 groups.
If, we add the impurity of phosphorus in silicon lattice, now we know in case of phosphorus,
it contains the 5 electrons in it is outermost shell. So, these electrons form the covalent bond
with the silicon lattice that can be seen from this particular figure. And, the 5th electron is
loosely coupled to this lattice.
Now, at the room temperature this electron gains the sufficient energy. So, that it can move
from the valence band to the conduction band. And, it is negatively ionized. Similar case
happen in case of other impurity atoms. Now, when the impurity atoms are added the amount
of impurity atoms are generally lies between 1010 to 1018 atoms in per centimeter cube region.
So, if you see in these n-type of materials the impurity atom have a tendency to donate the
electrons. So, that is why this impurity atom is called as donor. So, in this N-type of materials
electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers. Now, the Fermi level in
these types of materials is shifted towards the conduction band, I will show you Fermi level
in the next slide. The next type of material is the p-type of material.
When you add the impurity from valence 3 group; for example, if we add a boron atom which
belongs to valance 3 group; now, we know in case of boron in it is outermost shell 3 electrons
are there. So, they form a covalent bond with the silicon lattice, you can see here and at the
fourth position. It has a tendency to accept the electrons from the adjacent covalent bond of
the silicon.
Now, at room temperature it again gains sufficient energy. So, that it accept the electrons
from the adjacent silicon lattice and becomes positively ionized. Now, the vacancy is created
at this particular place. This vacancy is again filled by another electron and the hole will be
created at that particular location. So, it looks like that the movement of hole is taking place.
In these types of materials holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority
carriers.
Now, these types of impurity atoms have a tendency to accept the electrons. So, they are
called as acceptors. In these types of materials the Fermi energy level lies near the valence
band, that I will show you in the next slide. Now, if the N-type of material and P-type of
material are brought together, then they form a junction that junction is called as the PN
Junction Diode.
Here you can see that in case of P-region the Fermi energy level is near the valence band, in
case of n region the Fermi energy level is near the conduction band.
Now, when these materials are brought close to each other, they have a tendency to make a
equilibrium. So, we know in case of P-regions, holes are the majority carriers, and in case of
N-region the electrons are the majority carriers. Then these carriers will try to make the
equilibrium. So, whole from the P-region will try to diffuse into the N-region and electrons
from the N-region will try to diffuse into the P-region. And, they will leave behind the
positive ions in case of N-region and the negative ions in case of P-region. So, and so, near
the junction they forms a space charge region, which based the electrostatic potential. And,
this electrostatic potential further refuses the diffusion of electrons from the N side to the P
side and it also refuses the diffusion of holes from the P side to the N side. Therefore, in
equilibrium there is no flow of current due to the built in potential. The built in potential is
defined by the impurity atoms or the doping profile and the type of material which is used.
So, the built in potential for silicon lattice is 0.7 V and for germanium it is 0.3 V. Now, I will
talk about the operation of this PN junction diode, before going into the operation mode just
see the I-V Characteristics of this diode. Now, I will talk about the operation of this diode
using the I-V Characteristics of this diode well.
So, when the PN Junction is connected in forward bias mode; that means, if the positive
terminal is connected to the P side, and the negative terminal is connected to the N side. Then
it will repel the holes away from the terminal and it will again repel the electrons away from
the negative terminal.
So, they will try to reduce the depletion region. So, that can be seen from this particular
curve. So, when the forward biased voltage is greater than the built in potential or the knee
voltage. So, up to this points only the reverse saturation current will flow which comes into
the picture due to the electron hole thermal, electron hole pair generation.
So, when the forward bias voltage is greater than the built in potential. The current flows in
this particular circuit, when the forward bias voltage is much greater than the thermal voltage,
which is defined by the KT/q = 26 mV at room temperature.
So, when the forward bias voltage is much larger than the thermal voltage, then the currents
increases exponentially. This can be seen from this particular curve and the current of this
particular curve is represented by this expression, this is known as Shockley’s current
equation. So, here you can see if V T is less it if VT >> KT/q, then it will increase
exponentially.
Now, if I bias this PN Junction diode in reverse mode, that is if the P-region is connected to
the negative terminal and the N side is connected to the positive terminal. Now, the terminal
will attract the holes toward the P-region and the positive terminal will attract the electrons
towards the negative terminal. So, the depletion layer width will increase and it will restrict a
flow of current. So, you can see in reverse mode there is a very less of current which is
equivalent to the reverse saturation current. Now, if we increase the reverse bias voltage to a
sufficient large value, then the current increases suddenly. Why does this happen? Because
for this particular voltage the electrons gains sufficient energy so, that they knock out the
electrons from the outer orbit of the atom and the current increases.
The reverse bias voltage can also be increased further, there is no harm in using the PN
junction diode above this reverse bias voltage, but make sure that there should be a
connection with the resistor. So, that it should not damage the diode. One more thing one
should keep in mind while using this diode in this particular region that it should not exceed
the maximum current because, if it is to be brought in below breakdown voltage, then it
should be operated in the normal region. So, that is the thing that one should keep in mind
when one is exceeding the ‘Zener’ Breakdown Voltage.
Next, I will talk about this diode circuit model. So, the diode will be represented by a non-
linear current source in parallel with 2 type of capacitance. The one capacitance is the
junction capacitance and another one is the diffusion capacitance. Then this should be
connected in series with the series resistor, which accounts for the losses in the depletion
region. Now this diode is to be packaged. So, the packaging losses should also be considered.
So, the Cp capacitor is included to account for the packaging capacitance. And, this Lp is
considered here to account for the bonding wire inductance.
Now, how to make this particular diode? To make the diode, the lightly doped N-type of
layer should be deposited on heavily doped N-type of substrate then the P-type of layer
should be deposited on the N-type of layer. Now, to make the electrical connection with the
circuit the metallic contacts are provided at both the ends these are the metallic contacts you
can see. These metallic contacts could be of tungsten aluminum, gold, etcetera.
The next is where these type of diode should be used. So, they are various applications, in
which these diodes can be use the diode can be used as a rectifier voltage regulators,
switches, power limiter, digital gates, clipping, clamping, etcetera. Now, depending upon the
application one should choose the diodes. Now, before going into the practical diodes, I will
talk about the representation of this diode. So, this diode is represented by this particular
symbol. Here, this terminal represents the anode and this terminal represents the cathode.
Now, the forward current will flow in this particular direction. So, it supports the movement
in 1 direction and this is called as the unipolar device. In ideal case it will only support the
current flow in this direction and it will not allow any current to flow in the reverse direction.
Now, the diodes can be defined into 2 types depending upon their current rating and the
power rating.
So, the diodes are divided into 2 categories small signal diode and the large signal diodes. So,
the true examples have been taken for the small signal diode. So, IN 4148 and IN 914 are the
diodes for the small signal diode these specifications of these diodes are given here. You can
see from the current rating their current is relatively this these diodes are a good candidate for
switching applications or for clamping.
The third type of diode that is IN 4007 is a power diode, that you can see from the
specification of this diode the current rating is relatively high. So, it is more suitable for the
applications like it can be used as a power diode or rectifier. So, one should choose the diode
according to the application.
The next diode that we will talk about is the varactor diode. Now, if we see the PN Junction
diode and if we try to see the reverse bias behavior of this diode, it shows a very interesting
property just to explore that particular behavior just connect the PN junction diode in a
reverse polarity. So, that the positive terminal is connected to the N-region and the negative
terminal should be connected to the P-region.
Now, if you increase the reverse bias voltage this depletion layer width will increase. So, you
can try to relate this geometry with the capacitor. These 2 regions are N and P regions will be
analogous to the parallel plate capacitors. And, this will be analogous to the parallel plates of
the capacitor whereas, the depletion region is analogous to the insulating material between
the capacitor plates. So, we know in case of parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is given
by A/d. Where, d is the width of the insulating material.
So, if we increase the reverse bias voltage, the width of the depletion layer will increase. So,
the capacitance will decrease. So, therefore, with increase in reverse bias voltage the
depletion region increases and the capacitance reduces. Now, the capacitance of the varactor
diode is given by this expression. Here V is the reverse bias voltage phi not is the built in
potential and gamma depends on the doping profile. So,  = 1/2 or 1/3 for abrupt or the
linearly graded junction.
Here Cj(0) is the capacitance corresponding to 0 bias conditions. And, it will be mixing. Now,
this particular diode is represented by this particular symbol, here you can see this is similar
to the PN junction and in series the 1 capacitor is added. So, this represents the symbol of the
varactor diode.
Now, there is a very important characteristic of varactor diode and that is the Q factor. So,
suppose if a varactor diode is used for a application like oscillator. So, if it has higher Q, it
will provide relatively low phase noise. Similarly, in case of tunable band pass filter if the Q
factor is high. So, the tunable filter will be more selective or their response will be steeper.
So, depending upon the application Q factor should be chosen. Now, we know the Q  1/C
value and the series resistance. So, there is a tradeoff between the capacitor value and the
quality factor. So, one should choose the capacitor according to the application.
Next, I will talk about the I-V characteristics of this diode as I mentioned earlier capacitance
decreases with increase in reverse bias voltage. So, this shows the characteristics of the
varactor diodes.
Now, these I-V characteristics of the diode can be altered by changing the doping profile. So,
there are 2 types of doping profile abrupt and the hyper abrupt. In case of hyper abrupt
doping profile, the capacitance variation range is relatively high, but it comes at the cost and
low Q factor. Now, if I talk about the applications these varactor diodes can be used in
various applications like Voltage Controlled Oscillators, tunable filters, phase shifters,
amplitude modulator, frequency multipliers etcetera. Now, again similar to the PN Junction
diode one should choose the diode depending upon the applications.
So, here I have taken the 2 examples of practical diode 1 is BBY5702 the specifications for
this diode is given here, the quality factor of this diode is very high. So, it is more suitable for
the selective filter and another example I have taken where the tunability range is relatively
more. You can see in this case the C max/Cmin is relatively more? And, it defines the tunability
range. So, it is more suitable for the wide band tuning range; like if you want to use it in
vector network analyzer or a spectrum area network analyzer, then the diode will be more
suitable. So, one should choose the diode again depending upon the application.
The next type of diode is the Schottky Diode. So, the schottky diode is similar to the PN
Junction diode. But in this case the junction should be made using the N-type of material and
the metal. So, in this case the n type of epitaxial layer is deposited on the highly doped N-
type of substrate and then metal is deposited on the N-type of epitaxial layer. Now, to make
the electrical connection with the circuit, they metal contacts have been made. And, this is
how the structure of schottky diode is made. Now, we know this is the junction of metal and
the N-type of semiconductors. So, the depletion region will be less in this case. So, this
provides relatively low built in potential or low turn on voltage, and due to the less depletion
region, it provides relatively faster switching and less reverse recovery time.
So, what is reverse recovery time? So, reverse recovery time is the time taken for a diode to
switch from on to the off state or vice versa. So, in case of PN Junction diode this time is
around 5 to 100 ns; however, in case of schottky diode this time is of the order of 1 ns, but
there is a disadvantage of this diode, it suffers with the high reverse leakage current and low
breakdown voltage, due to the low depletion region.
Now, if I compare the I-V characteristics of this diode with the PN Junction diode. From
these I V characteristics, you can see it provides low turn on voltage, and it is of the order of
around 0.3 to 0.4 V and, you can see here the reverse leakage current in this case is very high,
it is of the order of micro ampere. However, in case of PN Junction it is of the order of Nano
ampere and the breakdown voltage for this diode is relatively less. So, this is the drawback of
this diode. Now, if this diode is to be designed for the varactor applications, the doping
profile should be altered accordingly. Now, if I talk about this circuit model, this circuit
model of the schottky diode is similar to the PN Junction diode.
Only thing is there will not be any diffusion capacitance. So, that is not included in the circuit
model. And, the schottky diode is represented by this symbol this corresponds to the anode
and this represents the cathode.
If I talk about the applications so, the applications of the schottky diode are similar to the PN
junction diode they are used in RF mixers and detectors, power rectifier SMPS and clamping
etcetera. Now, again here I have taken the example of 2 practical diodes, this one belongs to
the power diode, you can see from the current and the voltage rating. And, this one is more
suitable for the switching applications. So, one should choose again the diode according to
the application.
The, next type of the diode is the PIN diode as the name says that; here the intrinsic layer is
inserted between the highly doped P and N Junction. So, the high layer is deposited only on
highly doped substrate. And then highly doped P type of substrate layer is deposited on the
intrinsic region. So, this is how the geometry of this structure is made? Then again the
contacts are made to make the connection with the electrical circuit. So, in this case the
depletion region is relatively wider due to the insertion of this intrinsic region. So, in this case
if I talk about the reverse bias case, it will provide very wide depletion region. So, the
capacitance for this diode will be very less and it will be almost constant, because the
depletion layer length is relatively wide.
So, in this case it provides the lower capacitance. And, if I connect this diode any forward
bias then with increase in forward bias voltage, first the recombination of electrons and holes
will take place in the intrinsic region, after that the recombination will take place in the P and
N region.
So, the in resistance of the diode will vary. So, in the forward bias it will act like a variable
resistor. Now, the symbol of the pin diode is represented here this denotes the diode and this
represents the cathode. Now, if I want to make a circuit model of this it can be divided into 2
cases the forward bias and the reverse bias, in the forward bias it acts like a variable resistor
and in the reverse bias it acts like capacitor whose value will be much less as compared to the
PN junction diode, and then a series resistor is added to account for the losses in the depletion
region. And these Ls and Cp are accounted for the losses due to the packaging.
Now, if I talk about the characteristics as I told you earlier the pin diodes offers high
resistance. It provides lower capacitance due to the insertion of the intrinsic layer between the
highly doped P and N layer, it provides high breakdown region due to the intrinsic region. So,
if I talk about the applications these diodes are mainly used for the applications like in
variable attenuators, RF switches, phase shifters, high voltage rectifiers, RF modulators,
power limiters etcetera.
Now, just to show again the applications I have taken the 2 practical diodes the first one is
corresponding to the power diode and the second one is more suitable for the high voltage
variable resistor. So, one should again choose the diode according to the application. The
next type of diode is the tunnel diode. So, the tunnel diode is a diode where the P and N
junctions are highly doped.
Now, we know in case of conventional PN junction diode, the conduction and the valence
band are separated by a large forbidden gap. When they are heavily doped the Fermi level
shifts in the conduction band in case of N-type of material and it shifts in the valence band in
case of P-type of material. So, there is a mechanical phenomenon which takes place this
quantum mechanical phenomena is called as the tunneling.
So, in the thermal equilibrium the Fermi level of the conduction band and the valence band
will line up. So, there will not be any flow of the electrons from the conduction band to the
valence band.
Now, if we increase the voltage from 0 to the voltage corresponding to the peak current, then
the barrier potential will decrease and the level will shift up. So, there is a possibility that the
electrons from the filled state in the conduction band can tunnel into the empty states in the
valence band. So, this can be seen from this particular figure; so, as the electrons tunnel from
the valence band to the conduction band, the current increases. Now when the voltage is
equivalent to the peak voltage, in that case the maximum tunneling of electrons can take
place from the conduction band to the valence band. So, it represents a maximum peak
current.
Now, if the voltage is increased further in that case the tunneling of charge carriers will
decrease. So, the current will decrease with increase in voltage. Now, when the voltage is
increased more than the valley voltage, in that case there will not be any overlap of this band.
So, the current will come to a minimum value or it may be 0. Now, if voltage is increased
further this tunnel diode will behave like a conventional PN junction diode and the injection
current will start flowing which increases exponentially. So, that is represented by this I-V
curve.
Now, if you try to make a load line, if you make us shallow a load line whose resistance is
relatively higher, then it will cut these I-V characteristics at these 3 points 1, 2, and 3. Now,
this point 2 is the unstable point. Now, if there is a little deviation in the voltage then either it
will come to point 1 or point 3. So, depending upon the previous stage, in this mode this
tunnel diode are used as a memory device or the storage device, but this is of little less
interest to the microwave circuit designers, the another type of load line can be drawn when
the r is relatively less.
So, it will show you the steeper line and it will cut here in the negative resistance region. So,
this particular region represents a negative resistance region and if you connect like this
circuit now with an external LC component it will act like a oscillator. So, here you can see
that the negative resistance region is less. So, it will provide low current. And the power
provided by the tunnel diode will also be low.
So, it can provide the low output power oscillators. Now, if you see here in this region the
current increases linearly with voltage. However, in this region it acts like a conventional
diode. So, the region 2 is a transition between the linear region and the PN junction region.
And, in this region it behaves like a negative differential resistance. Now, this diode is
represented by this symbol this represents the anode and this represents the cathode.
So, the characteristics of these diode is that it can operate up to very high frequency range
maybe up to a millimeter wave frequency range, and it can operate up to 100 GHz. It
provides very high speed operations. And, it provides low noise low power consumption, but
it suffers with a drawback of low output power.
So, nowadays this is replaced by transistors. Now, if I talk about the applications. Tunnel
diodes are used as ultra-high speed switches, they can be used as logic memory storage
devices, microwave oscillators and amplifier, they can also be used in FM receivers. So, here
I have included the 2 examples of practical diode. And, this first one is used by the Russian
military for switching applications. And, the second one that is IN 3716 is used to make the
oscillators or the transmitters. So, depending upon the application again one can choose the
diode.
The next type of the diode is the GUNN diode. So, this is a special kind of diode it uses only
one type of semiconductor material here, the lightly doped N type of material is inserted
between the 2 heavily doped, N type of semiconductor material. And the metallic contacts are
made to make the electrical connection with the circuit. And, the heat sink is provided to
account for the heat losses.
So, we know in case of few materials like GaAs and InP. They have local minimas in the
conduction band. See one of the local minima contains the higher mobility and low effective
mass. However, the another minima which is at relatively higher energy is level, it contains
lower mobility and higher effective mass. So, in general all the electrons occupy the lower
energy states.
Now, if you provide the energy to this material the electron gains the energy and they try to
shift from the lower energy state to the higher energy state where the mobility is less. So, as
long as the concentration of electrons is more in this band the current increases. However, if
you again increase the electric field there will be a situation, when the concentration of
electrons will be more in this case which corresponds to lower mobility. So, the mobility
decreases with increase in voltage; that means, the current decreases with increase in voltage
that represents the region 2.
Now, there will be a situation when you again increase the voltage, then all the electrons will
shift to this band. And, it will have the lowest mobility. In this case the current will be
minimum. So, if you again increase the electric field, diode will behave like a normal PN
junction diode and its current will increase exponentially. So, this is the I-V characteristics of
these GUNN diodes. Now, if you see here, this looks similar to the tunnel diode, but if you
look into the operation principle of these diodes they are quite different and that is the region
that GUNN diode provides relatively high RF output power. So, this diode is represented by
the symbol the next I will talk about the GUNN diode characteristics, this GUNN diode can
operate up to very high frequency range maybe up to 150 GHz with relatively high output
power at low cost. So, nowadays many of the GUNN diodes are replacing the microwave
tubes. They are more reliable and stable at higher frequency range, but this suffers with the
low DC to RF efficiency, they are also sensitive to the temperature variations. And, they
provide relatively small tuning range and the power dissipation in these diodes are relatively
high.
.
Now, if I talk about the applications. These diodes can be used in as a low and medium power
microwave oscillators and amplifiers, they can also be used as sensors in detection systems.
Now, here I have included the 2 practical diodes. This one is the pulse diode and provides
relatively high output power. And this is designed in the X-band. The output power for this
case is of 10 W. And, in this particular diode this is a continuous wave diode, and it is
designed for the Ka band. The output power for this diode is 300 mW which is considered as
a medium power GUNN diode.
Now, just to conclude, in this lecture, we started with semiconductor material. Then we saw
how the conductivity of the material can be increased by adding the impurity in the material?
Then, we combined the N type and P type of materials and the combination of N type and P
type of material forms a PN junction, which provides a very interesting feature like;
rectification, switching, then we talked about the varactor diode. And, we saw that how this
diode can provide the high tuning range of capacitance, which will be used in various
applications like in oscillators, tunable filters, etcetera, after that we talked about the schottky
diode, which is the junction of metal and the semiconductor and due to this particular
junction it provides very high switching.
So, it is more suitable for the mixing and the detection, then we talked about the PIN diode,
due to the insertion of intrinsic region between the 2 highly doped P and N layers. It provides
a variable resistance. So, it is highly used in case of variable attenuators and other
applications, then we talked about the tunnel diode which is highly doped PN junction diode.
And, it provides a special feature of negative differential resistance, but this suffers with the
low output power. So, using the tunnel diodes low output power oscillators or the amplifiers
can be designed, then we talked about the GUNN diode and then we saw that the GUNN
diode provides relatively high output power. And, nowadays they are replacing many of the
microwave tubes and cavities. So, with this I would like to conclude.

Microwave Theory and Techniques.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 06
Lecture – 27
Microwave Attenuators: Fixed and Variable Attenuators
Hello everyone. Today, we are going to talk about Microwave Attenuators. In the previous
lecture, you had heard about various diodes that lecture was given by one of my PhD student
Rinkee Chopra, who was also course TA for this particular course. So, today we are actually
going to start with the microwave attenuators using resistors. These are known as fixed
attenuators. And, then we will talk about PIN diode based attenuators which are variable
attenuators.
So, let us start todays lecture on Microwave Attenuators. So, we will start with the resistive
attenuator and the network shown over here is a  network. So, we can see that there are 3
resistors are there resistor R1, R2 and R2. And, if you see this network looks like a  shape that
is why it is known as  network. One of the main property of the attenuator is that the input
side, as well as the output side should be matched with 50  or you can say Z0.
And, the second thing is that it should provide an attenuation from port 1 to port 2 by let us
say a factor of k. So, we need to analyze this particular circuit, but before that we can actually
get an attenuation even by using a single resistor also. So, think that R 2 is not there, in that
case suppose if we have a single resistor R1. Then, what will be
V2 Z0
=
V 1 Z 0 + R1
Suppose Z0 = 50  and if let us say R1 = 50,
V2 50
=
V 1 50+50
V2 1
=
V1 2
V1
k=
V2
V1
So, we can say that the k = 2, because k= it is an attenuator and not gain. Gain is equal to
V2
V2/ V1. Again, we can get a larger attenuation if I take R1 = 1 k. So, then this will be
V2 50
=
V 1 50+100 0
One can get very large attenuation. However, again the problem will be that the input
impedance now will be very high, it will be 50 + 1000 = 1050. So, lot of power will get
reflected back form this particular port here. So, one of the main condition is that the input
looking from this side and output looking from this side should be matched to 50  so that
means, input impedance here should be equal to Z0.
So, for matching Zin = Z0 and since the network is symmetrical. So, the output here will be
also equal to Z0. So, that is why we do not use a single resistor R 1, but we use a  network. In
fact, later on I am also going to talk about a T network, which also can be optimized for
impedance matching at both input side as well as output side.
So, let us see how we can do the analysis of this particular circuit?. So, first of all let us find
out here what is Zin? So, we can say that Zin is nothing, but R2 in parallel with the impedance
seen over here. So, that will be R2,
1/Zin = 1/ZA + 1/R2  Zin = R2 || ZA.

ZA is the impedance looking at this particular point here. So, from here we can say what is
ZA?
ZA = R1 + R2 || Z0.
V1 = I1ZA  V1 = I1*(R1 + R2 || Z0),
V2 = I1*(R2||Zo)
V1
k= k is attenuation ratio.
V2
I1 Z A
k=
I 1 (R ¿ ¿2∨¿ Zo ) ¿
So, we can just simply see from here I1, I1 will get cancel. So, this would be ZA + R2 || Z0. So,
from here we can do simplification we will get the expression for k, ok. And, if we simplify
this particular expression further. So, by using a few steps we get the expression for R 2,
which is given by Z0 *(k + 1)/(k -1).
Now, we can do little bit more of a simplification. So, we can expand these things R 1 = ZA -
R2 || Z0 from the previous expression. And using equation 1, we can simplify it and finally,
after doing a few of these steps which you can follow through 1 by 1, we get a final
expression for R1, which is given by this particular term over here and we get expression for
R2 which is given over here. So, just quickly we can see over here if k is very large, we can
say if k is very large, this expression will become approximately 1.
So, we can say R2 will be approximately equal to Z0. And, if k is very large we can say if it is
very large, then k2 >> 1. So, we can neglect this term and this one would get cancel here. So,
the expression we will get is Z0 *k/2. So, let us now see an example for different values of
attenuator. So, here we have given the values for 3 dB, 10 dB, 20 dB attenuation ok.
So, from these values, we can calculate first the numeric value. Now, here please remember
that this is a voltage ratio. So, we have to take 20 log k. So, 20 log 10 = 20 dB, ok. And,
similarly we find the other values of k and by substituting the value of k in these expressions
and taking Z0 = 50 , we get R1, R2 values, which are given over here. And, you can actually
see that as k is increasing, if we take further instead of 20 dB, if we take 30 dB, this will tend
towards which I had mentioned earlier will tend towards 50 . And, if you look at this
expression over here you can see that this is Z 0 = 50*10 = 500/2 = 250 it is tending towards
250 here, ok.
So, that way we can do the validation ok. Now, the question comes where do we need
attenuator. One can understand that we need amplifiers because amplifier will amplify the
signal. Why we want to attenuate the signal? So, there are many applications, where we need
attenuators. For example, let us say we want to measure the output of a let us say power
amplifier. Even, if we have a just 1 W output. Now, that 1 W output cannot be connected to
the spectrum analyzer. A spectrum analyzer will actually measure the power and also gives
the frequency spectrum; it will also give the harmonics of that particular amplifier.
Now, 1 W output cannot be directly connected to the spectrum analyzer, majority of the
spectrum analyzers which are available in the market. They can take absolute maximum input
power as 0.1 W, but majority of the time, they would recommend 0.01 W power. So, we
cannot connect 1 W output straight to the spectrum analyzer. So, now think about if we have
a 20 dB attenuator. So, we give a 1 W, 20 dB attenuator will give us 0.01 W power and that
can be given to the spectrum analyzer.
So, this is one of the applications. There are many other applications where even variable
attenuators are required. So, let me first finish the fixed attenuator, here you can see that the
resistor values are fixed. So, hence there will be a fixed attenuation. Of course, we can use
variable resistor R1 and R2 and that can be then designed to obtain variable attenuator.
However, we will show you the applications of what was covered in the previous lecture,
which was one of the device covered was PIN diode. So, today we will see how PIN diodes
can be used as variable attenuator.
There is another way where we can analyze the  network. So, in the previous 2 slides I had
shown you how to do the analysis, but recall we have also studied A B C D parameters. So,
this particular network can be solved by using A B C D parameter. So, let us see how we can
do that. So, here is a one segment here, then second segment and then third segment. So, this
can be thought about as a shunt admittance and we know that ABCD parameter for shunt
admittance is 1, 0, y, 1.
So, 1, 0, y = 1/R2. Now, this is series impedance. So, we know that A B C D parameters for
series impedance is given by 1, Z, 0, 1. So, here Z = R1. So, this is symmetrical with respect
to this port over here. So, this would be same as the first one. So, 1, 0, 1 by R 2, and 1, we
multiply these 3 matrices and finally, this expression is obtained. Now, we use the conversion
from A B C D parameters to S parameters and I had mentioned to you easier way to
remember think about this as normalize A B C D.
So, A, B normalized will be B/Z0, C normalize will be C into Z0 + D. And, the numerator is A
+ B - C - D. And, S 21 is equal to 2/(A + B + C + D), which are basically normalized values.
So, once we know the expressions for S11, S21, now we have to put the condition. The first
condition you can see over here is S 11 = 0. If S11 = 0; that means, reflected power will be
equal to 0 and this also implies that Z in = Z0. So, if we put a condition of S 11 = 0. So, you can
see from here, see A= D so; that means, B/Z 0 - CZ0 = 0. So, that will give you one condition.
Second condition we have to put is S21 is equal to 1 by k. So, you put over here 1/k solve
these 2 equations, you will get the expressions for R 1 and R2. These expressions are exactly
same as what we had derived earlier.

Now, let us see another network, which is a T-Network. So, here the attenuation has been
obtained by using T-Network using 3 resistors in a very similar way. So, here again as before
series resistance has been taken as R1, shunt resistance has been taken as R 2. Analysis of this
can be done in either of the previous 2 ways. You can actually think about writing a current
over here, finding the voltage or you can write a node equation, and then find the expression
for V1/V2 or you can use the second approach where you can use A B C D parameters.
So, you again divide the network into one here, then second and then third one. So, multiply
the three A B C D matrices get the final S parameters. And, again put the same condition that
S11 = 0 and S21 = 1/k, by simplifying these equations you will get the expressions for R 1, R2.
So, I have written here what happens for large value of k. So, if k is very large you can say
this expression will become approximately 1. So, R1 will become Z0 and if k is very large
then this term will be negligible. So, we can say this whole thing will be 2*Z0/k.
So, again let us look at the different examples 3 dB, 10 dB, 20 dB correspondingly k
numerical value is listed over here. And, then by using these 2 expressions, and taking Z0 as
50 , R1, R2 values are obtained. So, you can see over here the resistance values are
increasing. And, ultimately this will become 50  which you can see from here R1 is equal to
Z0 for large value of k and R2 is tending towards this particular expression here.
So, we can actually check the value of R2 from here also which is 2*Z0 = 2*50 =100, numeric
value of k = 10. So, 100/10. So, you can see that it is tending towards 10. So, by using these
resistor values, you can actually realize of fixed attenuator. Of course, you can actually
speaking use variable resistor over here or you can use variable resistors here, and that way
you can actually speaking tune the attenuator, by using variable resistors you can realize a
variable attenuator.
However, in practice that is not used, we use some different method which I am going to
show you in the next few slides. So, in the previous lecture, PIN diodes were covered. So, we
will just have a very quick look into that part.
So, there is a P junction, I junction, which is intrinsic junction and N junction, ok. So, now,
instead of a using resistor, we can use 3 PIN Diodes over here, but before we start thinking
about using these 3 PIN diodes, let us see where we have to operate and in which region we
have to operate.
Now, for PIN diode, I-V characteristics I have shown over here. So, this is typical I-V
characteristic ok. What we need to do? We need to operate only in this particular region.
When, we want to use PIN diode as a variable attenuator. So, when this particular diode is
slightly forward bias ok? In that particular case, it has a series resistance, which is given by
this particular expression. This expression depends upon width of the I th layer which is over
here. So; that means, if this Ith layer is large then width will be large and that would mean R i
will be large ok.
It also depends upon the mobility and lifetime of carrier. However, these things are more
dependent upon those device characteristics, here we are going to focus more on the circuit
performance. So, you can see over here that I 0 which is dc bias current that is in the
denominator. So, now, think about these things are actually fixed quantity for a given PIN
diode. So, by changing the value of I0 we can change the value of Ri. So, let just see here if it
take I0 for example, 1 microampere we can see that Ri will be very large.
Instead of 1 micro ampere if we takes a 10 microampere, then R i will reduce by 10 times, or

if we take I0 as 100 micro ampere, then we can say that Ri will reduce further. So, by
changing the current I0 from let us say a 1 micro ampere to about 100 micro amperes, you can
see that the resistance value can be changed by almost 100 times. So, we use these PIN
diodes over here as variable attenuator; please remember that we are only going to do slightly
forward bias.
So, what happens? If the diode is completely forward bias, in that particular case we can see
that the current will be relatively constant. And, that will not provide us a variable attenuator
or variable resistor value. In fact, I am going to tell you in the next lecture another application
of PIN diodes, where PIN diodes will be used as switches, where when the PIN diode is
completely forward bias, it will be like a switch on, and if the PIN diode is completely
reverse bias, it will act like a switch off.
However, we will see various variations of switches in the next lecture. So, here there is a
only 1 word of caution, which I want to mention. And, that is we can change the value of the
resistors of D1, D2, D3, by providing external biasing circuit. So, when I talk about PIN diodes
as switches I will show you the biasing circuit. So, the same biasing circuit can be used over
here, but here I just want to tell the concept of the variable attenuator and the problems
associated with it.
So, the problem associated with this is that these 3 values of resistances of the PIN diode
should vary according to the formulas which have been given; you can see here this is similar
to a  network. So, for the  network we had seen the values of R 1 and R2 varying. So, we
have to change these values according to that and this becomes difficult sometimes, ok.
So, there is an alternate solution also. So, let us look at the alternate solution of this particular
problem. So, here what we have variable attenuator using coupler?
So, let us see what we have here? So, input is given at port 1, output is taken at port 2, port 3
and port 4. You can actually see that there are diodes are there, even though I have written
D1, D2, but in a reality we generally take these 2 diodes identical and for many practical
attenuators you do not even meet Z0 over here.
So, you do not need to have any transmission line at the end here. So in fact, this can be
removed it is not always required. So, only this thing will do the job. So, let us see the
working of this particular network. So, quadrature hybrid in fact, you just think about it is a 2
branch coupler. So, please now imagine this is a 2 branch coupler. So, one line will be here,
another line will be here and there will be 2 branches over here. So, the property of the 2
branch coupler is that when we give a input at port 1.
So, output at port 3 will have a - 900 phase delay and output of port 4 will have a - 180 0 port
delay. Now, depending upon the resistor value, so, just imagine that this is a 0 value here. So,
if the resistance is 0 here; that means, everything will get reflected everything will get
reflected. So, this reflected wave at this particular point will go back to over here. So, there
will be another delay of a - 90. So, - 90 another - 90 will be 1800.
So, this is what I have written here - 180 0 and this is the magnitude, which is a reflected back
from port 3. Let us see what happens to the reflection from port 4. So, input from 1 goes to
port 4 with the phase delay of a 1800 and then it reflects back to this port 1. So, that will be
another 1800. So, the total phase from here to here and then back to this particular point will
be 3600.
And, if we take these 2 diodes identical and they are biased identically; that means, their
resistance will be also same in that case A3 will be equal to A4. And, if this condition is
satisfied the sum of these 2 things will be equal to 0; that means, reflected power will be
equal to 0 at port 1. Let us see what happens at port 2. So, now, the reflected power from
here. Let us say from here it goes - 900 and from - 900, it experiences another 1800 delay. So,
that will be 90 another 90 another 90. So, total 2700 phase delay.
Let us, see what happens to the reflection from port 4. So, from here 90, 90 180 and then
another 90, that will be 270. So, if again now if A 3 = A4, these 2 will add together identically.
So, whatever is the input here that will actually go to the output depending upon these
resistances value? So, again now let me go through one more time if it is short then
everything will reflect back; that means, there will be 0 attenuation here except for some
losses in the hybrid network.
Now, think about if this is 50 , we are assuming that this does not exist here. So, if this is 50
; that means, nothing will reflect back and if nothing reflects back output will be equal to 0.
So, by changing the diode impedance from 0 to 50 , you can actually get an output which is
from 0 to 1 or you can say. So, by changing the diode impedance from 0 to 50 , we can get
the output, which is going to be from minimum to maximum.
You can do other way round also, we can change the diode impedance from 50  to a very
large value even 1 k. Same effect will be notice over here. So, we can provide attenuation
simply by changing the resistance values of these 2 diodes, which we should take as identical.
So, a single biasing circuit can bias both of these diodes. So, here then you have to change
only 1 biasing voltage and by changing that biasing voltage we can change the value of
output. There is a only one limitation of this particular circuit, that is that the bandwidth of a
2 branch coupler is relatively narrow it may be about 10 to 20%.
So, this attenuator will work in 10 to 20% region. If you want a larger bandwidth instead of
using 2 branch, we can use 3 branch coupler, or we can use 4 branch couplers, and we have
discussed these couplers in the previous lectures. So, you can use those things to realize a
relatively broad band variable attenuator. Now, instead of using PIN diodes, we can also use
MESFET. What is a MESFET? You will learn in detail more about MESFET, after few
lectures, but just to mention you might be knowing about MOSFET. What is a MOSFET?
Metal oxide semi-conductor field affect transistor.
In MESFET basically oxide layer is not there. So, here ME stands for metal ok. So, this is a
metal semi-conductor field effect transistor. So, I am just telling the principle of this
particular configuration here. So, you can see at this particular point there is a input and there
is a output here, these are the 2 control voltages which are shown over here ok. So, what is
this particular configuration? You can see that this is the series component, this is the series
component and this is the shunt component.
So, by changing the value of the current over here the resistance of this part is changed,
resistance of this is changed in the same fashion. You can see that this is being controlled by
voltage V1 and if you recall series resistance should be same. And, here is a shunt resistance.
So, the value of the shunt resistor is controlled by voltage V 2 ok. So, we have to change these
V1 and V2 according to the values given for the T network, which consisted of R1, R1 and R2.
So, here I just want to mention here. So, by changing the value of V 1 and V2, the value of the
resistance varies from small Ron to large Roff. So, by changing the value of the biasing
voltages V1 and V2, we can change the attenuation value. In fact, for this particular
configuration these are some of the specifications given over here. So, for frequency range 2
to 12 GHz, they could obtain a 17 dB dynamic range, but over a larger frequency range 2 to
18 GHz the dynamic attenuation range was about 12 dB, ok.
And, for this particular configuration S11 obtained was better than 10 dB and minimum
insertion loss was about 2 dB. So, from here to here minimum insertion loss is 2 dB and after
that there is a dynamic range of 12 dB. So that means, from here to here you can get 2 dB to
14 dB attenuation. Now, again the only problem in this particular case is that V 1 and V2 must
vary in such a way that the resistance is R1 and R2 should follow the T network values.
So, there may be a small problem as resistance changes with the voltage, the input impedance
may not be matched. I just want to mention about the software, which I had recommended
earlier for designing filters that same RFSIM 99 software can be used to design attenuator
also. So, there is a again an option, you can go to that design then go to attenuator and, there
they will asks you want the T type network or  type network just enter 3 dB or 10 dB or 20
dB or 30 dB whatever attenuation you want and it will straightway give you the values of R 1
and R2.
Now, I also want to mention many times the values of R 1 and R2, which you calculate
theoretically, may not be available practically in the market. So, what do you do then? So,
whatever the nearest practical values of resistors available, you put those values in the
RFSIM 99. And, then do the simulation and RFSIM will give you the plots of S 21 and S11. So,
please ensure that S11 < - 30 dB. In fact, when you take the ideal values you will actually see
S11 is close to -  dB, but S11 < - 30 dB is acceptable for most of the application. And then
you can see what is the value of S21 and accordingly you can choose the right value of the
resistors to obtain desired value of the attenuation.
I am also going to show you one another thing which is a variable attenuator IC available in
the market. So, I have just given a 1 example ok. So, I am not promoting this particular
company ok. I am just telling that this is one of the IC available. So, the number is given over
here. So, let us see what we have over here? So, here you can see this is the controlled
voltage and this particular thing actually uses gallium arsenide MESFET, again these are the
IC manufacturing thing, we as a circuit designer are not really getting deep inside the IC. So,
we will look at how to use this particular attenuator ok?
So, you can see over here there is a RF port here one this is a RF port 3, you can use this as a
input, you can use this as a output or you can use this as input or this can be used as output, it
does not matter because it is a symmetrical network and there is a ground connection over
here. So, simply by varying a 1 single voltage here so, I want to mention here that here we do
not need 2 different voltages; a single voltage has to be varied. Now, this is not the complete
circuit the circuit has a many more things this is just a symbolic representation ok. So, let us
see what is the performance, we get over here. So, they have actually mention that the
frequency range is DC to 2.5 GHz in session loss is 3.5 dB so; that means, even for 0
attenuation, which shows over here. I just want to first tell what this is it shows here
attenuation versus control voltage? So, we can see here if the control voltage is a - 3 V
attenuation is 0 and then you can see that attenuation is increasing 3 different curves are for 3
different frequency values.
This curve is for 50 MHz this curve is for 1 GHz, this curve is for 2.5 GHz. So, I just want to
mention what this in session loss of 3.5 dB means? So, even though it shows 0 dB
attenuation, but in a reality it is a 0 dB + insertion loss of 3.5 dB. So, when you give control
voltage of – 3 V, then from input to let us say a output it will be attenuated by 3.5 dB. Let us
take a case of 50 MHz. So, you can see for 50 MHz for control voltage equal to 0, we get
about 30 dB attenuation so, 30 + 3.5 = 33.5 dB attenuation.
Now; however, be careful what is your frequency of operation ok? Suppose you are operating
at a 1 GHz or you are designing an attenuator around a 1 GHz frequency. Please do not use
this particular curve. Now, you better use this particular curve here. You can see now that the
attenuation is about 25 dB. So, as you change the control voltage from -3 to 0 V the
attenuation range will be from 0 to about 25 dB. And, if you are operating around 2.5 GHz,
which is the frequency of Wi-Fi then in that particular case, you can see that the attenuation is
of the order of 20 dB only ok. So, control voltage varies from - 3 to 0, attenuation will vary
from 0 to 20 dB please add 3.5 dB in all these case. Now, what is this significance of this
here? It actually says Pin = 21 dB maximum. So, 20 dB is equal to 0.1 W ok. So, you cannot
pump more than 0.1 W power over here.
If, you pump more than that power this IC may get burned and this is relatively low cost IC,
you can actually see the price varies from 100 to 150, and depending upon the quantity. And,
this again I have just given as a reference I am not promoting this particular website in any
which way. And, you will see that when you go to the website or you go to any other website,
you will actually see that the price changes a lot depending upon the quantity. So, if you want
to buy just 1 or 10 pieces, it will cause much more if you buy 1000 or 10,000 or 1 million
pieces, then the costs will be much smaller ok.
So, just to summarize today’s lecture. So, we started with fixed attenuator. So, we discussed
about 2 different configurations, we started with a  network, and then we talked about T
network. And, these were fixed resistive attenuators, then we talked about PIN diode as
variable resistor. And, then we used 3 PIN diodes to design a variable attenuator. But I did
mention to you about the problem part, the problem with that is that the voltages have to be
controlled properly. So, that the resistance values vary according to the attenuation desired.
So, I also talked about one another simpler configuration, where one can use a branch line
coupler terminated with 2 identical PIN diodes and just by changing the bias voltage, we can
vary the value of attenuation. Then, we talked about a MESFET and the IC which can be
directly used as a variable attenuator. So, in the next lecture, we will see more applications of
PIN diode and the application which we are going to talk about would be microwave
switches.

Microwave Theory and Techniques.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 06
Lecture – 28
Microwave RF Switches: Series and Shunt SPST
Hello, everyone. Today, we are going to talk about RF Switches you can also call these
things as Microwave Switches also. I just want to tell little bit about what is the difference
between RF and Microwave. Strictly speaking microwave frequency is from 3 to 30 GHz
whereas, mobile phones use 900 MHz or 1800 MHz or 2100 MHz depending upon 2G or 3G.
So, what has happen in the recent years people have started using the term RF in broad sense.
Even though RF stands for radio frequency in fact, radio frequency goes to even AM radio
and FM radio also.
So, for AM radio, frequency ranges from 530 to 1620 KHz which is really of the order of 1
MHz. So, RF in general consists of all of those things. So, RF is lower frequency also and
even microwave frequency. So, these days microwave and RF are used interchangeably. So,
do not get confused strict definition of microwave is 3 to 30 GHz, but nowadays loosely
people have started using even the other lower frequency values also as microwave ok.
Hence, RF or microwave switches you can say ok. So, let us start with the another application
of PIN diodes. So, in the previous lecture, we had seen one of the application of PIN diode,
where PIN Diode was slightly forward biased and when PIN Diode was slightly forward
biased, it behaved as variable resistance. But today we are going to look at the application of
PIN Diode as switch where PIN Diode is either completely forward biased or it is reverse
biased. So, let us see how we can model the PIN Diode in general?
So, this is the PIN Diode, the model of the PIN Diode is given by this particular network over
here, what you can see over here? This is a Cj which is a junction capacitance, in parallel with
junction resistance, then there is a series resistance, there is a series inductance, sometimes
this is also known as package inductance also and this whole thing is actually put in parallel
with the Cp, which is a package capacitor.
Now, the typical value of the Cp can be from 0.1 to 0.5 pF and package inductance can be of
the order of 0.1 to 2 nH. I just want to mention 2 nH is the real extreme case, most of the
time, it will be a less than 1 nH. So, when the Diode is forward biased ok. So, here all you do
it is apply +over here and let us say this is a 0 voltage, then Diode will be forward biased.
Now, generally speaking, for PN junction forward voltage is typically of the order of 0.7 volt.
But, for PIN Diode, the forward voltage required is anywhere between 1.5 to 2 volt or even
slightly more, so depending upon the PIN Diode specification. And, majority of the time the
forward voltage depends upon the width of this particular intrinsic layer ok. So, before you
design PIN Diode as a switch, please read the specification what is the minimum forward
voltage required? Ok. So, when PIN Diode is forward biased.
So, let us say approximately 2 volt over here. So, when 2 volt is applied over here then the
Diode will be forward biased and this entire network can be simply represented by a forward
resistance which is RF, but I also want to mention. Many a times in the forward bias we also
add series inductor over here also ok. So, do not get confused, later on you will see that we do
represent RF in series with inductance ok, but generally speaking capacitance does not come
into picture.
When Diode is reverse biased, in that particular case now what happens that it is not
conducting. So, this will behave as a junction capacitance, in series with the resistance Rr ok.
So, typical value of the junction capacitance can vary from 0.0 1 to 2 pF. You can see that
this is a very very small value of the capacitance. And, because of this very small value of the
capacitance PIN diodes can be used up to very high frequency ok. And, generally speaking
again series resistance may be of this particular order.
But, again I want to mention that many a times you may actually see that this particular
resistance may be even of the order of k also. So, again it is very important that you read
the specifications of whichever PIN Diode you have chosen.
So, now let us see the application of PIN Diode as a switch. So, first application we are going
to look at which is SPST; Single Pole Single Throw. It is also called SP1T single pole you
can say one throw ok. So, where do we need a switch ok?
So, first of all let just look at a switch, why we need a switch? I mean you would just think
about a simple switch at your home you want to let us say turn on fan or turn off the fan. So,
what you do? You just switch it ON or you switch it OFF ok. So, you will get that particular
switch is known as single pole single throw ok. So; that means, on or off the same thing you
can say for tube light you want to turn it on or you want to turn it off ok. So, that is a simple
switch here we are showing you a first configuration which is a series switch, later on I am
going to show you shunt switch and then combination of series and shunt switches ok.
So, a PIN Diode can be modeled as a simple Z d where Zd =R+ jX . Now, depending upon, if it
is forward bias then this will be forward resistance plus series inductance, if the diode is
reverse bias, then this will be a reverse resistance plus the junction capacitance ok. So, the
values of R and X may change depending upon the biasing of PIN diode. Please remember
that we have to completely forward bias or completely reverse bias ok. And, complete reverse
bias is very simple you can just apply 0 V or sometimes people do apply negative voltage
also.
So, the analysis of this is relatively simple. So, we know that for a series impedance we can
write [CA BD ] = [10 Z1 ]= [10 Z1 ]. So, from here we can use the conversion from A B C D
d
parameter to S parameter. Right Now, we are looking at S 21, but other parameters can be
2
calculated in a similar fashion. So, what is S21? S21= . So, when Diode is
A+ B/ Z o +C Z o + D
forward bias which is in this particular case switch is ON. So, when switch is ON forward
biased over here, you can say that if it is forward bias whatever is the input given it will go to
the output here. And, when PIN Diode is reverse bias, whatever is the input given here
practically nothing should go over here ok. So, in the ON state, R = R f , X = L, where L is
series inductance.
So, now, we can find out what is the insertion loss. Insertion loss if you see is defined as
1
20 log10
R+ jX
Insertion loss () dB =
|(
¿ S21 ∨¿=20 log10
1+
Zo
2
+ 0+1
¿)|
I just want to mention see S21 in general will be negative. Suppose, we give one here it will be
1
always less than 1 ok. So, here when we take a that means, insertion loss will be a
¿ S21 ∨¿¿
positive number. So, generally speaking we also say insertion loss is 1 dB or 2 dB, we do not
1
write -1 dB or -2 dB. So, since S 21 has a negative dB value. So, will have a positive
¿ S21 ∨¿¿
insertion loss. So, now, let us substitute the value of S 21 in this particular expression. And, we
1
know, what are the A B C D parameters? So, let us see quickly here. So, so, this thing will
S 21
go up.
B
1 A+ +C Zo + D
Insertion loss () dB = 20 log10 = Zo =
¿ S21 ∨¿ ¿ 20 log10
2
Zd
1+ +0∗Z o +1
Zo
20 log10 ∨ ∨¿
2
R+ jX R+ jX
¿ 20 log 10 |( 1+
Zo
2
+0+1
)|
=20 log 10
2+
2
Zo
|( )|
= 20 log 10 1+
R
+j
X
2 Zo 2 Zo | |
2 2 1
R X
α (dB)=2 0 log10
[( 1+
) ( )]
2 Zo
+
2 Zo
2
2 2
R X
α (dB)=1 0 log10
[( 1+
2Z ) (2Z ) ]
+
o o
So, for given values of R = R f , X = L, you can find out what is the insertion loss of this
particular switch. Ideally, we want insertion loss to be close to 0 dB ok, but in practice, it will
never be 0 dB as we had seen that R has a finite value, X has a finite value. So, insertion loss
also will have finite value. So, let us see now what happens when Diode is reverse biased.
When Diode is reverse bias, now R = Rr and X = 1/ (Cj). So, instead of calling now
insertion loss as in the case when switch was ON now the switch is OFF. So, we define it as
isolation ok. So, that means, what is the isolation between input port and the output port?
Ideally we would like isolation to be infinite ok. But, practically 20 dB or 30 dB or 40 dB
isolation would be there, One has to see what is the minimum isolation requirement for a
given application.
So, again isolation expression is same as before, the only difference is now that instead of R
= Rf put in the earlier case, now we are going to put R = R r and instead of X putting in the
earlier case as L. So, we put now X=1/ (Cj). So, attenuation expression is exactly same as
before, only difference is for forward bias, this will be R f and this will be L, for reverse bias
this will be Rr and this will be X=1/Cj..
Now, let us see how we do the biasing of the PIN diode? So, let us see the biasing
configuration. So, here this is a you can say port 1, this is port 2, and this is the DC voltage
which is applied. So, that is a bias voltage, we can see over here there is a RF choke, then
there is a Diode and then this is a RF choke which is going to ground. So, the DC voltage
goes through here and goes through over here and this then finally, connected to ground here.
So, you can see that there is a capacitance connected from the voltage to the ground. This
capacitance is basically to kill the ripples as well as the transients. In fact, many a times we
put multiple capacitors instead of a single capacitance over here. And, these multiple
capacitances can be of the order of let us say 1 μF which is for smoothening out the ripple,
and we also may put 10 nF and even a 100 pF. These are basically to take care of that
transients, because remember, it is a switch will be going from ON to OFF or OFF to ON.
So, a lot of transients will come into picture and these transients are at very high frequency.
So, you need small values of capacitances to take care of these transients. So, what is RF
choke? Actually, RF choke is nothing, but a high value of inductor. Now, typical values of
the inductor should be chosen such a way that the impedance of the inductor should be at
least 500  or more. Why 500  or more? The reason for that is Z0 = 50 . So, this particular
thing should be at least 10 times of that. So, you can take as 500  maybe maximum 5000 ,
but not more than that, do not take a very large value of inductor because these inductors at
very high frequency may act as a capacitance ok.
So, why we need a large value of inductor? The reason for that is that if we do not put a large
value of inductor. Then, at AC frequency, if this is not very large this will provide a path to
the ground here. Remember for AC DC voltages act as ground. So, the ac input here will get
short circuited through this particular inductor. Similarly, over here we need to put a large
value of inductor. So, that at a given ac frequency this inductor will act as a open circuit. We
need coupling capacitor here to block the DC voltage going from here to the input side or
going towards output side. So, these are also known as coupling capacitor or DC block
capacitor. And, the typical value of these capacitances again should be at least one-tenth of
this particular impedance here. So, this is 50  the impedance should be less than 5 , but
even if you take Z = 1/jωC as even 0.5  or so, it is good enough ok. So, anything between
0.5  to 5  is recommended. So, you should know what is the frequency of operation? At
which you are designing a switch accordingly you calculate the value of the capacitance.
Now, over here there is a still one small problem in this particular circuit ok. And, what is
that small problem, see here we are not able to limit the value of the current. In fact, for
practical circuits, we should also put a series resistance over here, which should control the
current flowing through the diode ok. So, in fact, in the next slide I will show you, a series
resistance which is put over here that will limit the current flowing through this particular
diode.
But, let us see how we can realize this particular configuration using micro strip line? So, let
us see here this is a 50  line. So, width of the line has to be calculated corresponding to Z0 =
50 . So, this is input you can say this is output and there is a coupling capacitor connected
between this line and this here. So, simply you solder a coupling capacitor here, you solder a
coupling capacitor over here. Now, what you see over here? There is a no RF choke, here it
shows RF choke which is inductor.
But, over here RF chokes are not shown. So, let us see how RF chokes have been avoided?
So, let us look at here, there is a voltage Vs, which can switch from +V to -V, but as I
mentioned earlier you can switch Vs from +V to 0 volt, it will still work. So, now, let us see
what happens here? See a narrow strip line has been used over here so, which acts as a
inductor. So, inductor will provide a high impedance path Z = jωL and for narrow line we
know that the inductor will be large, hence impedance will be large.
Now, let us see how this capacitance is being realized? So, you can see over here this
particular thing acts as a patch capacitance. So, we know that patch capacitance provides
capacitance from the top substrate to the ground plane. So, this acts as a patch substrate going
from the voltage Vs to ground. Now, you can see here this length has been chosen as /4, this
length has been chosen as /4. What is the reason for that? See, this is an open circuit a /4
line will actually have a input impedance at this port as 0.
So, this is open, this will act as a short, then there is another /4. So, short here will act as
open circuit. So, at the design frequency open will become short and then it will become
open. So, if this is open whatever is the input we are giving that will go to the output. Let us
see how this RF choke has been realized. Again this has been realized by using a /4 line so,
this is a short here. So, short will act as open circuit. So, there will be a no power dissipated
in this particular thing.
So, what is the limitation of this particular configuration? The limitation of this configuration
is that it will have a limited bandwidth, because this length will act as /4 only at certain
frequencies ok. Think about double the frequency, if it is double the frequency then this
length will become /2. So, short will act as a short circuit here. So, input will not go to the
output it will get shorted over here ok. So, the limitation of this particular configuration is
that, it will have a limited bandwidth, but for many applications for example, if you are
designing something for let us say WiFi ok, WiFi has a bandwidth of only about 4%. So, this
particular configuration will be very suitable.
Similarly, if you are designing for let us say GSM 900. Again at GSM 900, bandwidth is just
about 7 to 8 %. So, this type of configuration is very suitable for narrowband applications.
And, you can see that component cost is very small in this particular case here. Now, as I
mentioned that this is not the circuit which we always use, we do use resistance so, that we
can limit the current flow through that.
So, here is a Series SPST simulation using ADS software. Now, it may be little difficult to
read all the numbers over here, but I will just try to tell you quickly here. So, here is the
biasing voltage and there is a resistor you can see over here, which is basically to control the
current, you can choose higher value of resistor also depending upon the Diode specification.
Then, you can see that we have used over here L equal to 30 nH which acts as a RF choke at
microwave frequency, then there is a another inductor. So, the path for dc will be from here
to this inductor, then diode and it will be right over here. This is a coupling capacitor at the
input side coupling capacitor at the output side. So, let us see the result of this particular
circuit.
So, now when the Diode is forward bias so, then switch would be ON. So, when the switch
is ON what do we want? Whatever is the input, it should go to the output? So, we would
prefer S21 to be as small as possible. So, you can see over here this is the response from 1
GHz to 6 GHz, you can see that S 21 is close to 0 dB. In fact, you can see over here insertion
losses, less than 1 dB over this entire band.
Now, you might wonder why there is a more loss over here. Actually the reason is not that
the switch is bad, the reason for that is we have used coupling capacitor as only a 100 pF. If,
we use 1 nF capacitance, then this will become flatter also. So, depending upon whatever is
the frequency of operation you desire. Now, corresponding to this S21 you can see this is the
S11 plot over here. You can see this is -10 dB, this is about -15 dB. So, you can see that
reflection coefficient is good over this entire bandwidth.
But, now let us see, what is the performance? When the switch is OFF? Ideally what do we
want we want, S21 = 0 ok, but in a reality what we are getting let us see. So, when the Diode
is reverse bias ideally switch should have been OFF; that means, nothing from input side
should go to the output side, but let us see what is happening here, frequency varies from 1 to
6 GHz. You can see that isolation is just about a -16 dB. And, as the frequency increases you
can see isolation here is only about -10 dB and here isolation is extremely poor. So, you can
see that this particular configuration is not suitable to provide good isolation. So, as I have
mentioned over here isolation is just greater than 10 dB up to about 2 GHz. So which is not
adequate, so in fact you should never ever use this particular configuration.
Let just see another configuration where diode is used in shunt configuration, this is known as
shunt SPST switch. Now, this thing can be modelled as shunt admittance and we know that
for shunt admittance [CA BD ]=[Y1 01 ], where we can now represent a Y = G + jB.
So, by using the same concept we can now find out the insertion loss or isolation by using the
same expression. So, which is given by alpha in dB is 20 log 10. So, you can now recall that
this expression is 1/S21. So, this expression is nothing, but ABCD normalize values ok. So,
we can see what is A? A = 1, what is B? B = 0. What is C? C= Y*Z 0,, D = 1. So, now, we can
separate the real and imaginary terms.
1+Y Z 0 +1 G Z 0 B Z0
|(
α ( dB )=20 log10
2 )| |(
=20 log10 1+
2
+j
2 )|
2 2
GZ BZ
α (dB)=10 log10
[( 1+
2 ) ( 2 )]
0
+ 0
So, this is the expression for shunt SPST switch. So, hereα corresponds to insertion loss.
When the diode is reverse biased, please notice, that this is now different compared to the
previous configuration. So, this is different than series switch. When the diode was in series
when that was on input will go to the output. But, here things are different; here when the
diode is ON, this thing will act as a short circuit. So, ideally nothing should go over here.
And when diode is OFF; that means, when it is reverse bias then this will act as an open
circuit. So, everything from input side should go to the output side. So, please notice this
particular thing that, now insertion loss is when diode is reverse bias. When this is reverse
bias, then switch is ON and in ON condition, we define as insertion loss. When the switch is
OFF and when it will be OFF when diode is forward bias in that case it is isolation. So, by
using a shunt configuration, you have to use opposite of the series configuration, for series
we have to do forward bias for ON switch here, we have to reverse bias for ON switch. Now,
let us look at the combination of series and shunt switches here.
So, we have 2 diodes D1 and D2. So, let us see when switch will be ON, switch will be ON
when D1 is forward bias or on and when D2 is reverse bias or you can say it is OFF. So, when
we forward bias D1 and reverse bias D2 then input will go to the output side, when switch will
be OFF, when D1 is reverse bias you can see over here and when D 2 is forward bias. So, FB
here stands for forward bias RB stands for reverse bias. Now, how do we do the analysis of
this particular configuration? So, again we can use ABCD parameters. So, for this particular
thing you can write [CA BD ] = [10 Z1 ]. And, for this particular thing you can write [CA BD ] =
[Y1 01] multiply the 2 matrices and get the combined ABCD parameters.
And, from that we can actually find out the insertion loss and isolation. Now, I just want to
mention a few things over here. So, what you will notice over here, that this is similar
expression, we have used the same thing as before, but there is a only one small difference
where I want to bring your attention, you see over here it is written as Z h and this is written as
Zl ok. Zl corresponds to low impedance, Zh corresponds to high impedance ok.
So, just recall now for the series component, when that is forward biased and the shunt is
reverse bias; that means, if it is reverse biased, impedance will be high for series, it will be
low impedance ok. So, this is the insertion loss, when switch is ON and this is the isolation.
Insertion Loss=¿¿ Switch is ON

Isolation=¿ ¿ Switch is OFF
And, if you see the 2 expression there is a only 1 small change between these 2 expression
and that is Zh and Zl. So, Zh is high, if it is high, this component will be small hence insertion
loss will be small. If Zl is small; that means, this component will be large and hence isolation
will be large. So, just to give you a little bit of an idea about insertion loss and isolation of
series switch, shunt switch and combination of series shunt switch, you can see for series
switch insertion loss is of the order of 0.147, for shunt switch it is of the order of 0.063 for
series shunt insertion loss is about 0.108. So, you can see it is a relatively small number.
Let us see for isolation. For series isolation is about 8.3, for shunt it is about 7.5, for series
shunt it is about 20 dB. So, one can get a decent isolation by using series shunt configuration.
In fact, there is a only 1 problem with this series shunt configuration, that is it is not
symmetrical with respect to input and output. So, instead of just using series shunt here is an
switch which consists of series shunt series diodes ok.
So, let us see how this particular switch works? So, for the switch to be ON, D 1 should be
forward bias, D2 should be reverse bias and for the switch to be OFF, D1 should be reverse
bias, D2 should be forward bias. Now, for reverse bias, we can represent the diode as
capacitance and for forward bias we can represent the diode as inductor, resistances are not
shown over here. Just to show you what this configuration looks like. So, this configuration
also looks like a low pass filter. And, when the switch is OFF, this will be a reverse bias. So,
that can be represented as capacitance and this is forward bias. So, that will be represented as
inductor. So, this looks like a high pass filter. So, basically we are switching between low
pass filter response to the high pass filter response. And, in general when you switch from
low pass filter to high pass filter response, that configuration is known as wide band
configuration.
Now, instead of using 3, one can use 5 of these elements. So, you can see that there are 3
series element, 2 shunt element, and just to tell you the comparison. So, isolation for this
configuration is better than 3 elements up to about 19 GHz, one can obtain about 20 dB
isolation up to 16 GHz for 5 devices, up to about 12 GHz for 3 devices. Now, instead of using
PIN diodes 1 can also use MESFET. So, by using combinations of these diodes, one can
actually realize wideband switch also.
So, just to summarize, today we have discussed about PIN Diode switches, where these PIN
diodes have been either used in series configuration or shunt configuration or series shunt
series shunt series configuration. And, by using multiple diodes in series shunt combination
we can obtain very wide bandwidth. So, depending upon the application, how much isolation
is required and what is the frequency range? You can actually decide to choose 1 element or
up to 5 element PIN diode. So, in the next lecture we will talk about SP2T which is known as
single pole double throw and some of the other applications. So, with that, thank you very
much, see you next time bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 06
Lecture – 29
Series and Shunt SPDT Switches and Introduction to Phase Shifters
Hello everyone; in the last lecture, we had talked about RF switches. And in the RF switches
our main discussion was on the single pole single throw switches and these switches had been
realized using PIN diodes.
So, we had looked into the circuit configuration of PIN diode and we had also seen when the
PIN diode is forward bias it can be represented by a series resistance and a series inductance.
When PIN diode is reversed bias it was modeled as Cj in series with Rr resistance.
Then we had discussed about several configurations of SPST. So, we had started the
discussion with the series SPST switch, and for that we had actually derived the A B C D
parameters. From A B C D parameters, we found out S parameters and then we had derived
the expression for insertion loss and isolation.
So, insertion loss is defined when switch is in the ON position. Isolation is defined for switch
in the OFF position. Then we had looked at the biasing circuit for this particular
configuration and then micro strip realization of series SPST. We had also shown you the
circuit simulation using ADS software.
And then we discussed about the results and I had shown you that insertion loss is less than 1
dB when diode is ON. But isolation is only about 10 dB or so up to about 2 GHz; beyond 2
GHz, isolation was very poor. So, it is not a very good configuration to be used beyond 2
GHz.
After that we discussed about shunt SPST switch where diode was mounted in shunt
configuration. Again we found A B C D parameters and then insertion loss as well as
isolation. We had also seen the biasing circuit.
Then we had talked about series shunt switch and this circuit can be analyzed using cascaded
A B C D parameter. So, we know that A B C D parameters of series element and we also
know A B C D parameters of shunt element multiplying these two and simplifying we get the
expression for insertion loss and isolation.
And then we had seen that for series shunt and series shunt switch what are the
performances? So, we had seen that for the combination series shunt, insertion loss is of the
order of 0.1 dB, whereas, isolation is of the order of 20 dB.

After that we had looked at 3 elements PIN diode switch. And 5 elements PIN diode
switches. So, today we are going to discuss about next configuration which is series single
pole double throw.
So, Single Pole Double Throw is abbreviated as SPDT and also commonly known as SP2T.
So, here let us see what is the concept? So, input is given at this particular port and it may go
to output 1 or it may go to output 2 depending upon how diodes D1 and D2 are biased. So, if
D1 is forward bias and D2 is reversed bias it is important. So, when D 1 is forward bias, input
will go to output 1. So, input will go to output 1 when D 1 is ON and D2 is OFF. See please
ensure that both of these should not be on if both of these two are ON then this will be more
like a power divider network and both of these diodes are OFF then everything will reflect
back to the input side. So, when we want to send the input to the output 2 in that particular
situation D2 should be forward bias, and D1 should be reverse bias.
Now let us just look an alternate way of realizing the same SPDT, but by using shunt
configuration. So, you can see that here we have a diode D 1 and diode D2 and they are
connected in shunt configuration. However, there is an additional thing here which you can
see there is a line length /4 here, line length /4 over here.
So, I will explain you what is the purpose of these line lengths over here. So, let us say now
when input is coming from this port here, and assuming that D 1 is ON and when D1 is ON
this should be OFF ok. So, when this is OFF so what will happen?
This is OFF so input will go from here to this side and when this is short circuited nothing
will go to output 1. But if we did not have this /4 what will happen in that particular case? If
D1 was connected right here and if it is forward bias which means it is short circuited then
nothing will go over here in fact, everything will reflect back.
But by putting this /4 length what happens now? When D1 is forward bias; that means, it is
short circuited then impedance looking along AA’ will be open circuit corresponding to D 1.
So, D1 is shorted this will act as an open circuit. So, there will be no loading on this side and
D2 is OFF so; that means, input from here will go to output 2. And the reverse will happen
when D2 is ON and D1 is OFF. So, when D1 is OFF all these things will go from here to
output 1 and D2 is short circuited that time or forward bias. So, this short circuit will act as an
open circuit. So, it will not do the loading for this particular input it will go to the output 1
only. So, the disadvantage of this particular configuration is that due to /4 section,
bandwidth is limited; however, for narrow band application, it is a fairly good circuit.
Now, let just look at the responses of these 2 particular configurations. So, here you can see,
these 2 PIN diodes are connected in the series fashion and here 2 diodes are connected in
parallel fashion. And these are the typical insertion loss for series and shunt and these are the
results when switch is OFF; that means isolation.
So, let us see what we have over here. So, this is first series SPDT configuration, you can see
that insertion loss is relatively flat it is of the order of 0.1 dB which is pretty good. But;
however, due to this /4 section, insertion loss is lowest at the center frequency of around 3
GHz and as we deviate insertion loss increases.
But you can see that even from 2.5 to up to about 3.5 GHz insertion loss is still of the order of
around 0.2 dB which is acceptable for most of the application. Let us look at the isolation. So,
one can see that isolation is fairly good it is more than 20 dB in the lower frequency region,
but; however, it decreases at the higher frequency points. So, again this is useful for the lower
frequency region and isolation becomes poorer in the higher frequency region.
Now, instead of using PIN diode, one can use MESFET as I had mentioned earlier you are
familiar with MOSFET. MOSFET is Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.
Whereas, MESFET is Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. So, instead of using PIN
diode you can use MESFET.
So, here is the configuration for shunt configuration. So, you can see that MESFET is
connected in the shunt configuration and we have a /4 section here. /4 section over here
input is given over here. So, if this is OFF then input will go over here at that particular point
this should be ON, so that nothing goes to port 3. And when the input has to go from port 1 to
port 3 then this should be OFF and this should be ON.
Now for MESFET, there is a large capacitance associated at the output terminal. So, to
compensate the large capacitance and inductor can be placed and by placing the inductor
performance can be improved. So, let us see the results here so, here is the insertion loss
without compensation and you can see that the insertion loss is reduced because of the
compensated L, C. Now, let us see the results for isolation. So, this is the result for
uncompensated MESFET and these are the results for compensated MESFET. So, you can
see that for compensated MESFET isolation is better than 25 dB over this entire frequency
range of 8 to 12 GHz.
So, now instead of using series only or shunt only, one can use the combination of series
shunt SPDT switch so, let us see how this has been realized. So, here is a microstrip version
of series shunt SPDT switch. So, let us just look at this carefully so, input is coming from
here, you can see that when input is coming over here there is a coupling capacitor. This
coupling capacitor is provided to block the DC voltage and then from here input comes over
here. Now this input can go to output 1 or it can go to output 2 depending upon what are the
conditions for the diodes.
So, let us say we want to send the input to output 1. So, in that particular case, we have to
give a voltage here which is + V here and at that time this should be -V. So, let us see what
happens? So, when we give +V here. So, this plus voltage goes through here so this diode
would conduct through this particular path over here and when this is +here. So, this diode
will be in the OFF situation. So, this is OFF, this is ON. So input will go through this
particular path to output 1.
However, at that particular point, this should be reversed bias and this should be forward bias.
So, how that is achieved? So, let us see when this voltage is negative. So, this negative
voltage ensures that this diode will conduct. So, this will be forward bias means shorted and
this negative voltage would mean that this is reversed bias that would mean diode is OFF. So,
nothing goes from here to here and if we do reverse of that; that means, now this voltage is
+V and this is -V.
So, when this is +V, this diode will conduct through this particular path and when this
conducts this will be reversed bias ok. So that means, this path is now clear for output 2, at
that particular time this is now minus. So, when this is minus, this diode will conduct so; that
means, this will provide short circuit path and this diode will be open circuit. So, input cannot
go to output 1.
Now, there are few additional things I want to mention and these are the things for biasing;
how biasing has been done and what are the roles of these /4 section? So, let us say here the
voltage is applied through a narrow microstrip line which will provide some amount of
inductor and this inductor will provide higher impedance at AC frequency.
Now, this patch here will provide a capacitance between the top layer and the bottom ground
layer. So there will be capacitance from the top to the bottom layer which is good for
suppressing the transient. So, let us see then this is open circuit here and we have a /4
length. So, open will act as short then again we have a /4 section. So, this short will act as
open so; that means, for AC circuit this will be relatively open circuit. Similarly same
configuration has been used in this side also ok.
So, basically the purpose of these things is that to provide a smooth DC path and also act as
an open circuit at the desired AC frequency. Again if you see this particular portion this
length is also equal to /4 so that when this is short circuited here, this will act as an open
circuit. So, nothing will go to this side here ok. So, here just to repeat input will go to output
1 when Vs is positive and input will go to output 2 when this particular thing is positive.
So, we have fabricated this particular configuration and let me show you the fabricated result.
So, you can see that this is the photograph of the circuit which we have fabricated. For series
SPDT switch we have used Infineon PIN diode, the forward resistance reverse and other
parameters are given over here.
So, let me tell you what are the results? So, input port when we give the input here this was
designed around 2 GHz frequency, the results are shown here for input of 2 GHz. And let us
see what do we get at port 2 and port 3? So, when this diode is forward bias and at that time
this should be reversed bias then input will go to the port 2. So, you can see that this is the
response of port 2 at that particular point relatively nothing should go to port 3 however we
can see that some power is going to port 3.
So, let us see what are the values we are getting? So, output at port 2 is about -3 dB. So, you
can say that insertion loss is of the order of 3 dB whereas, output at port 3 is about -15.3 dB
so; that means, the isolation between this port and this port is nothing, but just 15.3 - 3 which
is about 12.3 dB.
So, it is not a very good switch in the sense that isolation between the port 2 and port 3 is
only of the order of 12.3 dB ok. So, better design has to be done and in fact, I did mention
that one can use combination of series and shunt that will provide better results.
So, let us just now look at one of the commercially available switch. So, this is SP2T IC
which is available from sky works that is the number here. Now they have mentioned that
this switch works from 0.01 to 6 GHz. However, I tell a few interesting things to realize this
particular thing here first let us just look at the pin numbers of this particular configuration.
So, you can see that there are total 6 pin numbers are there. So, one can see here this is V DD.
So, you connect the supply voltage here. So, here input is given at this particular port here
output may go to this side or it may go to this side depending upon this control voltage over
here.
So, let us see how this IC works? So, here is the input so depending upon if the switch is in
this position then input will go to RF1, and if the switch is in this position then input will go
to RF2. So, we have a VDD voltage and this is what is the control voltage.
So, let us see what is the performance of this particular configuration? So, one can see that
the results are given from 0 to 6 GHz, insertion loss is of the order of 0.4 dB across the
frequency band. Let us see what is the performance for isolation? So, one can see that
isolation is very good up to about 1 GHz which is about -30 dB isolation, but as frequency
increases you can see that isolation degrades. So, isolation is about 20 dB at around 5 GHz.
One another thing I want to mention here how you choose these capacitances? So, I have
actually mentioned here C1, C2, C3 is 100 pF for 0.7 to 3 GHz frequency range. The reason for
that is let us see first of all where these capacitances are connected ok.
So, these capacitances are connected at the input port as well as the 2 output ports. And then
there is a capacitance C4 = 10 nF basically this capacitance is to reduce the ripples or the
transients, but I would still advice that instead of using single capacitance one should use
about 3 capacitors.
So, I recommend that one should use 3 parallel capacitors, one could be of the order of 1
microfarad that will be useful for reducing the ripple, 10 nF which is given here. And another
100 pF capacitor to kill the transients please recall that these switches are going to be forward
bias and reverse bias. So, there will be a transient from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0.
So, to suppress these transients, it is important that you put another 100 pF capacitor over
here. Now these 100 pF capacitance values have been chosen in this frequency range because
they provide relatively low impedance in this particular frequency range.
If you want to operate this at very low frequency of 0.01 GHz. For 0.01 GHz these coupling
capacitors should be at least 10 nF or more. And if you want to operate the switch at around 5
to 6 GHz then 100 pF should be reduced to maybe even 47 pF.
So, let us look at what are the applications of this particular. So, let us look at what are the
applications of SP2T. So, let us just see that this is a VCO 1, let us say this is VCO2 and we
want to send this signal in this particular direction. So, do not think that this can be only used
as input here and output here or output here. This can be also used as input 1 here input 2
here and output can go over here depending upon the switch position.
So, assume that this is a VCO 1 let us say that VCO works from 0.7 GHz to 1.4 GHz and this
VCO works let us say from 1.4 GHz to 2.8 GHz. I have used the frequency ratio of 1 is to 2
for each VCO. So, when we want to send 0.7 to 1.4 GHz signal here, switch should be
connected in this position. When we want to send the signal from 1.4 to 2.8 GHz then switch
should be ON in this particular position in that particular case input will go to this output port
then.
So, remember these input and output ports are interchangeable, the reason for that is simple
when the diode is forward bias. So, then signal can go in this direction or it can go in this
particular direction. So, just to summarize, in the previous lecture we had talked about SPST
switch in that we had discussed about various configuration, series configuration, shunt
configuration, and combination of series shunt series configuration.
Today we talked about SP2T switch in that we talked about series SP2T, we talked about
shunt SP2T, and we also talked about series shunt SP2T. In fact, there are other types of
switches are also there are switches like SP4T, SP8T they are also available. So, basically
SP4T there you give 1 input and that input can go to 4 different outputs depending upon
which switch is connected. And similarly SP8T will have let us say 1 input and 8 different
output. So, depending upon switches connected to which particular output.
So, it can go to output 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and as I mentioned that input can become output
and output can become input. So, we can give 8 inputs and one of these 8 input can go to the
output port. So, we will look at some more applications of these switches when we talk about
next topic and that is phase shifter.
Now, we are going to talk about microwave phase shifters where these switches will be used.
So, what is the phase shifters? So, this 2 port device can act as a phase shifter let us say we
are giving a input voltage V1 here and if the output voltage V2 is nothing, but V1 angle some
, so that will be nothing, but phase shift of . However, the way it is realized it changes the
transmission phase angle.
So, the difference between the two transmission stages so; that means, in 1 stage let us say we
have a V11 and in the second stage if we have V 12. then the phase difference will be 
= 2 - 1. Now these phase shifters are defined by its insertion loss which is nothing, but -
20*log S21, where this is port 1 and this is port 2. Now there are two types of phase shifters,
one is analog type, another one is digital type.
So, analog phase shifters are generally voltage controlled and these can be realized using
varactor diode. We have seen that for a varactor diode if we change the reverse bias voltage,
its capacitance changes change in the capacitance actually means phase angle changes as we
will see in a short while. Now, these analog phase shifters are non-linear in nature. The
reason for that is the capacitance of varactor diode varies in non-linear fashion as we change
the reverse bias voltage.
Now, let us talk about digital phase shifter. So, basically digital phase shifter is controlled by
two states of switches, it can be ON switch or OFF switch. So, digital phase shifters are more
immune to noise the reason for that is that these are defined in terms of logic 0 and 1.
So, let us take an example of it TTL configuration which is defined by 0 volt and 5 volt.
However, 0 is defined for 0 to 1.5 V or may be 0 to 2 V whereas, logic 1 may be defined
from 3 to 3.5 V up to 5 V. So, if the noise is between let us say 0 to 1 V or 1.5 V then it will
still be considered as logic 0. And if the input voltage is between 3 to 5 and the noise may be
super riding on that it will still be defined as logic 1. Whereas, the range between 1.5 to 2 V
or 3 to 3.5 V is defined as noise margin.
So, these digital phase shifters can be realized using PIN diodes or MESFET. So, typically a
digital phase shifter may be a n-bit phase shifter. Here the largest bit will be about 180 0, the
lowest bit will be 3600/2n and each step will be 360/2n.
Let us take an example of a 6 bit phase shifter. So, you can see that here input is at this
particular port, there is an output at this particular port. In between, you can see that there are
several phase shifters are there. So, we can see there is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, 6 blocks are there
that is why it is known as 6 bit phase shifter and these numbers can be obtained by using this
particular thing here. So, when n = 1; 360/2 = 1800, 1800/2 2 = 900; 900/2 = 450; 450/2 = 22.50;
22.50/2 = 11.250; 11.250/2 =5.6250. So now this 6 bit phase shifter is controlled by let us say
these parallel 6 lines ok.
Now, of course these phase shifters are also available in the form of series phase shifter, but
let just look at parallel phase shifter here. So, let us assume that this bit is one all these are 0,
in that particular case what will happen input will experience of phase delay of about 5.6250.
If suppose this bit is 1, and all these are 0 then output will have a 180 0 phase shift. Suppose if
this is 1, and this is 1, and this is 1 then total phase shift will be 180 0 + 900 = 2700, 2700 + 450
= 3150. So, that is how you can change the phase shift. So, now comes the next question what
is the application of these phase shifter?
So, I am going to talk about one of the application where these phase shifter are used very
widely. So, we have not discussed about antennas yet which we are going to cover later on,
but right now let us just look at the concept part. So, here we have 8 different antennas which
are represented by this symbol here. So, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 so let us say that we have a signal
over here which is amplified and this signal is divided into two ways.
We have already talked about two way power divider, then another two way power divider
then another 2 way power divider. So, you can see that this entire combination is nothing, but
8 way power divider and then we have 8 phase shifters connected over here. And these phase
shifters are connected to 8 different antennas.
Now, when all these phase shifters are exactly at the same value. In that particular case, all
these antennas will be fed with same amplitude and same phase so, then the radiation will be
in the broadside direction. So, now let us say we change the phases and generally speaking
the phases are changed in steps. So, if this is let us say 0 then this will be  this will be 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
So, you can think about let us say the phase shift. So, let us say this can be 0 0, then this can be
let us say 100, then 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70. So, what will happen? In that particular case, beam
will shift like this if we now increase the phases instead of step of 10 let us say we increase
the steps by 20 degree then the beam will shift like this here.
Similarly, if we change the phase values from + to - then the beam will shift in the other
direction. So, we can scan the beam from this direction to this particular direction. In fact, in
this particular case, antenna is not at all moving, it is only the phases behind the antennas
which are changing. So, just by changing the phase difference of these elements we can scan
the beam in this particular direction. Of course, this is an example of a linear array one can
use planar phase array antenna. In that particular case, one can scan the beam in this direction
as well as in this particular direction.
So, we will conclude today’s lecture over here. So, we just introduce you to the concept of
phase shifter. We talked about analog phase shifter, we talked about digital phase shifter and
then we talked about phase array antenna. In the next lecture, we will see how to realize these
analog and digital phase shifters.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 06
Lecture - 30
Microwave Phase Shifters: Switched and Loaded Line
Hello, in the last lecture, we had discussed about Phase Shifters and I had briefly talked about
Analog Phase Shifter. Analog phase shifters can be generally realized using varactor diode,
and these varactor diodes are then controlled by voltage.
Then we briefly looked at digital phase shifter and for n bit phase shifter, largest bit is 180 0
lowest bit is 3600/2n and each step is given by 3600 /2n. Then we took an example of 6 bit
phase shifter.
So, each bit here is represented; so, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, depending upon which bit is 1 that will
be the output phase shift. So, for example, if this is 1 only and rest are all 0, output will have
1800 phase shift. If this is 1, then output will have only 5.625 0 phase shift. Suppose if this is
only 1, then output will have a phase shift of only 45 0. If these 2 are 1 and 1 each and rest are
0, then output phase shift will be about one 1350.
Then we looked at an application of phase shifter and one of the important applications where
these phase shifters are used as phased array antenna. So, basically phased array antennas are
used to scan viewed from let say -30 to +30 or maybe -60 to + 600. And these days there is a
lot of emphasis on phased array antenna specially, with the advent of 5G technology. So, as
you might be knowing that 5G frequencies will be in the frequency range of 20 GHz to
maybe even 80 GHz.
So, that is a very high frequency, wavelength will be very small. So, the size of the antenna
will be small. So, multiple antennas can be used for example, in today’s mobile phone, we
can have just one antenna which will be radiating in the Omni direction; however, at 20 GHz
or beyond one can use even 8 element array instead of just using a single element and these 8
elements will be let say mounted on one side of the mobile phone, another side of the mobile
phone and another side of the mobile phone.
So, basic idea is that by using the phase shift between the different elements so, the beam can
point in this direction or in this direction or in this direction depending upon from which
direction maximum signal is coming. So, this way it can even provide gain in that particular
direction.
So, now let see, how we can realize these phase shifters. So, let first look at reflection type
phase shifter and here we have input coming to one of the port of 3-dB 2-branch coupler, this
is the output, the other 2 ports you can see over here that PIN diodes are connected over here
with the line length l/2. So, let just look at the concept point of view what really happens
here.
So, let say when we give an input at this particular port here. So, half power comes here, half
power comes here and nothing goes over here. Now the power over here will have a -90 0
phase shift and this will have a -1800 phase shift.
So, let us take a condition when this diode is forward bias; that means, this will be short
circuited. If this is short circuited, everything will reflect back. So now, the reflected signal,
say this was -900, let say now this will be another -900; so that will be 1800.
Signal from here travels 900, 900 1800 again reflects back so another 900 and 900. So, total
path length from here to this particular port and reflected will be about 360 0. So, this one had
1800 phase shift, this one will have 3600 phase shift, these two will cancel. Hence, reflected
power will be relatively 0 or very small.
Let see what happens at this particular port. So, this experiences a phase delay of 90 0, then
from here 900, 900 total path will be 2700 phase delay. And the signal which comes from here
goes to here which will be 1800 phase delay, then another path is 900. So, these 2 reflected
signal will add at this particular code. So that means, now input from here will go to output
port over here.
So, now let see when the switch is ON. It will reflect at this particular point, now second state
will be obtained when the switch is OFF. So, when the switch is OFF, the signal will go to
here and then it will reflect back. So, it will experience l/2 plus another l/2. So, the total
length delay it will experience will be l and that will be equivalent to a phase delay of 2l/.
You can actually say it is β times one or some books write k*l so this will be the phase delay.
So, depending upon whatever the length you have chosen, we can get the phase delay over
here. So, you can just take an example. For example, if this l, I am not talking about l/2. Let
say if this l is equal to /8. So, if this is /8 will have a phase delay of /4 which is about 450.
So, just by switching on and OFF the PIN diode, we can get a differential phase shift which is
given by this particular expression.
Now this is a digital phase shifter. We can realize analog phase shifter here also all we have
to do with it is replace this particular portion and this particular portion by a varactor diode
over here. So, varactor diode will be connected here, another varactor diode will be
connected here and there will be a common biasing to the varactor diode.
So, as we change the biasing voltage, so what will happen? Capacitance will change. So, at
this particular point let say we have a reflection coefficient which is represented by Γ. So,
Z¿ −Z o
what will be Γ = .
Z ¿+ Z o
So, now, here Zin is nothing, but given by the capacitive impedance which is nothing, but Zin =
-jX = -j/ωC. So, if you look at the reflected wave from here basically, it will experience a
phase delay given by the expression which is 2*tan-1(X/Z0) this will be shown in more detail
in the next slide.
Here reflection type phase shifter is realized using circulator, let us quickly look at what is a
circulator? So, circulator is a 3 port device. This arrow direction is very very important. So,
this is one of the application not related directly to the phase shifter, but circulators are used
for this particular application very commonly.
So, let me just explain you this particular thing over here and these are the S parameters for
ideal circulator. So, let me explain you one by one. Let us say we want to transmit a signal
from here. So a transmitter is connected here and you can see the arrow over here. So, this
signal from here goes to the antenna, antenna transmits that particular signal. The signal
received by the antenna comes through here and that goes see again arrow direction; so arrow
direction is in this side. So, this signal received at port 2 will go to port 3. So, at port 3 we
connect receiver.
So, a single antenna can be used as a transmitter or as a receiver. So, let us just look at the S
matrix of this one here; so, as I just mentioned signal will go from port 1 to port 2. So, that
means, S21 = 1. Then this signal from here it will go to here, that means, S 32 = 1. So, that you
can see over here; any input given at this particular port will go over here that means, S 13 = 0.
So, when we give input here, nothing goes over here hence, that term is equal to 0 and when
we give a input here nothing reflects back so rest of their terms are 0.
So, lest see now, how this circulator can be designed as a phase shifter. So, here we have a
input; at this particular port we have connected a varactor diode and this is the output port
over here. So, when the signal comes from this particular port, it goes over here. At this
particular point, it sees a capacitive load. For the capacitive load, we can say that the
impedance will be represented as jX in this case of course, X is negative. So, reflection
Z¿ −Z o jX −Z o
coefficient can be written as Γ = = . So, Zin here is equal to jX as I mentioned
Z ¿+ Z o jX +Z o
X is negative for capacitance.
And this variable capacitance is obtained by using a varactor diode in the reverse bias
condition and by changing the biasing voltage of the varactor diode, one can vary the
capacitance. So, let see what will be the amplitude and phase of this particular thing here. So
the amplitude of numerator will be√ Z 20 + X 2, amplitude of the denominator will be same
2 2
√ Z + X ; so, net amplitude will be equal to 1, that means, everything will reflect back.
0
So everything reflects back. It goes to the output port over here. So, what is the phase
difference it will experience? So for this particular term here phase difference will be tan
inverse X/Z0, for this one here also it will be tan -1(X/Z0); this will have a negative term, this
as a positive and this positive goes up here. It will become minus. So, the phase difference
experience will be -2*tan-1(X/Z0).
jX −Zo −1 X
Γ=
jX +Z o
=1−¿ tan
( )
Zo
So, we can realize a analogue phase shifter simply by changing the capacitance, which can be
realized using a varactor diode with reverse bias voltage. So, here is the realization of that
digital phase shifter. So, let us see here what it is, input is here, now important thing is please
see that what is the arrow direction. So, input is given here, it goes over here.
Now here you can see that there is a PIN diode and line length. So, when this is shorted
power will reflect from this particular point. When this is open circuited power will reflect
from here and then go back. So, it will experience a phase delay corresponding to 2/*2
times this particular length. However, this particular configuration is generally not used the
reason for that is majority of the circulators have narrow bandwidth and high cost.
Now, let us talk about transmission type phase shifter. So basically, transmission type phase
shifter you can see here there is a 2 port network, we have an input on one side, output on the
other side and by controlling the switch position we can change the phase between; the 2
states. So, the phase difference will be realized; when the switch position changes from ON
to OFF or OFF to ON.
.
So, let us just take an example of a switched line phase shifter. So, here we have an input at
this particular point. This is the output it uses two SP2T switches. So, this is the one SP2T
switch, this is another SP2T switch.
So, let us just imagine a situation where this diode D 1 is ON and this diode D 2 is ON and
these two diodes are OFF. So, when these two diodes are OFF. These two were ON, then the
signal will travelled from here; it will go through this and go out from here.
Now when the switch position changes, so now this diode is ON and this diode is ON. So that
means, D3 and D4 are ON, D1 and D2 are OFF. So, in that particular situation, input will go
through this path and it will go to the output. So, when we change the state of these SP2T
switches, so what will happen? There will be a phase difference over here.
So, the differential phase shift is given ∆ = β (l2 - l1). So, this total length is l2 this length is l1.
So, I just want to mention please take one precaution and that is do not take this length l2 to
be equal to 1800 which is equivalent to /2. Because for /2 length it will act as a resonator,
so, performance will degrade. So, avoid that other than that this particular configuration
works very well simply by changing the line length you can realize any value of phase shift.
So, we have done the simulation of this particular configuration using ADS software. So, it
actually shows a complete biasing circuit also. So, one can see here this is the DC voltage,
there is a resistor over here. This capacitance is basically again to stop the ripple. There is a
inductor that inductor acts as a short circuit at DC frequency, but it acts as an open circuit at
ac frequency. Then DC voltage goes through here travels like this goes through the diode and
this provides the path for the DC source, and this inductor again acts as an open circuit at AC
frequency.
So, the same thing has been repeated for the other side so you can see here there is a 1 source
here, 1 source over here. So, we have to ensure that if this is 5 V, this should be 0 V, when
this is 5 V, this should be 0 V.
So, let see what is the result of this particular simulation? So, here I have shown you the
simulated results for phase shift, we had designed this phase shifter at around 2 GHz
frequency for 900 phase shift. So, in the 2 states, this is the S 21 phase response plot, here are
the values. So at 1.9 to 2.1, we have obtained differential phase shift as 850, 900 and 950.
So, you can see that around 2 GHz phase shift obtained is around 90 0. Of course, there is a
one disadvantage you can see as frequency changes, phase shift also changes. So what is the
reason for that? So, just recall, I had mentioned that theta is equal to βl. Now, l is fixed
because the length has been fixed, but β is changing, what is β? β = 2/ so as frequency
changes,  changes and hence phase shift changes.
So, let us see the measured results. So we have fabricated a 90 0 switched line phase shifter.
So, one can actually see here this is input, that is the output over here, you can see that this is
line length l1, this is the line length l2 and this is the biasing circuit given to this particular
circuit.
So, we have to not only check the phase shift, we should also check; what is the reflected
power and what is the insertion loss. You can see the response for S 11; this response from 1.7
to 2.3 GHz. So, you can see that this is a -20 dB line. So, you can see that in most of the
range here, it is less than -18 dB. Let us look at the insertion loss; insertion loss is less than
2.5 dB in the frequency range of 1.7 to 2.3 GHz.
Now, let us see what are the phase differences in state 1 and state 2? So, these are the plots
for the 2 different states state 1 and state 2. So let us see, these are the frequency values. So,
these are the phase values in state 1, these are the phase values in state 2 let us look at the
difference. So, you can see that around 2 GHz the phase difference is approximately equal to
900. So, there is a small error, but still you can see that the results are almost similar to what
we had simulated.
.
Now, let us look at another type of a phase shifter, this is known as loaded line phase shifter.
So, what we have over here? So this is the input port that is the output port. Here we have a
one SP2T switch, another SP2T switch and in between we have a line length of /4. So, let
me explain; what is the purpose of this line length over here?
So, generally speaking what is done that when the switch position changes from, let us say
this thing to this here this is an inductance. So, admittance of that will be let say -jB, this is a
capacitance; admittance of that is jB. So these two you can say that the amplitude of these
two is actually equal. So, when the switch changes from here to here, then what happens at
the transmit part, you will see that there will be a phase change because, we are changing
from + jB to -jB.
So, why do we need all these things here? The reason for that is- if we do not have all of
these things, it was still experience the phase shift as we switch the switch from one position
to the other position. But there will be a large reflected wave over here; the reason for that is
this impedance will come in parallel with the port 2 impedance. But by providing this
particular section we have actually cancelled the reflected signal.
So, let us see how that is achieved so, whatever this signal which reflects back from here.
Now the signal is going and again the same thing will reflect back from here, but while going
from here to here, it will travel a distance of /4 + /4 = /2 and that would provide 1800
phase shift. So, whatever is reflected from here, this reflected wave will have a 1800 phase
shift. So reflected wave will get cancelled.
So, that is the reason; why we use /4 sections. Of course, there is a limitation; whenever we
use a /4 sections, it will have a limited bandwidth.
Let us see now, how we can realize lumped elements using a transmission line and PIN
diode. So, this is just the representation not the actual circuit. So what we have here? This
length here will be approximately equal to /4 at the desired frequency. Here is a one
transmission line another transmission line here, which is connected with a PIN diode over
here.
When the PIN diode is forward bias, then this will provide inductance; when this diode is
reverse biased, this will provide capacitance so that is the concept. So, when you switch the
diode from ON to OFF state so, what will happen inductance will become capacitance?
However, as I mentioned, this is not the final configuration; in the next slide I will show you
what is the final configuration? But how the circuit can be analysed?.
This entire portion here can be realized using shunt admittance here. So, this portion can be
realized again as shunt admittance. So, we know how to analyze this particular configuration
so, we can find A B C D parameters of shunt. Those A B C D parameters of this transmission
line and then A B C D parameters of the shunt multiply these three A B C D parameters and
then find out S parameter and then we can say that phase change of S 21 in 2 states will give
phase difference.
So, this is the circuit realization of a loaded line phase shifter, it also shows the biasing
circuits. So we have here input, output and you can see here this voltage is connected through
the resistor; which limits the current flowing through these PIN diodes. There is a large
inductor over here, which acts as a short circuit at DC frequency, but acts as an open circuit at
AC frequency.
So, the path for the DC current is provided through this resistor, inductor. This line through
this thing and then through this inductor goes to the ground here. And the same supply is
actually used for this thing also as you can see the path will be through this portion over here.
So, you can see here there is a additional line length which has been connected over here. The
reason for these additional line length is that these diodes will actually be represented as
inductance in the ON position, capacitance in the OFF position.
Now the total B value provided by this in the ON state as well as OFF state should be equal.
So, that is where this particular additional length is provided so that Y = + jB = -jB, when the
diode switches the position from let us say ON to OFF.
So, let us see the result of this particular configuration. Again it shows the complete biasing
circuit over here, one can see that there is a source here, resistor, inductor and then there is a
diode here the path to the ground is provided through the inductor here, you can see here
there is a this additional line length is provided.
So, we have designed this particular thing for 22.50 phase shift so let us see the response here.
So, this is the response for one of the state, this is the response for the other state. So, let us
look at the frequency thing here 1.95 to 2.05. So, we had designed for 22.5 0, we are getting
close to that so this is about 23.30 or so. And one can again see that the phase shift changes, if
we change the frequency of operation. Now this particular configuration has been fabricated.
So, let us see the fabricated configuration and what are the results. So, one can see here this is
the input port, output port. This length is equal to /4. You can see here there is a biasing,
voltage here, the resistor and inductors are connected over here and you can see that there is a
PIN diode connected over here, PIN diode connected over here and that is grounded through
a inductor. So, when we apply a positive voltage over here then these PIN diodes will
conduct so we will have a 1 state when 0 voltage is applied these diodes will not conduct. So,
then we will have another state so let us see what are the phase values in state 1 and state 2.
So, here frequencies are given 2.0, 2.05, 2.11. So phase in state 1 is given over here, phase in
state 2 is given over here. So, one can see that we have got a phase shift of around 20 to 21 0 in
this particular frequency region. So, we had designed this particular configuration for 22.5 0.
However, there is a small error in the fabrication. So simulated results and fabricated results
are slightly OFF; however, as you can see that the percentage error is less than 10%. Now as I
mentioned earlier it is also important to see; what is the reflection coefficient and what is the
insertion loss. So, for this particular case as you can see here, S 11 is less than -20 dB in that
desired frequency region and insertion loss is less than 1 dB in the desired frequency region.
So just to summarize, so, today we have discussed about different type of phase shifters. So,
we talked about analog phase shifter and digital phase shifter. So, we saw that analog phase
shifter can be realize by using at 2 branch coupler or circulator by simply changing the
reverse bias voltage of varactor diode.
Now we did look at a few different configurations for digital phase shifter. So we looked at
switched line phase shifter and we also looked at loaded line phase shifter. The basic
difference between the switched line phase shifter and loaded line phase shifter is in case of
switched line all you do it is you change the path from here to the other path. The difference
between the line lengths will give us the phase difference.
In case of loaded line phase shifter, we have a one transmission line, it is loaded at 2 different
points. The separation between the two loading should be /4. So, that the reflected wave at
these two points will cancelled each other and hence, S11 will be relatively small as you can
see here S11 was less than -20 dB. So, in this particular case we saw that insertion loss is less
than 1 dB so with that we conclude phase shifter. In the next lecture one of my TAs will talk
about different types of transistors and after that I will discuss about different types of
amplifiers.
So, thank you very much, bye.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 7
Lecture – 31
Microwave Transistors: BJT, HBT, JFET, MOSFET, MESFET and HEMT
Hi. In this lecture, we will talk about Microwave Transistor. So, let us start the lecture. So,
transistor is a basic building block in electronic devices. It has replaced many of the vacuum
tubes in electronic circuits. The output current or power or voltage of a transistor is controlled
by either the input current or the input voltage of the transistor. Now, depending upon that the
transistors are divided into 2 categories; Bipolar Junction Transistor and Field Effect
Transistor. In case of Bipolar Junction Transistor, the output current of the transistor is
controlled by the input current of the transistor. In these transistors, the current conduction is
due to 2 type of charge carriers; electrons and holes. Now, depending upon the type of charge
carriers, they are divided into 2 categories; PNP and NPN type.
In case of PNP transistors, holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority
carriers. However, in case of NPN transistors, electrons are the majority carriers and holes are
the minority carriers. Now, the most commonly used configuration of the transistor is a
Common Emitter Bipolar Junction Transistor Configuration. Now, these transistors do not
provide desirable characteristics at higher frequencies due to their high base resistance and it
limits the transition frequency of the transistor.
So, there is a new type of Bipolar Junction Transistor that is known as Heterojunction Bipolar
Transistor. It utilizes the different semiconductor material to form emitter and base junction
and provides low base resistance. So, they can operate up to very high frequency range. Next
type of transistor is Field Effect Transistor. It is a unipolar device; it means that the current
conduction in these transistors is due to only one type of charge carriers, it could be either
electron or hole. The output current in these transistors is controlled by the input voltage of
the transistor.
Now, these transistors are further subdivided into various categories depending upon how the
channel is isolated with the gate. In case of Junction Field Effect Transistors, the gate is
isolated from the channel using a reverse bias PN junction. In case of Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors, the gate is isolated from the channel using an
insulating oxide layer. So, that is why, they are known as Metal Oxide Semiconductor.
The next type of semiconductor is Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. In this, the
gate is on the top of the semiconductor transistor. So, in this case the reverse bias PN junction
is replaced by the metal semiconductor schottky region and that is why they are known as
Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. The next type of transistor, we will talk about is
High Electron Mobility Transistor. Now, all these transistors do not provide a desirable
characteristic at higher frequency is due to their internal capacitance.
So, the High Electron Mobility Transistors are made, they are the hetero structures and they
can operate up to very high frequencies, they provide better performance over these
transistors. Then, after discussing these transistors, we will take an example of Common
Emitter Amplifier Design and we will see how the various parameters affect the performance
of the amplifier. Then, we will talk about the Application of Microwave Transistors.
So, a Bipolar Junction Transistor is a 3 terminal device. It is of 2 type; PNP type and NPN
type. In case of PNP transistors, n type of layer is sandwich between two p types of layers.
However, in case of NPN transistor, a p type layer is sandwich two n types of layer. Now
these transistors are divided into 3 regions; Emitter, Base and the Collector. The Emitter is an
outermost region situated on one side of the transistor. The function of the emitter is to inject
charge carriers into the collector. So, as the emitter has to inject careers, they should be
highly doped.
The next type of region is the Base region. The function of the base region is to pass these
charge carriers into the collector. So, this should be lightly doped and they are relative very
thin and the function of the Collector region is to collect the charge carriers. So, they should
have relatively more space, they are situated on other side of the transistor as shown in this
geometry. Now, if this transistor is to be used in circuit, they are represented by these
symbols. Here, the arrow represents the direction of current flow.
So, in general the current flows from the p type region to the n type region. So, in case of
PNP transistors, current flows from emitter to the base; however, in case of NPN transistor
current flows from base to the emitter. Now, these regions form 2 types of junctions; one
junction is formed between Emitter and Base region and another junction is formed between
Collector and Base region. This junction is called as the Emitter-Base Junction and this
junction is called as the Collector-Base Junction.
Now, if this transistor is biased using DC, then this is known as the Biasing of the transistor.
Since, we know that there are 2 type of junctions emitter base junction and collector base
junction. Now, if these junctions are biased, they can be biased either in forward bias or in
reverse bias. Now, depending upon that they can be biased into 4 regions; they are known as
Active Region, Saturation Region, Cut-off Region and Inverted Region. In Active Region,
emitter base junction is forward bias and the collector base junction is reverse bias. In this
region, the output current depends upon the input current and it is controlled by the input
current. In this region the transistor is used as an amplifier.
The next region is the Saturation Region. In this region emitter base junction is forward bias
and collective base junction is also forward bias. So, in this region, output current becomes
independent of the input current. In this region transistor is used as a closed switch. The next
region is the Cut-off Region. In this region, emitter base junction and collector base junction
both are reverse biased. Since, the emitter base junction is reverse bias it does not inject
careers. So, there is no current. So, in this region this transistor acts like a open switch.
The next region is the Inverted Region. In this region, emitter base junction is reverse bias
and collector base junction is forward bias. So, it does not inject any charge carriers. In this
region also current is 0, but this reason is not of any use to the designers. Now, to understand
the working principle of transistor, let us connect this transistor in active region; that means,
the emitter based junction should be forward biased and the character based junction should
be reverse biased.
When the emitter base junction is forward bias emitter injects the electrons into the base, this
constitutes the emitter current. A few holes will also pass from the base to the emitter. Since,
the majority carriers are electrons; there will be only few percent maybe around 0.5 percent
current will be due to the holes passing from base to emitter. When these electron reach to the
base region, they will try to combine with the holes of the base region. Since, base is
relatively thin only few electron will combine with the holes, and that will constitute the base
current; rest of the electron will pass to the collector. Now, these electrons will be collected
by the collector and this will constitute the collector current. There will be one more
component of collector current which will be due to the holes passing from collector to the
base. This is known as the reverse saturation current.
So, in this case, the emitter current is the summation of the base current and the collector
current. Now, if you see here the transistor is a 3 terminal device. Now if you make 1
terminal as grounded or you make it as common; then this can be realize as a 2 terminal
device or a 2 port device. So, depending upon the type that which type of terminal is made
common or grounded, they are divided into 3 configurations. If the base terminal is made
common, then this is called as Common Base configuration. In that case, the collector current
will be the output current and input current will be the emitter current. In case of emitter
terminal when it is grounded or made common, then input will be given to base and the
output will be measured at collector terminal. This is called as Common Emitter
configuration.
And the third type of configuration will be where the common collector will be made and the
input will be given to the base and the output will be measured at the emitter terminal. So,
this is known as the common collector configuration. Now, among these configuration,
common emitter configuration is the most widely used configuration due to its desirable
characteristics like it provides highest voltage gain and highest power gain.
Now, the collective current in case of emitter configuration is given by this expression. I C = IB
+ ICO; where, ICO is the reverse saturation current. Here, if you see this beta I B and ICO, they are
temperature dependent. So, they vary when you increase the temperature. So, there are
chances that it may increase the collector current and there could be a case that because of the
increase in collector current the transistor may breakdown. So, there is a need of stabilization.
So, that is why various stabilization circuits have been suggested. You can look into the
literature for these. Among the biasing circuits the voltage divider biasing circuit is the most
common biasing circuit. So, here is the circuit corresponding to voltage divider bias circuit.
This configuration makes the IC independent of the parameter which varies with the
temperature. So, in that case if the reverse saturation current increases with increase in
temperature, there will be a decrement in base current. So, the IC will be constant.
In this case if you see IC will be given by (VCC -VCE)/RL. So, it will be constant. Now if you
try to draw the output characteristics of this particular configuration that is the variation of I C
with respect to VCE for the constant base current, then you will see the characteristic curves
like this. Here, this reason represents the cutoff region and this region represents the
saturation region. Now, if you are select a point in such a way that V CE = 0; if you put the VCE
= 0 over here, you will get the I C = VCC/ RL. This will be the maximum collector current
allowable in the transistor.
Now, if you choose the another point by making the IC = 0; if you put IC = 0, you will get VCE
= VCC. So, that is represented here. Now, if you try to draw a line using these points, you will
get a line like this and this line is known as the DC load line. This line decides which point;
one should choose to operate in the amplifier region or in active region. Now, if you see one
can choose any point corresponding to various I Bs in this particular region, but there are few
drawbacks like if you select the operating point over here, there are chances that the output
signal upper cycle may get clipped.
Similarly, if you select the second point somewhere here and if you try to draw the amplified
output signal, there are chances that the lower cycle of this output signal may get clipped. So,
this will be distorted. So, one should choose a point in such a way that the amplified output
signal should not be distorted. So, it is suggested that you should select the centre point of
DC load line to ensure the maximum output signal without distortion. So, the centre point for
this DC load line will be VCC/2RL and 1 by 2VCC. So, this is how one should choose the
operating point.
Now, as I mentioned these transistors do not work properly at higher frequencies due to their
internal limitations like these transistors provide higher base resistance at the higher
frequency. So, the transition frequency of these transistors will be relatively less. Now, what
is transition frequency? So, transition frequency denotes the frequency at which the gain of
the transistor drops down to 1. Now, one should decrease the base resistance to increase the
transition frequency. So, there are configuration which was suggested this is known as the
Heterojunction Bipolar Junction Transistor. In this transistor, the emitter and base region are
doped by different semiconductor materials and by using heavily doped base region, the base
resistance of these transistors can be reduced. So, they can operate up to very high frequency
range.
So, here you can see that the emitter and base regions are made using different type of
materials. Now these transistors provide better performance over other bipolar junction
transistors, they provide low transition time due to the type of material used in these
transistors that are like gallium arsenide and they relatively have high mobility. Similarly,
they provide low bass to emitter capacitance due to the lower doping of the emitter region.
Similarly, they provide high transconductance and output resistance, they also provide higher
gain and they have high power handling capability and the breakdown voltage is also high for
these type of transistors.
So, there is a progress in these type of Heterojunction Bipolar Junction Transistors due to the
development of various type of semiconductor materials and due to the improvement in the
manufacturing process. Recently, hetrojunction transistor is made using the silicon
germanium technology and they provide the similar DC RF efficiency as the transistors
provide with the help of these group 3 and group 5 materials, but they are made at relatively
low cost and with relatively low complexity in the manufacturing process.
Till now, we just discussed about the operation of the bipolar transistor. So, here is the
example of the practically available RF transistor; its name is BFP520. It provides higher
gain and low noise and the transition frequency of this transistor is 45 GHz. So, it is fairly
good. Now, as I mentioned that the performance of these transistors degrade with
temperature; so, here I have shown the variation of the power with respect to temperature.
It provides the 125 mW to 1000 C and the transition frequency for this transistor is 45 GHz
for VCE = 2 V. Here, I have also listed down few other specifications like reverse voltage and
the forward voltage and the output current of these transistor. So, it provides a decent gain of
around 20 dB.
Till now, we discussed about the bipolar junction transistors. So, these transistors suffer from
the minority carrier affect. The next type of transistor is a Field Effect Transistor. They are
the unipolar device; that means the current conduction in the field effect transistor is due to
only one type of charge carriers. It could be either electron or hole depending upon the type
of the channel. So, in case of n type channel the charge carriers will be electron and in case of
p type channel charge carriers will be hole.
Now, one of the commonly used Field Effect Transistor at low frequency is Junction Field
Effect Transistor. So, in case of Junction Field Effect Transistor, the structure is shown here.
Two p type of lightly doped regions are diffuse into n type of channel and then, a metallic
terminal is deposited in at these terminals. This is known as gate and there are two other
metallic terminals using the Ohmic contacts; they are known as Source and the Drain.
Now, if you see in this particular configuration, if you do not apply any bias voltage between
the gate and the source terminal which is known as the input terminal, then there will be a
path for electrons to flow from source to drain when you apply even a very small drain to
source voltage. So, the maximum current will flow when V DS is very small and it will again
increase if you increase the value of V DS. Now, if you apply a reverse bias voltage at this
junction VGS; that means, the negative voltage is applied at the gate terminal the depletion
region will try to increase.
Now, if you increase this reverse bias voltage further, there will be a situation that these 2
regions will touch each other. So, there will not be any passage to flow of electrons. So, there
will not be any current and the current will reduce to 0. So, the current in this transistor is
2
V GS
(
given by this expression I D =I Dss 1−
Vp ); here Vp is the Pinch-off voltage.
So, the situation when these depletion region touches each other, this situation is known as
the Pinch-off situation and the voltage VGS at that particular moment is known as the Pinch-
off voltage and VGS is the reverse bias voltage along the gate to source junction and I DSS is the
maximum current when no reverse bias voltage is applied. There is one more term
transconductance. So, transconductance is a measure of change in output current I D with
respect to change in the input voltage VGS for a constant value of VDS. Now, if you try to draw
the output characteristics of this transistor; that means, the variation of I D with respect to
variation in drain to source voltage you will the curves like this.
Here, this represents the Pinch-off region and these region represent the Ohmic region. In this
region, there will not be any flow of current; however, in this region the field effect transistor
will act like a voltage controlled resistor and this region is the saturation region. In this
region, the drain current will be independent of the variation in the output voltage and the
amplifier should operate in this region, if this FET is to be used for the amplification purpose.
The next type of transistor is the Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor. In this transistor, the
gate is separated from the channel by an insulating oxide layer; generally it is of silicon
oxide. So, due to the insertion of silicon oxide, it provides very high gate capacitance and the
impedance of these transistors will be very high may be up to of the order of mega ohm.
Now, if you see here these MOSFETs are divided into 2 categories; one is known as the
Depletion MOSFET and other one is Enhancement type MOSFET.
So, in Depletion type MOSFET, there is a channel between the source and the drain terminal.
So, there will be a flow of current when you do not apply any bias voltage between the gate
and the source. So, there will be flow of current. Now, if you apply a negative bias voltage, it
will try to repel the electrons away from this channel. So, the current will reduce or if you
apply a positive bias voltage, it will attract the electrons. So, the current will increase. So, the
Depletion type MOSFET is similar to the Junction Field Effect Transistor.
The next type of transistor is the Enhancement type MOSFET. In this, the channel doping is
either very light or there is no doping; that means, the channel is either undoped or it is
lightly doped. So, in this case there is no flow of current when you use these Enhancement
type transistors. So, if you apply a positive bias, in that case it will try to attract the electrons
and the electrons will gather in this region and they will try to form a channel. So, when the
gate to source voltage is greater than the threshold voltage, it will form a channel between the
drain and the source terminal and the current conduction will take place from drain to source.
Now, if you increase the voltage further the current will increase. Similarly, if you take
negative gate voltage, in that case, it will repel the electron and the current will be 0. So, now,
output characteristics of these transistors are drawn. Here, this reason represents the cutoff
region, this region represents the linear region or triode region and this is the saturation
region. It is similar to the JFET region.
So, in this region the drain to source voltage should be less than the difference of V GS and VT;
however, in this region the drain to source voltage should be greater than the difference of
VGS and VT and the transistor should operate in this region for amplification purpose. Now if
this transistor is to be used in the circuit, then they are represented by this symbol. Here, this
broken line represents that there is no flow of current in these type of device.
Now, these transistors do not provide desirable performance at higher frequencies due to the
internal capacitance of the transistors. So, this capacitance should be reduced. The major
component is due to the gate capacitance and which is due to the oxide layer in the transistor.
Now, if you replace this oxide layer by simply gate semiconductor junction, then that type of
semiconductor is known as the Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. So, here the
gate is placed on the top of the semiconductor junction. It behaves in the similar way as the
MOSFET and JFET does. By applying the negative gate to source voltage, it forms the
depletion region and it restricts the flow of current. So, the current will reduce.
Now, due to the metal semiconductor region, it provides relatively fast recovery time. So,
they are relatively faster and they can operator up to relatively high frequency range. So, here
is the structure of gallium arsenide based MESFET and it provides better performance over
other transistor due to the higher mobility of these materials. So, they provide the various
better characteristics over other transistors; they are high electron mobility, low capacitance
level, high input impedance and they providing negative temperature coefficients and there is
lack of oxide traps in these transistors. Similarly, there is a high level of control in this type of
geometries.
Now, one of the critical parameter in this transistor is the gate length. By reducing the gate
length, its maximum operating frequency can be varied. So, if the gate length is less, the
maximum frequency will be more and if the gate width is reduced in that case the noise
performance will improve and if the gate width is high, this will be a better transistor for the
high power application. Now, these transistors are also not very suitable for very high
frequency range.
So, there is a improvement in transistor by making the changes in the channel. So, they are
known as high electron mobility transistors. They are made of heterostructures. In these
transistors, the channel is made by using different type of materials. So, here is a structure of
high electron mobility transistor. They provides very high power dissipation capability and
maximum operating frequency and the noise performance over the MESFET and this better
performance is due to the higher mobility of electron in these transistors.
Now, in the same way as it was the case of as MESFET, here also the gate length is the
critical parameter and this decides the maximum operating frequency and in these transistors,
the transconductance is directly proportional to the gate width and inversely proportional to
the gate length. There is one more critical parameter in this that is the undoped gallium
arsenide layer width and the n type dope aluminium gallium arsenide width. So, therefore,
microwave region this width should be between 0.02 micron to 0.3 micron, (Refer Time:
27:33) in this region, the width should be of around 5 nanometer.
Now, we will discuss about the design example of common emitter amplifier. Now, before
going into this, let us compare the field effect transistors with the bipolar junction transistor.
So, field effect transistors occupy relatively less area. So, they are more suitable to be
integrated in the IC form and they do not suffer with the minority carrier affects. Similarly,
they have the negative temperature coefficient. So, they do not suffer with the temperature
variations. Hence, these devices do not go into the thermal runaway situation and the input
impedance of these transistors are also high of the order or mega ohm. However, in case of
bipolar junction transistor the impedance is of the order of kilo ohm.
Now, we will take an example of Common Emitter Amplifier. This is the example of
Common Emitter Amplifier using voltage divider bias configuration. The supply voltage is
12 volt. Now, we should choose the operating point in order to act this configuration as an
amplifier. So, one should choose the voltage over here in such a way so that its value should
be one-third and it will depend upon the value of these resistors. So, let us take
V CC V B −V BE 4−0.7
V B =¿ =4V , I E = = =1 mA
3 RE 3.3
IE
I B= ≅10 A
β +1
Now, if you try to calculate the collector to emitter voltage VCE.
V C E =V CC −I C R C −I E R E ¿ 4.7 V
V T 25 mV
r e= = =25
IC 1mA
Now, let us calculate the output and input impedance and other parameters of this particular
configuration. To calculate the output impedance just short circuit all the voltage sources and
open circuit all the current sources. Now, if you short circuit and you see the impedance at
output terminal, you will see that the Rout = RC = 4 k. And now, to calculate the input
impedance this will be the impedance seen at this end. So, it will be a parallel combination of
R1 and R2 and the impedance seen by this transistor.
So, here I have drawn the re model of this transistor. So, the input impedance will be the
parallel combination of R1, R2 and 𝛽r e. So, 𝛽r eis because of the transistor. So, if you see here
and put the value of 𝛽 and r e, you will get this particular expression.
There is one thing to be noted. In this configuration, it is assume that the current going in this
particular direction that is the base current is very less as compared to the current going in
V cc
this particular loop. So, the current going in this loop will be given by ¿ ≫ I B. Now, if
R1 + R2
you calculate the voltage gain using this model, we know that the voltage gain is represented
by
v o vo v i I B (R c ∥ R L ) R¿
A v= = . = .
v s vi v s re R¿+ R s
Vo by Vs and if you bifurcate this in these 2 expressions like V o upon Vi into Vi by Vs. So,
we know that Vo will be given by this. So, here Vo will be minus beta IB times of RC in
parallel with RL you can neglect Ro because the value of this Ro is very high.
So, it will be beta times of I B into RC || RL and Vi will be this. So, that will be beta into re into
IB. Now, you see the IB and beta, they will cancel out and for this particular expressions Vi
will be if you equate this equivalent impedance by R in and this source voltage is connected
R¿
here, then the voltage along the V ¿= V using this simple voltage divider rule.
R¿+ R s s
And now, if you try to simplify this expression, you will get the voltage gain like this and
further if you put the value of R C and RL and re, you will get the expression this. Now here,
the source resistance for the microwave region is 50  because all the sources have the 50 
impedance. Now the other parameter that decides this gain is the R in and that depends upon
the value of R1 and R2. Now, what should be the value of R 1 and R2? So, we know that this
will be less than 1. So, our purpose should be that this should be close to 1 and for that we
should choose R1 and R2 as high as possible, but as I mentioned here, this R 1 and R2 also
limits the current. So, one should choose the point accordingly.
So, let us take here 3 cases when R 1 and R2 are 1 k and 2 k and for the second case, when
they are 10 k and 20 k and for the third case, they are 100 k and 200 k.
R ¿=R 1 ∥ R 2 ∥ ( 1+ β ) r e ¿ R 1 ∥ R 2 ∥2.5 k
For the first case R1 = 1 k, R2 = 2 k, Rin, = 0.53 k and if you put this value in this
R¿ V cc
expression, A v=−114. =−104 , I =¿ =4 mA
R¿+ R s R1 + R2
So, it has reduced the voltage gain significantly. Now if you see the value of the current is 4
mA. So, it is significantly greater than the base current because base current is 10 μ A. For the
R¿
second case, R1 = 10 k, R2 = 20 k,R ¿=1.82 k the voltage gain A v=−114. =¿-110.
R¿+ R s
V cc
So, it is better than this particular case and the current, I =¿ =0. 4 mA. So, this is also
R1 + R2
relatively much higher as compared to base current and in the third case R 1 = 100 k, R2 =
R¿
200 k, R ¿=2.41 k and the voltage gain A v=−114. =¿-112. But the current, if you see
R¿+ R s
V cc
here ¿ =4 0 μ A which is not much higher than the base current. So, this case cannot
R1 + R2
be considered. So, the most appropriate choice for this case is R 1 = 10 k, and R2 = 20 k.
So, one should choose the value of these parameters by keeping in mind different
considerations of the common emitter amplifier configurations. Now, we will talk about the
transistor applications.
So, these transistors can be used in attenuators, RF circuits, amplifiers. In amplifiers, with the
help of transistors, you can make the low power amplifier, medium gain amplifiers, high
power amplifiers. Similarly, you can also make low noise amplifier and again with the help
of transistors; you can make oscillators and mixers. So, in the previous lecture, you have
studied the use of transistors in variable attenuator and in RF switches and in the coming
lectures, you will see the use of these transistor in amplifier oscillators and other circuits.
Now, to conclude this, we started with microwave transistors and these are of 2 types. We
started with Bipolar Junction Transistor, then we saw the limitations of Bipolar Junction
Transistors; to overcome them limitations of low frequency bipolar junction transistor, the
Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors were introduced. They can operate up to very high
frequency range be up to of the order of 100 GHz. Then, we saw the other type of transistor
that is known as the Field Effect Transistor.
After that we saw the low frequency transistors that are Junction Field Effect Transistor and
the Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor and we saw that the internal parameters of these
transistors limit the frequency of these transistors. So, to improve the frequency, we studied
the next type of transistor that is Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. Here, the
reverse bias PN junction or the oxide layer of the transistor is replaced by the metal
semiconductor junction. So, they can operate up to relatively very high frequency range and
they provides relatively high gain. These MESFET cannot operate up to very high frequency
range.
So, the next type of transistors were introduced that are known as high electron mobility
transistors and in these transistors, the channel is made using different type of semiconductor
and these transistors provides the better performance over the other transistors. Now, I mean
all these transistors the Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors are the best option, if you want to
operate at high frequency range.
So, in the next lecture you will see the application of these transistors in amplifiers.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 7
Lecture – 32
Microwave Amplifiers – I: Basics and Power Gain Expressions
Hello, everyone. Today, we are going to talk about Microwave Amplifiers. In the previous
lecture, you had heard about different types of transistors. So, today, we will see the
application of transistors for designing Microwave Amplifiers. However, we are going to
start with an inverting amplifier Op-Amp, the reason for that is you are already familiar with
how Op-Amps work.
So, let us see a simple example of an inverting amplifier and we have a design statement here
that design an inverting amplifier for a gain of minus 1000. So, an inverting amplifier
configuration is shown over here, where we can see that there is a feedback resistor R 2, in
some books they write Rf. And here the resistor is R 1 and we can say that the gain of this
particular amplifier is nothing but
V out R 2
=
V ¿ R1
The problem statement is we have to design this for a gain of minus 1000. So, we have to
choose the values of R1 and R2. So, there are several possibilities of choosing R1 and R2. So,
we can choose R1 as 1 Ω R2 as 1 kΩ or 10 Ω, 10 kΩ; 1 kΩ, 1 MΩ. So, now, which one is the
best choice among these different values of resistors? All of these values will give us gain
equal to minus 1000, but are these practical values. So, this is where the difference comes
when you are designing an amplifier you must know, what are the parameters we should
choose so that it fulfills different requirements.
So, for example, over here if we choose R1 equal to 1 Ω, then what will happen input
impedance looking at this point is equal to R 1 and that would be equal to 1 Ω. Now, for an
amplifier generally desirable characteristic is that it should have a very high input impedance;
so that means, if we choose the value of 1 kΩ, then R2 comes out to be 1 MΩ.
Now of course, 1 MΩ resistors are available, but if you think about a practical 741 Op-Amp,
then the practical 741 Op-Amp has an input impedance between these 2 ports equal to 2 MΩ.
So, this 2 MΩ somehow comes in parallel with this particular resistor. So, if you choose this
value of 1 mega Ω, I can tell you will not get a gain of 1000. In fact, gain will be slightly less
than that.
Now, there is a another problem associated with the Op-Amp and this is the typical gain
variation with frequency. So, let us see what we have over here. So, you can see that there is
a peak gain of around 105 over here and then, the gain is reducing. Now, typically for a 741
Op-Amp, gain bandwidth product which is what is written over here is 1 MHz. So, if we
design an amplifier for a gain of 1000, then the we draw a line here corresponding to gain of
1000 and we can see that the corresponding frequency will be 1 kHz.
So, that means, this particular amplifier will be only useful to amplify the signal up to 1 kHz;
so, that means, it cannot be used for audio signal because audio signal bandwidth can be up to
20 kHz. So, if you try to use up to 20 kHz you will not get this particular characteristic of
very high gain.
So, does that mean that we cannot use 741 Op-Amp for a very high gain? In fact, I would
generally recommend donot try to design these Op-Amps for very high gain of 1000. I
generally recommend that you design this particular value of gain in 2 or 3 stages. So, for
example, if you use 3 stages, then each stage can give us a gain of 10, 10, 10. The another
thing is if you want to use only 2 stages, then you can use something like maybe a gain of 10
and 100; maybe gain of 31.6 and 31.6. So, that you can get overall gain of 1000.
Another thing which I would generally recommend that for most of these application is better
to design non inverting amplifier. We would be giving input at this particular point and this
would be grounded in that particular case gain will be given by 1+ R2/R1. So, here the
advantages, if we give input here input impedance is very high. So, one can realize a high
input impedance amplifier. There are many applications where we have to amplify a very low
signal and that signal maybe at a very low frequency. It can be even a DC voltage. So, for
example, if let us say a sensor is connected at this particular port over here and this sensor
can be a temperature sensor pressure sensor thermocouple and so on.
And these sensors generally give very small voltage that could be of the order of 1 uV or 1
mV. So, we have to amplify that particular signal with a very high gain. So, you can use
sometimes these kind of a configuration, but be careful you should know what is the
application for which application, you have to design the amplifier. Now, from here we will
shift to the very high frequency and that is microwave amplifier, but I just want to bring to
your attention one more time the gain decreases as the frequency increases.
Now, this is 1 megahertz, if we go to 1 GHz gain response will be extremely poor for 741
Op-Amp. In fact, it will not even work, but I want to mention there are several Op-Amps;
they have a gain bandwidth product of 1 GHz to even a few GHz. So, if you want to use Op-
Amp at very high frequency, it is better to use those Op-Amp than to use 741 Op-Amp.
So, let us go to the next part how to design microwave amplifier using transistor. So, here we
have taken an example of BFP520 transistor. This is actually known as Low Noise Silicon
Bipolar Transistor. It is available for Infineon Company and you can actually click on this
particular thing and see the data sheet of this particular transistor. So, I just want to mention a
few things over here. So, this transistor is to be biased for V CE equal to 2 volt, IC equal to 10
mA, the transistor looks like this over here. So, we have a terminal 1 which is base; terminal
2 and terminal 4 both are emitter. 2 and 4 should be connected with each other so that we
have a emitter which is common and this is collector.
And you must be familiar with let us say common emitter amplifier, common base amplifier,
common collector amplifier. So, some of those can be used, but with little modification. Now
generally speaking a manufacturer at microwave frequency does not give h parameters, but it
actually gives S parameter. So, this S parameters are measured using network analyzer. So,
one of the port of the network analyzer which is actually generating different frequencies is
connected to the input port of the transistor and the output port of the transistor is connected
to the other port of the network analyzer which does the measurement. Of course, the
network analyzer can do measurement in both the directions also.
So, by using this network analyzer one can actually measure S 11, S21, S12 as well as S22. So,
here the plots of S21 and S11 are given. So, let us see what we have here? So, this is the
frequency from 0 to 6 GHz and this is the gain value you can see that it varies from 0 to up to
25. These are numeric values. So, let us see how magnitude of S 21 varies. You can see that as
frequency increases S21 value is decreasing. So, let just look at some typical numbers here. At
2 GHz frequency, S21 is equal to 10. So, gain is equal to S 21 square. So, that will be equal to
100 and if we now take 10 log of gain that comes out to be 20 dB; so, gain at this frequency
is 20 dB.
So, at this particular frequency, you can say which is approximately 0.6 GHz, gain is going to
be equal to S21 square which is 20 square which is equal to 400 and 400 is equivalent to 26
dB. But you can see that as frequency increases, gain keeps on decreasing and one can see
that somewhere at 4 GHz now, gain is just about 5 square which is equal to 25 and as
frequency increases further, gain is reducing further. Now corresponding to this now let us
see we have S11 plot. One can actually see here that at lower frequencies S 11 is very poor. If
you look at a value of 0.8 for S 11 and recall reflection coefficient is equal to S 11 which is equal
to 0.8. So, reflected power will be square of this which is 0.64.
So that means, 64 percent power will reflect back. So, one should really do something at this
particular frequencies. So, if you want to use this particular transistor at lower frequencies,
we must try to optimize the input impedance of this particular transistor. You can see that at
around 3 to 4 GHz, reflection coefficient is relatively less than 0.3 which corresponds to
reflected power of about 10 percent which may be acceptable. But if we know that, we are
going to operate at a frequency of 3 GHz or let us say a Wi-Fi frequency of 2.5 GHz. Then,
we know what is the value of S11. So, this can be improved by providing impedance matching
network.
Now, the similar thing needs to be done at the output port also S 22 also again may not be
equal to 0; at all these frequencies, it may have a finite value. So, we need to provide output
impedance matching network. So, for a given device generally speaking S parameters are
specified for given biasing condition by the manufacturer. So, now, what we are going to do?
We are going to look at the expression for how to find out in of a device.
Now, this concept is common to any general device, but since this topic is microwave
amplifier. So, I have written here in the bracket amplifier.
So, let us see what we want to do over here and why we want to do it? So, first thing is we
want to find out in. So, let us look at how to find out in. So, let us see over here. So, here a
given device is specified by its S parameters at the desired frequency and given biasing
conditions. Now you can see here this is the incoming wave a1; here is a incoming wave a2.
This is the reflected wave b1; this is reflected b2. This device is now connected with the
source which has a source impedance and there is a load over here. So, the objective here is
to find out in ok. So, how do we start? Let us start with S parameters. We have already
discussed about S parameters in our previous lecture. So, S parameters that defined in terms
of b1, b2 and these are S11 S12 a1 a2, S21a1 + S22a2.
Now, let just look at the another thing here which is L. So, how do we define reflection
coefficient? Generally, speaking reflection coefficient is defined by you can say reflected
wave divided by incident wave. So, now, if you look at this side here what is the reflected
wave looking in this side that will be a2 and what is the incident wave that will be b2. So, L is
given by reflected wave which is a 2, incident wave which is b2. So, from here we can find out
a2 is nothing but equal to L times b2. So, we substitute this particular value over. We
substitute this value of a2 in this particular equation here. So, b2 = S21a1+ S22 L b2.
So, now we simplify this particular thing for b 2. So, this term will come to this side and then
we divide it. So, b2 expression is given by the equation number 4. So, now, what we do? We
actually put this value of b2 in this particular equation over here, but after we write a 2 equal to
L b2. Why we are doing that? Because, our objective is to find in which is equal to b1 by a1.
So, we want to get b1 by a1, we have already removed a2 from here as you can see from this
equation, now we will remove a2 from here. So, let us see how we proceed. So, this is how
we proceed. b1 is S11a1+ S12a2. a2 is Lb2 and b2 is given by this particular expression.
So, now we solve that equation and we get this particular expression over here. So, what is
this expression? in is equal to S11 + (S12 S21 L)/(1-S22 L). Now generally for a device we are
familiar with S11. Now some additional term has come over here. Why this additional term
has come over here? The reason for that is the S parameters of a device are defined when you
put matched load at the input or output side, over here it is not terminated with the matched
load; but it is actually terminated with some unknown load impedance ZL.
So, if ZL is unknown, if it is not equal to 50 Ω; then, L will not be equal to 0, but suppose if
it is terminated with 50 Ω in that case L will be equal to 0 and if L is equal to 0, we put 0
over here in will be equal to S11. So, that is how S parameters are defined.
Let us look at another thing also here and that is S21, we know is a forward gain from here to
here and amplifier should actually send the signal from the input side to the output side. What
is S12? S12 is if we give input at the output side. What is the output? Generally, speaking we
would like S12 be close to 0. So, in this case also if you put S 12 equal to 0, then what we will
get in will be equal to S11 and in that particular case it does not matter what is L.
So, what it really means is that if amplifier is only sending signal in this direction and not
sending any signal over here. This is also known as a unilateral case. In fact, we would like
an amplifier to be perfectly unilateral case; that means, it only send signals in this direction. It
does not send signal in this particular direction. If it does send some signal in this particular
direction, it is known as bilateral case.
Now, this equation can be further simplified. So, let us see what we have here. So, from here
you can see that denominator is 1 - S22L which remain same here. This particular thing is
multiplied. So, you will get S11 - S11S22L and plus this term over here. So, that can be
simplified in this particular form over here so where ∆ is given by this expression here. What
is ∆ over here? Actually, speaking it is nothing but determinant of the S matrix; determinant
of S matrix will be S11S22 - S12S21. We will use this particular equation later on.
So now, what is the purpose of finding in? Actually speaking the purpose of finding in is
that, we find what is the value of in after considering all these things here. Then, we design
impedance matching network over here. So, that maximum power transfer can take place
from the source to this particular device.
When maximum power transfer will take place from the source to this particular device, that
will be the case when S looking from this side is equal to in*. So, you all know that for
maximum power transfer, load impedance should be equal to source impedance if it is real
impedance. But for complex impedance, load impedance should be equal to complex
conjugate of the source impedance. So, that is what we need to do. So, first we find out the
value of in by using this expression and then, we design a impedance matching network. So,
that S of that particular thing will be equal to in conjugate.
Now, by using the same concept, we can find out out of the device also, but before we look
into that I will just tell you intuitively what you should expect? So, if instead of in if it is out,
this will b2 divided by a2. S11 will become S22; S22 will become S11, S12, S21 will swap each
other. So, it will remain same and L will become S. So, let us see.

So, this is the derivation of out of the device. So, again what we want to find out we want to
find out out is equal to b2 by a2. Now in order to find out the output impedance or out, we
must make source equal to 0. So, you can see that source is now made 0, since we had taken a
voltage source. So, 0 voltage source would mean short circuit. Had there been a current
source, then we would have made current source equal to 0 that would imply open circuit.
So, now objective is to find out equal to b2 by a2. If you look at this expression here, I had
just mentioned to you that this can be derived just by looking at the in expression. But over
here, let us quickly see how we can do the derivation. Again, we start with the S parameters
which are given over here. In this case now let us define S. What is S looking at this
particular side over here. And for S, what we have to again say? It is a reflected wave
divided by incident wave.
So, if you are looking from this side, what is reflected wave? a 1. What is the incident wave?
b1. So, from here we can write a 1 is S times b1, substitute this value of a1 and simplify you
will get this particular expression and this expression can be written in this particular form
where ∆ is nothing but S11S22 - S12S21.
So, now we will find the expression for the gain and here, we are going to use Mason’s
Signal Flow rule or generally speaking this Mason’s Signal Flow Rule is taught in the control
theory, but we can use the same concept over here also. So, let us see we have S parameters
of the device, we have a load here and there is a source impedance. Remember this is not 50
Ω. This ZS will be chosen properly so that we can provide impedance matching network later
on. So, here this source is supplying bs waveform. So, now, let us see how we can actually
speaking build this signal flow graph. So, we start again with the S parameters over here. We
also know what is a2? a2 is L b2. You can just quickly check here, what is L? L is reflected
wave which is a2 divided by incident wave. So, that gives us a2 = L b2.
What is S? So, S, we had seen previously it was a1 by b1, but that was the case when bs was
equal to 0. If bs is present in that particular case you can see b s is also coming. So, a1 will be
now equal to you can see from here S b1 + bs. So, now, these 4 equations are represented in
this graphical form over here. So, let us see how we can build this particular signal flow. So,
let us start with let us say b2. So, b2 is given by S21 a1. So, b2 we locate a1. So, a1 multiplied by
S21 plus S22 a2. So, we locate here a2. This is S22. So, these are known as path gain. Now let us
look at the other equation which is b1. So, b1 is S11 a1. So, b1 is S11 a1 plus S12 a2; so, plus S12
a2.
Now, we need to look at this equation here. So, a2 is L b2. So, a2 = L b2 and a1 is given by
this expression here. So, let us see if this is a 1. So, b1 times S and plus bs is coming from
here. So, now, let us see what is the expression for Mason Signal Flow.
So, this is the transfer function which can be used to find out the gain of the amplifier. So,
what it shows over here. This transfer function can be used to find out the transfer function
from let us say point 1 to point 2 ok. So, what this expression has here. Let us start with the
denominator you can see here it is 1 minus summation L(1) plus summation of L(2) minus
summation of L(3). So, let us see what are these things?
So, we can see here L(1) L(2) L(3) these are nothing but sum of all first order second order
and third order loops. I will define in the next slide, what are these things here. Now here, we
have in the numerator you can see here there is a P 1. This is the gain of path number 1 this is
the gain of the path number 2 and what are these terms here? These are the terms, these are
the different loops which do not touch the path 1 and these are the loops which do not touch
the path P2.
Now let us see how we can find out the various parameters for this particular case here.
We want to find out the gain which is given by b 2 / bs; b2 is the output, bs is the input. So, let
us see what is the path we have? There is a only 1 path from b s to b2 and we can write that
path gain is nothing but equal to 1 multiplied by 1 into S21.
So, this is the path gain. There is no other path to go from this point to this particular point.
So that means, P2 is equal to 0. So, these are the different steps down. So, step 1 path. So, we
can actually see that the there is only 1 path which is equal to S 21. I just want to mention here
that in to define the path, no node should be touched more than once ok.
So, now, let us see what are the first order loops ok? So, there are 3 first order loops in this
particular case and the loop gain for these 3 loops given by these expressions here. So, this is
the first one, second and third one. Now, what is this second order loop? Second order loop is
product of any 2 non touching loops. These 2 loops are not touching each other. So, hence
this term comes over here you can see that is a product of these 2 terms over here.
There is no third order loop because there are no 3 non touching loops and hence, this
particular thing will be equal to 0. So, now, we can write b 2 divided by bs. So, let us look at
the numerator it is nothing but P1. There is no loop which is not touching this particular path
hence other terms are 0. So, we are left with only S 21. Let us see now the denominator.
Denominator is 1 minus summation of the first order loop. So, you can see here S 11 S, then
S22 L; then, this term over here. So, that is the summation of the first order loop and then,
plus summation of second order loop and there is only 1 term. So, that comes over here.
Now, this expression can be simplified in this particular form, we will see later on how this
particular form will be useful to design the gain of this particular amplifier. Now, we are
going to define 3 different types of gain.
Now, till now you might be more familiar with only 1 gain; you know output voltage divided
by input voltage or output power divided by input power. So, why we are defining 3 different
types of gain over here? In fact, I just want to tell you actually all these 3 gains are related to
each other in a very simple manner. We are going to first start with Operating Power Gain
which is given by Pl / Pin. What is Pl? Power delivered to the load. What is P in? That is input
power.
So, from here let us go to this expression here which is Transducer Power Gain. Transducer
Power Gain, if you see the difference is only that P in is equal to PAVS. So, what will be the
maximum value of the power available from the source when P in will be maximum? So, Pin
will be maximum, when in is equal to S*. So, what we have here that input impedance of the
device should be complex conjugate of the source impedance. Now, let us see what is the
maximum available power from a given device? That is defined by this expression over here.
So, compare to Gt, what is the difference here? Now, Pl is equal to PAVN.
So, this is the maximum value of the power which can be delivered to the load and maximum
power will be available when L is equal to out conjugate. So that means, maximum available
power from a device would be when input as well as output impedances are complex
conjugate of the source and load impedances. In that particular case, we actually say that this
is the maximum available power from an amplifier. So, now, let just quickly look at the
expressions ok.
We will start with the Transducer Power Gain and Transducer Power Gain expression is
given by this term over here.
So, why are we starting with this particular expression? The reason for that is the load may
not be in our hand, the load may change depending upon the requirement. But power
available from the source can be optimized. What we can to here that we can actually find out
what is the in of the device and then, we design impedance matching network such a way
that maximum power transfer takes place from the source to the input of the active device.
So, that is why we are starting with the G t ok. So, what is Gt now? Pl divided by P available
from the source. So, this is given by
1 2 2
(|b2| −|a2| )
2
Why? b2 square is the wave which is going to the load and a 2 is the reflected back signal from
the load. So, hence P delivered to the load will be given by the expression here we take b 2
square outside, then this will be 1 and this will be a 2 divided by b2. So, that will be L. So,
that is the expression for Pl. Let us see how we can find out expression for P available from
1 2
the source and that is equal to |b | . So, this part is kind of obvious, but we have a another
2 s
term over here.
Now, this expression will be equivalent to this particular expression if S is equal to 0. So, if
S is equal 0, this will be 1 minus 0. So, this is kind of obvious that P available from the
sources half of bs square. Now, why this term comes into picture? The reason for that is if it is
not properly matched, then what will happen part of the wave will get reflected back. So, let
just take the words case assuming that S is equal to 1. So, if it is 1, what it would mean 1
minus 1 will be equal to 0 and that would imply that power available from the source is
infinity. What is that really mean? Well, you can think differently. See, if everything is
reflected back; then, we can conceptually say well infinite power is available. Eventhough
actually speaking it is not available, you are not supplying anything.
So, in general we always try that S should be done properly so that power available from the
source can be maximized. Now, let us look at the expression for G t. So, Pl divided by P
available from the source. So, half and half will get cancel. So, b 2 divided by bs that
expression we have derived in the previous slide. So, that will have several terms. Let just
look at other terms also in the numerator. We have 1−¿ Γ L∨¿2 ¿that is written right over here.
This term was in the denominator since it is divided. So, this will go up over here. Now, all
these terms over here they are coming because of this expression of b2 divided by bs.
So, you can actually speaking see here this term is related to everything in the source side;
this term is related everything to the load side. So, basically what you can see over here, this
is the gain term corresponding to the source side and that can be optimized by properly
choosing impedance matching network at the input side. Now this is the term which
corresponds to the load side, this can be optimized properly by designing a proper output
impedance matching network. But I still want to mention over here, you can see here this is
in. This is not the way it was written as b 2 by bs. I just want to mention here you have to do
little bit of a simplification, in is given by
S12 S 21 Γ L
Γ ¿=S11 +
1−S22 Γ L
Substitute that expression, you will get what we had derived in the previous slide. We can see
over here out is there. So, here out; whereas, this is S22 over here. So, again for out you have
to write the expression of out which is S22 plus the other term, simplify it, you will get the
same expression as in the previous slide. In fact, these 2 expressions are exactly identical just
that the representation is slightly different. So, here you can see these are the input side, these
are the output side. So, in the next lecture, we will start from here; we will start with the
expression Gt and then, we derive other expression.
So, just to summarize, today, we started with a very simple inverting operational amplifier
where we did look at the design problem of gain equal to minus 1000 and how resistors
should be chosen appropriately. Then we looked at S parameters of a transistor and we
noticed that S21 of the transistor keeps on decreasing as frequency increases. So, at higher
frequency really speaking, we have to optimize the gain properly so that we can get a higher
gain and to obtain the higher gain, what we need to do? We have to find out in, we have find
out and then, we have to design impedance matching networks at both input and output sides.
So, that maximum transfer of the power takes place from input to the output side.
So, thank you very much. We will see you next time.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 7
Lecture - 33
Microwave Amplifiers - II: Stability and Constant Gain Circles
Hello, in the last lecture we had started talking about Microwave Amplifier. So, we will
continue we started with the simple inverting amplifier using op amp.

Then I mentioned about the transistor BFP 520, then I had mentioned about the transistor S
parameters for given biasing conditions and we had seen that S 21 decreases as frequency
increases. And this is the plot for the S 11, where also noticed that S11 has a non zero value
over the frequency band, hence it is important to design impedance matching network in the
input side as well as at the output side.

Hence we looked at the derivation for Γ in of the device, which is given by the this particular
expression over here, then we looked at the derivation of Γ out of the device, which is given by
this particular expression here.
After that, we use Masons signal flow rule to find out the gain of the amplifier, where the
objective was to find b2 / bs and we had used this signal flow.
And then applied the Mason’s signal flow transfer function formula and after that we
calculated path from point bs to b2 and then we found out what are the different loops and
then we found out overall b2/bs.
After that we looked at three different gain expressions; operating power gain, then
transducer power gain, then we talked about available power gain and this happens when
both Γin = Γs* and ΓL = Γout*.
After that we looked at the expression for transducer power gain and we had seen this
particular expression over here. So, this is the point where we left in the last lecture, let us
continue from here now. So, as I mentioned this term corresponds to the input side, which
can be maximized by using proper input impedance matching network. This is the gain
because of that device S21 and this term can be optimized by properly designing output
matching network, even though as I mentioned earlier this is this input side, but Γ in depends
upon ΓL.
So, somehow dependence of output is coming over here similarly, in this particular
expression you can see there is a Γ out here, but Γout depends upon Γs. So, this output really
speaking depends on again the input side. So, to make things simple we are going to take a
few cases so, let us take these cases one by one.
So, the first case which we are going to take is a case 1; matched transducer power gain, what
this really means that if Γs = 0 and ΓL = 0, then the previous expression reduces to this
particular term only over here. So, this is kind of obvious because that is how S parameters of
the device is measured because, what you do to measure S parameter, which terminate the
output and the input side with 50 Ω.
So, if it is 50 Ω, then Γs will be equal to 0 ΓL will be equal to 0 so, this is the matched gain.
Now let us take a special case of unilateral transducer power gain, this is defined when S 12 =
0. That means, power flow is only in one direction and in the other direction there is a no
power flow that is why it is known as unilateral case, in case of bilateral power flow will be
in both the direction.
So, when S12 = 0, you can see here that there is a no Γ in or Γout term right now because, Γin is
now equal to S11 and Γout = S22. When S12 is equals to 0. Now from Gtu we can find out what is
the maximum unilateral transducer power gain which is defined by G tu,max and this situation
will happen when Γs = S11*.
Please remember here Γs should have been Γin*, but Γin is now equal to S11ΓL should be equal
to Γout*, but because S12 = 0 Γout = S22 hence ΓL is S22* now, we substitute this value over here.
So, then this expression simplifies to this particular expression here let us see how? Γ s = S11*.
So, magnitude of that will be S112.
Over here this is S11 Γs is S11*. So, S11 multiplied by S11* will become S112. So, you can see
that, there is a 1 - S112 here this one here is 1 - S112 and whole square of that. So, one of these
terms will get cancelled so, we are left with 1 / (1 - S112) similarly, this term simplifies over
here. Now you can see interesting thing over here Gtm = S212 when Γs is 0 ΓL is 0.
But let us see now what this expression gives us S212 is there as it is, but now if S11 is not
equal to 0, let us assume say S11 = 0.5, then what will happen S11 0.52 of that will be 0.25 1 -
0.25 is 0.75 this term will be now equal to 4 by 3.
So, that means, gain can be increased by a factor of 1.33, if we do proper impedance
matching, let us look at this over here let take another example suppose S 22 is 0.6. So, 0.62
will be 0.36 so, 1 - 0.36 will be equal to 0.64. So, 1 divided by 0.64 you can say this factor
will multiply the whole gain by approximately 1.6 time. So, one can get much larger gain by
properly designing impedance matching network at both input side as well as the output side.
However, at microwave frequency, whenever you want to design an amplifier it is very very
important that you check the stability of the amplifier.
So, let us see how we define stability of an amplifier. Let us take of unilateral case, in this
situation S12 = 0, that is how unilateral is defined that signal is only going in one direction
there is a no signal going in the opposite direction that means, S 12 = 0. And if there is a no
feedback going to the input side, this particular thing will remain always stable that means, it
is unconditionally stable. And in this particular case now Γ in will be equal to S11 you can just
substitute S12 equal to 0 and Γout will be equal to S22. So, it will always remain stable if it is a
unilateral case.
Now, for bilateral case S12 is not equal to 0, then we have to check stability of the amplifier.
So, to check the stability of the amplifier we need to do two things; one is we have to see
what is the stability factor K value. So, K is given by this particular expression, later on I will
tell you how to drive this particular expression.
So, right now let us take this as it is so, what are the conditions for the amplifier to be stable
first thing is Δ should be < 1, what is Δ? It is determinant of S matrix S 11 S22 - S12 S21 and
when Δ < 1 and K > 1, then amplifier is unconditionally stable. So, what will happen if Δ >
1? I just want to tell you for majority of the devices Δ will not be greater than 1, for majority
of the devices Δ is in general less than 1.
But; however, if Δ > 1, in that particular situation K should be less than 1. So, please
remember, if Δ < 1, then K should be greater than 1, if Δ > 1, then K should be less than 1 for
the amplifier to be unconditionally stable.
Now, let us look at now the derivation of stability circles; it will be obvious by the next slide
what do I mean by stability circles? So, let us look at the condition for unconditional stability
Γout should be less than or equal to 1. You have to actually think about a Smith chart, Smith
chart represents gamma equal to one circle and within that circle it actually represents all the
real value of the impedance to be positive, imaginary part can be positive or negative. But
what if the real part of the impedance is negative? In that particular situation Γout will be
greater than 1.
We can just a take a quick example here just imagine now; let us take an example of Z out = -
10, then what is the expression for Γ out? This = Zout - Z0 divided by Zout + Z0. If we take Zout as
- 10 then Γout will be - 10 - 50 which will be - 60 divided by - 10 + 50 which will be + 40.
So, - 60 by 40 will be - 1.5, in that particular case Γ out magnitude > 1. For all positive value of
real impedances Γout will always be less than or equal to 1, in that particular case, we say it is
unconditionally stable for all values of the load impedances. So, let us start with an
expression for Γout so, this is the expression for Γ out, we put the limiting case when this = 1
and now substituting the value of Γout over here so, this is the term.
Now, we have to simplify this particular term over here. So, let us see now the numerator part
S22 - Δ Γs, since we have magnitude of that it is a complex number so, that is to be multiplied
by it is complex conjugate. The denominator goes over here, so, which is right over here. So,
now, we have to multiply these terms so, S22 multiplied by this term here. So, you can see that
this is complex conjugate so, that term will come here so, that complex conjugate will come
over here it will pick up S22*, - Δ * and Γs*.
So, now we have to multiply these two so, S22 into S22*will be S222, then - S22 then Δ star, Γs*.
Then from here - Δ Γs S22 star or you can say S22* and this multiplied by this will be Δ 2 Γs2.
Similarly, we can write the right hand side so, this will be 1, 1 - S 11 Γs, then - S11* Γs* because
this will come inside and then, then magnitude term corresponding to the product of these
two terms.
So, now what we have done over here? We are separated out the Γs terms. So, |Γs|2 the
corresponding coefficient is given here, then Γs term which you can see from here put things
together, then Γs* terms and then whatever is left out. So, now, this particular thing can be
represented in the form of the circle so, let us see what is the form of the circle.
So, this is the equation of a circle in the polar coordinate, you might be familiar with the
equation of circle as x2 + y2 = a2 that is in rectangular coordinate or we say Cartesian
coordinate. This is the equation in the polar coordinates so, what is this equation here? Let us
see Γs is the source reflection coefficient, this is the centre of the stability circle and this is the
radius of the stability circle.
So, let us expand this term so this would be Γ s - cs multiplied by it is conjugate value r s is a
real value because, radius has to be a real value. So, that remains as it is, now we open this
particular thing so, we have Γs2 - the other terms are obtained multiplying these terms. So, Γ s
cs * - cs Γs* + cs 2 which = rs 2.
So, now, from the previous equation dividing that by this particular term we can write
equation one in this particular form. Now comparing equation 2 and 3 let us see what we
have. So, Γs2 is there as it is, this is Γs cs * so, this would be cs *, this is - cs Γs* so, this term will
cs.
So, cs is given by this particular expression over here, how to find the value of r s? So, this is
the one term which does not contain Γs. So, corresponding to this here you can see that this
will be now, cs 2 - rs2. So, now, we already know what is the expression for c s? So, substituting
the value of cs over here and simplifying for rs we can get the expression for the radius of the
stability circle. In the similar fashion one can find out the centre and radius of the stability
circle for the load.
So, equation of a circle for load would be in a very similar fashion Γ L - cl2 = rl2 and by using
this symmetry we can find out the expression for cl and rl.
So, let us take an example; so, that you understand how to calculate these different stability
circles and how these are represented on the Smith chart? So, this is an example S parameters
of a transistor at 800 MHz are given. So, these are the S parameters so, we want to find out
what is the stability of the transistor and plot stability cycles on Smith chart.
So, for the given values of S parameters what we need to do we need to find the value of Δ
and K. So, Δ is given by this particular expression all these S parameter values are given so,
we can substitute these values of S parameters and then two complex calculation. This is the
value which is obtained for Δ; we can see that the magnitude of Δ < 1.
Now, let us find out the value of K in the expression of K there are no complex numbers all
are magnitude so, the calculation is relatively simple. So, we substitute these values and find
out that K = 0.547; that means it is not greater than 1. Hence, this particular transistor is not
unconditionally stable, but instead of saying amplifier is unstable, we generally use a little
different term we call it transistor is conditionally stable.
What it really means is that for certain cases, this particular transistor may be stable and if
you satisfy those condition, then this transistor can be used as an amplifier, but when I
discuss about the oscillator, the same thing I am going to say that this particular transistor is
unstable.
So, please do not mix up here, since we are designing this transistor as an amplifier we want
amplifier to be stable. So, we are going to find out what are those conditions, for which
conditions the transistor is stable and for a oscillator design; we will actually see for which
condition transistor is unstable and then we will use the unstable region to design oscillator.
This will be more clear from the plot of the stability circles.
So, by using the expression of c s and rs we can calculate the values of c s and rs for given
values of S parameter. So, this is the value c s and this is the value of rs and corresponding to
the output stability circle these are the values of c l and rl. You can actually see over here that
cs is now equal to 1.79; 1.79 will not be within the Smith chart, please remember that Smith
chart only represents ΓL ess than or equal to 1.
Here this is the centre and radius of the Γ s which is input stability circle so, how do we locate
that? So, what you need to do? You measure this particular distance here call this particular
thing as one so, now, we need 1.7. So, let us assume that this particular distance is 10 cm. So,
if this is 10 cm then 1.79 will be equal to 17.9 cm. So, you draw this particular line at an
angle of 122º so, this will be angle 122º. So, this will locate the center cs, now you can see rs
= 1.04, since we have assumed this to be 10 cm, this will be equal to now 10.4 cm.
So, with the radius of 10.4 you draw this particular circle, on paper you may not be able to
draw the circle as it is going out of the Smith chart what you can actually do is just calculate
the difference of this number here. So, 1.79 - 1.04 which = 0.75, so, again assuming if this is
10 cm 0.75 will be 7.5 cms. So, locate this particular point here and then approximately draw
this particular arc.
So, even if you cannot draw it is, now let us just look at the output stability circles, we have
to locate the centre. So, again this one here is at an angle of 48º so, draw a line at an angle of
48º, then 1.3 - 0.45. If you see the difference of this particular thing that difference is about
0.85.
So, if this is one; note down what will be 0.85 locate this particular point and approximately
draw this particular arc or circle. Now this is the unstable region for Γ s, this is the unstable
region for ΓL. So, you need to avoid this particular region over here so, do not choose the
value of Γs in this particular region, do not choose the value of Γ L in this particular region
here.
So, if you choose the values of Γs and ΓL in this particular region that amplifier will become
unstable. However, however, when we want to design oscillator, we have to choose the
values of Γs in this particular region and for ΓL in this particular region. So, just to introduce
the concept of the oscillator so, what do we generally do for oscillator? We choose a point in
this particular region which is most unstable region.
So, let me just ask you a question you can think about it so, let us say point a, point b, point c,
point d which is the most unstable point among a b c d? So, the actual answer is d because,
this is deep inside the unstable region here. You can actually say that well, a is also unstable,
b is also unstable, c is also unstable, why we do not take these points? The reason for that is
because of external factors the biasing condition may change, the external components which
you have used that they may have a tolerance value and also many of these devices parameter
also may change from batch to batch and lot to lot.
So, it is always better for design of the oscillator you take a point which is most unstable.
This will be more clear when I discuss about the oscillator design, but for amplifier please
avoid this particular region and take Γs value which is as far as possible. Similarly, for ΓL take
the values as far from this particular place over here.
Now we are going to look at constant gain circle, so, will first start with the unilateral case.
So, for unilateral case we had seen that, this is the expression for Gtu and this is the expression
for Gtu,max, generally speaking it will be specified that we have to design an amplifier for a
given gain.
So, let us say for the desired Gtu gain what we do? We choose the value of g s and gl, why we
separately choose? Because, this represents the input side this represents the output side. So,
we can design impedance matching network for input side as well as the output side
separately, but before you proceed for this first of all you must find out what is g smax and glmax
and what is the total Gtu,max? So, that desired Gtu gain has to be less than G tu,max. Suppose, if
Gtu,max is 12 dB and if the problem says you have to design for a gain of 13 dB well that is not
at all possible.
So, it is important to calculate the value of G tu,max. So, now, for desired gain once you know
that maximum gain is more than the desired gain, choose the value of g s and gl. So, the next
step is you find out the normalized g s which is gns this will be equal to gs divided by gsmax,
similarly, gnl will be gl divided by glmax.
So, in this expression let us substitute the value of g smax so, we actually we can find out g ns
equal to gs, since gsmax is 1 divided by this term here that will go in the numerator. So, now, g ns
equal to this particular term, which is coming from here and this term corresponds to the g smax
term. In this expression the only unknown is Γs other values are known S11 is known and gns is
known. So, we solve this particular equation for Γs and that will lead to the constant gain
circle.
So, solving for Γs in the form of Γs - cgs2 = rgs2 by solving the previous equation we get c gs and
rgs expression similarly, for load we get expressions for cgl and rgl. So, these are the
expressions for centre and radius of constant gain for source, these are the expressions for
centre and radius of constant gain circle for load. Let just look at the special case, for
maximum gain g ns = 1; that means, normalize value = 1 and if you put g ns equal to 1 here
let us see what we get. So, cgs will be equal to 1 over here and this term is 1 - 1 so, that will
become 0 so, this term becomes 0 so, c gs becomes equal to S11*. Let us see what happens to rgs
so, when gs = 1. So, this becomes 1 - 1.
So, that term will be 0, this will be 1 - 1 this term is 0, but the denominator will be 1 - 0. So,
this particular thing becomes equal to 0, this is kind of obvious that for maximum gain we
know that the Γs should be equal to S11* and that will be a single point. So, for maximum gain
this expression reduces to this simple form where as for other values of g ns we have to
calculate cgs and rgs.
In the same way one can derive the expression for the load side. So, these are the expressions
for the centre and radius of the constant gain circle for load. In the next lecture, we will see
what happens if S12 is not equal to 0, what kind of a error is obtained if S 12 is not equal to 0
and then we will take a complete example of an amplifier design.
Thank you very much, see you next time, bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Indian Institute Of Technology, Bombay
Module - 7
Lecture - 34
Microwave Amplifiers - III: Design Example
Hello everyone. In the last 2 lectures, we have been talking about Microwave Amplifier and
in the last lecture we talked about three different types of the gain.
We had started with Gp which is operating power gain defined by P l / Pin, then we talked
about Gt which is transducer power gain that is Pl /Pavs. And then, we talked about Ga
available power gain and this is given by Pavn / Pavs and this condition will be satisfied when
both input and output side are matched. So, we have to have the condition that Γ in is equal to
ΓS* and ΓL is equal to Γout *. Then, after that we had looked at the derivation and then, we
talked about 3 different cases.

.
Case number 1 was matched transducer power gain, where Γ S is equal to 0, Γ L is equal to 0.
These two conditions will be obtained when input and output are terminated with 50 Ω load.
In that particular case Gtm is given by |S21|2, then we talked about unilateral transducer power
gain where S12 is equal to 0. And then, we looked at when we will get maximum unilateral
transducer power gain and this condition will happen when Γ S is S11* and ΓL is equal to S22*.
So, this is the expression for Gtu max.
Now, amplifier has to be stable. If amplifier is not stable, then in that case it can become an
oscillator. When we talk about oscillator, then we will talk about unstable amplifier, but here
we talked about unilateral case in that case S12 is equal to 0 that would be unconditionally
stable. Second cases bilateral case where S12 is not equal to 0, then we have to check stability
of the amplifier and had told you this expression for K. Today I will tell you how this
expression of K is derived.
After that we looked at derivation of the stability circles.
And, we had written the equation of the circle.

Then, we found out equation of a circle for both source and load.
After that we started with an example. For that example S-parameters were given at 800 MHz
and we found out that this particular transistor is unstable or we call it conditionally stable at
800 MHz. The reason for that is Δ < 1, but K is not greater than 1. In this case, K was less
than 1.

Then, we had plotted input stability circle and output stability circle. So, here I want to
mention how K is defined. So, we know that amplifier will be stable when it is satisfied for
all the load conditions. If you see in this particular case, this is the portion for which it is
unstable. So, if we put the condition that magnitude of |c s - rs| > 1, then in that case there will
be no intersection on the Smith chart. So, by putting the condition that |c s - rs| > 1, that
condition gives us the expression for K which is stability factor same thing can be done for c l
and rl.
After that we looked at constant gain circle. We started with unilateral case. So, this was the
expression for Gtu. This was the expression for Gtu max and then, I had mentioned that what
desire Gtu gain, the values of gs and gl should be chosen such a way that they are less than gs
max and gl max respectively. So, this was the expression for g ns which was further obtained by
substituting this value of gs over here and here, then we have to solve ΓS and by solving ΓS.
These are the expressions for centre of the constant gain circle and this is the radius of the
constant gain circle. Similarly for the load we can obtain c gl and rgl and for maximum gain we
know that gns is equal to 1 and if you put g ns equal to 1, we get c gs equal to S 11* and r gs is
equal to 0. However, all this while we have done the derivation assuming it is a unilateral
case, however practically S12 may be small, but may not be equal to 0. So, then what
happens? So, let us see what happens if S12 is not equal to 0.
So, when S12 is not equal to 0, but it is small; so, what do we do? We take the ratio of G t/Gtu.
Gtu is transducer gain for unilateral case. This is Gt when S12 is not equal to 0. So, take the
ratio, substitute the values, do some simplification and then, we get this particular expression
over here. However, most of the time we do not use this particular expression; what we do?
We take the maximum possible error and that will be obtained not for G tu, but for Gtu max. So,
this particular expression can be simplified for the maximum value of Gtu max.

Then, we get this particular range for G t divided by Gtu max and when we obtain this, when we
substitute ΓS is equal to S11* and ΓL is equal to S22* where the expression for M is given by this
particular terms over here, what you can see over here all these things are magnitude now and
also these are only S parameter. So, there is no Γ S or ΓL coming into picture. Why? It is
because we have assumed this particular condition.
So, this will be the worst possible error which can occur if S12 is not equal to 0, but we are
proceeding with the design using the concept of unilateral. These things will be clear when
we take an example. I just want to mention that unilateral figure of merit M should be less
than 0.05. There are some books. They do mention this should be less than 0.03, but most of
the time I have seen 0.05 is a fairly good criteria.

Now, we are going to take complete design of an amplifier S parameters of a gallium
Arsenide MOSFET at 8 GHz are given as follows and these are for biasing condition of V ds
equal to 3 volt and Ids equal to 30 mA and our objective is to design an amplifier for gain
equal to 10 dB. So, do not start the design immediately. First of all you must always check
whether the amplifier is stable or not, ok. So, what we do first step would be that first find out
the value of Δ which is given by the determinant of S parameter. By substituting these values
of S parameters, we can find out the value of Δ which is given by these numbers and that < 1.
Now, we find the value of K. You substitute all these values and that comes out to be 3.53
which is greater than 1. So, that means amplifier is unconditionally stable.
So, I just want to mention that when the amplifier is unconditionally stable, there is no need
for drawing the stability circle for input side and output side because amplifier is
unconditionally stable, ok. So, now the next step is we need to find out what is the maximum
possible gain which can be obtained for these S parameters. So, first we find out G tm which is
nothing, but |S21|2. So, we substitute the value of S21 which is 2.56 square that comes out to be
6.55 equal to 8.16 dB. Now, we find out G tu max. By substituting these values, we can actually
find out Gtu max that comes out to be 11.67 which is 10.67 dB.
Now, please recall what I had mentioned earlier that we get some value of S 21 that will give
us some gain, however because S11 and S22 are not equal to 0, part of the power gets reflected
back. So, we must design a proper matching network, so that better gain can be obtained. So,
in this particular case we can get maximum gain of 10.67 dB and since, 10.67 dB is more
than 10 dB, that means this particular design is feasible. So, let us proceed for design of the
amplifier, but before that again let us find out what the maximum gain error is.
So, we must find the value of M and the value of M comes out to be 0.04. So, let us see what
the extreme error in the gain is. So, we substitute the value of M over. Here simplify this
thing, it comes out to be in the range of 0.92 and 19. We take the 10 log of these values. So,
that means the gain error can be between minus 0.36 dB to plus 0.37 dB. If we proceed with
unilateral design, now in comparison with 10 dB which is the required gain 0.36 or 0.37 that
is relatively small number. So, we can proceed with the unilateral design.

So, now we have already seen G tu max expression. So, this is the expression for G tu max. I have
shown this thing one more time. So, let us substitute the values of S11 S21 S22. I have written
these values separately. So, you can see that this particular term which belongs to the input
site gives us gs max of 1.37. S21 square is given over here and this term here which corresponds
to the output site that gives us maximum value of gl max as 1.3.
So, now we have to design an amplifier for gain equal to 10 dB. The numeric value of 10 dB
is equal to 10. So, now we have to choose g s. We must choose this value of gs to be less than
or equal to gs max. No one can see over here g s max is 1.37. So, let us choose g s equal to 1.25.
You can choose gs as 1.2 or 1.3. It does not matter you can choose any value of g s as long as
we get a gain equal to 10. So, if we choose gs equal to 1.25, then we can calculate gl.
So, gl comes out to be 10 divided by these values over here that comes out to be 1.22. You
must check that gl must be less than gl max and in this particular case, gl max is equal to 1.3. That
means, gl < 1.3. So, now find out the normalized values of gns and g nl and that comes out to
be 0.91 and 0.94. So, this is another check. These values must be less than 1. If any one of
these values is greater than 1, please restart this whole thing of choosing a different value of
gs.

Now, we calculate centre and radius of constant gain circle. So, the expressions are given
over here. So, substitute various values for g ns, S11 we can find out the value of c gs to be
equal to this r gs is given by this value. Similarly we find out the values of c gl and rgl. Next
step would be to plot these things on the Smith chart.
So, now we have to plot the constant gain circle. So, let us see for the source site c gs is 0.485
∟ 145º. So, you draw a line like this which is at an angle of 145º and then, choose 0.485. As
I mentioned if you assume this distance is approximately 10 cm which corresponds to 1, then
0.485 will be equal to 4.85 cm. So, you look at this particular point which will be c gs, then
0.224 is the radius. So, you draw a circle with the radius of 0.224. So, this is the constant gain
circle for the input side and similarly plot for constant gain circle for the output side.
So, here cgl is given by 0.457 ∟ 20 º. So, again draw a line at an angle of 20 º, choose point
cgl at 0.457 value. So, that is the centre, then draw the circle. So, this is the circle for that. So,
that means now any value on this particular circle would be good value for Γ S, any value on
this particular circle would be good value for ΓL to achieve the desired gain equal to 10. So,
now the question is which value of Γ S I should choose. So, again let me ask you people just
think about this thing.
So, shall I choose ΓS over here? Shall I choose ΓS over here? Shall I choose ΓS here or shall I
choose ΓS over here? All these are valid points, but I have chosen here Γ S equal to this value
over here which is closest to the central point. See remember ultimately we have to do the
matching from this point to this point or from here to here depending upon from which
direction you are looking at it.
So, we should always choose a point which is closest to the point, where you would like to
travel to. Remember if I have to go from point a to b, it is better that we take the shortest path
rather than taking the longest path. If you take this particular point, then from here we have to
move to this particular point, ok. Similarly for Γ L choose a point which is closest to the
central point. Now, what we have to do once we have chosen the value of Γ S and ΓL? Now,
we have to design the impedance matching network.

So, we have proposed here to use single stub matching, so design of the amplifier for Γ S. So, I
am going to show you impedance matching network for Γ S. Now, recall impedance matching
techniques which we had discussed a few lectures earlier. Not there what we had done, I just
want to mention slightly things that different over here. Earlier what we were generally
doing, we were generally taking an unknown load and that unknown load was match to 50 Ω.
Over here things are slightly different.
Here we have 50 Ω where source is connected and we want this thing to be Γ S. That means,
from 50 Ω we have to move to ΓS, but still you can think about the previous concept which
we had done for single stub matching and I will tell you how things to be done differently.
So, first objective will be to locate ΓS on the Smith chart. You can see that ΓS is at angle of
145 º. So, you draw a line at 145 º angle and this is 0.261, you locate over here.
Then, what you do is you take the opposite point of that see Γ S represent Z S opposite to that
will represent Y S. Why we do with Y S? It is because recall for single stub matching stub is
added in shunt and in Y only we can add shunt. So, now instead of moving from here to here,
what we need to do? We have to move from 50 Ω to this particular point. So, from 50 Ω you
move along this particular r equal to 1 circle. You stop at the point where the circle is cutting
this particular r equal to one circle. So, at this particular point, this is the point which actually
gives rise to the value of l stub and that comes out to be 0.08 λ.
Then, from here now you move in this particular circle and this distance from here to here
will be the length of the line. So, that is the length of the line which is equal to 0.154 λ. So,
by using this particular configuration, we can transform the impedance of 50 Ω to Γ S value.
Similar thing we do it for ΓL.

So, now ΓL is given by 0.267 ∟ 20 º s. So, again we draw a line at an angle of 20 º, locate
this point over here which is Γ L at 0.267 distance. Again draw the circle, take the opposite
point over here, ok again ΓL represents Z L. This will be Y L, ok. Now, again we have to start
from 50 Ω.
Remember now we have 50 Ω termination, but we want Γ L over here, so that higher gain can
be transmitted to the final load. So, we have to go from 50 Ω to Γ L. So, from 50 Ω you again
move along this r equal to one circle stop at a point. So, at this particular point you can stop
and then, this particular thing over here will give us the value of l stub, then from here move
in the clockwise direction. So, this distance will give us the length of the transmission line.
So, now let me show you the complete circuit.

So, this is the complete design of an amplifier final circuit. You can see that this is the device
for which S parameters were given. So, we started with the S parameters, we found out all the
gain values, then we found out the value of ΓS and ΓL and then, designed impedance matching
network input side as well as output side. So, this is now the complete circuit. You can see
here source is there source has that 50 Ω resistance, but I just want to tell you most of the
time it is not a physical resistance you put over there.
So, do not get confused that you are going to put 50 Ω resistor. This 50 Ω corresponds to the
output impedance of the source, ok. So, you do not physically put any 50 Ω resistor.
Similarly over here this is the output load which is connected at the output of the amplifier.
So, now I am going to show you the simulation of this particular circuit.

So, we have used microwave office software and we have done the simulation of this
particular amplifier. You can see that these are the various simulated parameters. So, this is
the device over here, this is that transmission line, this is that stub over here, then the
transmission line stub, ok.
So, for this particular amplifier, analysis has been done and these are the various S parameter.
So, let us see this one here shows the gain of the amplifier. Desired gain was 10 dB,
simulated gain is 10.08 dB. So, you can see that this number is very close to that desired
value of 10 dB. So, hence you can say our design is good. Now, these are the two plots.
These are for S11 and S22. You can see that these values are around minus 10 dB, ok. Here I
just want to mention we have taken a very small frequency range from 7.9 to 8.1, because our
desired frequency is 8 GHz. This is the plot for S12.
So, we know that S12 should be small for an amplifier because amplifier should amplify the
signal in one direction and not amplify in the other direction. So, you can see that this value is
around minus 30 dB. So, if you give an input from this particular side, then the output on this
side will be about minus 30 dB which is about 1000 times less than the input over here
whereas, if you give a input here, we get a gain of 10 dB which will be 10 times. Now, one
thing also I want to mention you can see here there is a no perfect match for S11 and S22.
The reason for that is we had optimized for the gain equal to 10 dB. We did not optimize for
maximum power transfer from the source side and from the load side, ok. So, I will just show
you another example where we actually optimize for maximum power transfer and in that
case, we can realize a better gain. So, if you recall Gtu max was about 10.67 dB. So, now let us
see if we optimize for the maximum power transfer, what happens?
So, in this particular case now we have chosen ΓS as S11* ΓL as S22*. I just want to mention
over here that we have not taken the real value of Γ S which actually is equal to S11 +
(S12S12ΓL) / (1- S22ΓL). We have still assumed S12 to be approximately equal to 0 which is not
really the case, but I just want to mention what happens if you do the design using unilateral
process and what is the realized gain for complete bilateral case when S12 is not equal to 0.
ΓS and ΓL are chosen in such a way that it assumes S12 is equal to 0. In reality, it is not equal
to 0. So, let us see what do we get here in this particular, this is S 12 plot. So, simulated gain is
10.97 dB. Now, if you recall Gtu max was 10.67 dB, we are getting slightly more than G tu max.
How that is possible? This is possible because of the reason we had S 12 not equal to 0. We
had calculated the value of M and we had seen that G t divided by Gtu max had a range from
minus 0.36 dB to plus 0.37 dB, ok
So, we can have that particular error. So, you can see that this particular number is within that
particular error. So, we can get in reality simulated gain equal to 10.96 dB. For this particular
device, you can see over here that reflection coefficient here comes out to be around minus
20 dB. It is not minus 30 dB or minus 40 dB which is generally expected if you do a perfect
design again. The reason is that we have designed for Γ S equal to S11* and not for S11 +
(S12S12ΓL) / (1- S22ΓL). So, this design is actually done assuming S 12 equal to 0, but you can
see that even if you assume S12 equal to 0, matching is very good over this particular
frequency range.
I am actually going to show you one another amplifier example. This is MMG3001NT1. So,
this particular amplifier is available commercially and this is the typical pin out over here and
you will see that how simple it is sometimes to design an amplifier using commercially
available IC. So, just to tell you quickly here you can see here 1 is RF input, 2 is ground and
3 is nothing but RF out and also, it is to be connected to DC supply. You can see that there is
another 2 over here these two must be connected together to provide proper grounding to this
particular amplifier.
Now the various parameters are given over here. I just want to mention power output is about
18.5 dBm, ok. So, this is 1 dB compression point. Saturated power output of this is
approximately 20 dBm which is equal to 0.1 watt power. So, this is the typical application
circuit given by the manufacturer. So, just to show you here what we have over here. So, this
is a small transmission line, then coupling capacitor small transmission line, another small
transmission line, transmission line coupling capacitor. Coupling capacitors are required to
block DC current flowing through the input or output side. Now, as I had mention this is also
to be connected to DC supply. You can see hear that there is an inductor and then, a resistor
connected to the supply of few capacitors have been used. These capacitors are mainly for
suppressing the ripples as well as suppressing the transient.
We have simulated this particular circuit using microwave office. So, this is the simulated
circuit. So, this particular circuit has been simulated for two different sets of frequency. This
is from 0.1 to 0.8 GHz and this is from 0.8 GHz to more than 3 GHz. I just want to mention
here the coupling capacitors are taken different in these two cases.
Here we have taken coupling capacitance values to be equal to 1 nF which is for the lower
frequency region and here we have taken coupling capacitor value to be equal to 100 pF for
higher frequency region. So, please remember that for lower frequency, you should take
higher value of capacitance and for higher frequency; you should take lower value of
capacitance. Ultimate goal is that Z = 1 / jωC should be small.

So, this is PCB for that particular amplifier. So, you can see here this is the transmission line,
transmission line coupling capacitor connected over here coupling capacitor connected over
here. You can see that these two things are connected together and we have put multiples of
PTH. That means multiple plated through hole, so that there is an effective grounding
provided for this particular IC. So, from here you can see that this is the inductor which is
connected over here. 3 different capacitors are connected and then, there is this resistor which
controls the current flowing through this particular device and there is a power supply.
So, we have designed this particular thing for frequency of operation from 800 MHz to 3600
MHz. The value of r 1 is 8.2 Ω c 1 c 2 c 3 which are connected over here. You can see that
we have used different values of capacitance over here; 1 uF, 10 nF, 100 pF. 1 uF is actually
good for suppressing the ripple or you can say to reduce the ripple. This particular
capacitance is good for suppressing the transients and this is in between thing any noise
which comes and that will be blocked by this particular capacitance and we have taken
coupling capacitors as 100 pF. So, let us see: what are the measured results for this particular
amplifier.

So, here is that amplifier. You can see how small it is and this amplifier input is given from a
microwave generator input signal level of minus 15 dBm is given at 1 GHz. This is the DC
source which gives voltage and current of course and the output of this generator is given as
input to the amplifier and output of the amplifier goes to the spectrum analyzer which is not
shown in this particular picture.
So, this is the response which appears on the spectrum analyzer. So, if you look at this value
here, this value is approximately equal to 0.5 dBm. We gave a input of about minus 15 dBm
and the output is 0.5 dBm, however there is 2.5 dB cable lose as you can see that cable is
connected from here to here and then, this cable is connected to the spectrum analyzer. So,
you must account for these cable losses. So, if we add all these numbers from minus 15, we
get 0.5. So, that will 15.5 plus 2.5 equals 18 dB. So, the gain of this particular device comes
out to be 18 dB at 1 GHz. So, with that I can conclude the session on microwave amplifier.
In the next lecture, I talk about low noise amplifier. Low noise amplifier is one of the very
important block in the receiver chain. We must have the first amplifier in the receiver chain
as a low noise amplifier. So, in the next lecture we will talk about how to design low noise
amplifier.
Thank you very much. Bye.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 07
Lecture - 35
Low Noise Amplifiers - I: Noise Sources and Noise Figure
Hello, in the last few lectures we have been talking about microwave amplifiers. To design a
microwave amplifier using either a transistor or even an IC amplifier you must first see what
are the S parameters at the desired frequency, what are the biasing conditions. After that you
find out what is the value of ∆ and K so that you know whether the amplifier is stable or not
at that particular frequency. If it is not stable, in that particular case, what do you do, you
draw input and output stability circles and wherever the stability circles cut the Smith chart,
you avoid that particular portion and choose the S value and L values in the different part of
the Smith chart which does not intersect the stability circle.
After you check the stability part, then what we did then after that you calculate what is the
Gtu max, so that you know whether the desired amplifier can be designed for a given gain. So,
once you know that desired gain is less than the G tu max, then start with Gtu; then you choose
the value of gs and gl such a way that they will give the value of G t, after that you draw the
gain cycles for both S and L. Choose the values of S and L on the constant gain circles,
which are relatively closer to the centre point which is 50 Ω; so that impedance matching
network becomes easier and simplified.
Today, we are going to talk about low noise amplifiers. So, low noise amplifiers are one of
the most important amplifier at the input of the receiver. For example, the signal received by
the receiver through an antenna is very very small and it has travelled through the
atmosphere, so it actually has lot of noise built into that. So, we do not want an amplifier
which also adds noise to it. However, you cannot avoid the noise, what you can do you
design an amplifier with minimum noise figure. So let us see; what are the sources of the
noise and then how we can design a low noise amplifier.
So, we are going to look at different noise sources. So, let us start with the first one which is a
thermal noise ok. So, thermal noise is basically because of the resistors in the circuit. So, how
thermal noise comes into picture well when a current flows through the resistor, there will be
power dissipation in the resistor and that will be given by I 2R. So, this power dissipation
leads to the heat and that is what is thermal effect, and that is what is known as thermal noise.
The mean square noise voltage
2
vn =4 kTRB
What is k? k is Boltzmann’s constant; the value is 1.38 x 10 -23 J/K, where K is temperature
in Kelvin. What is T? T is absolute temperature in Kelvin, this is actually equal to 273 plus
temperature in centigrade. B is bandwidth, so bandwidth over which that particular receiver is
operating and R is the resistance value.
Let us take an example to calculate v2n for given parameters of bandwidth which is equal to 10
MHz, 10 MHz is reasonable bandwidth to assume for any cellular band. For example, we
know that GSM 900 volts from 890 to 960; of course, that is divided into two separate bands
890 to 950 and 935 to 960 MHz. Of course, one band is not going to be 10 MHz that is
generally going to be of the order of 1 MHz, but for let us say Wi-Fi communication
frequency values for Wi-Fi communication is from 2.4 to 2.483 GHz. Now that means,
bandwidth of 83 MHz, but that is not really correct part of the bandwidth is only used for
transmission part, of the bandwidth is only use for reception and that bandwidth is of the
order of 20 MHz. So, 10 MHz we can say is between that cellular band and the Wi-Fi band.
So, for a bandwidth of 10 MHz and let us say resistance is equal to 1 kΩ and room
temperature is let us say 30 C. So, what will be the v2nwell let us look at this expression, So 4
into k 1.38 x 10-23 into T into Kelvin that will be 273+30 multiplied by resistor which is 1000
multiplied by bandwidth which is 10 into 10 6 you do the calculation. So, noise voltage comes
out to be 12.9 uV. Now, this type of noise is also known as white noise; the reason for that is
resistors are generally frequency insensitive. So, white noise is basically is a noise, which can
span from dc to THz and more frequency range. So, the thermal noise generated by resistor is
also known as white noise.
So, let us say see how much is the noise power associated with the noise resistor. So,
maximum available power from noise source will be when R load is equal to Rn. Now, we are
not trying to optimize the maximum noise, the reason why we choose R load equal to Rn or may
be the source resistance. so that maximum signal is transmitted to the load ok. So, let us say
this is the noise source which has an associated resistance R n. So, for maximum signal power
transmission which will also lead to maximum noise power, R load should be equal to Rn. So,
we can say that this voltage will be equal to v n/2. I just want to mention, that I have not
deliberately written here vn; the reason for that is vn sign is not predictable. So, it may have a
plus here or minus over there.
So, generally speaking we represent in the form of v n square, but you have to understand this
is vn/2, so you have to take square of that if you want to calculate the power, so power
delivered to the load will be
2
vn
( )
2 4 kT R n B
P= =
R Load 4 Rn
where Rn is the noise resistance and for maximum noise power calculation R load should be
equal to Rn, which is true for maximum signal power transmission also.
So, now P comes out to be kTB. You can actually see here interesting thing that there is a no
resistance value coming into picture. So, what is that mean that is noise power independent of
the resistor, well actually speaking I would like to say that this particular expression has been
derived assuming that this load is equivalent to Rn. If Rload is not equal to Rn, in that particular
case R will come into picture.
So, let us take the same example, but now we are going to calculate; what is the maximum
noise power coming to the receiver end. So, for bandwidth of 10 MHz temperature of 30 C,
we can calculate the value of P which is kTB. So, k is this, T is 273 plus 30, this is the
bandwidth and this comes out to be 4.18× 10−14 W. So, you can see that this is a very very
small number. Let us take the dB of this; so that is comes out to be minus 133.8 dB, which is
equivalent to minus 103.8 dBm.
Now, I want to mention here that the receiver sensitivity of let us say mobile phone can be
from minus 70 dBm to minus 100 dBm. In fact, there are many mobile phones which even
have a sensitivity up to minus 110 dBm. So, this noise power is not negligible in comparison
to minus 100 dBm or even lower value which can be received by the mobile phone ok.
Now, let us just look at the another source of the noise which is a shot noise also known as
Schottky noise, but basically I want to tell you this results from p-n junction. So, any diode or
transistor would have a p-n junction. So, there will be current flowing through that p-n
junction and let us say that DC value of that current is I dc. Then mean square noise current is
given by
2
in =2q I dc B
where q is the charge which is given by 1.6× 10−19 C , and B is the bandwidth over which a
receiver is going to operate or you can say you have to design amplifier to operate over that
particular bandwidth.
So, let us say I dc is equal to 10 mA, and B is equal to 10 MHz. So, let us see what is the
value of i2n:
2 −19 −3 6
in =2×1.6 ×10 × 10 ×10 ×10 × 10
So, let us calculate; what is the noise power due to this particular noise current to do the
power calculation; we have to assume the value of resistor. So, for most of the microwave
circuit resistance value is typically taken as 50 Ω. So,
2
P=in × 50=1.6 ×10
−12
W ¿ -118 dB ¿ - 88 dBm
So, you can see that this is fairly large value; if you think about a mobile phone receiver
sensitivity, so that is why majority of the time first stage of the low noise amplifier does not
use biasing current of 10 mA, it may be of the order of 1 to 2 mA. And if you take this as let
us say 1 mA. So, we will see that the value will decrease correspondingly, so i n square will
decrease correspondingly by 10 times and that means, noise power will also decreased by
about 10 dB which will be about minus 98 dBm. So, please remember when we are designing
a low noise amplifier, we have to really be very very sure that the noise power generated by
the amplifier should be as small as possible.
So, now let us define noise figure. So, first we will define signal to noise ratio, I am sure most
Ps
of you are familiar with signal to noise ratio. Signal to noise ratio is defined as which is
Pn
nothing but signal power divided by noise power. And of course, these things will be related
to voltage, so this will be v2s / R, this will also be v2n / R, so R, R, R will get cancel. So, this is
the signal noise ratio in terms of the signal voltage in terms of the noise voltage.
Now, let us define noise figure symbol is NF. So, noise figure is defined as
SNR ¿
NF=
SNR out
So, you can see that this is the input of a noisy network, which has a gain of G a and this is the
output. So, from where this noisy network is coming into picture think about any amplifier.
Let us start with the transistor, a transistor amplifier would have several resistors, it will have
a few p-n junction. So, those p-n junctions can be then represented by noise current.
So, the entire amplifier circuit can be represented in terms of its Thevenin equivalent or
Norton equivalent. So, what is a Norton equivalent that will be a current in parallel with
resistor. So, we can say that any amplifier can be ultimately simplified to a noise current and
a resistor. So, we have already seen what are the noise current and resistor. I just want to
mention here, that inductors and capacitors do not give rise to any noise that is true only for
ideal inductor and capacitor.
A real inductor will be represented by inductor and series resistance, that series resistance
will give rise to noise power. Similarly and lossy capacitor can be represented in terms of
ideal capacitor in parallel with lossy resistors. So, for that noisy resistor we have to calculate;
what is the noise power, but just to say in general any noisy network can be represented in
terms of a current source and resistance for which we have already given you the expression;
one can find out; what is the equivalent noise coming out of that particular circuit.
So, let us just define now, the gain of this particular amplifier is G a; so let us find out the
expression for noise figure now, so that is signal to noise ratio at input by output. Now, of
course some noise will be generated by the network, so this particular expression will be
P s, ∈¿
always greater than 1. So, let us see now signal to noise ratio at input is given by ¿
P n,∈¿ ¿
you can see from here, and signal to noise ratio at output will be given by this particular
expression, simplify this further that comes out to be
P n, out
NF=
P n,∈¿ G ¿
a
P s, out
What is G a? G a is nothing but gain of this particular amplifier and that is equal to .
P s,∈¿ ¿
Now, we are going to define another term this is known as noise temperature of a network. I
just want to mention that there is nothing like a noise temperature of a network, it does not
mean that network will have a this much temperature or some other temperature. This is just
a mathematical representation of noise figure, only to find out overall noise figure of a larger
circuit. So, please remember noise temperature is not a physical quantity it is just a
mathematical way of representation of noise figure.
So, let us just represent now. So, we had seen that P n is nothing but equal to kTB and that is
given to the noisy network, so let us see what will be Pn,out. So, Pn,out will be nothing but gain
multiplied by this particular power; so that will be G akTB plus Pne which is nothing but noise
generated by this particular network. So, this particular thing is now further written in this
particular form, where Pne is represented in the form of Te multiplied by these terms over
here.
So, we can say that Pne is noise power at output by internal noise of the network, and this
internal noise can be due to all the resistors, due to all the current sources, due to all the
voltage sources within the network. So from here we can say that Te is nothing but
P ne
T e=
G a kB
You can actually think this whole thing in a slightly simpler manner as shown in the next
slide.
So, the same thing which we had shown in the previous slide; there was a noise input noisy
network, but now this can be presented in this particular form where this network is noiseless
network. So, how we have taken care of this noisy part? So, we had seen in the previous slide
that this particular network generates noise of Pne, and that Pne is presented in the form of
kTeB multiplied by G a. So, this term has been taken in the input side, and when finally we
look at the output, output will have this term multiplied by this particular term over here.
So, we can now say what will be noise figure. So, noise figure is given by this particular
expression. So now, let us substitute the values. So, P n,out is nothing but G a k B T plus Te and
what is this term P n in is kTB G a comes as it is. If we now simplify this, you can see most of
the terms will get canceled G a k B, G a k B will cancel, so we are left with T plus T e divided
by T which is equal to 1 plus T e divided by T; I just want to mention this is a general term for
given T.
However, a manufacturer has to specify the noise figure of a network, they cannot define
noise figure for any arbitrary temperature. So, what they do? they actually define noise figure
for a standard temperature and I just want to tell this value of T 0 is equal to 290 K, so 290 is
equal to 273+17 C. So, they have taken temperature as 17C of course in India, generally
speaking we could have taken as 27. In fact, that would have given a nicer number 273 plus
27 would have been 300, but however since all these developments had been done in the
western world they took 17. So, we have to take T0 as 270 plus 70 which is 290 Kelvin. So,
the manufactures define noise figure for this particular standard temperature.
Now, this can be simplified further to
T e=¿ T 0 (NF −1)
Again I want to repeat that all these Te are only there to do the simplification after network, as
we will see in the next slide.
So, now we want to find out noise figure of two cascaded network. So, let us say we have a
network one, which is defined by gain G a1, Te1, NF1. In fact, most of the time manufacturer
will only give Ga1 and NF1. So we have to calculate Te1, this is network to defined by Ga2 NF2.
So, now we want to find out what is Pn,out. So, I just want to mention here, so here it shows a
resistor here, but it is represented by T0. So, this is nothing but a standard temperature which
is equal to 290.
So, let us see how we can find out the value of P n,out. So, Pn,out is given by this particular term
which will correspond to kT0B multiplied by gain Ga1, Ga2. So, you can see that this particular
term corresponds to this temperature. Then Te1 is to be taken in the input side, so for this also
kTe1B multiplied by Ga1 and Ga2, for Te2 this will go to the input side of this one here. So, this
will be only multiplied by Ga2, so you can see that Ga2 times kTe2B. Now, we want to find out
over all noise temperature of this particular network, again I want to mention our actual
objective is not to find the T e12, our actual objective is to find out combined noise figure for
these two network, this is again a mathematical representation.
So, we can say Pn,out will be actually represented by one single network. So, for that single
network what will be the gain Ga1 multiplied by Ga2 k B and this will be the total thing which
is seen at the input side, the right hand side terms can be now simplified in this particular
fashion we can just take Ga1, Ga2 k B outside. So, we are left with T 0 plus Te1 plus Te2 divided
by Ga1. So, from here we can calculate Te12 as Te1 plus Te2 divided by Ga1 as I mentioned
earlier, our objective is not to find Te12 our objective is to find NF12.
So, now we substitute the value of T e in terms of noise figure. So, we can now write to T e12 as
T 0 ( NF 12 −1 ), similarly we can write Te1 and Te2. So, by simplifying this particular expression,
we can now write NF12 as NF1 plus NF2 minus 1 divided by Ga1. So, how do we find overall
noise figure, so let us just see that overall noise figure will be
( NF 2 −1 )
NF 12 =NF 1 +
Ga 1
So, NF1 comes out as it is corresponding to network 1, whereas NF 2 is now coming as NF2
minus 1 divided by gain of the first stage. So, it is very important that first stage should also
have decent gain also.
Suppose, if the gain is equal to 1, then what will happen overall noise figure will be
combination of these two, but if the first stage has a gain of let say 10, then this term will be
divided by 10; but if the gain of the first stage is 100 then this term will be divided by 100;
that means, the second stage noise figure contribution will be very very small. Now, this
particular thing can be extended to three cascaded networks also. So, let us see how this
particular expression can be expanded to three networks.
So, we have three cascaded networks. So, we want to find out the overall noise figure of these
three networks. So, just recall the previous thing; so first stage comes as it is so NF 1, comes
as it is NF2 minus 1 divided by gain of the first stage, but for the third stage it is NF 3 minus 1
divided by gain of the first two stages. So, which is Ga1, Ga2 it will be more clear if you take
an example. So, let us say we want to find out noise figure for three cascaded networks. So,
the first stage has a noise figure of 2 dB gain of 10 dB, second stage has noise figure of 6 dB
and gain of 14 dB, third stage is actually quite bad as far as the noise figure is concerned it is
10 dB and gain is 18 dB. So, now we have to find out NF 13, so please do not keep all these dB
values in this particular expression, you must find out the corresponding numeric value.
So, to find the numeric value we know that NFdB is given by 10 log NF. So, from here we can
NF dB
find the expression for NF which is 10( 10 . So, for all these cases; now let us find out the
)
numeric values. So, NF1 comes out to be 1.585 corresponding to 2 dB, G a1 comes out to be 10
for NF2 6 dB, NF2 is approximately 4, but the real value is 3.981. G a2 14 dB comes out to be
25.12 and similarly NF3 and Ga3 are given by these value.
So, now we can find out overall noise figure NF13. So, you can see that NF1 comes as it is,
NF2 minus 1 divided by gain of the first stage then NF3 minus 1 divided by gain of first stage
and second stage. So, overall noise figure is 1.919 which comes out to be 2.83 dB. So, if you
look at this number here, you can see that this one here is 2 dB, so this has to be more than
that, but you can see here this is 6 dB and 10 dB it is not sum of these 2 plus 6 plus 10, the
reason for that is we had some gain for the first stage.
So, noise figure 2 gets divided by this particular gain, this noise figure 3 gets divided by these
two gain values hence the contribution because of this is very very small. You can actually
see that even though this noise figure is very high, contribution from this to the overall noise
figure is very very small. So, just see that this is 10 minus 1, let us say 9 divided by 10
multiplied by 25.12 this really comes out to be only 0.04. So, you can see that the
contribution is relatively small in this particular number.
So, just to summarize today we talked about low noise amplifier. We looked at two main
sources of the noise; one is the thermal noise due to resistor and then we calculated; what is
the noise power, available due to the resistor. Then we looked at the shot noise, which is
represented by i n square and that is mainly because of the p-n junction within diodes or
transistors, they are may be several p-n junctions within a transistor.
So, basically an amplifier can be represented in terms of its Norton equivalent which is
nothing but a current source in parallel with resistor. So, any amplifier circuit can be
represented in these two simple current and resistance values; and from that we can find out
what are the noise power available from them.
Then we talked about, signal to noise ratio and noise figure; we defined the term noise
temperature, as I mentioned it is only a mathematical representation and we have to not worry
too much about noise temperature, what we are interested in is to find out overall noise
figure. So, we did find out the overall noise figure expression for three cascaded stages. And
we took an example and we saw that the first stage is very very important. So, we must
design the first stage which should have a very low noise figure. In the next lecture, we will
actually look into how to design low noise amplifier.
Thank you very much. We will see you next time. Bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 8
Lecture - 36
Low Noise Amplifiers – II: NF Circles and LNA Design
Hello and welcome to second lecture on Low Noise Amplifiers. In the last lecture, we looked
at two noise sources; one was thermal noise due to resistor and that is given by this particular
expression.
Then we found out what is the maximum available noise power from this particular resistor
that is given by the expression kTB. After that we looked at the second noise source which is
shot noise because of the p-n junction we saw the expression for that is
2
in =2q I dc B
And then for this particular example we saw that the noise power is equal to minus 88 dBm
that may be quite high for let us say mobile phone application. So, that is why most of the
time the first stage should really have a small current as possible.
After that we defined signal to noise ratio and noise figure.

And then we defined noise temperature of the network after that we did the derivation and
found out the overall noise figure for cascaded stages.

So, for 3 cascaded networks we found out NF 13 is given by this particular expression, where
first stage noise figure comes as it is, second stage noise figure is divided by gain of the first
stage, and for third stage noise figure is divided by gain of first as well as second networks.
Then we took one example to find out overall noise figure and we found out that overall
noise figure is 2.83 dB where as the noise figure of individual stage was 2 dB, 6 dB and 10
dB. But the net is 2.83 dB and that is mainly because of the finite gain of the first stage and
second stage. Now, we will look at how to design low noise amplifier.
So, noise figure of a two port amplifier is defined by
2
4 r n|Γ S −Γ 0|
NF i=NF min + 2 2
(1−|Γ S| )|1+ Γ 0|
So, let me tell you what is this expression, what are the different terms over here. NF min is the
minimum noise figure for that given transistor or amplifier, r n is the normalized noise
resistance most of the time this normalized noise resistance is equal to noise resistance
divided by Z0 and Z0 maybe majority of the time equal to 50 Ω. Γ 0 is the optimum value of ΓS
for minimum noise figure.
Now, in the previous lectures we had seen that to optimize the gain we actually draw constant
gain circle for input side and output side. So, there we were only concerned about a gain, but
now we are concerned about noise figure also. So, you can see here that this expression will
reduce to NFmin if ΓS is chosen such a way that it is equal to Γ0. So, if ΓS is chosen as Γ0 then
this term will become 0. So, we can realize overall noise figure of this amplifier as NF min.
However, if ΓS is not equal to Γ0 then NFi will have a larger value.
Now, this is where one has to do the design aspect. So, if you have to optimize, the gain you
may have to choose different value of ΓS, but if you have to optimize for low noise figure,
then you have to choose different value of ΓS. We will see that later on today how to choose
proper value of ΓS either to optimize gain or to optimize noise figure. In the previous lecture
we had actually seen noise power due to resistor and noise power due to current i n2. So, what
is this expression all about? Now, just I want to mention that a transistor may have just two p-
n junction, but an amplifier may have multiple transistors. So, if you try to solve all those
things it will take very very long time.
So, to make life simpler manufacturers generally give the values of NF min, rn and Γ0 at a given
frequency. So, then you can design amplifier using these parameters for either best possible
noise figure or best possible gain or maybe we may compromise between the two. So, now,
we have to find out constant noise figure circle. Now, till now we talked about stability circle,
then we talked about gain circle, now we are going to talk about noise figure circle. So, I
hope that by seeing all these circles your mind does not go into circle, now I try to make
things as simple as possible for you people.
So, we have to now find out the noise figure circle for that we do little simplification. What
do we do it is we solve this particular expression for ΓS. So, you can see over here these terms
here |ΓS - Γ0|2 is write here 1 - |ΓS|2 is write over here. So, this is the term corresponding to this
part here. Now, this has to be represented in this form here. So, NF min will go to that side, so
NFi minus NFmin now 4 rn will come in the denominator. So, that comes over here and then
this one plus Γ0 whole square goes to this side. So, that is what over here. So, we can say that
2
|Γ S −Γ 0| NF i−NF min 2
N i= = |1+ Γ 0|
1−|Γ S|
2
4 r n
So, now, for a given device NF min rn Γ0 will be known to us and then we have to design for the
desired NFi. Now, you may say that we would always like NFi to be equal to NFmin, but as I
just mentioned if you choose ΓS equal to Γ0 then only we will get this whole thing equal to 0
over here, but that may give rise to lower gain.
So, let us look at how we can plot the noise figure circle and then I will tell you how to
choose the optimum value of ΓS. So, now, we have to solve this particular equation here N i
will be known so for a given value of NFmin rn Γ0 and desired NFi. So, this will be known that
means, Ni is known. So, we solve this equation for ΓS.
So, noise figure circle equation comes out to be ΓS minus this term which is equal to this
here. So, what is this term here? This is nothing but center of the noise figure circle. So, that
is given by
Γ0
c Fi =
1+ N i
And what is this here? This corresponds to the radius of the noise figure circle. So, we have
to take square root of that because this is equal to rFi square. So, rFi is given by
1 2
r Fi = N 2i + N i (1−|Γ 0| )
√
1+ N i
So, now let us just take the special case when NFi is equal to NFmin. So, if NFi is equal to
NFmin that will give rise to Ni equal to 0 as shown in the previous slide. So, if you now
substitute the value of Ni equal to 0 over here. So, what this term will be? cFi will become Γ0.
What will be rFi? You can say that Ni is equal to 0, this is 0, this is also 0 this will be 1 plus 0,
so overall this will become 0. So, as I mentioned for absolute minimum noise figure when
NFi is equal to NFmin then we have to choose ΓS as equal to Γ0, ok. So, that corresponds to the
single point.
However, as I mentioned earlier this may not give rise to the optimum gain. So, let us see
now how we can use this particular information and the information which we had studied in
the previous lectures about the constant gain circles. Let us combine these two and then
design low noise amplifier.
But before that, let us take a noise figure circle example. So, here is NF min equal to 2 dB, rn is
4 Ω Γ0 is 0.485 ∟ 155º. These are specified so we want to plot noise figure circle for NF i
equal to 3 dB Z0 is 50 Ω. So, by using this particular expression we can find the value of N i.
So, substitute the various values.
Again please remember do not put the values directly in terms of dB otherwise this would
become 3 minus 2. Please do not do that you have to convert these dB values into
corresponding numeric values. So, the numeric value for 3 dB is 1.995, numeric value of 2
dB is given by 1.585 divided by 4 into rn, rn is capital Rn divided by 50. Then this term will be
1 plus Γ0 is given by this particular expression and we have to take magnitude of that.
So, Ni comes out to be the real number it is not a complex number because here we are taking
magnitude of this particular term. So, from here now we can calculate the value of c Fi, cFi is
nothing but Γ0 divided by 1 plus Ni. So, cFi comes out to be this one here. Now, you can note
here that cFi has same angle as that of Γ0, ok. And what is the value of rFi? We substitute the
value of Ni, rFi comes out to be 0.512. Now, let us plot noise figure circle on the Smith chart.
So, first thing what you should do locate Γ0 on the smith chart. So, Γ0 is 0.485 ∟ 155º. So,
you draw a line which is at an angle of 155º then locate Γ 0 which is 0.485. So, you know that
now that this is normalized equal to 1. So, 0.485 of this normalized value to be shown over
here. Then locate cFi, cFi is 0.333 locate that on the Smith chart and then draw the circle over
here. You can choose any value of ΓS on this particular noise figure circle and that will give
constant noise figure that is why it is known as constant noise figure circle.
I just want to mention where will be the location of the other noise figure circles for different
values of N F i. So, just recall this point here corresponds to NF min which is equal to 2 dB.
Suppose we are interested in NFi equal to 2.5 dB. So, 2.5 dB noise figure circle will be
somewhere here this is 3 dB noise figure circle 4 dB noise figure circle will be much larger
like this over here. So, with this particular information now let us see how we can design a
low noise amplifier.
So, these are the design steps for designing a low noise amplifier. So, S-parameters and noise
parameters of a transistor will be generally given for given biasing condition and frequency.
So, let us say now we have to design for required noise figure and gain. We have already seen
how to draw the noise figure circles now let us see how do we put gain circles over noise
figure circle.
So, again to design an amplifier you must follow the steps which we had discussed when we
were talking about microwave amplifier design. So, first you check whether the amplifier is
stable or not. So, for that you calculate the value of Δ, calculate the value of K, if Δ is less
than 1 and k is greater than 1 then it is unconditionally stable. So, you do not have to draw the
stability circles. If that condition is not satisfied that means, amplifier is conditionally stable
you have to draw input and output stability circles and then choose the value of Γ S and ΓL
which is far away from those stability circle.
Then comes the next part which is G tu. Now, before again you look at G tu what do you do?
First you calculate Gtu max, so that desired gain has to be less than G tu max then you also find out
the value of M check that m is less than 0.05. So, that you know that the gain error is
relatively small. Then comes the next part now for the desired value of the gain, what should
do? |S21|2 is known. So, we have to now choose the value of g s and gl as we did earlier. But
now there is slight change now we do not give much focus to g l now we focus more on gs
value. Why we focus more on gs value? Because this gs corresponds to the constant gain
circle for the input side that will give us the value of ΓS and noise figure circle also decides
the value of ΓS. So, first we focus on how to find the value of ΓS or you can say the value of gs
then we look at the gl value.
So, the first step is choose the value of g s which is less than gs max, then plot; the constant gs
circle and also plot NF circle. Choose the value of Γ S and hence you can say g s either for the
lowest noise figure or for given noise figure and then you will know what is the value of g s.
Once you know the gs then you calculate the value of gl to meet the gain requirement. After
that only you draw the load gain circle and then choose the value of ΓL.

So, now, we will take two different example. So, here is a design example 1. So, you can see
here this is similar to what I had shown for the noise figure example. So, this is Γ 0 and this is
the noise figure circle for 3 dB this is the noise figure circle for 2.5 dB. I just want to mention
this 2.5 dB noise circle is just a representation I am not telling that this is the exact 2.5 dB
noise figure circle.
Now, let us see different source gain circles. So, here if you choose this particular point
which is S11* then we would get maximum gain, but these are the other constant gain circles
for different value of gns, I am actually showing normalized value of gns which can be let us
say 0.85, 0.9, 0.95 here of course, it will be equal to 1. The reason to show these g ns is
because gs may have different values for different amplifier or transistor.
If one now tries to design this particular amplifier for maximum gain which will correspond
to this particular point you can see that noise figure will be very poor over here because this
itself is 3, dB if we look at another circle that may be 4 dB, here noise figure maybe 4 dB or
even 5 dB. So, it is not a good idea to choose this particular point for maximum gain. So, we
have to sacrifice gain now.
So, let us see if we look at this particular circle you can see that gain is reduced slightly, but it
is becoming closer to the noise figure circle. So, let us look at this particular circle here which
is normalize value of 0.9, you can see that this is intersecting noise figure 3 dB circle at this
point and this particular point, ok. But it is intersecting 2.5 dB noise circle at this particular
point and then there is another one. So, you can see that gain is reducing, but then we are
getting closer to the lowest noise figure.
So, let me ask a very very simple question which point among A, B, C and D should be
chosen for ΓS. So, let us say we have point A, B, C, D. Let us first look at points A B C, you
can see that all the 3 points A B C are on the constant gain circle which corresponds to
normalize value of gns which is 0.85. Now, if we choose point A and C you can see that the
noise figure will be about 2.5 dB, but if we choose point B you can see this point B is closer
to Γ0 point so that means, noise figure here will be lower than noise figure corresponding to
point C and point A.
So, please do not choose point A and C you can choose point B. So, point B should be chosen
for lower noise figure, but that will have a lower gain also. Now, if we choose point D you
can see that at point D noise figure is of the order of 2.5 dB and gain is corresponding to 0.9.
So, you can choose D for higher gain, but higher noise figure also. You can also choose
another point over here, but then that would mean noise figure is deteriorating further, but
gain will increase, ok. So, one has to really decide whether noise figure is more important or
whether gain is more important. If gain is more important choose a point which is closer to
this and if noise figure is more important then choose a point closer to this particular Γ0.
Let us take another example. So, in this example we have kept the noise figures as before, but
now S11 is different. So, here S11* is located at this particular point and these are the constant
gain circles, ok. So, again I have just shown two points A and B. So, if you look at point A,
this point A is very very close Γ 0 so that means, this will give us very low noise figure, but
then you can see that it will give relatively less gain. If we choose a point B you can see that
gain will be higher, but noise figure will be poor at this particular point over here. So, you
can choose A for lower noise figure, but lower gain choose B for higher gain but higher noise
figure.
But I just want to mention here how to make a proper choice. So, draw a line between Γ 0 and
S11*, ok. So, that line will basically be corresponding to the two circles which are intersecting
each other. So, it is better that choose any point along this particular line and you can then
decide to choose if you choose this point that will be the lowest noise figure, but lower gain
also and if you choose this particular point then it will be maximum gain and poorer noise
figure.
So, any point over here can be chosen depending upon the desired gain value or desired noise
figure. So, let us say since we are designing a low noise amplifier we choose point A which is
very very close to Γ0. So, corresponding to this value of A we know now what is the value of
gns or you can say gs, then you find out what is the corresponding value of gl check that gl has
to be less than gl max then you draw output stability circle then choose the value of Γ L. The last
step then left is you have to design impedance matching network since I have already
discussed impedance matching network in detail when we talked about amplifier design and
also impedance matching network has been discussed in much more detail when we talked
about transmission line. So, I am not going to discuss that again now. So, please refer to those
earlier slides, ok.
Now, we will take a real life example. So, here is an LNA which we fabricated using this
particular IC.
So, this particular IC has the specification of noise figure equal to 1.5 dB and it is internally
matched from 5 to 4000 MHz and this is one of the typical circuits given by the
manufacturer. But I want to mention that please use this particular circuit little carefully
because this particular circuit is not very good if you want to design at 5 MHz. So, why I am
saying that? So, in this particular circuit you can see the coupling capacitors are given as 100
pF and 100 pF.
Now, these capacitors should act as short circuit at the desire frequency, but at 5 MHz these
capacitors will provide very high impedance because we know that impedance of the
capacitor is given by Z = 1/ j ω C. So, if omega is small overall impedance will be large. So,
there will be a lot of attenuation because of this capacitor. So, if you want an amplifier at
lower frequencies then you must use higher value of capacitance here we have kept these
values because we wanted to design this particular amplifier in the GSM band you can see
here we have tested at 920 MHz.
So, let us see now here is an input this is the coupling capacitor and output there is a coupling
capacitor. You can see there is a no impedance matching network required the reason for that
is this particular amplifier is internally matched. So, for this particular amplifier you do not
have to draw noise figure circle you do not have to draw constant gain circle and other thing,
all those things have been done by the manufacturer. So, it is a very very simplified
configuration. However, I just want to mention noise figure is equal to 1.5 dB because when
they try to do impedance matching internally for this broadband region, somewhere lossy
network does come into picture hence noise figure is poor.
I just want to mention there are several transistors which have noise figure equal to even as
low as 0.2 or 0.3 dB and if you use those transistor you can realize that low noise amplifier
with noise figure of 0.5 dB to even 1 dB, ok. So, here yes things are simple, but we are
paying the penalty of noise figure of 1.5 dB. However, we fabricated this because for one of
the application desired noise figure was 2 dB and this gives lower than 2 dB, and nobody will
of course, object if you give a lower noise figure.
Let us see the other thing now the biasing condition. You can see that the output here is
connected through this inductor; you can see this value is 68 nH which will act as an open
circuit at the desired frequency. However, again if you want to use at 5 MHz, then this
inductor is small you have to choose larger value of inductor. Then this is now connected to
the supply voltage, you can see that there are 3 parallel capacitors connected to the ground.
What are these values? So, one uF is basically to reduce the ripple in this particular power
supply, these two capacitors are mainly to reduce that transients at higher frequency and this
is for mid frequency range. So, this is the fabricated PCB based on this particular design. You
can get the idea of the size of this particular amplifier just by looking at these two connectors.
So, typical is this dimension is of the order of 1 cm. So, you can get an idea that size of this
amplifier is of the order of 1 inch by 1 inch which is about 25 mm by 25 mm.
So, let us see what are the test results we got. So, input was given as minus 17 dBm at 920
MHz through a microwave generator, and the output of this particular amplifier was
connected to the spectrum analyzer the response of the spectrum analyzer is shown over here.
The output was measured as 8.2 dBm. So, if you just look at output minus input in terms of
dB then it comes out to be 25.2 dB. However, we had connected coaxial cable and if you
recall when we discussed about coaxial cables all the coaxial cables have certain losses at the
given frequency.
So, we actually tested the cable losses at this particular frequency we hardly had used little
longer cable. So, cable losses turn out to be 3 dB. So, you have to add all these numbers
together so the gain of this LNA comes out to be 28 dB. So, you can see that gain is fairly
good. If you recall the previous examples I was talking about gain of 10 dB or 14 dB or 18
dB, but this particular amplifier gives a gain of 28 dB noise figure is also relatively low
which is of the order of 1.5 dB. So, this particular low noise amplifier can be used as the first
amplifier block in the receiver chain.
I just want to mention that in a receiver chain there are several cascaded stages of the
amplifier. The reason for that is the signal which is received by the antenna, maybe very very
weak. So, typically that amplifier chain may have gain of the order of 60 dB. So, one may
have to use cascaded stages of these low noise amplifier. Of course, the next stage one can
optimize for maximum gain because that stage will be divided by this very high gain. So,
even poor noise figure of the second stage will not add to the overall noise figure because the
gain of this particular stage is very very high.
So, just to summarize today we talked about how to design low noise amplifier. So, we first
started with a very simple expression for noise figure for a given amplifier and that
expression basically uses 3 important terms NF min, rn and Γ0. So, by using those terms we first
find out what is N i, and then we plot noise figure circles, then along with that we plot
constant gain circle for the source side. Then we choose appropriate value of Γ S depending
upon what is more important. Gain is more important or noise figure is more important.
And then we took this practical example and you can see that in this particular example we
do not have to do many of the things which I discussed earlier today, but as I mentioned if
you have to design a much lower noise figure amplifier, then you have to draw all those
constant noise figure circle and constant gain circles to design an optimum amplifier. In the
next lecture I will talk about power amplifiers. So, Bye.
Thank you very much. See you next time.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 08
Lecture – 37
Power Amplifiers: Class A, Class B, Class AB and Class C
Hello. In this lecture we will talk about Power Amplifiers. Previously we have studied about
a small signal amplifier. So, here small signal means that the output current or voltage swing
is small as compared to the maximum collector current. Now, these small signal amplifiers
are mostly used in electronic systems for signal processing. So, in most of the electronic
systems, these small signal amplifiers are used as the starting 2 or 3 stages of amplifiers.
Now, if the power delivered to the load is required to be very high, then the amplifier should
be selected as power amplifier. So, in general the last 1 or 2 stages of the amplifier are
selected as power amplifiers.
Here the one may say that when an amplifier should be considered as power amplifier and
when it should be considered as small signal amplifier. So, when the power is less than 500
mW, then one may say that this can be considered as a small signal amplifier however, if the
power is greater than 500 mW may be few watts or few 10 W or few 100 W, then they can be
considered as power amplifiers. So, in this lecture we will talk about the power amplifiers.
We will see the various performance parameters of power amplifiers and we will see how
these parameters affect the performance of power amplifier. Then we will see the various
classes of power amplifiers which depends upon the output current flow in the amplifier.
Then we will see the circuit analysis of power amplifier we will talk about the DC and AC
load line, and then we will see the selection of operating point. After that we will talk about
the various classes of amplifiers in broad way. So, we will talk about class A amplifier, class
B amplifier, class AB, and class C power amplifier. Now, after discussing these classes of
power amplifier, we will take two practical design examples of power amplifier one will be
of 2 W power and another example will be of 30 W power amplifier.
So, in power amplifier the power means that how much AC power is delivered to the load.
Now, one may ask from where this AC power comes. So, in general it comes from the supply
or from the battery. Now, one may ask that what is the conversion efficiency so that means,
that how effectively one circuit of amplifier converts the DC power into the AC power which
is to be delivered to the load. This effectiveness is defined in terms of the conversion
efficiency of power amplifier. And it is a figure of merit of power amplifier. It is defined as
the ratio of the average AC power delivered to the load to the average DC power drawn by
the circuit or supplied by the battery, this is one of the consideration of the power amplifier.

Next consideration is the distortion in amplifiers. Now, depending upon the output current the
various types of amplifiers provides various types of waveform. So, the distortion is defined
as the change in output wave shape from the input wave shape. These distortion, could be of
various type like amplitude distortion, harmonic distortion, and crossover distortion, we will
talk about these distortions little later.
The next thing is in this power amplifier the transistor should be designed in such a way that
they should be capable of dissipating the high power. So, they dissipate high power.
However, in case of a small signal amplifier the transistors are made of very small size and in
the case of power amplifier the size of the transistor is chosen relatively large. It could be of
few centimeters or even more. However, in case of a small signal amplifier it is of just few
millimeter size. Here in case of power amplifier the size is made relatively more because they
have to dissipate more heat. Now, since the transistor in these power amplifiers dissipate
more heat, so there is a need of some cooling arrangement. So, you might have seen in
electronic systems that the fan is associated at the backend of any instrument and this fan
provides the cooling to the instrument and that cools the transistor.
If the power is not very high, then this cooling is provide through the metal casing of the
transistor and it dissipates heat through the metal casing. Now, if the transistor can also be
cooled by placing at the back end of the circuitry and in this case the heat goes through the
convection when air flows then this makes the transistor relatively cool. So, these are the
main considerations of power amplifier. In case of power amplifier, the resistance of the
collector is chosen relatively low because in these cases the output current or the voltage
swing should be very large and which can happen if the collector resistance of these amplifier
is chosen as a small.
Next we will talk about the various classes of power amplifiers. Power amplifiers are broadly
classified into 3 categories depending upon for how much portion the output current will flow
with respect to the input current or input signal. So, the classes of the amplifier is class A,
class B, and class C. Now, there are few modifications made for the class B amplifier, then
the new type of amplifier is called as the class AB amplifier. This eliminates the distortion
that occurs in case of class B amplifier we will discuss about these features little later. Now,
in case of class A amplifier the output waveform follows the input cycle. So, here output
current flows for the whole input cycle so the conduction angle in this amplifier is 360 0. So,
here you can see that the output current is the exact replica of the input signal. So, this is class
A amplifier. The efficiency of these class A amplifier is relatively low.
The next type of amplifier is class B amplifier. In this case the operating point is chosen at
the cutoff. So, the output current flows only for the positive half cycle. So, the output
waveform will be between 0 and , 2 and 3, 4 and 5. So, the output waveform will be
like this. So, here you can see that the half of the information is lost. One can get the
complete waveform if the engineer uses a special type of connection using two transistors
that is known as the push pull connections, then one can easily get the complete waveform.
We will discuss about this configuration little later.
Now, one may say why one should choose class B amplifier it suffers from the distortion, the
reason is that in case of class B amplifier the efficiency of these amplifier is much higher as
compared to class A amplifier here the efficiency is 78% and in case of class A amplifier it is
just 25%. So, this is one of the advantage of class B amplifiers. Now, as I mentioned these
amplifiers suffers from the distortion. So, another type of amplifier is made by shifting the
operating point slightly towards the active region. So, these types of amplifiers are known as
the class AB push pull amplifiers. The conduction angle of this amplifier is greater than 180 0,
in case of class B amplifier the conduction angle is 1800 and in case of class A B amplifier it
is little more than 1800. It could be around 2000 or 2200 depending upon the situation. So, in
this case the efficiency is slightly less than the class AB amplifier, but it provides the
distortion free output signal.
The next type of amplifier is class C amplifier, in these amplifier output current flows for
only very small portion of the input signal. So, you can say, if you select somewhere here;
then the output current will flow only for this region. So, correspondingly you will get the
waveform like this, they provide a very small signal with very high output power. So, these
pulses are of very high output power. When these pulses are connected with LC tank circuit,
then they provide the carrier wave which is of sinusoidal in nature. So, they are used in
generating the sinusoidal carrier wave.
Now, if I compare these amplifiers in terms of conduction angle and efficiency. So, the
conduction angle is maximum for class A amplifier and it is minimum for class C amplifier,
for class A amplifier it is around 360 0 and for class C, it is of the order of 10 0 or 200
depending upon the situation how high pulse or for how much duration you are interested in
the pulse that is to be generated by class C amplifier. Now, if I talk about in terms of
efficiency, then the efficiency of class A amplifier is minimum that is about 20% and 25%,
and it is maximum for class C amplifier it is around 95%. So, they are the most efficient
power amplifiers among these class A, B and C amplifiers.
Next we will take an example of class A amplifiers. So, here is the circuit of class A
amplifier. This is the supply voltage, these are the biasing resistor, this is collective resistor,
and these are the decoupling capacitors the input is applied here. So, in this case this input is
coupled to the circuit through this decoupling capacitor and the output resistance is R L and
this is connected to the circuit through this decoupling capacitor. We have already seen the
DC load line of this circuit. Now, one may say that this circuit looks similar to the small
signal amplifier. So, although in appearance they are similar, but the consideration of this
transistor is quite different in case of power amplifier because of the dissipation and other
considerations as we discussed earlier.
Now, we will see that here we are interested in AC power that is delivered to the load. So, we
will see the AC load line. Now, one may say that why the AC load line and DC load lines are
different. So, if you see here the impedance seen at this end will be different for the DC
circuit and the AC circuit. In case of DC circuit these capacitors will act like infinite
impedance. So, they will not make connection with the output. So, the impedance seen at this
end will be only RC however, in case of AC analysis, short circuit all the supply sources and
short circuit all the decoupling capacitors. So, if this will be shortened, then the impedance
seen at this end will be the parallel combination of R C and RL which is represented by a small
rc. So, the impedance seen is different for the AC and DC analysis, and that is why the AC
load line will be different than the DC load line.
Now, just to do the analysis of this circuit short circuit all the supply sources and short circuit
all the decoupling capacitors and then apply the Kirchhoff law in this loop, and then
superimpose the current achieved in this with the DC current. By simplifying this you will get
−v CE V CEQ
this expression iC = + I CQ + . This represents the relation between the iC and vCE . It
rc rc
is a straight line, so one can draw a straight line using this when they want to see the
characteristics in iC verses vCE . So, to draw an AC load line just put vCE equals to 0 to
calculate the iC saturation current. So, this will come out to be I CQ rc + V CEQand for the cutoff
region put iC = 0 then vCE = V CEQ+ I CQ rc , and the line drawn by using these point will be the
AC load line. Here the slope of this load line will be -1/ r c which is a parallel combination RC
and RL.
Now, the next thing is there should be the operating point. So, in case of class A power
amplifiers the output current and voltage shape should be very large. So, one should choose
the operating point in such a way that it should provide the maximum output power without
any distortion. So, in general it is suggested that one should choose the operating point in the
middle of this AC load line why this is chosen, because if you choose point somewhere here
then there are chances that the positive cycle of this output signal may get clipped. This is
known as the saturation clipping and if the point is chosen somewhere here then there are
chances that the negative cycle of the output signal may get clipped, this is known as the
cutoff clipping. So, one should choose the operating point at the centre to get the maximum
output signal without any distortion.
Next we will be seeing the how much AC power is delivered to the load. So, in order to
calculate the power delivered to the load few assumptions are made that the cutoff point is
considered to be here at 0. So, this will corresponds to VCC if you see and this is taken at this
saturation. So, this value of the current will be 2 ICQ. Here this represents the maximum
voltage and this represents the minimum voltage. So, this will be 0 and maximum voltage
over here will be VCC. This represents the minimum current and this end represents the
maximum current. So, the maximum current will be 2ICQ and the minimum current will be 0.
Now, to calculate the output power delivered to be load, it will be the root mean square value
of Vce and Ice. as VCC into ICQ by 4
V ce ( p− p) I ce( p−p) V CC 2∗I CQ
P o ( ac )=V ce . I ce = . = .
2√2 2√2 2 √ 2 2∗√ 2
So, after simplifying you will get the AC power delivered to the load. Now, how much is the
power supplied by the battery in this case? So, in this case the current will be supplied in
these two branches. So, it is assumed in the analysis that the current drawn by these biasing
resistors is negligible as compared to the current drawn by this resistor. So, it has been
ignored. So, the supplied power will be
P i ( dc ) =V CC . I CQ
Now, to calculate the conversion efficiency, we have already studied that the conversion
efficiency is the ratio of the output power delivered to the load and the supply power.
V ce( p− p) I ce( p−p) V CC I CQ
. .
P o (ac ) V ce . I ce 2√2 2√2 2 √2 √2
η= = = = → %η=25 %
P i (dc ) V CC . I CQ V CC . I CQ V CC . I CQ
So, if you put these values then you will get the efficiency of 25%. Now, in this case if
suppose one want to design a 10 W power amplifier then one has to supply 40 W of power
through supply. So, in this case, lot of power will be wasted in this circuit. Here half of the
power will be wasted in this resistor this power can be saved if we replace this resistor by a
transformer.
So, the next type of class A amplifier is transformer coupled class A amplifier. Here the load
resistance RC is replaced by the transformer. So, this is the transformer the output resistance
is RL. Here the number of turns in the primary coil are n p and the number of turns in the
secondary coil are ns. So, the impedance seen at this end at the primary will be represented by
2
n
'
L
ns( )
this expression R = p R L. So, in this case, the impedance matching can be easily achieved
by just changing the turn ratio of the transformer. Now, in this case we know that in case of
transformer the resistance is very low or its 0. So, the DC load line for this configuration will
be a vertical line, because a small resistance or the 0 resistance will corresponds to infinite
slope, so that we make the vertical line.

So, in this case, this VCQ = VCC because there will not be any losses in this transformer. So, if
you put the value of VCQ and try to calculate the conversion efficiency then it will come out to
be 50%. So, by using transformer coupled class A amplifier, the efficiency has been
improved to 50%. So, in case if you want to design a 10 W of amplifier so here you need to
supply 20 W of power in this case. Now, if you see here if the signal is absent. So, in both the
amplifier configuration of class A, the current will passed through this transistor. So, it will
continuously dissipate the heat. So, that is one of the disadvantage of class A configuration
that lot of the power is dissipated in the transistor.
Now, this configuration is also not desirable because the transformer is relatively bulky and
they are frequency sensitive. So, the frequency response is not very good. Now, if the
transformer is used for very good quality, then it becomes expensive. So, that is why this
configuration is not used.
The next type of amplifier configuration is class B amplifier. Here the operating point is
chosen at the cutoff. So, at the cut off the current will be 0. So, in this case the output current
will flow only for this half cycle that is positive half cycle, there will not be any conduction
in the negative half cycle. So, the output will be similar to the half wave rectifier.
Now, if one want to achieve the complete wave form this is also possible using class B power
amplifier this can be made using the special type of arrangement that is known as push pull
connection. In push pull connection two transistors are used, so here is the push pull
arrangement of two transistors, the transistors are NPN transistors and these are the common
emitter configurations. Here the input is provided by using the input transformer and the
output is taken and combined from these transistors by the transformer at the output. So, in
this case the input signal is decoupled at the secondary and they are in out of phase, here you
can see. So, they are tapped in such a way that the input to these transistors are out of phase,
So, in this case the NPN transistor we know that the emitter base junction for this transistor
should be forward biased in order to start the conduction. So, if you see here this cycle, this
half cycle will provide the forward bias to this transistor. So, output will appear for this much
of duration. Since this configuration is common emitter configuration, so the output will be in
opposite phase to that of the input signal. So, that will appear here similarly in this case the
output will be appeared for this cycle of input signal. So, it will be in reverse phase for this
much of duration.
Now, using the centre tapped output transformer these outputs are combined and you will get
the output waveform like this. So, this is a push pull amplifier. These are not used
conventionally because of the centre tapped transformer it becomes costly and the size of this
amplifier is relatively more.
So, the next type of push pull arrangement is using the complementary transistors here the
transistor are NPN and PNP, they are connected back to back here the output is taken at the
load and the input is provided here. So, NPN transistor the emitter base junction will be
forward biased if the positive cycle is provided here and in case of PNP transistor. If the
negative voltage is provided, then it will be in the conduction state or in the active region. So,
for the positive half cycle, the output will appear through this transistor and for the negative
half cycle the output will appear through this transistor.
Now, if a load is connected somewhere here, then this output achieved at the load will be a
complete waveform. So, this is how the complete waveform is made using the push pull
connection of complementary transistors. Now, the power delivered to the load in these
transistor amplifier will be given by the root mean square value of V ce * Ice, here VCEQ = VCC/2
because the output current is appeared for only half duration. So, VCEQ = VCC/2. So, by putting
these values you can calculate the output AC power delivered to the load. So, that will come
out to be VCC* ICQ/ 4.
Now, if you want to calculate the power supplied. So, this will be the product of V CC and the
current supplied by the battery. So, this current supplied will be the average value of the
current. In this case the output does not appear for the full duration. So, we should take the
average over full period. So, average value will come out to be I CQ/ . Now, for the
conversion efficiency it is the ratio of the output power by the supplied power and if you put
these values the ratio will come out to be /4. So, the conversion efficiency for this amplifier
is 78.5% and this is relatively very high as compared to class A amplifier. So, this is one of
the advantages of class B amplifiers.

Now, this amplifier suffers from the distortion. So, if you see in this push pull arrangement
this transistor should be of similar properties if the properties are not similar then the output
signal may contains the harmonics of the fundamental frequency. So, the output could be
containing the fundamental frequency and the second harmonic, third harmonic etcetera.
So, if you see here this blue curve is the fundamental frequency, and this green one is second
harmonic. So, the output waveform will be like this which is not desirable. So, this type of
distortion is known as the harmonic distortion, so the harmonic distortion is given by the
value acquired by the harmonics. So, this is given by the root mean square value of the
harmonics over the power delivered to the fundamental harmonic. So, here A 1 is the
amplitude of the fundamental frequency and An is the amplitude of the nth harmonic.
So, in case of class B amplifier since the output current appeared due to the complementary
transistors are in out of phase. So, the even harmonics will be absent in case of class B power
amplifiers, only odd harmonics will be present. So, this distortion will be relatively very less
because the main distortion will be due to this second harmonic. So, this harmonic will be
absent in class B amplifier. So, the harmonic distortion will be relatively less in case of class
B amplifiers and this will be given by this particular expression.
The next type of distortion is the crossover distortion in the analysis we assumed that these
transistors are ideal in nature, but practically they are made of silicon then here the voltage
required for the biasing of emitter base junction is 0.7 V in case of NPN transistor and it
should be -0.7 V for PNP transistor. So, there will not be any conduction when the positive
half cycle will be there between 0 to 0.7 V and similarly in this case there will not be any
conduction when it will be between -0.7 to 0 V. So, the output will not appear for that
duration. So, in this case the output waveform will not be the replica of input or it will not be
a complete sinusoidal waveform. So, this type of distortion is known as the crossover
distortion.
This type of distortion can be reduced by shifting the operating point slightly towards the
active region so that type of amplifier are known as the class AB amplifiers. So, this is the
circuit of resistor biased class AB amplifier. Here this R 2 and R3 are used to provide the
biasing to this transistor so that they should remain in conduction state for all the time even in
case of 0 input signal. Here you can see that the operating point is chosen here which is
slightly towards the active region this is approximately 5 to 10% of the maximum value of
the collector current. So, in this case, the output will be a complete waveform, but these
configurations surfers with the temperature variation because the emitter base junction
voltage varies with temperature. We know that the base emitter voltage varies by 2.5 mV by
increasing the temperature by 10 C.
Now, suppose if the temperature increases by 20 0 then it will corresponds to 50 mV variation.

Now, the biasing voltage that is required is around 600 mV so this 15 mW variation will be
relatively huge. So, there are chances that it may shift the operating point which may not be
desirable because it will provide the distortions. So, the next type of configuration is the
diode biased configuration.
Here these diodes are used to provide the biasing to these NPN and PNP transistors. The
properties of these diodes are similar to the emitter base junction of NPN transistor and PNP
transistor. So, in these transistors if the temperature changes, then similar variations occur in
the emitter base junction of transistors and the similar variations occurs in these diodes. So,
they do not suffer with the variation of the operating point. So, they provides the complete
waveform without any distortion. So, this class amplifiers gets rid off the distortion. This is
one of the biggest advantage of class AB amplifier.
So, if one want to use the class B amplifier then it is suggested in general that one should use
the class AB amplifier because it provides the distortion free signal and the efficiency of
these amplifiers is just slightly less than the class B amplifier. The conduction angle of this
amplifier is slightly greater than 1800, it depends upon the biasing situation. So, it could be of
around 2000 or 2200. Here you can see for this much of duration the output signal will appear
in these cases. So, the application of these class AB amplifiers are they can be used in the
jammers or single enhancers and in many other circuits wherever high power is required and
efficiency is also one of the consideration.
The next type of amplifier is the class C amplifier. In class C amplifier the output current is
present for only very small portion of the input signal. So, here the operating point is chosen
away from the cutoff point. So, in this case the biased voltage applied will be negative. So,
that is why in the circuit analysis this negative biased voltage is chosen here the output will
appear for this much of portion. Now, if you see here, the input signal applied is sinusoidal in
nature these are the decoupling capacitors. So, in this case for the negative cycle it will add
up to this negative value so there will not be any conduction in the transistor and for the
positive half cycle in the starting it will try to compensate for this negative bias and for very
high value and for the very small portion of the input signal this transistor will go into the
active region. So, the collector current will appear.
So, here the character current will be of very less duration with very high power. So, it will
be in the form of pulses like this. In standalone configuration these pulses are of not very use.
Now, when the tank circuit is connected at the collector end of this particular amplifier then
these pulses strike this tank circuit. Since we know that the time duration for these pulses is
very less. So, the frequency will be very high and we know in case of tuned circuit the
impedance offered by the inductor will be very high for the high frequency range and it will
act like a open circuit and in case of capacitor it will provide very low impedance, so it will
act like a short circuit. So, it will start charging.
So, the capacitor will charge up to the voltage VCC or slightly less than VCC. Then this
capacitor will try to discharge by providing current to this inductor and then it will discharge
up to the value 0 and then the reverse process will start. So, in this way it will generate the
complete sinusoidal waveform. So, this is one of the biggest applications of this class C
amplifier. So, using the tank circuit one can generate a sinusoidal carrier wave using the class
C amplifiers, the efficiency of these amplifiers is around 95%. So, if the supplied power is
around 1 kW then the sinusoidal carrier wave of 900 W or maybe 950 W can be achieved
using this class C amplifier which is very high value.
So, the application of this amplifier is to provide the carrier signal that is a very high output
power. So, they are used in television signals in radar systems to generate the career signals,
this is one of the advantages. The limitation of these amplifier is that they can only generate
the carrier signal of sinusoidal in nature.
Now, we will take two examples of power amplifier. So, here is example of 2 W power
amplifier. The number of the IC used in this amplifier is SPB2026Z. Here the impedance
matching is provided. We will not discuss about the impedance matching because it has been
already told to you in previous lectures. This is a class AB transistor based power amplifier,
the nominal supply voltage for this amplifier is 5 V and the 1 dB compression point is 33.8
dBm. Here the 1 dB compression point means that for the RF input signal the power gain
decreases by 1 dB. So, then RF input corresponding to that variation is known as the 1 dB
compression point.
So, in this case this is 33.8 dB. The RF input for this amplifier is taken 21.5 dB for
measurement. So, here is the plot of this amplifier the output power is shown here. This
amplifier is designed for the GSM 2G band from 1800 to 2000 MHz or 1.8 GHz to 2 GHz,
the output power achieved by this amplifier is maximum that is 33.2 dBm at 1.9 GHz with
efficiency of 38.1%. And the current drawn by this amplifier is 1 A. The cooling
arrangements are made by using these multiple holes and the multiple number of wires.
The next type of amplifier is the 30 W power amplifier. Here you can see that the cooling
arrangements are made by placing a copper plate at the back end. So, it will dissipate the heat
generated by this transistor of power amplifier. This is also class AB power amplifier the
nominal supply voltage for this amplifier is 28 V at 1 dB compression point, for this amplifier
is 44.8 dBm and the RF input given to this amplifier is 17 dBm and at the output this is
connected with the 30 dB attenuator because of the limitation of the instruments that we have
for the measurement. So, by considering this the output power achieved by this amplifier is
around 44.1 dBm with 2.6 A current drawn by the circuit. The efficiency achieved by this
amplifier is of the order of around 40%. So, these are the examples of the power amplifiers.
So now, I would like to conclude in this lecture we talked about the power amplifiers, we
talked about the various parameters which takes care of various performance parameters of
the power amplifiers. After that we talked about the class A power amplifier, we saw that the
efficiency of the class A power amplifier is very less for RC coupled transistor based power
amplifier configuration. Then we talked about the transformer coupled class A power
amplifiers the efficiency has been increased to 50%, but these class A amplifiers surfers with
large heat dissipation when the signal is not present in the amplifier.
Then we talked about the class B amplifier, the operating point is chosen at the cutoff
frequency, so there are no dissipation in class B amplifiers in the absence of the signal. But
the class B amplifier suffers from the distortion which could be the harmonic distortion or the
crossover distortion. This crossover distortion are eliminated by using the different
configuration that is known as the class AB amplifier which makes use of the push pull
arrangement of two transistors and the biasing is provided with the help of the resistor and the
diode. This class AB amplifiers provides slightly less efficiency as compared to class B
amplifier. For class B amplifier efficiency is 78.5% however, class AB amplifier it could be
of around between 50 to 70%, but they provides the distortion free output single.
Then, we talked about it class C power amplifiers which show that the output current appears
for very less duration of the input signal. So, these amplifier are used to provide the short
pulses of very high output power when these short pulses strikes to the LC tuned circuit then
they provide the carrier sinusoidal wave of very high power. These carrier waves are
generally used in the radar systems or in radio signals or in the television signals mostly. So,
efficiency of class C amplifier is the highest among class A, B and C amplifiers whatever we
discussed in this lecture. So, one should choose the class C operation if one is interested for
the maximum efficiency, and otherwise if one is interested for the distortion free signal then
that person should go for the class A amplifier. After that we talked about two practical
examples of the power amplifier, we talked about the 2 W and 30 W power amplifiers, then
we saw what type of cooling arrangements were made and how they are matched over the
frequency range. So, with this I would like to conclude.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 08
Lecture - 38
Microwave Tubes – I: Linear Beam Tubes– Two Cavity Klystron
Hello my name is Rajbala, I am pursuing PhD under the guidance of Professor Girish Kumar.
I will take few lectures on Microwave Tubes.
The outline to cover this topic is; first I will start with introduction to conventional tubes
followed by high frequency limitations of conventional tubes. Then I will discuss microwave
tubes such as Klystron, Travelling Wave Tubes and Magnetrons. I will discuss their
advantages, disadvantages, working principle and applications. So, let us begin.
The vacuum tubes such as triodes, tetrodes, pentodes etc; these are the examples of
conventional tubes. And what are vacuum tubes? Vacuum tubes are the electronic devices in
which electrons flow through vacuum from one electrode to another electrode. Generally
speaking, vacuum tubes contains one cathode, one anode and one or more than one grids.
These grids are used for controlling actions. Since, vacuum tubes are voltage controlled
devices, so the grid voltages will be the controlling voltages. The vacuum tubes can be
operated at very high voltages and these can generate high powers also.

But these vacuum tubes are useful below microwave frequencies only, because at microwave
frequencies these conventional tubes will have some limitations such as inter-electrode
capacitance, lead inductance, transit time effect, gain bandwidth product limitation and so on.
I will discuss these limitations one by one. So, let us start with inter-electrode capacitance.
Now, the first question is; where does a capacitance exist? A capacitance exists between two
metal plates separated by a dielectric. Now, take an example of vacuum tube triode. So, in
triode there are three electrodes one is grid, then plate and other is cathode. These electrodes
are separated by a dielectric air which has dielectric constant one. So, there must exist
capacitance between the electrodes of the triode. So, these capacitances are known as inter-
electrode capacitances. Generally, the capacitance of the two plates separated by a dielectric
ϵA
is given by C= , where ϵ is the dielectric constant of the material, A is the area of the
d
plates, and d is the distance between the plates.
1
And the capacitive reactance is given by X C = ; that means, XC is inversely proportional
2π f c
to frequency. So, as frequency increases capacitive reactance decreases. And at microwave
frequencies this capacitive reactance can be approximated by a short circuit. Now, applying
this concept to this triode; so let us say at microwave frequencies capacitance between grid
and anode is approximated by a short circuit, then whatever voltage is present at the grid that
will be directly transferred to anode. So, there will be no amplification action. So, the gain of
this device triode will decrease.
Now, move onto the next limitation of conventional tubes that is lead inductance. Now, again
the same question where does an inductance exist? An inductance exists for a conducting
wire. For example, for this triode there are three electrodes. So, these are the wires of the
electrodes. So, there must exist inductance for these electrodes. So, there are three
inductances L grid, L plate and L cathode. Now, in general the inductance of a conductive
l
wire is given by L= , where l is the length of the conducting wire, µ is the permeability of
μA
the material, and A is the cross section area of the conducting wire.
And the inductive reactance is given by X L=2 πfL; that means, XL is directly proportional to
frequency. So, as frequency increases inductive reactance increases. And at microwave
frequencies inductive reactance is very high and because of this high impedance, there will be
impedance matching problem at input port as well as at output port. So, because of this
impedance mismatching there will be reflections from the input port and output port. And
because of these reflections whatever input we give to the device triode, the small fraction of
that input will reach to the terminal for amplification. And hence, the gain of this device
decreases.
We can explain this with another way also that the inductance of cathode is common to both
grid and plate. So, this will provide feedback from output to input; and because of this
feedback the gain of this triode decreases. Now, one more thing these lead inductances with
inter-electrode capacitances from unwanted resonant circuits. And these resonant circuits
produced parasitic oscillations and these parasitic oscillations will hamper the performance of
the device.
Now, let us move onto the next limitation which is transit time effect. What is a transit time?
The transit time of an electron is the time taken by an electron to travel from cathode to
anode. Let us a for triode the distance between anode and cathode is d, and the average
velocity of the electron is v0, then the transit time will be distance divided by velocity; that
d ωd
means, τ = . And the transit angle will be θ g =ωτ = .
v0 v0
Now, let us say this is the input voltage given to this device, where this T is the time period of
the input signal. Now, before analyzing the effect of frequency let us see what happens if
input voltage of this device changes. So, for positive voltages, the electrons will get potential
energy to move from cathode to anode, but as voltage changes from positive to negative; the
electrons will be attracted towards the cathode. So, now let us see what happens if frequency
changes. So, for low frequencies the time period of the input signal is very very greater than
the electron transit time.
So, as the voltage applied then electron will get potential energy in the positive half cycle of
the input, and they will move to the anode instantaneously before the input changes from
positive to negative. But for higher frequencies, the time period of the input signal is very
very less than the electron transit time that means, the input changes 10 to 100 times in one
transit time of an electron. So, as soon as electrons get potential energy in positive half cycle
of the input that starts moving towards the anode, but before it could reach to the anode, the
input changes from positive to negative. And in the negative half cycle that energy will be
taken back and electron will be attracted towards the cathode and the electron will move
something like this shown by red line.
Now, again positive half cycle comes and electron will move towards anode, and then again
negative half cycle, so like this this process goes on. And because of this process electron
may oscillate back and forth in the cathode grid space or return back to the cathode. To
minimize this affect the distance between the electrodes should be reduced and high voltages
should be applied, but because of this inter-electrode capacitance will increase.
Now, let us move onto the next limitation which is gain bandwidth product limitation. At
microwave frequencies the conventional tubes start resonating; and for a resonant circuit gain
bandwidth product is constant. So, to achieve higher gains we should compromise for
bandwidth. This limitation of conventional tubes can be overcome by microwave tubes by
using reentrant cavities or the slow wave structures. I will discuss these things later in the
slides.
1
Now, the next limitation is skin depth. So, skin depth of a conductor is given by δ = ,
√ πμσf
where µ is the permeability of the material,  is the conductivity of the conductor, f is the
frequency. So, skin depth is inversely proportional to square root of frequency. So, as
frequency increases, skin depth decreases. At microwave frequencies this skin depth is very
very small. So, we can say that at microwave frequencies most of the current flows through
the surface or we can say effective area for current flow decreases. And the resistance of a
ρl
conductor is given by R= , where ρ is the resistivity of the material, l is the length of the
A
conductor, A is the area of the conductor. So since, this effective area has been reduced by
skin depth, hence the resistance of that conductor will increase. And because of this increased
resistance there will be more conductor losses at microwave frequencies.
Now, next limitation is radiation losses. At microwave frequencies electrode pins of the
vacuum tubes start radiating. So, because of this radiation, there will be radiation losses. The
last limitation is dielectric losses. Since, as frequency increases the loss tangent of a dielectric
material increases, so there will be more dielectric losses at microwave frequencies. So, this
is all about the limitations of conventional tubes at microwave frequencies.

Now, I will start microwave tubes. Microwave tubes are of two types. One is linear beam
tube or O-type tube and the second one is crossed field tubes or M-type tubes. In M-type
tubes DC magnetic field and the DC electric fields are perpendicular to each other as shown
by this figure.
So, in this the electric field is in this plane and magnetic field is normal to this plane. I will
discuss in detail later. In the linear beam tubes DC magnetic field is parallel to the DC
electric field. And in these type of tubes electrons are injected from the cathode and they will
get potential energy from the DC beam voltage. And after getting this potential energy, the
electrons will move to the microwave interaction region, and of the potential energy is
converted to the kinetic energy. And in microwave interaction region electrons are
accelerated or decelerated by the microwave field present there.
And because of this acceleration and deceleration, electrons form bunches as they move
down the tube. And these bunched electrons induce current to the output structure. And after
that they give their energy to the microwave field present in the output structure. And after
that they will be collected by the collector. So, this is how the electrons move from cathode to
collector in a linear beam tube or this is the basic working of a linear bean tube.
Now, I will discuss classification of linear beam tubes. Linear beam tubes are of two types,
cavity type and slow wave structure type. Cavity type structures are the resonant structures;
and slow wave structures are the non-resonant structures. Each one of these structures have
some advantages and some disadvantages which I will discuss after covering these two
structures.
In the slow wave structure, the name slow waves comes from the fact that these type of
structures are used to slow down the electromagnetic wave. Now, the question is why we
need to slow down the electromagnetic wave? because electron moves much much slower
than the electromagnetic wave. So, electrons do not get sufficient time to interact with the
microwave fields. So, to increase the time of interaction of electrons, we need to decrease the
velocity of electromagnetic waves.
So, slow wave structures are of two types depending upon the movement of electrons in the
tube. First one is forward wave; and another one is backward wave. The examples of forward
wave slow wave structures are helix travelling wave tubes and coupled cavity travelling wave
tubes. And the backward wave structures are backward wave amplifiers and backward wave
oscillators. Now, I will discuss these microwave tubes one by one.
So, let us start with klystron. So, klystron tube is a vacuum tube that can be operated either as
an oscillator or as an amplifier at microwave frequencies. In klystron, there are two
configurations one is low power microwave amplifier which is multi-cavity klystron; and
another one is low power microwave oscillator which is reflex klystron.

So, let us start with multi-cavity klystron first. So, this is the basic diagram of a two-cavity
klystron. So, before analyzing the working of multi-cavity klystron, we need to understand
some assumptions made while analyzing the working of multi-cavity klystron. The first
assumption is that the electron transit time in the cavity gap is very very small as compared to
the period of input RF signal. This assumption is made to neglect the back and forth
movement of electron in the cavity gap or we can say oscillation of the electron in the cavity
gap.
And the next assumption is input RF signal amplitude is very small as compared to the dc
beam voltage. The reason for this is also the same as the last one. The next assumption is that
the RF fields are totally confined in the cavity gaps, and zero in the drift space. This
assumption is made, so that the velocity of electrons is modulated only in this cavity gap. So,
there will be no velocity modulation in the drift space and the kinetic energy of the electrons
will be transferred to output structure only or output cavity only.
Now, next assumption is electrons leave the cathode with zero initial velocity and after that
they will move with uniform velocity. And the last assumption is effects of space charges are
negligible.

Now, let us see two-cavity klystron. A two-cavity klystron is a widely used microwave
amplifier, which works on the principle of velocity and current modulation. In this there are
two cavities; one is input cavity which is also called as buncher cavity and another one is
output cavity which is also called as catcher cavity. Electrons in this klystron are injected
from the cathode, and all these injected electrons will reach to the first cavity with uniform
velocity. And in the first cavity, the velocity of these electrons will be modulated by the input
RF signal present there in the first cavity and this is called as velocity modulation.
And because of this, velocity modulation electrons form bunches as they drift down the tube
and that is called as bunch formation. And because of this bunch formation, the density of the
electron in the catcher cavity varies periodically with time that means the electron beam
contains ac component of the current that is known as current modulation. So, after passing
through second cavity, all the electrons will give up their kinetic energy to the microwave
fields present in the second cavity. And because of that their velocity will be reduced, and
they will be collected by the collector.
Now, see its working in more detail now. So, this is a cathode, this is the collector, this is the
input cavity or buncher cavity, this is the catcher cavity or output cavity. So, input RF signal
is applied here and output signal will be given to this. So, these gaps are of input cavity and
output cavity; these gaps are called as microwave interaction region.
So, in this region electrons will be interacted with the microwave field present there in the
cavity this is the dc beam voltage which is given to the cathode. So, electron will be injected
2eV0
from this cathode, and they will move with uniform velocity v0 =
√ m
, where e is the
electron charge, V0 is the dc beam voltage, and m is the mass of the electron.
This velocity can be derived by equating the potential energy and kinetic energy of the
electrons. Now, what is potential energy of the electron? potential energy of the electron is
1
eV0. And what is the kinetic energy of the electron? kinetic energy of the electron is m v20 ,
2
where V0 is dc beam voltage and v0 is the velocity of electrons.
Now, let us say the average time to reach to this buncher cavity is t 0, and average time to
leave the cavity is tg, then what will be the transit time? transit time will be τ =t g −t 0. And let
us say the gap of this cavity is d, then the transit time will be t g−t 0 is equal to distance
d
divided by velocity; . And what will be the transit angle? transit angle will be
v0
ωd .
θ g =ωτ=
v0
Now, what will happen to these electrons in this cavity gap? To answer this question, we
need to see the bunching process. So, let us say this vertical axis represent the distance along
the tube. And this horizontal axis represents the time and this wave is input signal. Now, let
us say we have a reference electron e 0 which reaches the cavity at this point of time; at this
point of time the input RF signal is 0. So, because of this there will be no change in the
velocity of this electron.
So, let us say this electron reaches the ∆ L point or ∆ L distance after time (td - tb). Let us say
we have another electron, early electron, that reaches the cavity at this point of time when the
input signal is negative maxima. So, for this electron, the velocity of this electron will be
reduced to the minimum. And this will move with velocity less than the reference velocity or
this will take more time than the reference electron. So, let us say this reaches to ∆ L point
after (td - ta) time, which is also equal to the time taken by the reference electron plus this
π T
time. So, this time is or , where T is the time period of the input signal. So, time taken
2ω 4
by the early electron to reach to this point will be time taken by the reference electron plus
one-fourth of the time period of the input RF signal.
Let us say we have one more electron that is late electron that reaches to the buncher cavity at
this point of time when the input RF signal is positive maxima. So, its velocity is increased to
the maximum. And it will take less time as compared to the reference electron. So, let us say
it takes (td - tc) time to reach to this point. So, this time will be time taken by the reference
T
electron minus this time. So, this time is . So, time taken by late electron will be time taken
4
by reference electron minus one-fourth of the time period of the input RF signal. So, this is
how these electrons will be bunched after this distance ∆ L.
And velocity of these electrons can be calculated by this formula only, v= 2eV , where the
m √
V voltage for these electrons will be different that will be dc beam voltage V 0 plus voltage
across this gap that will vary for different electrons. So, that velocity can be derived by using
( θ2 ) sin ω t − θ . So, this is the

( )
g
V 1 Sa
this formula at that comes out to be
v ( t ) =v 0 1 +
2V 0
( 2)
g
g
modulated velocity of these electrons after they pass through the buncher cavity.
So, after passing through the buncher cavity they will form bunches as they drift down into
the tube. And in the catcher cavity, the phase of the gap voltage is maintained such that the
electron beam encounters the retarding phase, so that these electrons gives their kinetic
energy to this catcher cavity. And after giving up their kinetic energy, the velocity of these
electrons will be reduced and they will be collected by the collector. So, this is the basic
working of a two-cavity klystron.
Now, let us see the specifications of practically available two-cavity klystrons; beam voltages
up to few hundreds of kilovolts can be given. The efficiency of practically available two-
cavity klystron is up to 40%; and the power outputs are average continuous wave power
output is up to 500 KW and pulsed power is up to tens of MW. The typical gain of these
klystrons is about 30 dB. And to increase the gain further the reentrant cavities can be used
between input cavity and output cavity.

For example, in three cavity klystron, there are three cavities. One is input cavity, another one
is output cavity and between these two there is a reentrant cavity. This reentrant cavity
increases the output power, bandwidth and efficiency of this three cavity klystron amplifier.
Now, the applications of klystron amplifiers as the power output tubes are in UHF TV
transmitters, and troposphere scatter transmitters, in satellite communication ground stations,
in radar transmitter or we can say wideband high power communication systems. And in
Global Resource Corporation, klystron amplifiers are used to convert hydrocarbons into
natural gases. And these klystron amplifiers are also used in many labs in the world to
generate high powers for testing. And these amplifiers also have some medical applications
such as in radiation oncology. So, this is all about the applications of klystron amplifiers.
Now, just to summarize what we discussed today is first we discussed conventional tubes
then their high frequency limitations. After that we discussed the classifications of
microwave tubes, linear beam tubes we discussed in detail. And then multi-cavity klystron
and their assumptions while analyzing the multi-cavity klystrons, and working principle of
two-cavity klystron. Then we discussed specifications of practically available two-cavity
klystron and applications of these klystron amplifiers.
In the next lecture, I will discuss reflex klystron and travelling wave tubes in detail.
Thank you.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 08
Lecture - 39
Microwave Tubes - II: Linear Beam Tubes- Reflex Klystron and TWT
Hello. In the last lecture, we discussed conventional tubes and their high frequency
limitations. After that we discussed about linear beam tubes and their basic working;
followed by detailed analysis of two-cavity klystron, its working, its applications and the
specifications of practically available two-cavity klystrons. Today, I will discuss Reflex
Klystron and Travelling Wave Tubes.
So, let us begin with reflex klystron.
It is a low power microwave oscillator. And to design a oscillator, the first thing which we
need to know is how oscillations are generated. The answer to this question is that we need to
give positive feedback from output to input such that the loop gain is unity or we can say for
a klystron if a fraction of output power is fed back to the input cavity such that the loop gain
magnitude is 1 and the feedback path phase shift is 2 π or multiple of 2 π, then the klystron
will oscillate.
Now, the next question is, can we make oscillator using two-cavity klystron? The answer to
this question is yes, we can, but it will have some disadvantages. Such as if the oscillation
frequency changes then we need to re adjust the resonant frequencies of the two cavities and
the feedback path phase shift to give positive feedback. This disadvantage of two-cavity
klystron can be overcome by reflex klystron, because it has single cavity and there is a
reflector or repeller to repel the electrons back to the cavity to give feedback and the feedback
path phase shift can be adjusted by varying the repeller voltage, because of this reason the
two-cavity klystron oscillators are not constructed and reflex klystron oscillator are
constructed.
The working of reflex klystron is somewhat similar to the working of two-cavity klystron. So,
working principle of reflex klystron is velocity and current modulation. So, electron beam is
injected from the cathode and that injected beam travel with a uniform velocity till the cavity.
And in the cavity gap, the velocity of the electrons is modulated. And those velocity
modulated electrons enter the repeller space with different velocities and because of the
velocity modulation and repulsive forces from the repeller plate the bunching takes place in
the return journey of the electron to the cavity. Because of the bunch formation there will be
current modulation in the cavity. So, this is how the reflex klystron works.
So, let us see its working in more detail now. So, this is the basic schematic of a reflex
klystron. In this we have a cathode. So, this is the cathode from where the electron beam is
injected. Then this is the focusing anode or accelerating anode, which focuses the electron
beam or narrow downs the electron beam. Then we have the cavity, so this is the cavity
which acts as buncher cavity for forward moving electrons, and catcher cavity for returning
electrons or backward moving electrons.
So, this is the cavity gap where velocity and current modulation takes place and the gap is
equal to d. Then we have this repeller plate which is at the potential -Vr; and this Vr is very
very high. So, because of this negative potential at repeller plate, the electron beam coming
from this cavity gap is reflected back to the cavity. So, this is the basic structure of a reflex
klystron.
Now, what is the difference in the structures of two-cavity klystron and reflex klystron? The
first difference is that in two-cavity klystron there are two cavities, whereas in reflex klystron
there is only one cavity which acts as both buncher cavity and catcher cavity. And the another
difference is that in two-cavity klystron at this place there is a collector which is used to
collect the electron beam coming from the output cavity; whereas in reflex klystron there is
repeller plate in place of the collector which is used to repel the electron beam.
Now the question is why we need this repelling of electron beam? The answer to this
question is that for electrical oscillations we need feedback from output to input and that
feedback is produced by this repeller plate by reflecting the electron beam back to the input
cavity. So, these are the differences in the structures of two-cavity klystron and reflex
klystron.
Now, let us see how electron move in reflex klystron tube. So, electron beam is generated
from this cathode which moves with a uniform velocity till this cavity and in this cavity the
velocity modulation takes place. So, some electron will be accelerated and some electrons
will be the decelerated. And there will be no effect for some electrons. So, the electrons
which enter this cavity at positive gap voltages will be accelerated. And those electrons will
have greater velocities. And the electrons which enter this cavity when the gap voltage is
negative, those electrons will be decelerated and their velocities will be lesser as compared to
the other electrons. And the electrons which enter this cavity when the gap voltage is 0, their
velocity will not be changed by this gap voltage. So, all these electrons will have different
velocities as they enter in the repeller space. This is the repeller space.
Now, since these electrons have different velocities in this repeller space, so they will travel
different distances in the repeller space depending upon the velocities. The electrons which
has greater velocities will go deeper in this repeller space and travel more distance, whereas
the electrons which has lesser velocities will travel less distance in the repeller space. So,
after entering into the repeller space, they feel repulsive force from this repeller plate because
of the high negative potential at this repeller plate.
And as they go closer to the repeller plate, the repulsive force increases. And at some point
the repulsive force will make their velocity 0 and reflect those electrons back to the input
cavity. So, because of this velocity modulation and repulsive force from this repeller plate,
the bunching of electrons will take place in the return journey of the electrons.
And one more thing we want that the bunching of electrons should take place at the centre of
this gap cavity gap. And the timing of this bunching should be such that the phase of gap
voltage should be retarding. This is done to ensure the maximum power transfer from
electrons to the cavity. So, because of this power transfer there will be oscillations. So, this is
how oscillations are sustained in the reflex klystron by to and fro movement of electrons from
cavity to repeller space. So, this is how electrons move in this reflex klystron tube.
Now, let us see bunching process and the modes and reflex klystron, this vertical axis
represent the distance from the cavity gap towards the repeller plate, and this horizontal axis
represent the time taken by the electrons in moving in the repeller space. These curves
represent the path of movement of electrons in repeller space. So, different electrons follow
different paths depending upon their velocities while they enter the repeller space. So, this is
the cavity gap voltage varying with time.
Now, to understand the bunching process let us say we have an electron, reference electron
V0, which reaches the cavity gap at this point of time. And at this point of time, the cavity
gap voltage is 0. So, the velocity of this electron will not be modulated by the cavity gap
voltage. So, this electron will enter in the repeller space with the same velocity with which it
entered in the cavity gap. After entering into repeller space, this electron will feel repulsive
force from the repeller; and because of that force the velocity of this electron will decrease as
you can see from this path.
So, this vertical axis is distance, this is time. So, the velocity will be distance divided by time
that is the slope of this curve. So, as the electrons move closer to the repeller plate, the slope
of this curve decreases. It means the velocity of this electron decreases as it moves closer to
the repeller plate. And at some point let us say L0; after travelling this L0 distance the electron
velocity will be 0, and it will be reflected back towards the cavity. And after this point, it will
start moving towards the input cavity in this path.
So, let us say this electron takes t0 time in the to and fro journey of cavity gap to this distance
L0 in the repeller space. Now, let us say we have one more electron that is early electron ee
which reaches the cavity gap when the gap voltage is positive. So, this electron would be
accelerated by this gap voltage, and its velocity will be maximum. So, this early electron will
enter the repeller space with maximum velocity. So, it will travel maximum distance in the
repeller space.
So, let us say that distance is this L e. After this distance Le, this early electron is also reflected
back towards the cavity. And this will take more time as compared to the reference electron,
and that time is equal to this time t 0 plus this time. So, this time is T/4, one-fourth of the time
period of cavity gap voltage. So, time taken by early electron in the journey of cavity gap to
this length Le and back to the cavity gap will be the time taken by the early electron plus one-
fourth of the time period of cavity gap voltage. Now, let us see we have one more electron
that is late electron which reaches the cavity gap when the gap voltage is negative. So,
because of this negative gap voltage, this electron will be decelerated and its velocity will be
minimum.
And because of this minimum velocity, this electron will travel lesser distance in the repeller
space as compared to the reference electron as well as the early electron. And, let us say it
travels this Ll distance and to cover this distance let us say it take (t d - tc) time which is equal
to the time taken by the reference electron t0 minus one-fourth of the time period of the cavity
gap voltage. So, this is how the bunching of electrons takes place after the time t 0 with respect
to reference electron. So, this bunching takes place at the cavity gap as you can see from this
graph. So, this vertical axis is distance and this represents the zero line that is the zero
distance from the cavity that is the cavity itself.
So, bunching takes place at the cavity gap itself. And as I discussed earlier the time of this
bunching should be such that the bunching encounter the retarding phase of the gap voltage;
this is the half cycle of retarding phase, this is also retarding phase half cycle. So, bunching
should occur either in this cycle or in this half cycle. Now, depending upon the bunching
cycle, there are different modes in reflex klystron. So, if bunching takes place in this cycle,
then it is called as 3/4 mode. And if bunching take place in this cycle, then it is called as 1 +
3/4 mode.
In general depending upon the bunching cycles, there are n + 3/4 mode in reflex klystron
where n is the integer. Now, the question is how we can change this bunching time depending
upon the requirement? Answer to this question is that the bunching time depends on two
parameters which are repeller voltage Vr and repeller distance L. So, by varying these two
parameters we can change the bunching cycle or we can change the mode of the reflex
klystron.
So, this is how by selecting the proper time and the proper place of bunching, the oscillations
are sustained in the reflex klystron tube. This is all about the working of reflex klystron.
Let us move onto the specifications of practically available reflex klystron. So, the frequency
range over which reflex klystron can work is roughly from 1 GHz to 200 GHz. And the
tuning range is from 5 GHz at 2 W to 30 GHz at 10 mW and the power output that can be
given by a reflex klystron is from 10 mW to 2.5 W. The theoretical efficiency of reflex
klystron is about 20%, and the practical efficiency of the reflex klystron is somewhere
between 10 to 20%.
Now, let us look into the applications of the reflex klystron. There are many applications of
reflex klystron such as they can be used in radar receiver. They can be used in radio receivers
or in signal sources in microwave generators. They are also used in local oscillators and
receivers, or in pump oscillators in parametric amplifiers. And these are also used in portable
microwave links. So, these are all applications of reflex klystron.
Now, let us move onto the next microwave tube which is travelling wave tube. So, these
microwave tubes are non-resonant structures. And they are of two types. First one is helix
travelling wave tubes which are slow wave structures and are used for broadband
applications. And the another one is coupled cavity travelling wave tubes which are used for
high power applications such as radar transmitters. I will discuss these two structures one by
one, but before looking into the helix travelling wave tube let us see what are slow wave
structures.
So, slow wave structures are used to slow down the electromagnetic wave. Now, the question
is why we need to slow down the electromagnetic waves? The answer to this question is that
the phase velocity of electromagnetic wave is greater than velocity of light in a ordinary wave
guide. And the electron beam can be accelerated up to a fraction of velocity of light in
vacuum. So, there is a huge mismatch in the velocities of these two; one is electromagnetic
wave and another one is electron beam. So, because of this velocity mismatch, they will not
get enough time to interact with each other.
So, there will be no energy transfer from one to another. And to increase this energy transfer,
what we need to do, we need to decrease the velocity of electromagnetic wave, so that
electron can get enough time to interact with the electromagnetic wave.
This job is done by slow wave structures. There are many slow wave structures such as
helical line, folded back line, zigzag line, corrugated waveguide and so on. And what happens
in these slow wave structures is that we provide a larger path length for a electromagnetic
wave to travel from one point to another as compared to the electron beam path that is the
shortest path.
So, to understand how velocity changes in slow wave structures let us take an example. So, if
I want to move from this point to this point let us say this distance is d. So, there are multiple
paths to travel from this to this point. So, one is the straight path which is the shortest path,
another path can be zigzag path or this path or helical path or this path and so on. And in all
these paths, the displacement is same which is d, but the time taken to travel through that path
increases depending upon the path length. So, since the time is increased so velocity will
decrease. And this concept is used to reduce the velocity of electromagnetic wave.
Now, let us see how velocity of electromagnetic wave is reduced in helical line slow wave
structure, and what is that value of phase velocity after decreasing. Let us say the distance
between two turns of the helix is p that is axial length and the diameter of the turns is d, then
we can find the path length traveled by the electromagnetic wave for a axial movement of p.
We can find that distance using Pythagoras theorem and that distance will be √ p2 + ( πd )2.
Now, the ratio of phase velocity of electromagnetic wave travelling along this helix and the
phase velocity of electromagnetic wave which is travelling directly in the straight path will be
the reverse ratios of their path lengths. So, for electromagnetic wave which is travelling in a
straight path, the path length is p and for electromagnetic wave which is traveling through
vp p
this helix path length is √ p2 + ( πd )2 for axial movement of p. So, the ratio = . By
c √ p2 + ( πd )2
c
v p=
2
simplifying this one we can get πd . So, we can get this by dividing both
√ 1+( )
p
numerator and denominator by p. This phase velocity is less than C as you can see from this
equation.
So, this is how the phase velocity of electromagnetic wave is reduced from greater than
velocity of light to less than velocity of light. And depending upon our requirement of phase
velocity, we can change these two parameters that is d is diameter of the helix, and p is the
distance between the turns. So, by varying these two parameters we can change the phase
velocity of electromagnetic wave according to our requirement. So, this concept is used in
slow wave structure helix travelling wave tube. Now, let us move on to the helix travelling
wave tube.
In general helix travelling wave tubes contains a electron gun and RF interaction circuit and
electron beam focusing magnet and attenuator and a collector. Let us see these things one by
one.
So, electron gun is used to inject electrons in the tube and input RF signal is given to this end
of the helix and at the other end RF output is taken out. There is a surrounding magnetic field
to hold the electron beam as they tend to spread out because of the repulsive forces present
between the electrons and that magnetic field is produced by the permanent magnet present
surrounding the helix. And next we have a attenuator which is used to attenuate any reflected
wave generated due to the impedance mismatching. And this attenuator is placed after a
sufficient length of RF interaction region, so that the attenuation of amplified RF signal is
insignificant as compared to the amplification. And then we have a collector to collect the
electron beam.
So, this is all about the components present in the travelling wave tubes. In the next lecture
we will start from this point onward. And just to summarize what we discussed today is first
we started with reflex klystron, we discussed its working principle, then the detailed analysis
and detailed working of reflex klystron and its applications. Then we discussed the slow
wave structures, and how they slow down the electromagnetic wave and type of slow wave
structures. After that we started helix travelling wave tubes.
In the next lecture, I will start from working of helix travelling wave tubes, then I will discuss
the applications and specifications of practically available helix travelling wave tubes, then
the comparison of helix travelling wave tube amplifier and klystron amplifier. After that, I
will discuss cross field microwave tubes such as magnetrons, their working their applications
and specifications of practically available cross field tubes.
Thank you.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 8
Lecture - 40
Microwave Tubes – III: Crossed Field Tubes- Magnetron
Hello, in the last lecture, we discussed reflex klystron, its working, its applications and a
specifications of practically available reflex klystron. After that we started discussion on
travelling wave tubes, then we discussed about slow wave structures, and how and why we
use slow wave structures in travelling wave tubes. And then we started discussion on helix
travelling wave tubes.
We have discussed the structure of helix travelling wave tubes. Today I will start with
working of helix travelling wave tubes, then I will discuss the cross field microwave tubes
such as magnetron. So, let us begin with working of helix travelling wave tubes.
So, this is the basic schematic of helix travelling wave tube. In this, this is the cathode from
where electrons are injected in the tube. And this is the collector where electrons are collected
after traveling through the tube. And this is the RF interaction region where there is a helix
structure. And at this point of helix RF input is provided; and at this point of helix RF output
is taken. At the centre of this helix, there is a attenuator which is placed to attenuate the
reflected waves. And there is a permanent magnet present all around this tube, which is used
to provide magnetic field to hold the electron beams. So, these are the components present in
this helix travelling wave tubes.
Now, let us see how electrons move in helix travelling wave tubes. So, electrons are injected
from this point from cathode, and they will travel with uniform velocity before entering into
the helix structure. And after entering into the helix structure, their velocity is modulated.
And how that velocity is modulated let us see. So, the electron which enters the helix when
the field is 0, then that electrons velocity will not be changed; and the electron which enters
the helix when the field is accelerating field, then the electron will be accelerated. And the
electron which enters the helix, when the field is retarding field then the electron will be
decelerated and the velocity of that electron will be less.
Then those velocity modulated electron will travel in this field, RF interaction field, because
of this velocity modulation they will form bunches of electron and these bunches will give
their kinetic energy to the field present in the RF interaction region in the next cycle. So, this
is how electrons will move in the RF interaction region and output will be taken from this
point. And after giving up their kinetic energy to helix at this point, they will be collected by
the collector.
Now, let us see how bunching takes place, and how and what are the effect of attenuator. So,
initially input RF signal V s =V 1 sin ⁡(ωt ) is given to this helix. Because of this initial signal
bunching of electrons will take place like this. And these bunches will give up their kinetic
energy to the RF field present there in the next cycle; and because of that amplification of RF
signal will take place. As you can see from these two, so this is the amplified signal as
compared to this one. So, this amplified RF signal will produce denser bunches of electron,
and those denser bunches of electron will further amplify the RF signal, RF signal is
continuously amplified.
And this RF signal is amplified till the attenuator. And at the attenuator the RF signal is
attenuated; and after that the same process of bunching and transfer of kinetic energy from
electron beam to RF signal takes place like this. So, this is how the RF signal in helical
structure is amplified. One more thing during the interaction of electron beam and the RF
signal, we have not talked about the velocities of these two. The velocity of is made
comparable by the helical structure present in the helix travelling wave tube.
As we discussed earlier this helical structure reduces the phase velocity of the
electromagnetic wave. And because of that electron beam and electromagnetic wave get
enough time to interact with each other. The amount by which the velocity of electromagnetic
wave is decreased, that can be decided by the number of turns of the helix and the diameter of
the helix. So, this is all about the working of helix travelling wave tubes. Now, let us move on
to the specifications of practically available helix travelling wave tubes.
So, the range of frequencies over which the helix travelling wave tubes can work is from 1
GHz to 100 GHz; and it can generate output powers up to 10 KW average. And the gain the
helix travelling wave tubes can generate is up to 10 dB and the efficiency of helix travelling
wave tubes is about 20 to 40%.
Now, let us see applications of helix travelling wave tubes. The helix travelling wave tubes
can be used in broadband microwave receivers as a low noise RF amplifiers. And in
wideband communication links and long distance telephony, we need repeaters to amplify the
signals; and in those repeaters these helix travelling wave tubes can be used as an amplifier to
amplify the signals. And the helix travelling wave tubes can be used in communication
satellites also as a power output tube. These helix travelling wave tubes can also be used for
medium power or high power satellite transponder outputs; and because of their higher
powers and large bandwidth, they can also be used in troposcatter links.
Few more applications of helix travelling wave tubes are such as they can be used an air
borne, ship borne, pulse high power radars. They can also be used in electronic counter
measure system ECM. And they can also be used in phased array radars. So, this is all about
the applications of helix travelling wave tubes.
Since, we have discussed travelling wave tube amplifiers and multi-cavity klystron
amplifiers, so let us compare these two. In klystron amplifiers there are multiple cavities; one
is input cavity which is also called as buncher cavity; another one is output cavity which is
also called as catcher cavity. And multiple cavities can also be used in between those two
input and output cavities, which are called as reentrant cavities to increase the gain of multi-
cavity klystron amplifier whereas, in travelling wave tube amplifier the circuit is non resonant
microwave circuit.
Now, the next difference is the klystron amplifier is a narrow band device whereas travelling
wave tube amplifier is a wideband device. And the klystron amplifiers have higher efficiency
as compared to the travelling wave tube amplifiers. And as we discussed earlier the frequency
of operation of klystron amplifier is up to 50 GHz, whereas the frequency of operation of a
travelling wave tube amplifier is up to 100 GHz. And klystron amplifiers are the low power
amplifiers. So, they can handle up to 2.5 W only; whereas, the travelling wave tube
amplifiers are the high power amplifiers which can handle up to 200 W of power.
The one more major difference between klystron amplifier and travelling wave tube amplifier
is that the interaction of electron beam and the RF field occurs only at the edges of resonant
cavities in the klystron amplifier. Whereas, in the travelling wave tube amplifier, the
interaction of electron beam and the RF field is continuous over the entire length of the
circuit or over the entire helical structure; and in klystron amplifiers each cavity operates
independently, whereas in coupled cavity travelling wave tubes coupling exists between the
cavities. And the last difference is the wave in klystron amplifier is non-propagative; whereas
the wave in travelling wave tube is propagative. So, this is all about the differences between
klystron amplifier and travelling wave tube amplifiers. Till now we have discussed about the
linear beam tubes, their different classifications.
Now, we will discuss M-type tubes. M-type microwave tubes are also called as crossed field
microwave tubes, in which dc electric field is perpendicular to the dc magnetic field. As the
name crossed field itself suggest that the fields are perpendicular to each other. And these
crossed field tubes are of three types; first one is resonant type, second one is non resonant
and the last one is the structures based on maser effect.
Now, what is maser effect? Maser is microwave amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation. And the example of the microwave tubes which work on the principle of maser
effect is gyrotron. So, the gyrotron generates high frequency electromagnetic wave by
stimulated cyclotron resonance of electrons moving through strong magnetic fields. And
these gyrotrons can generate output frequencies up to 500 MHz. And these gyrotron can
produce output frequencies from 20 GHz to about 500 GHz. And they can produce output
powers up to 2 MW. And the gyrotron microwave tubes are used in industrial heating
applications such as in nuclear fusion they are used to heat the plasmas. So, this is all about
the gyrotron.
Now, in the resonant structures there are standing waves and multiple reentrant cavities are
used in these type of microwave tubes. The example of resonant microwave tubes is a
magnetron and the non-resonant type of structures can be classified as forward wave
structures and backward wave structures. And further can be classified as the structures
which has reentrant cavities and the structures without reentrant cavities. So, this is all about
the classification of crossed field microwave tubes.
Now, move on to the magnetron oscillators. Generally, magnetron oscillators contain some
form of cathode and anode which are operated in dc magnetic field normal to the dc electric
field. And because of this crossed field, the movement of electrons will be in a curved path.
These magnetron oscillators are of three types; first one is split-anode magnetron, second one
is cyclotron frequency magnetron, and the third one is travelling wave magnetron. The split-
anode magnetron use static negative resistance between two segments of the anode. And
because of this the efficiency of these type of oscillators is low and these are useful below
microwave frequency.
And the cyclotron-frequency magnetrons operate under the influence of synchronization

between the electric field and the oscillation of electrons parallel to the electric field. And
these type of magnetrons have low efficiency and they can produce low output powers only.
And in travelling-wave magnetrons, there is a interaction of electrons with electromagnetic
field as we discussed in the travelling wave linear beam tubes, so because of travelling wave
structures they can produce high output powers and they have better efficiency as compared
to the other two. And there are many types of travelling wave magnetrons such as cylindrical
magnetron, linear magnetron, coaxial magnetron and voltage-tunable magnetron, inverted
coaxial magnetron and frequency-agile magnetron.
The working of all of these type of magnetrons is somewhat similar. So, we will discuss only
this one cylindrical magnetron. The difference in the cylindrical magnetron and planar or
linear magnetron is of their structure. In cylindrical magnetron the cathode and the anode are
of cylindrical form; whereas, in linear or planar magnetron, the cathode and anode are of
planar form or linear form. And the voltage-tunable magnetrons are the broadband
magnetrons in which frequency changes if we vary the applied voltage between the anode
and the sole. So, this is all about these.
Now, let us discuss the cylindrical magnetron. The cylindrical magnetron is also called as
multi-cavity magnetron. In this the cathode and the anode are of cylindrical shape. And the
cathode and the filament is placed at the centre of the tube. And these are supported by the
filament leads. The cathode is made up of high emission material, so that it can emit electrons
when it is heated indirectly.
And the space between anode and cathode is called as RF interaction space. And there are 8
to 20 cylindrical cavities all around the circumference of the cathode. And those cavities are
called as resonant cavities or reentrant cavities. And for each cavity there is a slot which
connects the cavity to the RF interaction space. And each one of these cavities acts as a
parallel resonant circuit as shown by this. So, this is a parallel resonant circuit or a tank
1
circuit and the resonant frequency of a parallel resonant circuit is given by f r = .
2 π √ LC
The slot which connects the cavity with the interaction region acts as a capacitor. And the
cavity walls acts as an inductor. So, the capacitance can be determined by the physical
dimension of this gap, and the inductance can be determined by the physical dimension of
this cavity. So, the resonant frequency of this cavity can be determined by the physical
dimensions of the cavity. Now, one more thing the dc voltage is applied between cathode and
anode; and magnetic field is applied along the axis of the cathode. So, electric field is radially
in this plane, and magnetic field is in this direction.
So, electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other. And by varying the DC
voltage V0, and the magnetic field the path of electron can be changed. So, by properly
selecting these two parameters - dc voltage and the magnetic field, the electrons path can be
made cycloidal, and that depends on the dc voltage and the magnetic flux. So, this is all about
the structure of a multi-cavity magnetron.
Now, let us move onto the working of multi-cavity magnetron. So, the working of multi-
cavity magnetron can be divided into four phases. Phase one is generation and acceleration of
electron beam in a dc field. And the second phase is velocity-modulation of electron beam in
an ac field. And the third phase is bunch formation or space-charge wheel formation; and the
last phase is dispensing of energy to the ac field. Now, we will discuss these phases one by
one. Let us discuss the first phase which is generation and acceleration of electron beam in a
dc field.
So, positive voltage is given to this anode. And this is negative with respect to this anode. So,
the electric field lines will be from positive to negative that is from anode to cathode radially
inward. And the force on the electron will be F = q E. So, the force on electron will be from
cathode to anode radially outward. So, if there is no magnetic field then there will be only dc
electric force from cathode to anode on electrons. So, all the electrons emitted from this
cathode will move radially towards the anode like this blue line.
Now, if a weak magnetic field is applied, then the resultant force on the electron will be in
this direction. So, electron will move in this path. Now, if we increase the magnetic field
strength, then the path of electron will be bent more. And we further increase the magnetic
field strength, then at one point there will be deflection of the electron from the anode and
that will return to the cathode. And at this point of time, there will be no current in the tube.
So, the strength of magnetic field, after which there is no current in the microwave tube it is
called as cut off magnetic field and that is given by hull cut off magnetic equation. Similarly,
the cut off dc voltage is given by hull cut off voltage equation. So, this is the effect of
different magnetic flux densities on the path of electron beam.
Now, let us see the effect of ac field on the path of electron beam. So, dc electric field is
present from anode to cathode radially inward. One more thing if one cavity starts oscillating,
then it excites the next cavity with the phase delay of 1800. And because of this there will be
ac electric field in the cavity. And the overall electric field in this structure will be sum of dc
electric field and the ac electric field. So, the electrons will move radially outwards from
cathode to anode because of the dc electric field. And as they enter into the ac electric field
their path will be bent. So, the electron which moves towards the positive portion of the
anode or the portion which is more positively charged those electrons will be accelerated and
they will be deflected from this anode. And the electrons which move towards the less
positively charged part of the anode those electrons will be decelerated and their energy will
be transferred to the ac field present there. So, this is how the electron transfer their energy to
the ac field present in the cavity.
Now, let us move onto the space charge wheel formation. So, because of velocity modulation
of electron by the fields present here, and the cumulative action of electrons going from
cathode to anode and some electrons returning from anode to cathode. The combined action
of these three result in a structure resembling the moving spokes of a wheel. Now, let us see
how oscillations are sustained in this structure. All the electrons which are emitted from this
cathode get energy from the dc electric field some of those electron transfer their kinetic
energy to the ac field present in the cavities. And those electrons help in sustaining the
oscillations as they take energy from the dc fields and give up their energy to the ac fields.
So, this is how the oscillations are sustained in multi-cavity magnetron.
Now, let us move onto the specifications of a magnetron. The range of frequencies over
which the magnetron can work is from 500 MHz to about 12 GHz. And the power output
which can be produced by magnetrons is up to about 40 MW. And this can be achieved when
we give dc voltage of about 50 KV at about 10 GHz. And the efficiency of these type of
magnetrons is fairly good which is from 40 to 70%. The example of the magnetron is
Thomson TH3074A magnetron in which the frequency ranges from 8.5 to 9.5 GHz. And it
can generate power up to 220 KW. So, anode voltage is equal to 21.5 kilovolt. And the anode
current is 27.4 ampere.
Now, let us move onto the applications of magnetron oscillators. So, magnetron oscillators
can be used in radar transmitters. They can also be used in industrial heating. And there is a
very known example of magnetron which is microwave oven. And the standard power of this
microwave oven is about 600 W and the frequency over which it works is a about 2.45 GHz
and it can also work on 915 MHz. So, this is all about the applications of the magnetrons.
Now, let us move onto the comparison of microwave tubes. So, this vertical axis is the
average power that can be provided by the microwave tubes. And this horizontal axis is the
frequencies over which these microwave tubes can work. So, as we discussed helix travelling
wave tubes can work from below microwave frequencies to about hundreds of GHz and this
can provide output powers from few KW to few watts. And as the frequency increases, the
power provided by these microwave tubes decreases. And as we discussed the klystron
microwave tubes can work from fraction of GHz to about hundreds of GHz. And it can
provide high powers of about few MHz for a very large range of frequencies up to about 10
GHz.
And as frequency increases power, output decreases drastically and at very high frequency
that is at 100 GHz, it can provide only tens of watts of power. As I discussed gyrotron works
from 20 GHz to about 500 or 600 GHz. And they can provide high powers of about 2 MWs
for a large range of frequencies that is from 20 GHz to about 200 GHz and after that power
output decreases drastically and at about 500 or 600 GHz it can provide only tens of watt of
power. So, depending upon the power output requirement; and the range of frequencies any
particular microwave tubes can be selected. So, this is all about the microwave tubes.
Just to summarize in microwave tubes we started with a linear beam tubes in which the
working principle is velocity and current modulation. We discussed two cavity klystron, three
cavity klystron, and then we discussed reflex klystron oscillator. And these three are low
power microwave tubes. After that we discussed helix travelling wave tubes in which slow
wave structures are used to slow down the electromagnetic waves. After that we discussed
about crossed field microwave tubes, and we discussed little bit about gyrotrons, and we
discussed magnetron in detail.
Thank you.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 9
Lecture – 41
Microwave Oscillators – I
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on microwave oscillators. In the last few lectures, we
have been talking about different types of amplifiers. So, today we are going to talk about
microwave oscillators using an active device. Now, active device can be a stable active
device, in that particular case we will use that as an amplifier and use positive feedback to
design oscillator. And if the device is unstable, in that particular case we will draw input
stability circle and choose a point which is most unstable and then we design oscillator.
So, let us start today’s lecture. Let us first look at what are the oscillation conditions. So, we
will start with an amplifier with positive feedback. So, we have an amplifier with a gain equal
to A. So, part of this output is fed back to the input side, and here is an input signal. This is
only to show you there is a input signal for derivation; in reality for oscillator we do not
require this input signal. So, let us see how we can write the equation. So, e zero can be
written as amplified output which is a multiplied by whatever is the input. So, what is input
equal to? input is equal to ei + β e0. So, this is ¿. We can simplify this as e o (1−Aβ )=A ei,
eo A
=
ei ( 1−Aβ )
So, what will happen, if A = 1, then 1 - 1 = 0, A/0 = . So, loop gain here in this particular
case is nothing but a multiplied by . So, if loop gain is equal to A = 1 in that case e0/ei
becomes . So, now, just think about, if e i = 0 then e0 may have 1, 2 or 3 any value, for
example, if it is 1/0 it is still , 2/0 it is still equal to ; that means, for ei = 0, e0 may have
finite value which will be determined by the amplifier and the feedback network, we will see
that later on.
So, the oscillation condition is nothing but loop gain should be equal to 1. However, to start
the oscillation choose A > 1. Now, the question is how much greater A should be? A can
be 1.001 also A can be 10 also. So, what is the appropriate value, so I generally recommend
choose A = 1.1 to 1.2. The reason will be obvious from the next slide.
So, here is the response of the amplifier with positive feedback network. So, let us say there
is some noise, we discuss about different types of noise, when we talked about low noise
amplifier. We talked about thermal noise, we talked about short noise. And we had seen that,
because of those noises, the noise voltage or noise current could be of the order of μV or nA.
So, what happens, now if loop gain is let us say equal to 2, so if the loop gain is equal to 2, let
us say that 1 μV signal, now through the loop gain will become, now 2 μV, 2 will become 4,
4 will become 8, then 16 and so on.
A condition comes when the voltage levels will get built up from, let us say microvolt level 2,
let us say 1 V, then 2 V, then 4 V, 8 V, but now we have to stop here it cannot become 8 V
suppose, if the power supply is equal to 5. So, from 4, it may try to go to 8 V, but because the
power supply is limited to let us say 5 V, so then the top as well as the bottom will be
chopped out that is something like we have cut down the head and the leg, we are left with
the just central body and that will have a clipping over here as well as clipping over here. But
when we are designing an oscillator, we would like to have a sinusoidal waveform, if not 100
% pure, relatively pure sinusoidal waveform.
So, this is where I recommend, if you take loop gain as let us say 1.1 or 1.2, then what will
happen, now 1 μV will become let us say 1.1 μV, then it will become 1.21 μV, now as it
keeps on building up. So, let us say then 1 V will become now 1.1 V and so on further
increase it. So, now, what happens as the signal amplitude keeps on increasing amplifier gain
also starts reducing. Why, if you recall amplifier gain is not always a 100 % linear, it actually
speaking has a curved path that means, amplifier gain starts reducing as the input signal
strength increases.
So, a condition comes, when A will become 1, why, because a has now reduced  remains
same. So, then the question comes why not we choose 1.01. The reason why I do not
recommend 1.01, because the components which we have used to design an oscillator and
feedback network, which gives rise to an oscillator may have tolerances; typical tolerance of
inductor or capacitor can be about 5 to 10 %. Hence it is always recommended that do not
take 1.01 or 2 or 3, take 1.1 to 1.2. So, if you take 1.1 to 1.2, then what happens you are
taking care of component tolerances. And also by taking that number you will ensure that
there is a not clipping at the top and the bottom level.
So, now, let us see how we can design an oscillator using a device. You had seen this
particular configuration, when we talked about amplifier design except for 1 difference and
that is over here. See in the case of amplifier there was an input and there was a input
impedance matching network, but now for oscillator we do not need any input. So, hence we
have given the term over here which is a generator tuning network this part is similar to that
of amplifier design.
So, let us see now what happened the generator tuning network is designed such a way that it
determines oscillation frequency. Now, there are three oscillation conditions first condition
that is delta should be less than 1 and K should be less than 1 in that particular case device is
unstable. Now, you may say what will happen, if the device is stable; that means, if K is
greater than 1 in that particular case I tell you we will use the positive feedback to design a
oscillator
Now, let just look at the two other conditions. The condition number two is Γ ¿ Γ s =1. Let us
see where it is, so Γ s is from this side Γ ¿is looking from this side. So, we can say that this
loop gain is nothing but equal to Γ ¿ Γ s. So, if the product is equal to 1 that will be the
condition for the oscillation.
Now, what about this third condition? So, let me tell you condition number two and condition
number three they are exactly same, but let us see where it is. So, this is Γ out looking from the
output side of the device Γ l is looking at the input side from the load matching networks. So,
if you see loop gain is nothing but gamma out multiplied by Γ l . So, this should be equal to 1
as I just mentioned these two conditions are same. So, let us see the derivation we will start
with one of the equation and we will get the second equation from that.
Derivation of condition 3 from condition 2. So, we will start with condition 2 which is
Γ ¿ Γ s =1. So, we know the expression for Γ ¿ is given by this particular term over here Γ s
comes as it is which is equal to 1. So, now, you simplify this particular expression. So, we
can write this as S11 ΓS − Δ Γ L Γ S =1−S 22 Γ L ⇒ Γ L (S ¿ ¿22−Δ Γ S )=1−S11 Γ S ¿. Now, we
simplify this particular thing we can write in this particular fashion and after one or two steps,
we can actually obtain the condition Γ L Γout =1 which is same as condition three ok
S22 −∆ Γ s
ΓL =1⇒ Γ L Γ out =1
1−S11 Γ s
So; that means, if this particular condition is satisfied this condition will automatically get
satisfied, for given source and load impedances Γ S and Γ Lwill always be less than 1. Recall
Smith chart, on the Smith chart, we can locate all the real and imaginary values of the
impedances. And for the Smith chart, we know that gammas are always less than 1. And if
|Γ S|<1, what will happen to |Γ¿|; that means, |Γ¿|>1. Similarly, if |Γ L|< 1; that means, |Γout|>
1 and either of these two conditions what they imply, they imply that R in and Rout are
negative.
Let us take a simple example So, how do we define negative resistance. Let us say, if
R out =Z out = -10 Ω I am just taking a negative value of a resistor. So, for this particular case,
Z out −Z o −10−50
we can find out the value of Γ out = = ¿ 1.5.
Z out +Z o −10+50
So, we can say that magnitude of |Γout|>1. In fact, you can take any value of Zout which has a
-R value and it does not matter what is the reactance value |Γout| > 1. So, here we can see that,
if Zout is given we can find out the value of Γ out , if Γ out is given how do we find out Zout well,
we can use Smith chart to find the value of Zout.
However, as you might recall Smith chart always represents Γ <1. So, how we can use Smith
chart when |Γout|>1, well there is a technique to do that. So, let us see what is that technique.
So, to find -Rout from Γ out what do you do you plot 1/Γ out * on Smith chart. So, we know that
1
|Γout|>1. So, if this is greater than 1, <1, so that can be placed on the Smith chart why
|Γout|
1
complex conjugate over here. So, when we take ¿ that angle of this particular term will be
Γ out
exactly same as that of Γ out .
So, let us plot this particular term on the Smith chart. So, 1/1.5-1800 = 0.661800. So, we
know that this is 0 axis, this is 00, this is 1800. So, we go around go to 1800 locate this
point 0.66 from the center. So, that will be 0.66, if you read the corresponding value that
comes out to be 0.2. Now, read this value of R as negative. So, make Rout equal to negative
why we are doing that actually speaking we are plotted 1/Γ out . So, this value corresponds to 1/
Γ out ; to obtain the value corresponding to 1/Γ out > 1 this is what we do.
So, from here, we can find out the value of Z out, how do we do that? multiply this with 50. So,
50*0.2 = 10. So, this is the value of Zout = -10 . So, you can see that this is how we started
with -10 , we got this value of Γ out , then we started from this value of Γ out , we got this 1.
Now, the same thing you can also do for complex value of Z out also. We will take an example
later on then this will be more clear. Now, when Γ out >1 that means, now output impedance of
the device has negative resistance.
So, let us say we have a generator tuning network. After that we have an active device and
the output impedance or you can say gamma out is greater than 1 so; that means, looking
from this particular device, we can actually say that gamma out can, now be represented as
Rout in series with Xout, but Rout now has a negative value. So, we can actually convert a two
port network problem into a single port problem. So, the single port problem here is nothing
but replacement of the earlier portion into just the corresponding value of the impedance
which is Rout in series with Xout.
So, for this particular case, now |Γout|>1 and for oscillator design |Γ L|<1. And what we want
we want the loop gain should be equal to 1 ok. So, two port oscillator circuits, now reduces to
single port oscillator. So, let us see how we can find the condition for single port oscillation.
So, for oscillation loop gain should be equal to 1; that means, Γ out Γ L=1 let us substitute the
value of Γ out and Γ L in terms of its impedances. So, we can say that Z out =R out + j X out well X out
can be plus or minus. Similarly, for Γ L we can write corresponding term. Now, all we do it is
multiplied the numerator term over here. So, that is right over here these denominator terms
will go to this side and that will come and that will come on the right hand side.
Now, the next step would be is to separate real part and imaginary part. So, if we separate the
real part after a few simplifications, you will find the condition that R L + Rout = 0, so that
means, RL = -Rout. Now please recall Rout has a negative value. So, if this has a negative value,
RL will have positive value. Similarly, if we equate imaginary parts, then we get the condition
XL + Xout = 0, so that means, X L = - Xout. So, if Xout is inductive then this will be capacitive; if
this is capacitive, this will become inductive.
However, to start the oscillation loop gain should be greater than 1; that means, Γ out Γ L > 1.
And this will only happen, if |R out|R L, why we are defining like this, the reason for that is
remember Rout has a negative value and this is a positive value. The magnitude of R L should
be chosen less than the magnitude of Rout. So, that the net resistance is negative and if the net
resistance is negative then only loop gain will be greater than one.
Let us take an example. So, we will take a one port oscillator design here we have taken an
example of a Gunn diode. So, Gunn diode has I V characteristics given by this particular
form over here. So, you can see that as current increases voltage increases in this particular
region, but if you see in this particular region voltage increases, but current decreases. So,
this region is known as negative resistance region. So, what do we do to design an oscillator,
we bias this Gunn diode in this particular region.
So, diode is biased with this DC voltage V DC corresponding to this DC current I DC, if you bias
the diode in this particular region in that case what will happen gamma out of Gunn diode
will be greater than 1, because it has a negative resistance region we have just seen that, if the
resistance is negative in that particular case, Γ out > 1. So, this problem is given. So, for this
biasing condition Γ out has a value equal to 1.24300 and this is at 10 GHz.
Now, what we need to do? we need to design the oscillator circuit. So, the first thing what we
should do it is we should find out the corresponding value of R out and Xout. To do that we plot
1 1
¿ on the Smith chart. So, this will be now ¿ = 0.81 . When it comes to the numerator
Γ out Γ out
side it will become . So, you can see that this angle is exactly same as that of Γ out .
So, now, we have to locate this particular point on the Smith chart. So, 0.81 , so draw a line at
1
, locate 0.81 on this particular Smith chart this will be ¿ . So, read the corresponding value
Γ out
of the Zout from here, so what will be Z out that will be 50 multiplied by whatever is the
resistance value take negative of that. So, the normalized value of resistance is 1.4, you can
actually see this will correspond to the circle over here. So, it will become -1.4. And you can
see that this will correspond to somewhere here, so the, so the reactive part is positive which
is +j3.2. So, Z out =50 (−1.4+ j 3.2) =−70+ j 160 Ω. So, for this particular Gunn diode, this is
the Γ out . So, we can see here this is −70+ j 160 Ω.
Now, to start oscillation we choose RL = 60  you can see that this particular value
approximately satisfies this particular equation magnitude of Rout = 70 , this is 60*1.2 = 72.
So, condition of Rout > RL is still satisfied. So, this is reasonably good value to choose what
about Xe. So, as I had just mentioned, if this is inductance this should be capacitance, the
reactance of this capacitance should be negative of the reactance of this particular inductor.
−j
So, Xc = -XL. =− j 160 ⇒ C=0.1 pF.
ωc
So, from here we can find the value of C = 0.1 pF. Now, I just want to mention that this
design is not fully complete at this particular point over here. The reason for that is invariably
when we design an oscillator, we always say that the load will be equal to 50 . So, here the
values obtained are 60 – j*160 , this part I leave it for you people. So, we have a 50  load
design the output impedance matching network. So, that ZL = 60 – j*160 .
Now, let us look at what are the design steps for designing a two port oscillator. So, in fact, if
you ask many people and even if you see many books, they always say oscillator design is
very difficult, you want to design an oscillator, it becomes an amplifier. Similarly, sometimes
people also say you want to design an amplifier, it become an oscillator that is why I am
giving you very simple design steps for designing a two port oscillator.
Follow these steps you will see that there is no problem at all; you will be able to design an
oscillator if you simply follow these steps. So, now, for given S parameters what you do, first
you find the value of K. Now, if Δ<1∧¿ K < 1 ; that means, it is unstable proceed, if K > 1
that means, this device is stable for that I will tell you in the next lecture how to design an
oscillator, but today we will assume that the device is unstable that means, Δ<1and K < 1.
So, in that particular case, what do you do? You draw input stability circle or we can also say
source stability circle.
So, this is the Smith chart. So, when you draw the stability circle, we know that stability
circle will be cutting the Smith chart somewhere. So, if you see this particular portion, this is
the portion where the device is unstable. So, now, we can choose any point in this particular
unstable region and that point can be used to design an oscillator; however, please do not
choose this point or this point or this particular point over here, because they are at the
borderline of the stability. So, because of the device tolerances or even, because of the power
supply fluctuations, it is possible that this point may become this point over here and then the
device will become stable
So, I recommend that choose a point which is the most unstable point in this particular
region. So, you can actually see that this particular point is deep inside the input stability
circle. So, this is the most unstable point within this particular region over here. So, please
always choose this particular point and also there is an advantage this particular point can be
very easily realized by an inductor or shorted stub. So, I just want to show you the circuit
which, which we started
So, what really happens over here. So, this is the point where I mentioned about Γ S. So, this
entire generator tuning network is simply replaced by an inductor. So, all you do it is just put
an inductor over here or you can use shorted stub line also. So, what happens, if this
particular stability circle is somewhere over here, then in that particular case, you can say that
the most unstable point will be somewhere here and that can be realized by simply a
capacitor.
So, what will happen if the stability circle is somewhere here that means, that even a short
circuit will make this device unstable. So, you do not even have to put inductor or capacitor
simply short circuit the input side that will satisfy the instability criteria. So, once you have
chosen the value of Γ S or ZS, which is this particular point, then the next step is you find out
the value of Γ out . Γ out is given by this particular expression and you had seen this particular
expression when we were discussing about amplifier design.
Now, you can see that S22 is known, S11 is known, S12, S21 all these S parameters are known,
Γ S has not been chosen corresponding to this particular point. So, we can now find out the
value of Γ out . Now, please check |Γout|>1 . If it is not greater than 1 that means, you have done
calculation mistake ok. So, it has to be greater than 1, it will always be greater than 1, if you
have chosen the initial steps properly. So, once we know gamma out is greater than 1, find
out the value of Rout and Xout, then choose the value of RL and XL as I did in the previous case.
And after that design impedance matching network to complete a oscillator design.
So, in the next lecture, we will look at oscillator design. We will look at several different
examples. So, just to summarize today we talked about what are the different oscillation
conditions. So, we actually saw that loop gain should be equal to 1 for oscillation condition.
However, loop gain should be greater than 1. And I recommend you choose loop gain as
maybe 1.1 to 1.2 to start the oscillation, so that there will be less clipping in the output
sinusoidal waveform. Then we looked at the single port oscillator condition, and we had seen
that Rout = -RL, Xout = - XL. However, for loop gain greater than 1, you have to choose R out =
1.2*RL.
And then we looked at two port oscillator design for which you draw the stability circle for
only input side, please you do not have to draw the output stability circle at this particular
point. And then follow these seven steps, and you will have oscillator ready for you. So, in
the next lecture, we will see more examples. Till then please study I do want to mention here
that when you want to see the next video please see this video just before that and refresh
your memory.
So, thank you very much, we will see you next time. Bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 9
Lecture – 42
Microwave Oscillators – II
Hello and welcome to the second lecture on Microwave Oscillator. In the previous lecture, I
started with amplifier with positive feedback. And we had seen that oscillation condition
occurs, when loop gain A = 1, and I had recommended that choose A1.1 to 1.2 to start
the oscillation.
The reason for that is that if you choose larger value of A, then there will be clipping of the
sinusoidal waveform at the output. And if you take smaller value than 1.1, there are chances
that oscillation may never start because of the tolerances in the network which may make the
device itself stable.
Then we started with the two port oscillator configuration, where we started with the unstable
design when  < 1 and K < 1. And we had seen oscillation conditions will happen, when this
loop gain is equal to 1 that is Γ ¿ Γ s =1and 3. Γ out Γ l=1; if this condition is satisfied, this will
be automatically satisfied.
And we had seen that derivation also, we started with condition 3, we reached to condition 2.
We had seen that since gamma S and Γ lare always going to be less than 1 for any physical
impedance which can be let us say resistance plus inductance or capacitance. So, this will be
always less than 1, so |Γ¿| and |Γout| are >1 which implies Rin and Rout are negative.

We had use Smith chart to find out the value of R out for a given value of gamma out, we had
Z out −Z o −10−50 −60 1

seen that when R out = -10 Ω, Γ out = = ¿ =1.5 we had plotted ¿ on
Z out +Z o −10+50 40 Γ out
Smith chart, and from that we read the value of Z out = -10 Ω which is same as this here.
After that we will looked at the derivation for one port oscillator why, because a two port
problem was reduced to a one port problem, because we were not looking at only at the
output side of the device. We saw the condition that R l +R out =¿ 0; and since Rout is negative,
Rl will be positive. Similarly for imaginary part, we saw X l + X out = 0. So, if Xout is inductive,
this will be capacitive; if this is capacitive, this will become inductive.
Then we will looked at the design of Gunn diode. A Gunn diode which had gamma out given
by this particular value at 10 GHz and this particular thing happens, because i v characteristic
of Gunn diode is like this. So, we have to bias in this particular negative region. I just want to
mention here, even though we took example of Gunn diode, but similar negative resistance
region or they are for impart diode, tunnel diode. And even low frequency components you
might have read about SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier or triode, so that means, you can bias
these devices in their negative R region, and then the process will remain same for all those
cases. So, what you do, for the given biasing condition find out what is the value of gamma
out, then you plot 1 by gamma out conjugate on the Smith chart, find the corresponding value
of Zout and then choose the value of RL which is smaller than the magnitude of Rout, but XC
should be chosen as -XL.
After this, we looked that two port oscillator design; I had shown you 7 different steps let us
just go through it one more time, because oscillator design is crucial for many applications.
So, let us say S parameters are known to us at a given frequency and for given biasing
conditions. So, for given values of S parameter find the value of K; if Δ<1∧¿and k < 1 that
means device is unstable, if K > 1 then the device will be stable. And in the next slide, I am
going to tell you what to do when the device is stable. So, right now let us go with the steps
when the device is unstable.
So, in this particular case draw input stability circle. So, this is the input stability circle and
choose a point which is deep inside this particular unstable region, do not choose this point;
or this point; or this point; or points which are close to this, choose a point which is deeply
inside this. So, this is the point, which is deep inside the input stability circle that means, this
is the most unstable point. So, corresponding to this particular point now we can say gamma
S or ZS is chosen, and since we have taken this particular point this can be very easily
realized by an inductor or a shorted stub. Suppose if this curve was somewhere here, then that
point over here can be realized by a simple capacitance.
So, now once Γ s is chosen, find the value of

S12 S21 Γg
Γ out =S22 + which is given by this particular expression and please check magnitude
1−S11 Γ g
of |Γout| > 1 ; if it is not greater than 1, you have made a mistake. So, once |Γout| > 1, find Rout
and Xout; Rout has to be now negative. So, once Rout and Xout are known find the value of RL
which has to be smaller than the magnitude of R out, but XL should be same as Xout with the
negative sign. And after that design impedance matching network which will transfer 50 
impedance corresponding to these values of RL and XL.
Now, let us just take an example, when the device is stable so if the device is stable that
means, Δ<1and K > 1; for the stable device what you do, the first step would be is that you
design an amplifier with the gain equal to let say A. And then use feedback factor  and that
would make A = 1, and in this particular case again you must choose A > 1 as I
recommended earlier choose A as 1.1 to 1.2.
So, here is that device which is stable, now in this particular case you can see that this
particular thing is connected to the input side, this portion over here corresponds to the load
side and this is the series feedback. You can see that this particular X 3 is common to the input
side; it is also common to the output side. In your analog circuits course, you might have
designed something like a common emitter amplifier or you can say common source
amplifier, there one uses resistance over here to stabilize the amplifier, but over here this is
X3 it is not resistance, so this can be inductance or capacitance. So, this is series feedback.
Let just look an alternate configuration where shunt feedback is used, you can again see this
is the source side, this is the load side and this is the feedback from the output to the input
side. So, now the next part is to determine the values of X 1, X2, X3; if you use series feedback
network or determine the values of B1, B2, B3; if we are using shunt feedback. I just want to
mention that design equations for both these circuits are given in Liao’s book chapter 9. So, I
have not reproduce it over here in my slides, so please see the Liao’s book, you can actually
see the expressions for X1, X2, X3 and B1, B2, B3, but I just tell you what are the steps
involved.
So, what has been done S parameters of this particular device are known then these S
parameters are converted to Z parameters, since these elements are in series, in series Z
parameters get added. One finds the equivalent Z parameters of this particular entire network,
then one uses conversion from Z parameter to S parameter ok. Then those S parameters are
found for these particular conditions ok.
So, there are several steps are there, so please see this particular book and then you can
actually get the expressions for X1, X2, X3. In this particular case what is done, actually S
parameters are converted into Y parameter, and Y parameters in shunt get added up. So, find
the equivalent Y parameter then from Y parameter converted to S parameters, apply these
conditions and then complete the design. All those things have been done by our earlier
researchers. So, I am not going to repeat that they are all basically equation. So, please see
the book and then you will be able to design the amplifier accordingly.
Now, I am going to talk about one very very important thing and that is what about the value
of A and how this value of A affects the output. So, to start the oscillation we make A 
greater than 1; and when oscillations are sustained A = 1, but let me ask you a simple
question first. So, let us say if I start A =2 or I start with A = 10 or maybe a equal to 20
correspondingly we can choose the value of , will the output amplitude be same in all these
cases. In fact, the answer is not really. So, actually speaking when you are designing an
oscillator, please choose some decent value of the gain. So, how we do that, what is the effect
of that; so let us look at the derivation of output power of two port oscillator.
So, maximum output power of two port oscillator is given by this particular expression; now,
do not worry I am going to show you the derivation of this particular expression in a short
while, but let us first define what are the different terms over here P sat is the saturated value of
any amplifier and G is the gain of the amplifier this is just ln G. So, let us just first look at this
particular response of any amplifier whereas Pin increases Pout increases you can see over here.
So, the ideal response is generally it increases linearly and then saturates. The saturated
output power is denoted by Psat; however, this is the ideal characteristic, but this is the
practical characteristics ok. So, now this particular exponential term can be represented in
this particular form here. So, P out is given by this particular expression.
Let me take a few cases just to show that this particular equation is right. So, when P input is
small in this particular region, so let us see what happens in this particular region. So, we can
say that for small x, e x=1−x . So, now let us simplify this particular thing for small P ¿. So,
−G.P ¿ G.P ¿
(
Pout =Psat 1−exp
( Psat )) ( (
 Pout =Psat 1− 1−
Psat ))
. So, you can see Pout =G.P¿And this is
obvious in the sense that this is Pin, this is Pout over here, as Pin increases, Pout increases linearly
with the gain of G. Let us see what happens in the extreme case when Pin is very large. So, for
very large Pin let us say P¿  wexp (P−G.P ) 0. So, P

sat
¿
out =Psat . So, I have just confirmed this
particular expression for two extreme cases; when Pin is very small and when Pin is very large.
Now, let us see how we can do the derivation for oscillation condition. So, what is the
oscillation condition, this is rate of change of the output divided by rate of change in the input
should be equal to 1. Now, you might wonder from where this particular thing has come, we
talked about A = 1. In reality just think about, let us say we have a this particular oscillator
block. So, what happens whatever is the Pout and then let us a part of that is going as a P¿.
So, what is important is for sustained oscillation, the rate of change in the Pout should be same
as rate of change in the P¿ So, we put this oscillation condition to do the derivation. So, let us
differentiate equation 1 with respect to P¿. So, let just look at the expression over here if we
do the derivation with respect to P ¿over here, you can say this is the constant term and this is
the term which is coming over here. So, the derivation of that is given by the term over here.
Pout
=1
P¿
−G −G.P¿
-Psat( ) ( )
Psat
. exp
P sat
=1
G . exp
(−G.P
P sat
)=1 G=exp (G.P
¿
P ) sat
¿
(2)
G.P ¿
=ln G P¿=Psat ln G
Psat G
G is given by this particular expression and then we simplify further to find the expression for
1
Pin and then using equations 1 and 2, we can find out the expression of Pout =Psat 1− ( G )
, so
from here now you want to find out what is the maximum oscillator power output.
So, oscillator is shown in the block over here. So, this is the Pout of the oscillator, but part of
that is going back as P¿. So, this is the net oscillator power output which can be written as Pout
- P¿. So, P oscillator maximum is Pout - P ¿why I have put the term maximum over here,
because we are doing the derivation for the situation when loop gain has become equal to 1;
Pout
that means, =1 . So, we substitute the different values of Pout and P ¿over here and then
P¿
simplify. So, this expression for Posc (max .) is
( G1 )−P
Posc (max .)=Pout −P¿ Psat ¿ Psat 1− sat
ln G
G
Posc (max .)= Psat

(1− G1 − lnGG )
this is the same expression as I had shown in the beginning; from here lets also find out what
is the value of G osc (max .), please remember this value will always be less than G, why in the
beginning loop gain is greater than 1, since loop gain is greater than 1 signal amplitude is
increasing, but as the amplitude increases gain starts reducing a condition comes when output
becomes constant.
So, we are trying to find out what is the gain at that particular point when the oscillations are
sustained. So, G osc (max .)=

Pout
=¿
Psat ( G−1
G ) G−1
= . So, I have actually taken a few cases of
P¿ ln G lnG
Psat (G)
G, so 1.1, 2, 5, 10 then let us find out G osc value using this particular equation. So, one can
actually see that corresponding to 1.1 this is 1.05 G oscillator is increasing. So, for G = 10 it
comes out to be 3.91.
Now let us see: what is the value of Posc . So, P osc /Psat is given by this particular expression and
these are the values. Now, you can see that if gain is just equal to 1.1: what is the oscillator
power output it is very very small, it is just 0.004 of Psat value. Suppose if the amplifier has a
saturated value of let us say 10 dBm, you can say that this is very very small number. If gain
is equal to 10, in that particular case you can see that this is almost two-third of the Psat value.
Of course, if you take gain equal to 20, you will get a larger value of Psat . So, you do the
calculation and find out what will be the maximum oscillator power.

Now, let me give you a practical example of oscillator, here I have shown you a voltage
controlled oscillator. So, what is voltage controlled oscillator basically you can control the
output frequency by varying the input voltage. So, let me go step by step. So, here is the V-
Tune, so by changing this particular voltage, we can change the output frequency, but now let
us see step by step. So, first please look at only this particular portion ok, this is actually a DC
biasing circuit for this particular transistor and the transistor which we have used here is
BFP520 corresponding to this dc voltage you can find out what is the voltage at this
particular point.
And then you can approximately assume this drop to be about 0.3 V, so that will give the dc
voltage over here. I just want to mention the resistor values are 3.3 k, 9.1 k and this is
actually 200 , so that sets the biasing condition ok. Now, these are basically the coupling
capacitor, so for this particular amplifier this acts as a biasing network. You just think about
from here to here, this is an amplifier and part of the output is fed back to the input side.
Now, you can see that we have used the capacitors over here and not resistors; if you use
resistors, it will never ever become oscillator. So, this feedback ratio ensures that A >1 to
start the oscillation. Now, let just move to this side here. So, what we have we have an
inductor and then these are varactor diodes. Why we have used varactor diodes, basically we
have used varactor diodes for the property that as the biasing voltage in this case tune voltage
changes, their effective capacitance changes. And by changing the effective capacitance, we
can change the resonance frequency of the oscillator.
So, now let us see how the oscillation frequency can be determined. So, now when can see
that this is a DC voltage; so, for AC signal this will act as a short circuit 3 k resistor is
large, so we can assume this is to be approximately open circuited, similarly this resistor is
also large. Now, let us see what is the equivalent capacitance seen by this particular inductor.
So, you can see that equivalent capacitance seen by this inductor is series capacitance of this
varactor diode then series capacitance of this varactor diode, ground over here is common to
this particular thing, then another series capacitance over here, another series capacitance
over here.
Here an approximation is being made that we are neglecting the current over here and
neglecting the current over here; however, there will be a small effect of that, but we can
approximately find out the resonance frequency of this particular circuit as omega 0 equal to
1 , L =16.5 nH; and C equivalent will be this capacitance, in series with this capacitance,
√ LC
in series with this capacitance, in series with this particular capacitance and that will give you
approximate value of the resonance frequency. There may be small error in calculating the
resonance frequency using this approximation, but you will see that it is within a few
percentage. So, now by changing this particular voltage one changes the capacitance hence
equivalent capacitance changes at that results in to change in the output frequency. So, let us
see the response of this particular circuit.
So, we have done the simulation for one of the values of V-Tune, you can say that the
resonance frequency is slightly less than 1 GHz, just to tell you that we had used this
particular circuit to design different types of oscillators ok, we had actually designed these
things for jamming mobile phones. So, we designed it for CDMA jamming or you can say
GSM 900 jamming or even GSM 1800 jamming even Wi-Fi jamming also.
So, what you do it is simply change the values of inductor and for higher frequency we also
reduce the value of the feedback capacitor; so that higher frequency can be realized, but let us
see now for this particular circuit, you can see the output here is slightly less than 1 GHz and
these are all the harmonics. So, this you can say is second harmonic, third harmonic, fourth
harmonic, fifth harmonic, sixth harmonic, but what is important is all the harmonics are less
than 20 dB. So, you can see that corresponding to this normalize value of 0 dBm, all these are
less than -20 dBm which will give rise to very small distortion in the output sinusoidal
waveform.
So, let me now show you the realized PCB, so this is that VCO circuit which I had shown
you, this is the V-tuned circuit or you can say triangular waveform generator. Triangular
waveform generation can be realized either using by triple five timer or by using Op-amp
circuit. So, this is the populated circuits. So, you can see that all the components have been
soldered over here, but I just want to mention over here quick things. So, this is where the
connector you can see connected over here; so that is the centre pin, so basically this is the
output, and this entire circuit represents the VCO design at this entire particular portion is for
the triangular waveform generator circuit.
So, this is the response of the triangular waveform generator, you can see that there is a nice
triangular waveform output. This is the response of the VCO output, since the input voltage is
changing in the triangular fashion, you can see that the output frequency is also changing, this
is the response shown on the spectrum analyzer, you can see that various signals are there
which correspond to different amplitudes of the triangular input waveform. You can see over
here that this level is very small; it is of the order of 0 dBm. So, in the next slide I am going
to show you where we have integrated an amplifier.

So, an amplifier has been integrated in that particular VCO circuit. So, now you can see the
net output of VCO with amplifier you can say that the response is fairly stable and output is
about 20 dBm and you can see very nice response of the VCO over this particular band.
Now, let me show you VCO with phase lock loop and the IC which we have use is LTC6946.
In fact, this particular IC has PLL plus VCO built into it ok. In fact, there are many things in
this particular IC, so I do recommend that please see the data sheet of this particular IC and
this IC is driven by a microcontroller. Of course, here we have used pic microcontroller, but
you can use any other microcontroller.
So, basically microcontroller will give input to this particular device, so that you can change
the output frequency. In fact, we have used this particular circuit to design a VCO which
works from 700 MHz till 2600 MHz. So, it is a very broadband VCO from 700 MHz to 2600
MHz. Of course, you can design for larger frequency values also ok.
So, let me show you the response for one of the settings. So, output frequency is
approximately 1.12 GHz for one of the set value. You can see that this is the response shown
on the spectrum analyzer. You can see that the output has a magnitude of 0 dBm just to
refresh your memory 0 dBm corresponds to 1 mW of power. And this is nothing, but noise
floor the simple IC can be designed to generate desired frequency output.
Just to summarize we saw different configurations for oscillator when the device is unstable,
in that particular case your draw the input stability circle and do the design. If the device is
stable in that particular case we use either series feed network or shunt feed network. After
that I took a practical example of a VCO which use varactor diodes and transistor. And we
use capacitive feed network to design the VCO. So, we had use that VCO for different bands
of mobile phone. After that we look at a broadband VCO design using PLL. In the next
lecture, we will see application of oscillator for the design of mixer. Next few lectures on
mixer will be taken by my Ph.D., student Vinay.
So, thank you very much. Bye.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 9
Lecture - 43
Microwave Mixers – I:
Fundamentals
Hello, my name is Vinay Narayane; I am pursuing my Ph.D., studies under the supervision of
Prof. Girish Kumar. And the topic of today’s discussion is Microwave Mixers. Microwave
mixers or mixers in general is a very vital component in the RX and TX, which is a receiver
and transmitter chain of any communication system. So, be it GSM, be it mobile
communication, be it satellite communication, mixers are very vital components. So, we are
going to study these mixers in the upcoming slides and in this lecture henceforth. So, let us
begin.
Let us take an example of an RF receiver chain, where we have an antenna, which receives
the signal. And we have an RF amplifier, which amplifies the signal, then we have a channel
select filter, and the signal is further processed using amplifier, demodulator, and then finally
given to a display or a speaker. Now, let us take a case of a GSM mobile system, where the
incoming signal is at a frequency of 900 MHz. And the channel select filter requires a
bandwidth of 200 kHz.
Now, to achieve this bandwidth at this particular frequency, we require a Q of about 4500,
which is like very very big, and impossible to achieve at such a higher frequency. If now we
convert this incoming signal of 900 MHz to lower frequency value or an intermediate
frequency value, let us say of 76.8 MHz, we get a Q requirement of the filter to be 384, which
is still high, but can be accomplished or can be achieved, and it is low compared to the 4500
value in earlier case.
So, the point here is it is difficult to process, the signal at very high frequency. And hence, we
have to convert this high frequency signal into a lower frequency value. And that is why, we
need a block in between the RF amplifier and the channel select filter, and that block is
nothing but mixer. So, mixer is nothing but a frequency translation device, which translates a
frequency from one value to another or it translates a signal from one frequency to another.
This is the fundamental operation and need of a mixer.
We are going to study mixers in three parts. In first part, we will study the fundamentals of a
mixer, we will study mixer as a circuit component, what are the input, output signals. And in
the second part, we are going to study the devices and circuits, which are commonly used to
implement a mixer. In the third part, we are going to study some of the design considerations
using an example.
Let us begin. So, mixer has three ports. You have an RF port, and LO port, and an IF port. RF
stands for Radio Frequency, LO is the Local Oscillator, IF is Intermediate Frequency. RF and
LO are typically high frequency ports, whereas IF is low or intermediate frequency port. The
RF port and IF port can be used both as input and output ports depending on the application,
while the LO port is always the input port.
Now, let us see a basic operation of a mixer. If we have two frequencies at the input of the
mixer f1 and f2, which are given in the spectral form here, so we have a f 1 signal, which is a
band limited signal. And we have local oscillator, which is at a frequency f 2, then the mixer
output is like this. So, ideally with 2 frequencies input, the mixer produces the sum and the
difference frequency. So, at the mixer output, we should get f 2+f1, and f2-f1 ideally. So,
depending on the application, we either choose one of this sidebands. So, this is called as the
lower sideband, and this is called as the upper sideband.
So, there are two kinds of mixer depending on which frequency signal that we choose at the
output, and they are upconversion mixer and downconversion mixer. In case of upconversion
mixer, the input signal is given at the IF port. The signal at the IF port mixes with the signal
at the LO port, and these mixing signals produce the sum and the difference frequencies. And
in this case, we choose the sum frequency, which is the RF frequency. So, fRF is equal to fLO +
fIF.
In case of downconversion mixer, the input is at the RF port, and the signal at the input RF
port mixes with the signal at the LO. And these two signals after mixing with each other
produces the sum and the difference frequency, and we choose the difference frequency in
this case, which is output at the IF port. So, f IF is equal to fLO - fRF. This is the basic operation
of a mixer in upconversion and downconversion case.
Now, let us take an example of a downconversion mixer. Let us say that, we have an
incoming frequency at the RF band, which is equal to 900 MHz. And the IF desired is 76.8
MHz. And the question is the LO frequency that is required to produce this conversion.
Simple, we have a formula fLO is equal to fRF plus or - fIF using the basic mixer operation.
Now, if I choose the plus sign here, I get the local oscillator frequency to be 900 + 76.8,
which is equal to 976.8 MHz.
Since, I have chosen the plus sign, and the local oscillator frequency is higher than the
incoming RF frequency such kind of downconversion is called as superheterodyne
downconversion. We must have known this or heard this term quite a bit of time. And the
super in this case, indicate that the local oscillator frequency is greater than the RF frequency.
Let us take an interesting case here. Now, in the RF at the input of the mixer, we have an
another frequency, which is at 1053.6 MHz. This frequency along with the desired RF, which
is at 900 MHz, mixes with the LO frequency, which is 976.8 MHz and the mixing between
this frequency and this frequency, if you see it produces the same IF output.
In the frequency domain, if you see the spectrum, you have the local oscillator at this
frequency, you have the desired RF band. And this is the special frequency that we are
talking about, and after conversion both this signals mix with the LO, and they produce the
same IF output. So, basically if you see this kind of operation is really not desired, this is a
mixing or scrambling of the desired signal and should be avoided. So, this frequency is called
as the image frequency. And it has to be removed.
There are ways to remove this image frequency or to nullify the effect. And it can be
achieved using two ways, one is you can have a image reject filter in the RF path, so that you
do not allow this frequency to come into the mixer. And second is you use an image reject
mixer, which is the configuration that we will discuss in later part of this course. So, image
frequency is very important, it has to be considered and should be avoided to enter the mixer.
Now, the question is how is this implemented the basic operation. So, we have two signals
with frequency ω1 and ω2 a sinusoidally varying signals. And the question is what operation
do I perform on these signals to get the output signal, which contains the sum and the
difference frequency, so it is simple. If we just multiply these two incoming signals that is a
multiply A1cos ω1t x A2 cos ω2t by using basics trigonometric relations, we get an output,
which contains the difference and the sum component of the frequencies.
So, mixer is inherently or basically is a multiplier. And that is why, in the symbol of the
mixer if you have noticed; we represent it using a multiplication symbol ok. So, how is this
multiplication achieved in real world, what devices or what techniques, we use to achieve the
multiplication physically. So, there are two techniques. In first, we use a non-linear transfer
function system, and in the second we use a switching device, which is nothing but a linear
time variant system.
So, in the first case, we have a system, which has a non-linear transfer function. And at the
input of this system, if I give two tone signal, a tone meaning of frequency. If I have a two
tone signal input to this particular non-linear system, I get at the output the difference and the
sum frequencies. Similarly, in case of switching devices if I have a linear time variant system,
and at the input of this system, if I have two tone signal with two different frequencies. At the
output, I can get the difference and the sum frequencies. So, these are the two techniques,
which are used to analyze the operation of a mixer and to implement mixers. So, inherently
these two techniques are the same, but just the way of analysis is different; although, we will
study both these techniques in detail in upcoming slides.
So, let us take the case of mixer implementation using non-linearity. So, here you can see, we
have a non-linear device. And we know that, it can be a diode or BJT, at the input we have a
signal vi and the output we have a current, which is io. Now, we know that the diode current
and voltage relation. So, the output current varies exponentially with the input voltage. And if
I expand this particular expression using a Taylor series, what I get is this expression.
If you observe, the output current here depends not only linearly on the input, but also it
contains the square of the input, the cube of the input and so on. So, this is the non-linearity,
which we require to achieve the mixing action. Now, the vi is nothing but sum of two input
signals v1(t), v2(t), which are at two different frequencies ω 1 and ω2. If I substitute this
expression into this particular equation, and I solve it, analyze it, I get the following terms.
Now, this particular expression that is being written here is taken by considering only the 2nd
order term. The 3rd order term is not considered in this particular expression, but you can
always solve it. And see: what are the frequency terms, which are generated because of the
cubic term ok.
So, let us analyze this output in terms of frequencies that it contains. So, first you have an I 0,
which is the DC component, you have the input frequencies, you also have the second
harmonics of this input frequencies along with the DC signal, and you have the desired
mixing, which is ω1 t into ω2. So, cos ω1t into cos ω2t, which will in turn produce ω1 - ω2 and
ω1 + ω2. So, the desired mixing component is of course, should be chosen by using
appropriate filtering. So, you see that by using a non-linear device in actual you get a lot of
different frequency components at the output of a mixer along with the desired output. So,
this is how a mixer is implemented using a non-linear transfer function device.
Let us take the 2nd case, where we have mixer implementation using a switching device. So,
in this case, you have a input sinusoidal signal v1, which is given to the output through a
switch, which is controlled by the second signal v2, which is typically a square wave ranging
from 0 to 1. So, the input is switched to the output using a control signal v 2. So, simply vout is
nothing but v1, when the switch is on. And it is equal to 0, when the switch is off.
Mathematically, we can write it as vout is equal to v1(t) into v2(t). This is because the switch on
condition is achieved when the v2 is 1, and switch off condition is achieved when v2 is 0. So,
vout is equal to v1(t) into v2(t). And if these two signals are at two different frequencies, we
achieve what we desire, which is the mixing. So, if v1 is at ω1, v2 is at ω2, I multiply these two
signals, and at the output I should get vout, containing the desired mixing.
But, there is a discrepancy that this is a square wave, and it cannot contain just the ω2 term
here, just a single frequency, it has to contain the odd harmonics of this frequency as well.
So, in conclusion in the vout, we contain the desired mixing, which is cos ω 1 t into cos ω2 t
along with the harmonic mixing, which is ω1 mixing with thrice ω2 ω1 mixing with 5 ω2 and
so on. And of course, you have to filter, the desired mixing signal using appropriate filtering.
So, the switch, which we mention here or the switch that we discussed here can be
implemented using a diode or FET or any kind of transistor.
So, let us review the basic mixer operation again, we have a mixer, we have a mixer here at
the input RF port, I have a signal at ω 1. At the LO input local oscillator input, I have a signal
at ω2. And the corrugated line that you see here is nothing but the noise floor present at both
this inputs. And ideally the mixer should produce the sum and the difference of these two
frequencies, but as we just saw, when we implement a mixer using various physical devices.
The mixer output contains lot more than desired or there are various undesired products that
are present at the mixer output.
So, let us see when I turn on this mixer, what are the frequencies and components that are
produced at the mixer output. So, this is what happens, when the mixer is turned on the
desired signals were just ω2 - ω1 and ω2 + ω1, but you see that there is a lot of changes that
have happened in this process. Now, take a moment, you can pause the video and observe
what has happened. So, I will I will just flash it again. So, you have a mixer you have two
signals, and ideally you should produce the sum and the difference, but this is what happens,
when you turn on the mixer.
Now, note down the observations, what are the things that have changed, when the mixer was
turned on, and you will notice several things, which are called as mixer non-idealities. And
these mixer non-idealities have to be measureed using some parameters; this parameters are
called as mixer performance metrics or mixer specifications. So, let us go one by one. First
observation, you have an input RF signal at some level, but the output IF is at a certain
different amplitude level. And this difference is called as the conversion gain or loss.
So, in this particular case, I have shown an amplification. So, you have a conversion gain, but
in some cases, you can also have a conversion loss. So, this is one of the important
specification of a mixer. Of course, it is not a non-ideality, but it is a specification that a
mixer has. It is a performance metrics that should be specified, when you mention about a
mixer.
Second thing, if you have noticed, there are certain things, which are appearing at the input
ports as well. So, after the mixer was turned on, I get the ω2, which is local oscillator
frequency coming at the RF frequency at the and the RF frequency coming at the LO port,
and also I have ω1, ω2 at the IF output. So, these are called as port leakages or signal leaking
from one port to another. And the mixer specification or mixer performance metrics related to
this is called as port-to-port isolation. So, it is very important that these leakages should be
minimized to a level as low as possible.
The third thing that you might have noticed is the noise floor, if you see the noise floor level
here. And if you see the noise floor level at the output, it is certainly raised right. So, the
mixer is adding certain amount of noise in the process. And this noise addition is measured
using a noise figure metric, which is familiar to us, we know: what is the noise figure, mixer
being a non-linear device also has a noise figure associated with it.
Next, we observed, there are various terms. For example, twice ω 1 - ω2 twice ω2 + sorry twice
ω2 - ω1 and the coding here, if you have noticed is nothing but I, the first number represents
the multiplication of ω1. The second number represents the multiplication of ω 2. So, it is like
one integer multiplier here, second integer multiplier here. So, this is - 1, 1; this frequency
component is 2 - 1; this component is - 1, 2; this component is 1, 1 and so on.
So, this is the coding, which we will see later, how a general mixer equation is represented,
and these signals are again not desired. These unwanted signals arise because of the non-
linearity present in the mixing device, and these are called as intermodulation products. And
this nonlinearity is measured using a performance metrics called as linearity. So, we say a
mixer is more linear, if these frequency components generated at the mixer output are very
low compared to the IF output. So, linearity is a very very important factor or very very
important performance metrics while specifying a mixer.
Next, we see these - 4, 3; - 2, 3 components, which are arising in the mixer output, and these
are called as spurious responses. These arise, because a multiple harmonics of the incoming
signal, which is RF signal and harmonic of LO signal mix with each other. And they produce
something, which is not desired. Now, you might wonder that, we are anyway filtering the
output. So, all this things can be filtered out, but the thing to be worried here is this. If you
observe, the intermodulation product arising because of the non-linearity and because of the
spurious response are very close to the desired IF output. So, even if I put a filter over here, I
cannot reduce these particular components beyond a certain level, and they might cause IF
output to be degraded. So, let us see all this specifications one by one in detail in upcoming
slides.

So, before going to the conversion gain, let us first discuss about the operating frequency
range of a mixer. And it depends on the devices, which are nothing but diodes and transistors
that are used while building the mixer, and also depends on other components that have been
used to build the mixer circuit. Conversion gain very simple, it is defined as the output power
in one of the sidebands, which is the IF output power divided by the RF input power.
In dB, it is simply the difference between the IF power and the RF power in dBm. Now,
while defining conversion gain using this expression, we have assumed that the matching has
been taken care of. So, this expression does not account for any mismatch losses, but in
literature you might see that the conversion gain expression or conversion gain number also
includes the mismatch losses ok. Next is the port-to-port isolation.
We have signal leaking from the LO port to the RF and IF port. We have signal leaking from
the RF port to the LO and IF port and so on. So, the important one are the LO-RF and LO-IF
isolations, which are more significant. And we will see that, why these are more significant as
compared to RF-IF isolation. So, let us first consider the case that you have inadequate LO to
RF isolation, which means that a considerable amount of signal from the LO port leaks into
the RF port. And one thing that I want to mention, which we will see later is that the LO
signal has a higher amplitude than the RF signal.
Now, before the mixer, we have an LNA and an antenna connected to it. So, let us say that
the LO signal leaks into the LNA output, and this will result in a poor dynamic range of the
LNA. So, this will reduce the dynamic range of the LNA. And the if LNA has a non-zero S12
value, the signal will further go to the antenna, and this will cause interference to other
communication channels. In worst case, in case of defense application this leakage of LO
signal through antenna might enable your enemy to locate your receiver.
Let us take a case of inadequate LO to IF isolation, where a considerable amount of LO

power leaks into IF port. And after the mixer, after the IF port, we typically have an IF
amplifier. And if the signal leaks into the IF amplifier, it might end up saturating this
amplifier. And hence, you might require a very sharp filter to reject the LO leakage going
into the IF amplifier. So, these are the things, which have to be considered, and it is very
important to have a good port-to-port isolation numbers for a mixer.
We have a noise figure to be considered for a mixer. We know that noise figure is defined as
SNRin /SNRout, and the noise figure basically tells you, how much noise is being added by the
mixer to the input signal. So, the noise added not only depends on the mixer devices and
components, but it also arises because of the conversion process. And we will study this
using a simple example. So, there are two types of noise figure specification. One is an SSB,
which is single sideband noise figure. Other is a DSB, which is double sideband noise figure.
So, in case of SSB as you can see here. The RF signal, which is the band limited signal is
present only on one side of the LO. So, this image noise, which is present at this particular
frequency folds back, after the conversion onto the same IF output. So, as you can see here,
you have a in-band noise plus on top of it, you have a image noise sitting, after the
conversion process whereas, in case of double sideband mixers, where you have the local
oscillator frequency and the RF is present on both sides of this frequency. After mixing
conversion, you do not have the image noise addition. It is just the in-band noise that is
present with the mixer output. And hence, we see that the SSB noise figure is twice that of
the DSB noise figure or SSB noise figure is 3 dB higher than the DSB noise figure. This is
the very important point to be considered while discussing mixer noise figures.
Next, we will see linearity; very important although a mixer is implemented using a non-
linear device the mixer has to perform linearly, which means that the output signal has to
change linearly with the changes in the input signal. And this will happen as long as the input
signal is very small compared to the LO signal. But, the question is how small, and how small
is measured using two specifications, one is 1-dB compression point and another is IP3 point,
which is called as 3rd order intercept, we will see this later.
First we will see: what is a 1-dB compression point. So, let us focus on this graph, we have an
IF output on the y axis, and we have an RF input power on the x axis. As I increase the RF
input power, IF output power also increases linearly only up to a certain point of RF input
level. So, after this point if I keep increasing my RF input power my IF output power starts
saturating, it does not vary linearly. And the value of the input RF signal level at which the
difference between the actual IF power and the desired IF power is 1-dB is called as the input
1-dB compression point. So, this is a very important specification higher is this point, better
is the linearity, better is the mixer.
Next, we will see the intermodulation distortion, which is measured using IP3 point. So, the
system is you have a mixer at the input, you give two tone equal amplitude signal represented
like this here, RF1, RF2, and you have local oscillator. And what happens is these two signals
mix with the LO to produce the desired outputs along with certain spurious signals. So, this
level of spurious signals become equal to the desired output at a certain input power level of
these two signals, which is explained using this graph.
Let us say, you have an output power on the y axis and you have an RF input power on the x
axis. This is the desired IF output, which is this. And you see this line, which has a slope
thrice that of this line is nothing but the graph of these intermodulation products. So, the point
or the input power level at which these two signals have equal amplitude is called as input
third order intercept point or IIP3. Now, this point is a is not an actual point, it cannot be
measured instead what we do is, we measure the linear output IF output, we measure the
three points on the IMD, which is intermodulation distortion. We extrapolate these two lines
and we see that the intersection is given by the IP3 point. It is very important specification
higher is the IP3 point, better is the mixer.
And lastly, we will consider the spurious response. So, a mixer general equation is given as
this. So, you have IF output arises due to mfRF + nfLO, where m and n are integers, they can
take positive as well as negative values. And this becomes important, because let us say
normally we have m equal to 1 or - 1, and n equal to 1 or - 1. But, if you have a strong RF
interference signal at the input of the mixer, it might happen that the higher harmonics of this
RF signal might mix with the harmonics of the LO. And the mixing product of these two
undesired signals can fall into the IF frequency band, which is again interference and should
be avoided.
So, let us take an example. So, you have a f RF of 2.4 GHz, you have fLO of 3 GHz, and the
desired IF 600 MHz. And now, if you take m and n as 4 and - 3, you have 4 f RF - 3 fLO you get
a signal, which is exactly equal to the IF frequency, which is totally not desired, because it
overlaps with the desired signal, which is produced by the input of 2.4 GHz. That’s why it is
very important to have very good spurious response in a sense that the spurious products that
have generated are very low compared to the desired IF output.
So, let us review the mixer fundamentals that we have discussed so far in this lecture. So, a
mixer is represented using this symbol. It has three ports RF, LO, and IF. And the basic mixer
operation is if I have two frequencies at the RF and LO, f 1 and f2, ideally I get f2 + f1 and f2 -
f1. If I choose the sum frequency, it is called as upconversion process or upconversion mixer.
If I choose the difference frequency, the process is called as downconversion or a
downconversion mixer.
The mixer can be implemented using a diode, BJT, FET as a non-linear device or as a
switching device. And if we implement the mixer using these things, what we actually get, so
is this is the ideal output what we actually get is this. And these are the mixer non-idealities
or specifications or mixer performance metrics, which are nothing but conversion gain, port-
to-port isolation, noise figure, linearity, and spurious response. So, these are the things that
we discussed in this lecture.
In next lecture, we are going to cover the devices that we use for mixers, which are diodes
and transistors. We will see, how those function as a mixing devices, and then we will also
discuss the analysis of various mixer circuits that are used to implement mixers.
Thank you.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 09
Lecture - 44
Microwave Mixers - II: Circuits
Hello, welcome back. So, in the last lecture on Microwave Mixers, we studied mixer
fundamentals, we covered the basic mixer operation, we saw what is the symbol and circuit
representation of a mixer. And the mixer operation is basically if you have two frequency
signals given at the mixer inputs, the mixer should produce the sum and the difference
frequency outputs. And one of these outputs which chosen depending on the type of the
mixer, which can be either up conversion or down conversion.
We see that the mixer is implemented using non-linearity basically and there are two types of
mixer implementation; one is using non-linear device and another using a time variant system
linear time variant system. And if we implement a mixer using physical devices, what we see
at the mixer output, which is quite different than the ideal mixer output. And this mixer non-
idealities are measured using various mixer performance metrics, which are conversion loss
or gain. Then we have a port-to-port isolation, we have linearity, noise figure, spurious
response and so on.
So, in this lecture, what we are going to do? We are going to start with the devices that we
use for mixers, which are diodes and transistors. We will see how these devices basically
provide mixing action and then we will switch to various mixer circuits, we will analyse the
circuits, and try to understand how this circuits produce mixing actions, and how they can be
used to implement a good performance mixer, let us begin.
So, we are going to study different mixer circuits, which are single ended mixers, single
balanced mixers, double balanced mixers, sub-harmonically pumped mixers, and image reject
mixers. And before going to these circuits, let us first understand the mixer devices that we
use.
First is the diode. Unlike in most of the operations a PN junction diode is never used in
mixing action, for the reason that the PN junction diodes have very long recombination
carrier lifetimes, which is quite undesired for mixers, because mixers have to be switched
very fast. So, the diodes has to be switched very fast. And for that, we need very low carrier
recombination lifetime, which is given by the Schottky diodes, which are unipolar or majority
carrier devices. So, in most of the mixers, we use Schottky diodes, and we avoid PN junction
diodes.
So, we have a diode connected in this fashion, and we know that the diode IV characteristic
given by this non-linear or exponential curve. The black dot that you see here is the biasing
point. And what first happens is to this diode we present the LO signal, which is one of the
mixer input ports. We present the LO signal, this time varying LO signal which has quite
large amplitude or a higher signal level. Drives the output current of the diode, it modulates
the current by changing the diode junction voltage in this fashion. So, the current is swept
from a minimum value to a maximum value by the incoming LO signal. And this modulation
of current actually gives rise to a modulation of conductance of the diode, because the diode
conductance is nothing but the partial derivative of diode current with respect to the diode
voltage.
So,
∂ID
g (t )=
∂V D
And since, VD is being changed in time by the LO signal, we get a time varying diode
conductance, and the waveform looks like this. So, we have this time varying diode
conductance waveform, which has fundamental frequency of ωLO. This is the basic of mixing
action, that the LO signal which is a large amplitude signal causes one of the diode
parameters to change in time. So, you have a time varying conductance, and the variation is
at the LO frequency.
After this, we apply the RF signal which is of low level compared to the level of the LO
signal, and because the RF signal is very small, we can apply the small signal model of the
diode. And this model contains a time varying capacitance, which is the junction capacitance,
a time varying conductance, and series resistance Rs which accounts for the losses inside the
diode. So, we understood that the conductance time variance is because of the time varying
LO wave form that is applied across the diode. And this wave form actually also modulates
the diode capacitance, but in the mixing action, the dominating effect is because of the
conductance, so we have focused only on the conductance part.
Now, it is very simple, the IF output is given as the conductance into the input voltage. So,
current is basically conductance into voltage. So, vRF multiplied with g(t) to produce the IF
current output. And this is basically what we want, we have two signals multiplying with
each other, and these two signals are at different frequencies. So, v RF is at ωRF frequency, g(t)
has a fundamental frequency of ωLO. And hence, when we multiply these two signals at the
output or the IF port, I should get the difference and the sum frequencies.
Now, of course, this waveform is not pure sinusoid, so it will contain additional frequency
components along with ωLO. And hence, you will expect some spurious response in the
output, which has to be filtered out. This is the basic of how a diode can produce mixing
action, and because a diode cannot provide signal amplification, the diodes are mainly used in
passive mixers. So, there are two types of mixers, depending on whether they provide signal
amplification or not, one is a passive mixer, another one is an active mixer. So, if we use
diodes, the mixer will be of passive type.
FET or field effect transistor is an another type of device that is used for mixing. The analysis
very similar, so you have a gate, drain, and source terminals of a field effect transistor. The
input signal is applied across the gate and the source, and the drain current is taken as the
output. And we know that, the relation between I D drain current, and the VGS the voltage
difference between the gate and the source, again varies exponentially, but this is the square
law device, it does not contain a third order term.
And the same, we apply the LO signal at the VGS port. This LO signal modulates the drain
current from a minimum value to a maximum value, and transconductance of the FET, which
is given by this expression. So, partial derivative of the drain current with respect to the
voltage difference between gate and source is also modulated because of this LO signal. And
the modulated waveform is like this. So, the time varying transconductance is the basic factor
that causes the mixing. And this variation is at fundamental frequency of ωLO which is same
as the LO frequency, which we are inputting at the mixer or the FET in this case.
After this, we apply a small signal RF, and because the signal level is very small compared to
the LO signal. We can apply a small signal model of FET, which is quite involved compared
to the diode model. So, we have Rg, Rd, Rs, as the resistance is at all the three ports. We also
have Cgd, Cgs, and Rds, which are also time varying. So, the time variation in these small signal
parameters is also caused by the incoming LO signal. And the most dominant of all these is
this gm into vgs or the gm which is the transconductance. And hence, the drain current is
actually modulated by the LO signal.
So, the drain current is now given by the transconductance into the input voltage, which is vgs.
So, now we are considering the small signal models. So, v gs contains only the RF frequency;
gm we know that has fundamental frequency of ωLO; and the output current, because we are
multiplying these two signals, should contain the difference and the sum of these two
frequencies, which is the desired mixing action. The transconductance being a not pure
sinusoidal, we will contain other frequency terms, and you will also have other frequency
components present in the ID, which have to be filtered out using appropriate filtering action.
So, this is how fundamentally a FET device produces mixing action, and because of FET or a
transistor can provide signal amplification. FET can be used to implement passive as well as
active mixers, which is the very important point. And all the active mixers are actually
implemented using MOSFETs or BJTs these days. So, now we know that how a diode and
FET provide mixing action. Now, we will see how these components are actually added to
give a complete mixer circuit.
Let us take a simple case a simplest form, which is single device mixer or single ended mixer
using a diode. Let us first analyse the circuit here. So, I have a diode here which causes the
mixing, which is biased using an RF choke and a DC bias to avoid the DC signal to flow into
the input and output high frequency ports. We have this DC block capacitors. The RF and LO
signal are provided at the input of the diode, and they are separated using a diplexing coupler
to provide the necessary isolation. At the output, the IF is taken after filtering either low pass
or band pass.
So, the operation is quite simple we have v i input voltage at the diode input to be the sum of
the RF and the LO voltage, which are nothing but sinusoids varying at ωRF and ωLO
frequency. And using a non-linear equation, Taylor series expansion of the diode, we know
that the IF current will have the DC part, linear dependency, square, cubic terms and so on.
So, if I simplify this particular expression, the IF current output at the difference frequency
will have this amplitude,
i IF ( t ) =b A RF A LO cos ( ω RF−ω LO ) t
Thus the conversion loss of this mixer is nothing but the voltage at the IF port, to the voltage
at the RF port, which is given as b A RF A LO × R L. This is the current part, taken across a load
resistor, and A RF is the input signal amplitude. So, if we take the ratio, we see that the
conversion loss actually depends on A LO, which is the LO signal amplitude level, so it is very
important factor. So, the conversion loss actually depends on the LO power level, as well as it
depends on the diode parameters, but the LO power level dependency is very critical, you can
have a good or a bad conversion loss or gain performance, if you choose the LO power
optimally.
Port-to-port isolation in this case depends on this coupler over here. And for IF port, it
depends on how good rejection this low pass filter provides. Noise figure and intermodulation
response actually depends on the diode characteristics, which are inherent to these diodes. So,
the diode selection plays a critical part to get the noise figure and intermodulation response.
This is the simple circuit of diode mixer single device. And such a single device mixers can
also be implemented using FET devices or transistors.
So, the major advantage FETs have over BJTs and diodes is that these are square law devices.
So, they do not contain any cubic term in the output current expression, so they have a better
linearity. Let us consider simple circuit using FET. We have an RF signal applied at the gate,
LO signal applied at the source terminal, and the output is taken at the drain.
Now, the advantages; being a FET, it can provide a conversion gain, and because RF and LO
are applied at two different ports of the FET, you have a good LO to RF isolation compared
to the single diode mixers, which we just studied. And a better or improved LO to RF
isolation can be achieved, if dual-gate MOS is used to implement a mixer using FETs. So, in
this case, we have a dual-gate MOSFET, and the LO signal is given to one of the gate, and
the RF signal is given to the other gate terminal. The output is taken at the drain, and you
have stabilizing circuit over here. So, the advantage of FET mixers is that, they can provide
gain, they can provide better LO to RF isolation, and they have better linearity.
Going forward, we are going to discuss balanced mixers and other types of mixer circuits.
And to understand the circuit behaviour or to analyse the circuit, we will use diodes going
forward, and we will avoid FETs. Similar circuits can be implemented using FETs with some
modifications. Let us understand the next type of the mixer, which is single balanced mixer.
The purpose of balancing action is to remove either the input signal or the LO signal from
appearing into the output. We will see how this is achieved.
So, this is the typical circuit for a single balanced mixer. So, this is my RF input signal
provided to a 1:2 transformer. And we have a diode arrangement like this. So, this
arrangement is very important, you cannot have any arbitrary arrangement of diodes, and still
achieve balancing. So, if you have this particular configuration, I have to have this diode
orientation appropriately.
So, I have this two diodes, which are connected in anti-parallel fashion. LO signal is given at
the center tap of the transformer, and the IF signal is taken across a load. Now, before going
to the circuit analysis, important thing LO signal is always very greater than the RF signal.
And if you observe, the RF signal is actually provided out of phase for these two diodes. So,
in the secondary of the transformer, you have RF as plus minus and plus minus, so both this
RF signals appear across this diodes in out of phase manner, and that is why the RF currents
actually circulate among these diodes, and we call this as a balancing action. And the RF
currents do not appear in the output. We study this in detail further.
Let us say that the center tap is ideal. And in that case, this circuit can be reduced to this. So,
we have a vLO, the vRF at the secondary of the transformer, these two diodes, and output
voltage. Now, in case vLO is greater than 0, diode D1 is on, and we get vLO, vRF, and vIF path.
So, vIF is nothing but addition of v LO and vRF. When the vLO is less than 0, we get D 2 on, D1
off, so the path is vLO, vRF and the IF signal. So, in this case, vIF is given as vLO - vRF.
Mathematically, I can write it in this form. So, v IF which is the output voltage is equal to v LO
plus vRF into p(t). Now, this p(t) is nothing but a square wave, which ranges from plus 1 to -
1. And the frequency at which this transition happens is nothing but the LO frequency. So,
the output voltage is nothing but vLO + vRF into p(t); p(t) is given as this, its square wave
transition between + 1 and - 1 with the frequency equal to the LO frequency or the local
oscillator frequency.
Now, the Fourier analysis of p(t) we know that, it is a square wave. So, it will contain the
fundamental frequency ωLO, as well as all of it is odd harmonics. And if you simplify this
equation by substituting the expression of p(t), what we get, is this. So, the v IF(t), which is the
final output contains the ωLO term, which is the LO signal, it also contains mixing terms,
which are given as here.
So, for n equal to 0, if you see, we get ωLO - ωRF, and we get ωLO + ωRF, which are the
desired mixing outputs. However, we also get various other mixing terms, which are basically
mixing of odd harmonics of LO with the RF frequency. So, at the output, we have just the LO
signal, we do not have the RF signal, and we say that the RF signal is balanced out, but we
also get various spurious signals, which are centred around odd harmonics of the LO. So, this
is how a single balanced mixer fundamentally works. Next, we will see a practical single
balanced mixer circuit, and we will again emphasis on the balancing action.
So, this is the circuit using 180 hybrid coupler and a diode arrangement. Again, the diode
arrangement is anti-parallel, and the IF signal is taken after appropriate low pass or band pass
filtering. So, RF signal is applied at the sum port of this 180 hybrid coupler, the LO signal is
applied at the delta port of this 180 hybrid coupler, and we know that a 180 hybrid coupler
is implemented using a Rat-race as shown over here. So, we have ports 1, 2, 3, 4, we know
that 1, 3, and 2, 4 are isolated from each other. In this case, 2 is the sum port, 4 is the delta
port represented in here. So, this is this is the part, where the RF signal is applied. And this is
the part, where the LO signal is applied.
Now, again remember the balancing action is one of the input signal is actually balanced out,
the IF currents because of one of the signal just circulates around here, and it does not appear
in the output. So, in this case, if you observe, the IF current is given as i 1 - i2. And the RF
signal if you see is applied in phase to ports one and three, where the diodes are connected.
So, for the both diodes, the RF signal is applied in phase. So, the IF currents produced at the
output are also in phase because of the RF signal.
Now, for LO signal if you see here if I apply LO input at the delta port, at port one and three,
the LO signal is actually appearing out of phase. So, for these two diodes, the LO signal
appears out of phase. So, the IF currents that are produced because of the LO signal are also
out of phase, and they are balanced out. So, another important observation in this circuit
analysis is that, all the m, n, spurious responses with both m and n as even numbers are
eliminated, which is the very important factor. So, we will have less spurious response. The
2, 1 term response is eliminated, but 1, 2 is not ok. So, this was single balanced mixers. The
idea was you balance out one of the input signals, and you prevent it to appear in the output.
We see next, the double balanced mixers, where the idea is neither LO nor the input, which is
the RF actually appear in the mixer output. So, simple in case of single balanced mixers for
two of the diodes, one of the signal was applied out of phase. Here we have four diode
arrangement. And for one diode pair, RF signal is applied out of phase. For another diode
pair, the LO signal is applied out of phase. And this is how the balancing action will be
performed. We will study this operation in detail. And we see that, when v LO is greater than 0,
D2 and D3 will be on. And vLO is less than 0, D1 and D4 will be on. So, let us take both these
cases and analyse further.
So, we have first case, vLO greater than 0, only D2 and D3 will be conducting. So, the circuit
reduces to this, the diodes are replaced by equivalent resistor r d. And if you rearrange this, we
get circuit which is similar to this. Notice that, v IF which is the desired output voltage is
nothing but the product of RL and the current flowing through it. So, the job is to determine
what is the effective current that flows into this load resistor. So, we have a loop current i 1
flowing in the first loop, i 2 flowing in the second loop. And if you do the math, we solve for
vRF in for both the loops, we get
v RF
i1 +i2 =
rd
RL+
2
So, vIF is nothing but
RL
v IF=−v RF
rd
RL+
2
Notice the sign for the first case, when vLO is greater than 0, I get a - sign.
For vLO less than 0, D1 and D4 will conduct, we will do the similar analysis and what we get,
is
RL
v IF=v RF
rd
RL+
2
So, there is a sign change. And as we have seen in the previous analysis, the output voltage
will be given by this term vRF into a constant into p(t), where p(t) is nothing but a square wave
at a fundamental frequency equal to ωLO ranging from + 1 to - 1.
So, the output equation if you see here, it does not contain any of the input signals, it does not
contain a signal with frequency ωRF, it does not also contain a signal with frequency ωLO.
However, if you notice this expression for n equal to 0, you get the desired mixing, but for n
not equal to 0, you have other spurious mixing products, which are nothing but centred at odd
harmonics of the LO frequency. So, this is how a double balanced mixer works, it balances
out both the input RF signal as well as the LO signal, and prevent it to appear in the mixer
output. So, we have a better spurious rejection in case of balanced mixers.
Next kind of mixer, we will see is a sub-harmonically pumped mixer. This mixer is mainly
used, when a high frequency LO cannot be generated, so for applications such as millimeter
wave mixers, it is very difficult to generate a local oscillator signal with good stability, the
desired power level, which is high and reasonable cost. So, this is the circuit used for sub-
harmonically pumped mixer. We have an ωRF, ωLO / 2. So, instead of having ωLO, we have
the signal frequency, which is half the desired frequency. And this is the omega IF, which is
the output.
The crux of this is the anti-parallel arrangement of the diodes as you can see here. And this
diode arrangement as we can see, will give the desired mixing which is the mixing of ωRF
and ωLO, even if we are supplying half the LO frequency. So, we have the necessary filters to
filter out the respective signals. And we see we will see now, how this anti-parallel diode
arrangement can function as a frequency doubler.
So, this is net current output. So, in one half of the cycle of the LO diode D 1 conducts, in
other half diode D2 conducts, and since they are anti-parallel, the current directions are
reversed. And this current variation happens at a frequency of ωLO by 2, which is the supplied
frequency. Now, g1(t), which is the diode conductance for the first diode D1 is this; g2(t) is
this. You observe that, both these conductance waveforms are out of phase with each other.
And hence, the net conductance which is sum of these two conductance waveforms is like
this, and which is at twice the supplied frequency at the LO. So, the net frequency with which
g(t) varies is nothing but ωLO, even though the supplied frequency is half of ωLO. And this is
how the mixing of ωRF and ωLO is achieved, and you get the desired IF signal.
You might wonder what happens to the mixing of ωLO by 2 and ωRF. So, this fundamental
mixing is avoided to appear in the output, because one of the diode acts as a short circuit for
this mixing, and also for mixing with all the odd harmonics of ωLO by 2. So, with this
arrangement, only the mixing products arising because of ωRF and ωLO will appear at the
output, and others will be terminated or they circulate around here. So, this is how sub-
harmonically pumped mixers works. Next, we will see an important mixer type, which is
called as image reject mixer.
And this is the circuit that we are using for image reject mixers. So, we have two hybrids 90
hybrids; one is the RF 90 hybrid, another is the IF 90 hybrid. We have two separate mixers.
And the LO is given using a 0 power divider. So, basically the LO given to both these
mixers are in phase. Now, let us consider what happens, when we have an image signal along
with the desired RF signal at the input. When this signal passes through the hybrid at this
point, both this signals will be shifted by 90 in phase. So, RF and IM both have phase shift
of - 90; at this point, both will have a phase shift of - 180.
When the mixing action happens, so this is vRF is at - 90 phase, LO is as 0 phase, if a
mixing between these two happen, the IF generated because of that mixing. So, IF generated
because of the RF signal is at a phase of 90. Whereas, when the IM signal which is at - 90
mixes with the LO signal which is as 0 phase, when they mix, the IF generated due to the
image frequency is at - 90 phase. Similarly, at this end the LO signal at 0 phase mixes with
the RF signal which is at - 180 phase, and it produces the IF with a 180 phase output. LO
signal mixes with the image signal, and it also produces the IF output with a 180 phase.
So, remember that, the phase difference is observed at this particular point at the mixer
output, whereas the IF output because of RF and IM, which is the image are at the same
phase. Now, these two signals when applied at the input of a 90 IF hybrid, let us see what
happens. So, the IF hybrid have two outputs, one is the LSB IF output, one is the USB IF
output. So, at this particular point we will see that, this signal will further be shifted by 90.
So, we have 90 - 90 which is 0; we have - 90 - 90 which is - 180. At this point from this
particular input signal, we have a 180 phase shift. So, we will have 180 - 180 which is 0; we
will have 180 - 180 which is again 0.
Now, if you see IF components because of the RF, this one and this one, they are in phase,
the IF components because of the image, they are out of phase, so they will cancel out. And
at this particular port, you will get the IF component only because of the RF signal. Similarly,
in the USB IF, the RF parts get cancel out, and the IF output because of the image retain. So,
at USB IF port, you will get an IF signal only because of the image signal. So, this is how
resulting IF components because of the RF, and image are separated out using an image reject
mixers.
So, we have studied various types of mixers circuits in this particular lecture, let us review.
So, first we considered a diode, how it performs as a mixer, how a FET fundamentally gives
mixing action, then we studied single diode mixers using FETs as well as diodes, then we
studied single balanced mixers, we studied double balanced mixers, we studied sub-
harmonically pumped mixers, and finally we studied image reject mixers. So, these are the
main types of mixer configurations that are used. And in the next lecture, we will see how
these different mixer circuits in compared to each other perform for various performance
metrics that we discussed in the first lecture. We will see the comparison, and based on that,
we will see how the design aspects have to be consider while designing a mixer.
Thank you.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 09
Lecture - 45
Microwave Mixers – III: Design
Hello and welcome back again. So, in the first two lectures of Microwave Mixers, we
discussed about the fundamentals of mixers, how mixer works as a circuit element, how the
frequency translation happens. In the second lecture of mixers, we studied how devices like
diodes and transistors basically perform as mixers or how fundamentally the mixing action
happens using various small signal and large signal models of the diode and the transistor.
Now, after that we discussed various mixer circuits which are commonly used to implement
mixers. We discussed about simplest single diode mixer or single transistor mixer. After that
we discussed the balanced circuits, which are single balance circuits and double balance
circuits. After that we discussed about sub harmonically pumped mixers which are used for
very high frequency mixing applications. And lastly, we studied about image reject mixers,
which are used to have image enhancement or very good performance for the image
rejection.
So, in this lecture, we are going to focus on the design aspects that have to be considered
while designing a mixer circuit. So, basically there are two approaches of mixer design, one
is component or circuit based design in which you design everything from scratch, you select
the mixing device, you select the type of the configuration or type of the circuit that you are
going to use. And then, you design the individual components in the circuit to achieve the
desired performance. The second, approach is IC base design in which you use a
commercially available mixer IC from a one of the manufacturers. And then, you build a
circuit around that IC to get the desired mixing performance. So, we will study these two
approaches one by one in this lecture. And before going to that it is very important that we
analyze and compare various circuits that we have studied so far. Let us begin.
So, what we have here is a comparison chart between various mixer circuits. So, we have
mixer types, single-diode, single balanced, using 180 and 90 couplers, double balanced
mixer, sub harmonic, and image reject. We are going to compare all these mixer circuit types
based on following criteria which is VSWR, port-to-port isolation, which we saw is very very
important, LO power required which is used to drive the mixing devices, and IIP3 which
indicates the linearity of the mixer.
Now, VSWR represents the reflections that we see at the three ports of the mixer, the RF
port, the LO port, and the IF port. VSWR basically depends on the impedance matching
networks that we use in various different kinds of mixer circuits that we have studied. And
for some of the mixer configurations or mixer circuits, we have used couplers as the input
device for RF and LO So, the VSWR in general depends on either the coupling structure or
the impedance matching network that we have used for all the 3 ports.
So, in case of single diode mixers, there are no coupling structures used. So, all the three port
VSWR actually depend on the impedance matching network. If you observe here for single
balanced mixers, we get a good VSWR for RF, and LO ports as compared to single balance
mixers using 180 hybrid, which is the inherent property of a 90 hybrid coupler. For double
balanced mixers again we use couplers, so we have a good VSWR. Sub-harmonic mixers, we
do not use any coupling structures, so it depends on the impedance matching networks. Image
reject mixer, also if you recall we use coupling structure, so we have a good VSWR at all the
three ports.
Second, is a port-to-port isolation, again it depends on the type of structures that we are
using to separate the LO, RF and IF ports. So, at the input if you remember for RF and LO,
we mostly use a coupling structure in case of balanced circuits. And we typical use an IF
filter in most of the circuits like single diode as a sub-harmonically pumped. Image reject we
use coupling structures at both input and output which are the RF and LO and the IF ports.
So, if you see for image reject mixers, because we use the coupling structures we get a very
good performance on the port to port Isolation. Whereas wherever we do not use the coupling
structures the Isolation depends on the filters that we use to reject the undesired frequencies.
Then, we have the LO power. LO power is required to drive the mixing devices that have
been used in the circuits. And you see that low LO powers or moderate LO powers are
required for single diode sub harmonically pumped mixers, and single balance mixers,
because the LO power depends on the number of mixing devices that are being used.
For example, in case of diode mixers single diode is only one diode. So, you require low
power. In case of image reject mixer or double balance mixer you have a very high LO power
requirement, because double balanced mixer contains 4 diodes. Image reject mixer contains
two doubly balanced mixers, hence the LO power is very high. IP3 we know that the
balanced structures have a good spurious response. And hence for balanced mixers we get a
good linearity. So, the IP3 point is very high, so the mixer is more linear.
Similarly, for the image reject of mixers, however for sub harmonic mixers or single diode
mixers. If you observe the IP3 is very low, because there is no balancing action done. For
single balance, since it is only balanced in one for one of the signals, we get a moderate IIP3,
hence we get a moderate linearity. So, on this various factors we have the performance of all
the mixer types. And based on our application what we require in the mixer design, we can
select a particular configuration or particular circuit of a mixer which, caters the demands of
our application.
So, this is a very important comparative study that has to be kept in mind before we start
designing any mixer. So, let us start with the mixer design process now. So, first thing what
do we need before we start the design? We need some data to start with, and the specification
should be given or known to us before we actually start designing a mixer.
The specifications are nothing but the mixer performance metrics that we studied in the first
lecture on micro wave mixers. So, we have or we must know RF LO and IF frequency, we
must know the Bandwidth requirements at these frequencies, we should know the Minimum
Conversion Gain or Maximum Loss that is tolerable by the mixer, the LO power requirement,
Port VSWRs, the isolations noise figure and again IP3 or the linearity numbers. And all these
things actually depend on the mixer is going to be used in what kind of application. Let us
move further.

So, there are certain design steps in general that has to be followed while designing a mixer.
First one is you should choose the Device which kind of device you are going to use. We
have broadly two choices one is diode, another one is a transistor or a FET. If the mixer
requires a gain specification, then we will definitely go for FET mixers. If the mixer does not
have any specification on the gain part, we can use diodes in that case we will have
convergent loss. Choice of circuit is a second step, so once you decide the mixing device then
you have to choose or the type of circuit that you are going to use based on what performance
you want.
For example, if I if I require a very high input VSWR for the RF and LO ports is my critical
concern, then if we go back, you see that a single balance mixer implemented using 90
coupler gives us a very good input VSWR. So, this comparative chart comes to rescue, when
we decide the type of circuit that we are going to use. The third is you actually you build the
circuit, you design the circuit, you design various coupling structures, you design the biasing
of the device. And whole lot of other things that goes around the mixing device.
Fourth one is Simulation you simulate the structure for various performance parameters such
as conversion gain noise figure. Then you have Port to Port Isolation and the input VSWR for
all the 3 Ports. And the fifth one is if you do not meet those specifications after simulation
results are out, then you have to optimize the circuit, you have to tune the impedance
matching networks or the coupling structures the LO signal level or the DC biasing to get the
desired output. Moving ahead so there is a general design rational which we follow while
designing any mixer, and that rational is as follows. So, we have a typical circuit once you
choose the mixing device.
All you have to do is you have to take care of the Isolation part, you have to take care of the
matching part, and you have to take care of the filtering part. These are the three main aspects
you have to focus on. Let us say first you design a coupling structure or diplexer to a separate
out the RF and LO signals, so that design is one part. This design will depend on the
frequency of operation what are the desired frequencies of RF and LO you require.
The second, and the very important or the critical one is the RF and IF impedance matching
network design, which should match the RF source and load impedances to the junction input
and output impedances of the mixing device, but the question is who is going to provide the
junction input and output impedances. We know that when a diode is pumped with an LO
signal, the diode current is modulated it changes right from 0 to its maximum value. And
hence the diodes input impedance actually varies from a very low value to very high value.
And it is not a straight forward impedance matching network design problem where we have
two fixed impedances. In this case, we have one impedance which is fixed, for example, 50 Ω
which is normally the case.
While the junction impedance which is the input impedance in case of RF impedance
matching network design. And output impedance in case of IF matching network design.
Both these impedances vary with the LO signal level and with time. So, it is very important
or critical to choose what impedance you will use to start the design process, so that is why
the device junction parameters actually decide this junction input and output impedances.
And these device junction parameters depend on the LO signal and the DC bias applied.
So, this is what we do we estimate the junction impedances to vary the LO level and DC bias
to optimize the input and output match, so that we get desired matching performance. So, you
have to start with some impedance level. You see the performance then you vary the LO level
and DC bias, so that you get the desired performance in the matching network design ok. So,
this was the basic rational behind mixer design using either diode or transistor. The design
process for diodes is mainly focused in this lecture. It is slightly deviates when you go for
transistor based design. We will focus on the diode circuits in this lecture moving forward
with the help of an example.
Let us design a single diode mixer for an input RF frequency of 4.25 GHz. The IF is fixed at
500 MHz. And the LO requirement from these two things will be 3.75 GHz. In this case we
have chosen LO which is below the RF frequency which might be specific to an application.
And the circuit that we are going to build is of this type. So, in this example for the
illustration purpose and not to make it more complicated. We are going to skip the RF and
LO Isolation part, but we will focus more on the RF matching and IF filtering part.
So, in this case we are going to use a BAT 15-03W chip diode which is a Schottky diode
from Infineon technologies. Here is a snapshot of the diode datasheet. If you can read the
diode can be used up to 12 GHz, which fits our requirement. And this is the footprint of the
diode it is a chip diode. So, it can be soldered using a standard SMD technique. And hence it
is very useful for microstrip design which we are going to cover next. So, we are going to use
a simulation software named Microwave Office by National Instruments also called as AWR.
Let us start the design the first part that we are going to focus is the SPICE model of the
diode, because the diode simulation is very critical. If you can see this is the actual SPICE
model of the diode, and the SPICE model actually let us you enter all the different diode
parameters related to the junction. For example, you have a saturation current specification,
you have the junction capacitance for zero bias, you have the maximum junction voltage,
then you have a reverse breakdown voltage the energy band gap and so on.
The all these specifications you can get from the SPICE model which is available on the
internet mostly by the manufacturer. Once you get that SPICE model file you can take that
model or import that model into the software can put in all the parameters. And then this
particular diode will be simulated using this configuration. Now, around this diode what you
see are the components which account for the package parasitics. So, we have also included
those into the diode model. Now, once the diode model is done.
The next step is to bias the diode. So, here is the biasing circuit. We have our diode here. We
have DC voltage source of 5 volt have a resistor to control the current. Inductor to avoid high
frequency signals to enter this path. And then we have these DC block capacitors. Now, this
biasing is done for the diode current of approximately 1 mA or little less than 1 mA. And we
see that we have applied a port here, and a port here to see the operation of diode with this
particular biasing. Now, this biasing helps us to estimate the first value of the RF input
impedance that the RF signal is going to see at the diode junction.
So, if we simulate this particular structure, and we observe the S 11 at the desired RF
frequency which is 4.25 GHz, we see that the normalized r and x are these. So, r is around
0.67 and x is here minus 0.22 in normalize case. So, what we are going to do is we are going
to take this impedance as the first estimate of our RF input impedance for the diode. And we
are going to build a matching circuit using this impedance. Let us do that so we have studied
the impedance matching network design using single stubs or shunt stubs, we are going to
follow that.
And let us see what we have here. So, the impedance that we see which is r is equal to
0.67and x is equal to 0.22 is at this point. Now, using standard single stub matching
technique, what we are going to do is we are going to draw a constant VSWR circle from this
point. Then we are going to take the diagonally opposite point for this particular load which
is this point which; so, if this is my zin for the RF signal, then this will be yin for the RF signal.
Now, we are going to match this particular point to the centre which is 50 Ω. We will follow
the standard procedure. So, from this point, I will move towards the generator, and I will stop
at a point where I cut the g = 1 circle. So, this is my point at which I will stop. From this
point I will go in this way to the 50 Ω point. So, now, this value of susceptance which is
approximately here has to be cancelled out by the stub. Hence, we choose the corresponding
point on the positive side which will be right here right. And we see the marking on the
wavelengths scale. And we see that from this point. If we see the length, we get lstub = 0.067λ.
So, this is a stub length, and for the line which is in series with the load or y in RF. We have
to go for these lines. We see this we measure this on the wavelength scale. And we see that l
1 is nothing but 0.168 λ. So, our final design will be like this. So, at this point I have some Z in
RF which we have seen from the S11 simulated chart. And then I will have a series line with
length l 1 equal to 0.168 λ. And then I will have an open circuited stub, because I started
from this point. And this length l stub will be equal to 0.067 λ and then I will have my 50 Ω
looking into this port. Now, the characteristic impedances of both this line is 50 Ωs. This is
our matching network design for the RF frequency for given impedance value.
So, moving ahead this is a circuit that we have built using the impedance matching network
and the device. So, this is our mixing device a BAT15 diode. This is the biasing circuit.
These are the DC block capacitors. And we have a series line and a open circuited stub which
represents impedance matching network for the RF frequency. We have the connectors here,
again a connector here again a connector here. And the RF input is from this end the LO
input is from this end. And right now we are interested in observing what happens directly at
the mixer output which is the IF port. We are not processing the mixer output we want to
observe the bare mixer output without any processing. For this particular design the substrate
that we have used is εr = 2.2. The height of the substrate is 0.8 mm. Copper thickness is 35
micron. and we have tan for this particular substrate is 0.0007.
Now, let us see the results at the output of the mixer you get these. So, if you can observe,
you have a signal at 0.5 GHz which is 500 MHz which is nothing but our desired IF
frequency, and you get all other frequency components which are undesired. So, you can
observe that you have LO signal leaking into the IF output. You have an input RF signal
leaking into the IF output. Along with that you have all the spurious signals which are present
in the IF output. So, we basically need a filter to filter out all these things. And the filter will
also help in the isolation, because we see here the Isolation levels LO to RF, LO to IF, RF to
IF are well below 10 dB which is not a good number. So, now, we are going to see that how a
simple filter addition in the IF output port can dramatically improve the results.
So, here is what we do at the output of the mixer which was this point which we earlier
observed. Now, we have designed a Band Pass Filter centered at 500 MHz with the Band
Width of 100 MHz. And you have a simple LC structure and the rest of the circuit remains
the same.
Now, if you see the IF output at this point, you observe the following. Can you see the
difference; all the rest of the spurious components have been dramatically reduced. You get
an IF which is the highest amplitude signal over here. And you also see that the LO power
and the RF power that is available. At the IF port is very very low. Along with you have
some spurious signals, but all the signals are well below 80 dB. So, with a good filter design
you can achieve a very good performance.
And if you see on the Isolation front, the Isolation between LO and IF, and RF and IF which
is this graph is very high. So, it is around 100 dB. Now, this number is practically not
possible, but because the filter is ideal in this case you get this number, but if you do a good
filter design see the amount of Isolation, you can achieve between LO IF and RF IF. Now, the
Isolation between LO and RF is still poor, because right now we have not done anything to
Isolate the RF and LO ports.
Let us see the conversion loss and noise figure. We get a conversion loss of around 16 dB for
LO powers of 6 dBm, 9 dBm till 12 dBm. After that you get a decrease or increase in the
conversion loss which is certainly not desired. So, this graph represents the effect of LO
power on the mixer conversion loss performance. The noise figure that we get from the
circuit that we built is around 7 dB. And you see that as you increase the LO power after 12
dBm the noise figure also increases which is undesired. So, again the LO power is a critical
component it affects your conversion loss as well as noise figure performance.
Now, we will see the second approach of mixer design which is IC based design. There are
lot of commercially available mixer IC s which can be used to design a mixer circuit. All you
need to do is chalk out your desired specifications. And you have to find an IC that meets
those desired specifications. So, let us take a case you have an IC from Maxim semiconductor
which is MAX 2680. The specifications are it requires a supply voltage of 2.7 to 5.5 volts, the
RF input and LO input are or can be in the range of 400 MHz to 2.5 GHz which is quiet
broadband, IF output is from 10 to 500 MHz, Noise Figure is 8.3 dB at 1.95 GHz, IP3 is not
that good, but it still 8.2 dBm at 1.95 GHz, Gain is around7.6 dB. So, this indicates that all
these ICs that are available. If they are providing gain, you must guess that these are, of
course built using transistors.
The maximum LO and RF power can be plus 10 dBm, at Isolation you have 22 dB and 26 dB
for LO IF and LO RF respectively. So, this is a typical application circuit. This is the IC. You
have an LO input through a coupling capacitor. You have an RF input through a matching
circuit. So, remember matching circuit for RF is very very important. So, we have an RF
input, we have IF output which is taken over here and these are the biasing components.
So, let us see the performance. So, we have fabricated PCB using this IC. So, you can see the
PCB snapshot. Here is the IC, then you have the power circuitry over here. You have RF
input. This is the matching network that we just studied. And you have the LO signal which
is coupled using a coupling capacitor and the IF output is taken over here. So, this is a
photograph you have IF output RF input and LO input. And this is the power supply input.
The performance is like this here is the snapshot for a particular level and frequency of the
signals. So, you have an input signal LO at 1708 MHz. You have an RF at 900.9 MHz. And
you get an IF output at 808.7 MHz which is the difference between these two signals. Now, if
you see the level of IF is very close to that of RF, and the frequencies are also very close to
each other. This is a very good example how critical IF filtering is. So, if you do not have a
good IF filter, if you do not have a sharp roll-off, the RF signal might leak into the IF port.
And you will have in adequate RF to IF Isolation.
So, along with IF you see some spurious signals you also see and LO signal in the IF output.
And all these things have to be eliminated by using a proper IF filter design. So, these are the
various aspects of mixer design that we studied so far. Just to recall there are two design
approaches, one is by using component or circuit based design, where we do everything from
scratch. We select the device, we select the type of the circuit, and then we design the
individual circuit components to achieve the desired performance.
In the second design approach, we will choose a commercially available mixer IC which can
fit our desired requirements or specifications. And we build a circuit or PCB around that IC,
and we test it to get the required performance. So, these are the two design approaches that
are available for Mixer Design. And it is very very important to choose right devices or right
ICs before we start the Mixer Design.
With this I will stop here. So, this concludes a discussion on Microwave Mixers. So, just to
recap all the three lectures; in the first lecture, we discuss the Mix of Fundamentals. In the
second lecture, we discussed devices and various circuits that are used for mixer design or
mixer implementation. And in this lecture which is the third lecture we discussed the
performance comparison of various types of mixers, various design methodologies that can
be followed to design mixers. And we also looked at these things using simulation examples
using simulation examples. With this I conclude.
Thank you so much.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 10
Lecture - 46
Fundamentals of Antennas
Hello. In the last 45 lectures, we have talked about various microwave components and
circuits. Today and in the next few lectures, we will talk about antenna fundamentals and
several other antennas. So, let us start with the Fundamentals of the Antennas.
So, first of all we actually look at the radiation pattern of the antenna. So, antenna radiation
pattern is defined in three-dimensional.
3-D radiation pattern of the different antennas are shown over here. So, this is the radiation
pattern for isotropic antenna. Basically, an isotropic antenna will radiate equally in the sphere
ok. So, it will radiate equally in all the directions. However, I want to tell you there is a no
isotropic antenna in the real world. So, this is basically speaking a reference antenna for the
other antennas. So, for this reference antenna we say directivity is equal to 1, which
corresponds to 0 dBi. This is the radiation pattern of omni-directional antenna. Majority of
the time we say /2 -Dipole antenna or any small dipole antenna will have a omni-directional
radiation pattern. In fact, there are many other antennas which also have omni-directional
radiation pattern, for example, loop antenna, monopole antenna, slot antenna.
So, to understand in a very simple manner, so just think about this particular pen. So, if I see
this pen from this side or from this side or from this side, we will see the full length of the
pen, but as we move from here and we move to the top of this particular thing here, and if
you look from here, we basically see a tip of the pen. In fact you can understand the radiation
pattern of dipole antenna in this simpler manner.
So, what is the radiation pattern of the dipole antenna? Well, it is 0 in this direction, and it is
maximum in this direction, and then it is going back to 0 here. So, here color red implies
maximum radiation. And as we move along color green here implies lower radiation, and
minimum radiation is present in this particular direction. So, this is what is omni-directional
about. So, it is omni in this particular direction; and it is directional in this particular direction
that is how the name omni-directional antenna comes into picture.
You can also understand this in another simpler manner. Let us say if we have a current
carrying conductor then how will be the magnetic field; magnetic field will be uniform in this
particular direction. So that is what we have, we have a current carrying dipole antenna and
we have a uniform field in this particular direction.
The third type of the antenna which is known as directional antenna. Here I have given an
example of a microstrip antenna array. You can see that there are several elements of
microstrip antennas are there in this direction as well as in this particular direction. So, this is
a planar microstrip antenna array. The reason why I am showing you this, this particular
antenna has a directivity of 500 which is about 27 dBi. How do we get this? You take 10 log
500 which is 27 dBi. Compare this directivity with the directivity of omni-directional dipole
antenna which is only 1.64 corresponding to 2.1 dBi. So, you can see that by using arrays of
the elements, we can increase the gain significantly.
So, let us look at 2-D cut of the antenna. So, here is a typical directional antenna. So, let us
define various terms over here. So, this is a major lobe and these are all the minor lobes are
there. Minor lobes are classified again in two parts; and that is side lobes and then back lobe.
So, back lobe is in the back side of the main beam, and side lobes are along the side of the
main beam. So, we define certain quantities over here. So, one of the quantity which we
define is half power beam width. So, half power beamwidth is defined where beam maxima
reduces to half of its value. So, this angle here is half power beamwidth. And then if you see
this pattern goes through the null, and then there is a side lobe. So, beamwidth between the
first null is defined as FNBW.
Now, generally speaking beamwidth between first null which is FNBW is approximately
equal to 2.25 multiplied by half power beamwidth. However, if you read different books, they
actually say this is approximately two times, but I have checked for different antennas I have
found this number gives better result for FNBW. Then these side lobes generally should be
less than 20 dB for satellite and high power application. I just want to mention here, these are
actually negative value. So, do not get confused actually speaking side lobe levels are - 20 dB
below the main beam ok, but generally speaking we still write as side lobe level less than 20
dB.
So, what 20 dB less implies it implies 1/100. So, just think about a high power application if
we are transmitting let us say 1 kW of power 1/100th of that will be 10 W power going in the
undesired direction. For some of the defense application power transmitted maybe 1 MW
pulse power. So, in that particular case, 1/100th will be 10 kW of pulse power going in this
particular direction and that may create lot of harm to the people or to the equipment in that
particular region.
Hence, for high power we definitely want side lobe level should be much less than – 20 dB.
Similarly, for satellite application also we would like side lobe levels to be low, because if we
are looking at this particular satellite, and if the side lobe is high, then it may pick up the
signal from the other satellite also. Generally speaking we want front to back ratio also
known as F/ B to be greater than 20 dB. So, this is the front this is the back. So, the ratio of
the two should be generally greater than 20 dB.

Now, how do we define directivity of the antenna? Well, directivity of the antenna is defined
as maximum radiation intensity divided by average radiation intensity. So, just think about
this is the spherical pattern for which we have mentioned directivity is equal to 1, and this is
the lets say pattern for a given antenna. So, directivity is defined as
maximum radiation intensity U max
D= =
average radiation intensity U0
P rad
So, now, U0 can be represented as U 0 = . Why this expression because if we assume that
4π
power is radiated equally in all the direction. So, we know that the area of the sphere is equal
to 4r2. So, if we take r = 1, then we can say average radiation intensity will be P rad/4. So,
this directivity expression is
U max 4 π U max 4 π U max 4 π 4 π
D= = = = ≃
P rad P rad U max Ω A Ω A θ E θ H
4π
E, E is the half power beamwidth in the E-plane; and theta H is half power beamwidth in the
H-plane. Generally speaking this E and H-planes are perpendicular to each other. So,
suppose if we talk about this is E-plane, then this will be H-plane now of course there is a
longer expression for this particular term over here. So, this particular expression is used
when we calculate E and E we will show you in the next lecture how to calculate these E 
and E for a given antenna. But, right now we will use this particular expression over here.
So, you can see that this is relatively simpler expression. So, let us see now how this
particular expression can be used further.
So, directivity of small antenna is given by this particular thing over here. Now, you might
wonder earlier we had E and H in radian here E and H are in degree. So, what do we do?
we simply convert  radian equal to 1800. So, of you just do the conversion, you will get this
particular number. Now, this particular expression is good generally for small antenna; but
for larger antenna directivity is given by this particular expression here. You can see that this
number is slightly smaller than this particular number here. The reason for that is for large
antenna, there will be many side lobes. So, lot of power will be going to the side lobes and
hence directivity decreases. Hence, we use this particular expression for directivity.
Directivity is also defined in terms of 4A/2, where this is effective area of the antenna. So,
larger the antenna, larger will be the directivity. You can also see that it also depends upon ;
 is given by c/f. So that means, higher the frequency smaller will be , so that means, for
smaller value of  directivity will increase.
So, remember it is not the physical dimension which is important. It is actually the
normalized value which is important. For example, if we have a rectangular aperture, then
area effective will be something like L*W. So, now, you can think about L/ and W/; or if
we have a circular aperture then area will be r2. So, again we can write as r/and r/. We
also define another quantity which is gain, gain is given by efficiency multiplied by
directivity. So, we will see some of these things as we move forward.
The next thing which we are going to define is polarization of antenna. So, there are three
different types of polarization, linear polarization, circular polarization, elliptical polarization.
So, how do we get these polarizations? So, one has to see a total electric field may have E 
component and E component. So, this is E component, this is E component. And between
the two components, there may be a phase change which is given by alpha.
Now, we will take three special cases. If  = 0 or , then what will happen this expression
will become cos ωt, so that means, this one here and this one they are kind of varying or you
can say these are in the same phase. So, you can see there this is E , this is E. So, as E
increases, E increases. So, hence there is a linear polarization. In case when alpha is ± /2,
and E = E, then what will happen this is E and this term will be equal to this term over here
and then we can say ωt. Now, is ± /2. So, this expression will become sin ωt. So, this is cos
ωt; this is sin ωt. And if you plot that we will get circular polarization; if E  is not equal to E,
in that particular case we will get elliptical polarization.
So, from here we define axial ratio of the antenna. So, axial ratio is defined as major axis
divided by minor axis. So, if axial ratio is equal to 1, then it is circular polarization. If axial
ratio is between 1 and infinity, then it is elliptical polarization. And if axial ratio is infinity
that will be linear polarization; you can actually think about that for linear polarization if this
is the major axis; what is minor axis that is equal to 0. So, major axis can have any finite
value, but minor axis is equal to 0, so that will give us axial ratio equal to infinity.
This is the typical axial ratio plot of circularly polarized microstrip antenna. When I talk
about microstrip antenna, we will give you little bit more details, but over here you can say
that this is axial ratio versus frequency. I have drawn a line at 3 dB. So, generally speaking
axial ratio bandwidth is defined for axial ratio less than 3 dB. And in this particular case we
can say that bandwidth is equal to 380 MHz which is 13 %. So, I just want to tell you perfect
circular polarization is defined for AR = 1. However, up to AR < 3 dB it is acceptable as
circular polarization.
Let us now look quickly at input impedance and VSWR of antenna these things have been
covered earlier also. So, let just go through it quickly. So, input impedance can be R A + jXA
where RA represents power loss from the antenna and X A gives power stored in the near field
of antenna. Now, RA can be divided into two terms; one is R r; second one is RL. Rr is the
useful resistance which represents radiated power from the antenna; RL represents losses in
the antenna this can be conductor losses or dielectric losses. So, we define radiation
efficiency
Rr Rr
er = =
R A R r + RL
It is better that we design RL to be as small as possible or we can say other way that Rr >> R
L , so that we can get high efficiency.
Now, reflection coefficient is given by this particular expression, and VSWR is given by this
expression. Now, majority of the time for antennas, we define VSWR bandwidth for VSWR
 2. However, for some stringent application, this could be less than 1.4 or 1.5 ok. So,
depending upon the application, we have to design the antenna accordingly.
So, let us take an example of a microstrip antenna which we had designed at 5.8 GHz. So,
when we talk about microstrip antenna later on I will talk about this antenna in more detail,
but today I just want to tell you what are the VSWR bandwidth and radiation pattern for a
given antenna. So, this antenna was designed at 5.8 GHz. So, just to tell you quickly, so what
we have here this is a ground plane and this is on top the ground plane a rectangular patch.
So, just thing about a ground plane here and a patch on top of that we have already talked
several microwave circuits, so it is very similar to that. And this one here is the feed point.
So, we have used a co-axial feed to feed the antenna such a way that at the desired frequency
input impedance should be around 50 . So, this is the plot on the Smith chart as frequency
changes impedance changes. This is the reflection coefficient plot. And you can see that as
frequency changes reflection coefficient is varying. And in this particular case, we define
bandwidth for S11  -10 dB, it is approximately equivalent to VSWR < 2.
So, bandwidth in this case is about 85 MHz which is 1.5 %, in fact, microstrip antennas are
known to have smaller bandwidth. However, later on I will talk about several broadband
techniques, where we can increase the bandwidth of the microstrip antenna.
So, these are the radiation pattern gain and efficiency of this particular antenna. So, you can
see that the radiation is in the broadside direction. And the back radiation is relatively small.
And for this particular antenna, we can actually calculate half power beamwidth in the E-
plane which is shown with the black color that is 800, half power beamwidth in the H-plane is
880. And this is the gain plot with respect to frequency and I have drawn a line which is about
1 dB below this; generally 1 dB gain variation is acceptable.
So, in this particular case we can say bandwidth is about 126 MHz. Now, one can see here
radiation efficiency shown by purple color so that is; what is the radiation efficiency. So,
radiation efficiency you can see is very high that is about 85 % or so. Now, this is the total
antenna efficiency. Now, this antenna efficiency is changing, it is very similar to the change
in the reflection coefficient.
Now, let us see how we can increase the gain of the antenna. We can increase the gain of the
antenna by using large number of elements. So, here is an example of 8 x 8
electromagnetically coupled microstrip antenna array. I just want to tell you what is
electromagnetically coupled. So, basically here there is a one patch we put another patch on
top of that. So, these two patches resonate at nearby frequency and this whole thing is done to
increase the bandwidth of the antenna.
As I mentioned in the previous slide the bandwidth was very narrow, but by using
electromagnetically coupled antennas we can get bandwidth of 15 % or even 20 %. So, for
this 8 x 8 array I just want to show you. So, this is where the feed in network is there. So,
recall we had discussed about power divider. So, you can think about this is nothing but a
two-way power divider another two way power divider and then there is a connection here.
So, if you look from here this becomes like a four way power divider and this is the central
point. So, we can see that from this central point all these power divider networks are
spreading and feeding all the 8 by 8 elements which comes out to be 64 element.
So, really speaking this is an example of 1 : 64 power divider. So, this is the top layer of the
fabricated antenna. And I have just shown here gain plot. You can see that the gain has
increased significantly compared to the gain of a single element. Here the gain is around 24
dB; numeric value of that is 250. And again, for 1 dB gain variation if you look at the
bandwidth that is huge bandwidth which is equivalent to 5.4 GHz, but at millimeter wave
frequency I just want to mention that 5 G communication may take place in the millimeter
wave pan. So, this kind of a array would be extremely useful for 5 G and IOT applications.
Here I have shown radiation pattern of 8 x 8 MSA array. So, this is the Cartesian plot this is
polar plot. So, this is you can see here there is a main beam is in this direction, these are the
side lobe levels. Let us see the Cartesian plot.
So, in Cartesian plot, we basically show the angle along the x-axis and this one here is the
normalized value of the gain. So, we can see that here everything is normalized to 0 dB ok.
So, from 0 dB you can see there is a variation over here. So, this is main lobe, these are the
side lobes and this one here is the cross polar component. Generally speaking, we would
prefer cross polar component to be as small as possible. And you can see that along the main
beam direction, cross polar level is very very small.
So, let us see what are the half power beamwidths in the two plane for this 8 by 8 array Since
this is a symmetrical 8 x 8 array half power beamwidth in E-plane and H-plane is equal to
8.80. In this case first null beamwidth is equal to 20 0. So, if we take the ratio of the two that
comes out to be 2.27.
Now, we can use the directivity expression to find out the directivity. So, see this particular
expression I have used 32,400 value which is valid for larger array. You can see that 8 x 8
array is relatively a larger array. So, half power beamwidth in E and H-plane is 8.8 0. So, we
substitute that value. And this comes out to be 26.1 dBi, whereas stimulated directivity is
25.8 dBi. So, you can see that this very simple calculation predicts the value of the directivity
within a very small fraction of error.
Now, in the next lecture, I will talk about various antennas. We will start with dipole antenna
I did mention what is a dipole antenna today. So, you can think about a dipole antenna like
this. And we had also talked about the radiation pattern of the dipole antenna; it is omni in
this particular direction; and it is varying like a figure of 8 in this particular direction. So, this
is known as E-plane radiation pattern; this is known as H-plane radiation pattern. Monopole
antenna is half of the dipole antenna. So, whatever things are applicable to dipole, they can be
modified to monopole antenna.
We will see that loop antenna. We will see that small loop antenna is equivalent to magnetic
dipole antenna. So, whatever is applicable for dipole antenna, all you have to do it is make E-
plane as H-plane and H-plane as E-plane. Slot antenna is complementary antenna of dipole
antenna. So, again whatever is E-plane, it will become H-plane; and H-plane will become E-
plane. Then we will talk about linear and planar arrays. So, basically linear array is antennas
arranged in the linear fashion, planar arrays will be antennas arranged in the plane. So, there
may be different elements. Now, planar array can be a rectangular array, it can be triangular
array, it can be circular array. So, basically we use arrays to increase the gain of the antenna. I
did show you an example of a microstrip antenna today. We will talk in detail about these
microstrip antennas latter on.
Then we will talk about helical and horn antennas. So, helical antenna is nothing but you take
a wire and the wrap it around and that makes that forms the shape of helix, so that is that is
what is a helical antenna. A horn antenna can be a pyramidal horn antenna or conical horn
antenna. So, typically there are different types of horn antennas that could be in rectangular
shape or it can be in the shape of circular. So, generally speaking in the rectangular shape, we
will talk about H-plane sectoral horn antenna, we will talk about E-plane sectoral horn
antenna, and pyramidal horn antenna. In case of circular, we will talk about conical horn
antenna
Then we will talk about three different types of antenna here. Yagi-Uda antenna is known by
the name of the inventors. So, Yagi-Uda antenna is generally used to increase the gain of a
dipole antenna, log periodic antennas are generally used to realize very broadband antenna.
We can even design antennas with the bandwidth the ratio of 1 : 10 or even more; so that
means, 1 log periodic antenna can cover a bandwidth of 3 to 30 GHz or 1 to 10 GHz or 300
MHz to 3 GHz.
Then we will talk about reflector antennas. In reflector antennas we will first talk about
corner reflector antenna. And then we will talk about parabolic reflector antenna. In fact,
reflector antennas can give much larger gain then any of these antennas. In fact, reflector
antennas can give gain of 40 dB, 50 dB, 60 dB, and even up to 70 dB. Just think about 60 dB
gain corresponds to 1 million ok. So, you can realize an antenna with the gain of 1 million by
using reflector antennas.
So, these various antennas we will start discussing one by one starting from next lecture.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 10
Lecture - 47
Dipole, Monopole, loop and Slot Antennas
Hello, in the last lecture, we talked about fundamentals of antennas; we talked about radiation
pattern of the antenna, polarization of the antenna, directivity of the antenna and also
bandwidth of the antenna. For VSWR < 2 or for reflection coefficient less than - 10 dB. We
also took some practical examples of microstrip antennas and arrays just to show you how
gain can be increased. Today, we are going to talk about dipole antenna, monopole antenna,
loop antenna and slot antenna. So, let us start with the infinitesimal dipole antenna. So,
basically what is the definition of infinitesimal dipole, where the length of the dipole is less
than /50? I just want to tell you this is not a practical antenna at all this is just to explain the
concept of the dipole antenna.
So, here we are assuming that there is a element of length L, current is uniform along this
particular element. I just want to tell you this is an approximation again at the open end
current will be equal to 0, it will not remain uniform. So, right now you can just think about,
it is a uniform current carrying conductor, and then will do the derivation. After that we will
talk about the practical cases. So, let us see if you have a current carrying conductor here,
there will be magnetic field like this here, and there will be several electric field components.
Let us first define the polar component. So, here you can see axis x, y and z.
So, angle  is measured from x-axis in this particular plane, angle  is measured from z-axis
in this particular direction and r is given in this particular direction, where we want to find out
the electric field. So, that is how x, y, z components can be defined in terms of r,  and 
component.
So, for the uniform current carrying conductor, we can find out these components of E and H
fields. So, let us see these are the expressions for Er, E, E and other H components. You
can see that these components are equal to 0, and we have these three other components. In
this particular expression, I just want to tell you a few things. So, k = 2/, some books
mention , so  is same as k, so you can say  = k = 2/. You can see over here this term
here correspond to free space impedance, which is 120* or 377 .
Now, most of the time antennas are defined in terms of near field and far field. So, let just
look at here also, if kr is very large for a given value of frequency k will be fixed which is 2/
. So, if r increases; that means, as we are going further away from the antenna, so this term
will become 0, this term will also be equal to 0. So, we will be left with only this term for far
field. Now, let just look at this expression here r square is coming in the denominator,
whereas there is a only one r over here. So, r much larger distance this component will also
be equivalent to 0. And then we have a H , so you can see that this component will be also
very small. So, we will have only this particular term for H .
So, there are two regions we define, near field region and far field region. So, near field
region is defined in terms of actually speaking you can think about this thing as k r much
lesser than 1. So, what is the value of k, k is 2/, so that goes over here. So, r << /2 that is
a near field region. This region again is divided into two different components. One is for r <
/6 that is known as near reactive field region, and for this particular range of r that is known
as near radiative field region. Far field region criteria is that r should be much greater than /
2  there is another condition, which is r should be greater than 2 d square / where, d is the
maximum dimension of the antenna.
You can see that same term is coming over here. So, just to tell you if the dimension of the
antenna is very large, then r becomes very large also. Just take a simple example, if d = /2
then what will be the value, if d = /2 this will become 2/4. So, this term becomes equal to
/2. But if suppose d = 10 , so if d is 10 , then this will become 2 into 100  square, so that
will be 200 . So, you can say that r will be very large when the dimension d is very large.
So, let us just look at now the radiation pattern I had discussed about this 3-D pattern in the
previous lecture. So, just think about same current carrying conductor. So, this is the current
carrying conductor, field will be maximum along this particular direction, minimum along
this particular direction, so that is how this pattern comes into picture. And this 3-D pattern is
shown in E plane and H plane. So, you can see that in H plane, it is uniform pattern, whereas
in E plane it forms figure of 8. Now, for this particular case directivity = 1.76 dB. Please
remember this directivity is for very small dipole antenna and not for /2 dipole antenna. I
also want to mention that infinitesimal dipole antenna is not an efficient radiator. So,
generally it is not used. So, far it was only for the derivation purposes only.
So, now let us just look at half wavelength /2 dipole antenna. So, for this particular dipole
antenna, E field and H fields are given by this particular expression. Please again note down
that these are far field radiation pattern, and not near field radiation pattern ok. Now, the
directivity of /2 dipole antenna = 2.1 dB. Now, that radiation resistance of a /2 dipole is
given by this value here. I just to tell you, how to obtain the radiation resistance. So, we know
what is E field you know what is a H field, so from that we calculate what is the power
radiated. And from the power radiated, we find out what is the radiation resistance.
Now, this is the radiation resistance value, but for a /2 dipole antenna, input impedance is
actually equal to 73 + j 42.5. So, you can see that there is an imaginary term which is coming
into picture and this represents the inductive component; not this is not really at perfect
resonance. See at resonance we know that the input impedance of antenna should be a real
quantity. So, to make imaginary part equal to 0, so what do we do? We reduce the antenna
length slightly, so that input impedance becomes real.
So, real input impedance becomes around 68 , if you follow this particular design criteria.
So, the design of dipole antenna actually is very simple, all you need to do it is use this
particular simple equation. So, what is this equation, this is length of the dipole antenna, this
is diameter of the antenna and this is equivalent to 0.48; whereas, if you see over here this is
l = 0.5, but here l is smaller than 0.5. And generally speaking diameter of the dipole
antenna should always be taken less than /10, ok. So, just take a simple example. Suppose,
if I say that a diameter of the dipole is suppose 0.01. In that case l will become 0.48 - 0.01
that will be 0.47. If you take diameter as suppose 0.04, then l = 0.44. So, let me just give
you simple example how to design a dipole antenna. So, let us say if the desired frequency is
1 GHz then  = 30 cm. So, from that value of , you can calculate what is this value, then
choose the value of diameter which can be let say /10 to /100, and you can find the value
of l that will be your starting point of designing a dipole antenna.
So, let us see how the radiation pattern of the dipole antenna varies for different length. So,
this is the case when it is a very, very small dipole antenna for that 3 dB beamwidth is about
900. As the length increases, you can see from /50 to /4, /2 length increases, you can see
that half power beamwidth decreases, so that means, gain increases.
So, now let us talk about broadband dipole antenna. So, bandwidth of the dipole antenna is
directly proportional to its diameter, so that means, if you increase the diameter of the dipole,
bandwidth will increase. However, there is a restriction that you cannot use diameter of the
antenna greater than /10. So, this kind of limits the bandwidth of the dipole antenna. So, if
you want to very large bandwidth, then Bi-conical dipole antenna can be used. And this
particular antenna can give very large bandwidth; however, these dipole antennas require
input, which is + over here - over here. However, majority of the sources may have a single
ended output other terminal being a ground plane, but to feed the dipole antenna, we need +
over here - over here which is known as balanced feed.
So, let us see how we can design this Balun in a very, very simple manner. So, Balun is not
what we used to make chapatis at home, this Balun stands for balance to unbalance ok. So,
here is a dipole antenna which is printed on a low cost FR-4 substrate which has substrate
parameters given by these values. So, green portion is printed at the bottom side of the
substrate, and this particular portion is printed on the top side of the substrate. Here a coaxial
feed is used. So, let us see how we have converted this unbalance to balance. So, this one
here green portion represents the ground plane from where a coaxial pin is coming here on
the top there is a line like this here.
So, a tapered portion is used at the bottom side and on the top side a straight line is used, so
that straight line connects over here and the bottom taper portion is connected to this. So,
basically this simple configuration acts as a Balun, it converts the unbalanced feed to the
balanced feed. So, let us see what is the result for this particular antenna? We had designed
this particular antenna for GSM 900 application. GSM 900 band is from 890 to 960 MHz. So,
again to design the antenna you take the centre frequency use that concept of l + d = 0.48,
but I just want to mention here.
Here there is a not a wire diameter, but we have used a printed antenna over here. So, you
have to use width of this particular dipole antenna. Also since this particular dipole antenna is
printed on a substrate. So, think about the field, so field mostly it is in the air, but part of the
field is within the dielectric region. So, effective dielectric constant of this particular antenna
❑0
is around 1.1 to 1.2. So, use that particular value to find the value of , ¿ So, by using
√❑e
that you can see the parameters here l =127 mm, w = 4 mm. So, let us see what is the result?
So, we get bandwidth for S11 < - 10 dB from 881 to 967 MHz. So, you can see that this
particular bandwidth covers 890 to 960 MHz.
Now, in this particular case, instead of using a straight line, actually speaking we have used
bow tie dipole antenna, bow tie dipole antenna gives relatively larger bandwidth compared to
a simple rectangular dipole antenna. Also in this particular case, it is this slant length which is
important instead of a vertical length, if you see the total length in this particular case is 110
mm which is smaller than the previous case here small w varies from 4 mm at this particular
point to 24 mm. Let us see the result of this particular antenna. So, in this particular case, we
get a larger bandwidth compared to the previous case, now the bandwidth is increased from
871 to 997 MHz.
Now, let us talk about monopole antenna, now majority of the time various books would talk
about a monopole antenna on infinite ground plane and they would mention that use this
particular length as /4. So, let us see what most of the books write. So, basically what they
show this is a /4 antenna which is fed using a coaxial connector. So, this is good for infinite
ground plane; however, in reality, we never ever have a infinite ground plane. So, I just want
to mention for finite ground plane this length will always be greater than /4. So, this /4
monopole on infinite ground plane is equivalent to /2 dipole, because there is a mirror image
of this particular /4 antenna
So, let us see what are the different parameters for monopole antenna on infinite ground
plane. So, E and H fields for a monopole antenna are exactly same as dipole antenna, but only
in the upper half. Please remember this discussion is only for infinite ground plane. Input
impedance of a monopole antenna will be half of the input impedance of dipole antenna,
which comes out to be this particular value. Directivity of the monopole antenna in this case
will be two times the directivity of dipole antenna. Why, in case of a dipole antenna, it is
radiating in this particular fashion. However, a monopole antenna on infinite ground plane
will radiate only in the upper hemisphere. And since power is now radiated in half portion
compared to a dipole antenna that is why directivity is double of dipole antenna, which is
approximately equal to 5 dB.
D ( monopole ) =2∗D ( dipole )=2∗1.643=3 .286 = 5 dB
So, now design of monopole antenna for real input impedance is defined by h + r = 0.24*, I
just want to mention this is straightway coming from the dipole antenna. In case of the dipole
antenna, it was l + d = 0.48 you have divide everything by 2. So, h is half of l, r = d/2 and
this is half of 0.48. So, h + r ≃ 0.24𝜆 where r is the radius of the wire and this r < 𝜆/20.
So, you can increase the bandwidth of the monopole antenna. As I mentioned earlier for the
dipole antenna, but now we will take some practical cases. So, one can use conical monopole
antenna instead of a conical monopole antenna, a triangular monopole antenna can also be
used. And this is the example of a printed electrical monopole antenna which gives very large
bandwidth.
So, let us take a few examples. So, this is a conical monopole antenna on the finite ground
lane. So, here slant length should be about /4 at lowest frequency of operation. So, I just
want to tell you these are the physical specifications of the designed antenna. You can see
that height of the cone is 300 mm, so as about 30 cm. So, in the picture, it may look small,
but this is about 1 foot height antenna and that is the radius of the cone, but just to tell you
how we designed this particular antenna.
The angle of this particular thing is important. So, this is the equation which we have used to
find out the input impedance. So, for the desired input impedance which is 50 , we have
actually found out the value of . So, for  = 900, you substitute the values Zin comes out to
be 52.9 , which is close to 50 . So, let us see what is the result of this particular antenna.
So, one can actually see that bandwidth for VSWR < 2 is from 175 to 1615 MHz. You can
see that it is a very large bandwidth. Of course, the antenna size is large, because we have
designed this antenna at low frequency antenna size is inversely proportional to the
frequency. So, frequency increases, size will decrease.
Let us see the result of a printed broadband elliptical monopole antenna. You can say that this
is an elliptical antenna printed on top side of the substrate this is printed underneath of the
substrate, which acts as a ground plane. And here equation feed has been used. So, let us see
what bandwidth we have got in this particular case. So, here you can see that responses from
0.8 GHz to up to about 5 GHz here. So, in this entire bandwidth, you can see that reflection
coefficient < - 10 dB. So, we can really realize very large bandwidth using these
configurations.
Now, let us shift to the next antenna which is loop antenna. So, loop antenna can have various
shapes, it can have circular shape, rectangular shape or triangular shape or any other shape.
Of course, most of the time, we take regular geometries, which become easier to analyze.
Now, one it is a loop antenna can have number of turns. So, basically you can rap at the same
place number of turns, it can be wrapped in the air or it can be on the dielectric material or it
can be on a ferrite material also. So, let us see this is the loop antenna which is placed at the
origin. So, we are going to first look at a uniform current which is flowing through this
particular thing.
And in the beginning I will focus on only a small loop antenna. And if it is small, it does not
matter, whether you take a circular shape or you take a square shape. So, when we talk about
a let us say uniform current flowing through this here. Now, recall the discussion of a dipole
antenna. So, in the case of dipole antenna, we had seen that, if we have a uniform current like
this then this is the magnetic field. Now, you can think about that this is the current in the
case of a circular loop antenna and we can now visualize that this is a magnetic dipole
antenna. So, for magnetic dipole, then this will be the current which is going to flow over
here. So, a current carrying loop antenna can be thought of as a magnetic dipole antenna. So,
all the analysis, which we have done for dipole antenna will be valid for loop antenna, all you
have to think about is that E field, now becomes H field, and H field now becomes E field.
So, here radiation pattern of loop antenna is shown for two different diameters. So, this is for
diameter d = /10, then what will be the circumference, C = d. And what is the C actually
C = C/ or in other terms you can say it is normalize C with respect to . So, C =  d = /10
= 0.314. Since, it is a small loop antenna, you can see that the radiation pattern is similar to
that of a dipole antenna except for the difference that whatever was the H field for the dipole
antenna, now it is E field for the loop antenna. Now, this is the radiation pattern for large loop
antenna. So, for diameter d = , C = 3.14, you can see that this pattern is not similar to this
particular pattern. So, I just want to tell you majority of the applications do not use large
diameter loop antenna the invariably use small diameter loop antenna. So, I will focus mainly
on loop antennas having small diameter.
So, for single turn small loop antenna, radiation resistance is given by this particular
expression where C is nothing but 2a or you can say 2r which is circumference of the loop
antenna. Just to tell you, this particular expression is valid for circular loop antenna; however,
if it is a rectangular loop antenna, in that particular case circumference C = 2*(l + w). Now,
this radiation resistance increases by a factor of N2, if we use N turn, so for N turn loop
antenna
4
C
2
R r =20 ❑ N
❑
2
( )
Let us just take an example. So, if you take C/ = 0.1, substitute the value. Let us see what do
we get, we get Rr = 0.02 , which is extremely small. If you try to feed this loop antenna
with 50 , most of the power will get reflected back and nothing will transmit. However, if
we take N = 50; that means, you take 50 turns loop antenna, let us see now what happens. So,
this Rr is now increased by a factor of N2, so Rr = 50 . So, that means, if you use 50 turn
loop antenna of circumference = 0.1, then we can get radiation resistance which is
equivalent to 50 .

Now, the radiation resistance of loop antenna can be further increased, if it is wrapped on a
ferrite rod. So, you take a ferrite rod and you wrap the wire around this particular ferrite rod.
Then Rr increases by a square of this particular factor over here which is actually effective
permeability of the ferrite element.
So, let us just take an example here N turn circular loop antenna has a diameter of 2 cm, wire
diameter is 0.2 mm. It is wound on the ferrite core whose effective permeability is 10. Now,
the question is how many turns are required to obtain R in = 50  at 3 MHz. And if you use
now this particular expression, you get N equal to this, you can see that it is really a very,
very large number. And now just imagine, if we had not wrapped it around of ferrite core,
this number would have increased by a factor of 100. So, you can see the importance of using
ferrite core. However, in practice we may take a larger diameter. And by taking a larger
diameter we can reduce the number of turns significantly.
This is one of the application of the loop antenna. So, you might have use RFID tag. RFID
stands for radio frequency identification. I just want to show you here how loop antenna is
connected to this particular chip over here. So, you can see that this is the pad where the chip
is soldered. And then this one over here is making a kind of a loop antenna, you can also say
that it looks like a spiral ok, but it is all right. You can still call it a multi turn loop antenna, if
you wish you can also call it as spiral antenna, but now just follow this particular copper
portion and you can see over here there is a pad.
Now, this particular thing you can see that there is a PTH is made over here and a line is
connected underneath. So, this is this line here is other side of the substrate. And majority of
the time these tags are actually made on very thin substrates, it can be even a flexible PCB
also on which you can fabricate these thing. And then this other terminal is coming over here,
and the chip is sold at to these two output of the loop antenna.
Now, let us talk about another antenna which is slot antenna. Slot antenna is nothing but a
compliment of dipole antenna this one shows over here a bow tie type of a dipole antenna,
and this is where it is being fed by balance line. So, complement of that would be is that you
take a very large ground plane and cut a slot of this particular fashion and feed the slot like
this. So, this is nothing but a complementary antenna of dipole antenna. So, there is a relation
between the input impedance of the dipole antenna and slot antenna, which is given by this
particular expression.
So, I just want to mention how this expression comes into picture. So, we know that for a
dipole antenna, this is magnetic field, but for a slot antenna, it will be electric field ok. So, E
and H fields are related to each other with a factor of  = 120  in the free space. So, we
know that E/H = 120  = 377 .
Let us take an example of a slot antenna. Here, we have designed a cavity backed slot
antenna at 5.8 GHz. So, let me explain one by one. So, let us first think of a printed slot
antenna which is cut in a metallic conductor. So, this colour here shows metal, this one over
here shows that is slot has been cut. So, this is on one side of the substrate as you can see
over here, other side of the substrate actually uses a microstrip feed line. So, this is where
input is given and you can actually see that there is an open circuit. Just to tell you at open
circuit current will be minimum.
So, we generally speaking for maximum coupling from microstrip line to this slot line, we
generally use this length to be approximately /4, because if current is zero here current will
be maximum, so for maximum current magnetic field will be maximum, so there will be
maximum coupling to the slot. So, why we have put this cavity at the back side, because we
wanted a unidirectional radiation pattern, if we use only this particular portion, then slot will
radiate in all the directions like this ok.
So, but by putting a metallic cavity in the backside, now slot will radiate only in one
direction. So, at 5.8 GHz, again the length should be around /2 the cavity height has been
taken as /4. The reason for that is that any short circuit over here will act as an open circuit.
So, that there is a no loading of this metallic plate on this particular antenna over here, we
have taken the width of the slot as 4 mm, slot length is 31.4 mm. I am going to show you
what is the effective the slot length in the next slide ok.
Now, we have use the offset feed, the reason for that is at this particular point current is
maximum so; that means, voltage will be equal to 0. So, if we feed at this point impedance
will be actually 0; at the center current will be 0, voltage will be maximum. So, input
impedance will be very high. So, somewhere between zero impedance and very high
impedance, we have actually found out where impedance matching is done with 50  line.
So, let us see the results. Here we have shown the results of three different slot lengths. You
can see here 29.4, 31.4, 33.4. Now, as the slot length is increasing its resonance frequency
decreases from 5.91 to 5.59 GHz. So, let us see what is the bandwidth for the design length of
l = 31.4, we can see this is the response for this particular length corresponding to VSWR = 2
line bandwidth obtained is 550 MHz. So, this 550 MHz is approximately 9% bandwidth at
the desired band of around 5.8 GHz.
So, just to summarize today we talked about dipole antenna. We started with very small
dipole antenna, then we talked about /2 dipole antenna then we talked about monopole
antenna on infinite ground plane. For infinite ground plane, length of the monopole should be
approximately /4. But for smaller ground plane, length of the monopole antenna should be
taken as larger than 0.25. I recommend something like 0.3 to even 0.4 depending upon
the ground plane size. Then we talked about small loop antenna I mention that the E field of
the dipole antenna becomes H field of loop antenna, and H field of dipole antenna becomes E
field of the loop antenna. Then we talked about slot antenna, slot antenna is complementary
of the dipole antenna.
So, again E field of the dipole antenna becomes H field of the slot antenna, and H field of the
dipole antenna becomes E field of the slot antenna. Then we talked about a cavity backed slot
antenna, slot antenna radiates in all the direction. So, we had placed a cavity on one side, so
that the radiation of the slot antenna becomes unidirectional. In the next lecture, we will talk
about linear and planar arrays to increase the gain of the antennas.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 10
Lecture - 48
Linear and Planar Arrays
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on Linear and Planar Antenna Arrays. In the last
lecture, I have talked about dipole antenna, monopole antenna, slot antenna and loop antenna.
For all those 4 antennas typical gain is of the order of 2 dB and they are omnidirectional
antenna. There are many applications, where we would like to have a high gain antenna,
which has a narrow beam width and also it has a directional pattern. So, today I am going to
talk about linear and planar antenna arrays to increase the gain of the antenna. So, let us start
with outline of presentation.
So, I will start with arrays of 2 isotropic sources then I will talk about principle of pattern
multiplication. After, that I will cover linear arrays of N elements with uniform amplitude, we
will take 3 different cases broadside radiation pattern, ordinary endfire radiation pattern and
scanning array. After, that we will discuss about linear arrays with non-uniform amplitude
followed by planar arrays.
So, let us start with array of 2 isotropic point sources. So, we have a source 1 over here and
there is a source 2 distance between the 2 elements is d. And these 2 elements are centered
around the origin so this distance is d/2, this is also d/2. Now, we want to find out the field at
a point P, which is at a distance of r from the origin. And, distance from the 2 elements is r 1
and r2.
So, let us see now, how we can find the field distribution? So, total field will be given by the
term
− jβ r 1 − jβ r 2
E= E o e + Eo e
E = E0 is magnitude, e− jβr , e− jβr 1 2
are the phase term. Now, why we have taken E 0 same,
because at a very large distance amplitude. From this element and the other element will be
approximately same. Of course, there is an approximation here, that r >> d. And, if this is the
case we can approximately write expression for r 1 and r2. Let us see what is r2, r2 is this
distance.
d
r 1 ≅r + cos ϕ
2
d
r 2 ≅r− cos ϕ
2
)
r ≫ d , ϕ=90−θ
Now, we can substitute the value of r 1 and r 2 in this particular expression. So, you can see
that r 1 is this term
d d
E=E o e
− jβr
[e − jβ cos ϕ
2
+e
jβ cos ϕ
2 ].
−jψ jψ
=E o e
− jβr
[e 2
+e 2 ]
2π
I just want to mention many books write β=k= . So, please be aware about the other
λ
symbol also.
ψ ψ
E=2 E o e− jβr
[e −j
2
+e
j
2 ].
2
E=2 E o cos ( ψ2 )=2 E cos( πdλ cos ϕ ).

o
So, this is the expression for the field at a far away point, because of the 2 elements, 1 and 2
and both these elements have been fed with equal amplitude equal phase and they are
isotropic point sources.
So, now let us just take a few special cases. So, 2 isotropic sources of same amplitude and
phase so, we can now write normalized value of E. You can see that 2E 0 is not coming over
here, because this is normalized field. I just want to tell you whenever we talk about antenna
pattern; we always talk about normalized radiation pattern. So, let us take a case when the
distance between the 2 elements is equal to /2. So, if we substitute the value of d = /2 over
here, this expression becomes cos d is /2. So, that becomes /2*cos.
Now, we need to plot the radiation pattern. I am just going to show you for 3 different cases,
you can built the rest on your own. So, let us take these cases now and that is when  = 0. So,
 = 0 in this direction,  = 900 in this particular direction. So, at  = 0, cos 0 =1. So, cos (/ 2)
= 0, at  = 600, E=cos ( π2 cos 60)=cos( π4 )= √12 and

at  = 900, E=cos ( π2 cos 9 0 )=cos (0 )=1
So, this I have shown you for 0, 60, 90. Similarly, you can plot the rest of the pattern. So,
from here we can say half power beamwidth is nothing, but you can say that how we define
1
half power beamwidth? Where, the field is reduced to . So, half power beamwidth can be
√2
now determined from this particular plot and that will be 300 and 300. So, total 600.
Now, this is half power beamwidth in this particular plane, but in this particular plane field
will be uniform. So, half power beamwidth in this particular plane will be 3600.
So, now, instead of taking isotropic elements, let us take horizontal dipole over here and
horizontal dipole over here. So, 4 horizontal dipole, we know that maximum field will be in
this particular direction just recall I have mentioned to you, that you can think about a dipole
as a pen.
So, maximum radiation will be in this direction and minimum radiation will be in this
particular direction. So, it makes a figure of 8 like this over here. Now, this is the dipole
radiation pattern. Since, these 2 elements are fed with equal amplitude and phase, this is the
array factor. So, we multiply these 2 we actually get a narrower pattern over here. And, you
can actually obtain this in a simple way this is 1 * 1 = 1, but let us say if this is 0.8 and if this
is 0.7, 0.8*0.7 = 0.56. Hence, it becomes narrower pattern and if we look at half power
beamwidth. So, half power beamwidth decreases hence gain will increase. So, instead of let
us say gain of 2 dB for a dipole, we will now have a larger gain if we use 2 element array.

So, now instead of using 2 elements, if we use N elements so, here are N elements. So, you
can start from 1, 2, 3 and so on. Here, we have taken the first element at origin and then other
elements are at equal distance which is equal to d. So, now, we can find out the E, which is
far field pattern, because of all these elements, we can find the total field at a faraway
distance.
So, since this particular element is at origin the term corresponding to that will be 1. This
particular element is at a distance of d. So, now, we have e to the power j ψ this is at 2 d. So,
2 πd
we have 2ψ, 3ψand so on. And, what is ψ? ψ= cosϕ. What is ?  is the phase
λ
difference between these elements.
So, suppose if we feed this particular element with let us say 10, then this will be 1, 12
, 13 and so on. So, now, we have to simplify this particular equation. So, to do the
simplification, let us first multiply this entire equation with the term e to the power j ψ. So,
then 1 will become e jψ , e j 2ψ and the last term will become e jnψ .
jψ j 2ψ j3ψ j (n−1)ψ
E=1+e +e +e +…+e
jψ jψ j 2ψ j 3ψ jnψ
E e =e +e +e +… +e
jψ jnψ
E− E e =1−e
jnψ
1−e
E= jψ
1−e
jnψ / 2
E=e ¿¿
As ψ E=lim ψ n .
sin ( nψ2 ) . ψ
2
E max = n
nψ ψ
2 ( )
sin
2
sin ( nψ /2)
E norm=
nsin ( ψ /2 )
So, this is the normalized radiation pattern. Now, this radiation pattern can be calculated in
this particular fashion.
So, here is a radiation pattern of n isotropic elements array so, for n = 1, we will have simply
this kind of a pattern, for ψ varying from 0 to 1800. So, when n = 2 it varies from 1 to 0. So,
for n = 3 you can see there is a null over here, and this particular thing is known as side lobe
level. As, n increases you can see that half power beamwidth is decreasing, half power
beamwidth will correspond to which point. So, this is 1, this is 0.7, over 0.7 if you draw the
line somewhere like this. So, this will be half of half power beamwidth, other half will come
from this particular side here ok.
So, now you can also see that as number of elements increase, you can see that there are more
number of side lobes are there all these are plotted by using that one simple expression. So,
by using that expression, we can actually find out lot of other characteristics, let us now take
some special cases of few element array.
So, this is a broadside array in which all the sources are fed in the same phase. So, for
example here, we have 4 elements, distance between all the elements is equal to d. So, we
2 πd
know that ψ is given by this expression, ψ= cos ϕ+¿ but since they are in same phase 
λ
λ
= 0. Let us take a case of d= ∧n=4 . So, if we substitute the value of  over here d= /2
2
over here, we can simplify the expression ψ=π cos ϕ. So, what is now the normalized field?
So, normalized field will be given by this expression substitute the value of n = 4,
sin ( 4 ψ /2 ) sin ( 2ψ ) . Now, we will take again few cases of . So,  = 0, 60, 90,
En = =
4 sin ( ψ /2 ) 4 sin ( ψ /2 )
corresponding to this , you can calculate the value of ψ you can see that if this is 0 here. So,
2 πd
= 0, cos 0 = 1. So, ψ= cos ϕ=π . So, for = 60, cos 60 = 1/2, ψ = π/2 for = 90, cos 90
λ
= 0, ψ = 0. Now, for these values of ψ we can use this expression to find the values of E.
And, then we can plot these things as radiation pattern. So, you can see that this is the beam
maxima in broadside direction, we have a side lobe level over here and there is a back
radiation also.
In this particular case, it is easy to find out what is the beamwidth between the first null? So,
you can see that E = 0, which is along this then E = 0 along  = 600 and E = 1 along 900. So,
beamwidth between the first null will be this 300 and this 300. So, total 600.
Let us take the case of end fire array. In this particular case what is that we have taken again
d = /2, but now we want the beam maxima to be in  = 00 plane. So, what you do you put ψ
= 0? Because, ψ = 0 corresponds to the maximum value of the radiation.
So, for ψ= 0 and desired  = 0,  comes out to be - and for this value of  and d you can
calculate the value of ψ, and again do the same thing plot the radiation patterns. So, you can
see that now the radiation pattern has beam maxima in this particular direction. I just want to
mention over here, this was the desired radiation pattern this is totally undesired radiation
pattern. In fact, this is known as grating lobes, we will see after few slides, what is grating
lobe?
So, just I want to mention here this is actually a undesired radiation pattern end fire array
should basically be radiating only in one direction. So, just to tell you to design a proper end
fire array we should never ever take d = /2. In fact, generally d = /4 for end fire array.
When, I talk about Yagi Uda Antenna array I will take this particular case and I will show
you that when you take d = /4, you get a endfire radiation pattern. So, please remember this
is not a desired distance; you should always take d < /2 for endfire array.
Now, let us see array with maximum field in arbitrary direction. So, let us say we want
desired beam to be along  = 600. So, how do we find the value of  well? Let us say for d =
/2 what we need to do? we put the condition ψ = 0 at  = 600. So, by substituting these
values in this particular equation, you can find the value of  = -/2. So, if you have phase
difference of 1, then -/2 then -, -3/2, you will get this kind of a radiation pattern. So,
simply by changing the phase difference between different elements, you can scan the beam
from broadside to any direction to all the way to the endfire direction. So, this is the concept
of the phased array antenna.
Now, let us see how we can find the null direction? So, it is very easy to find the null
direction for the array, we know that this is the array factor. All you do it is you make
sin ( nψ2 )=0, where k = 1, 2, 3. So, we know that for sin 180 =0. So, by substituting this
0
nψ 2k π
value of ¿ k π, we can find the expression for ψ, ψ= .
2 n
Now, for broadside array,  = 0. So, you substitute the value of ψ over here equate it, we can
find the direction of null by using this particular expression.
2 πd 2k π kλ
λ
cos ϕo =
n
❑0=cos−1
nd ( )
Now, how to find the direction of maximum side lobe level for elements? It is simple to find
out maximum side lobe level, what you need to do it is, make numerator
nψ nψ ( 2k +1¿π
sin =±1.  =± .
2 2 2

So, now, we can simplify this particular thing, we get expression for ψ, you can substitute the
2 πd
value of ψ= cosϕ. Now, here  will be the direction of maximum SLL. So, by solving
λ
this particular equation you can find the direction of maximum side lobe level.
Now, what is the magnitude of side lobe level? Well, again we can use this particular
nψ
sin
2 1
expression now. AF=¿ ψ
∨¿∨ ∨¿
( 2 k+1 ¿ π
nsin
2 n sin (2n )
So, here we will just make a special case. So, for very large n this term will become small.
So, we can say sin x = x. So, that can be now substituted over here. Simplify, it this value
1 2
AF=¿ ∨¿ =0.212
comes out to be ( 2 k +1¿ π ( 2k +1¿ π for k= 1 which is first side lobe
n× ( 2n )
level. For k= 2, you can find the value of second side lobe level and similarly you can find
the value of other side lobe level. So, you can see that side lobe level in dB, 20 log of 0.212 =
-13.5 dB.
.
Now, similarly we can find out half power beamwidth of the array, what you need to do we
1
know that expression for array factor is given by this. So, this should be equal to . Why,
√2
1
we are equating to ? The reason for that is normalized value of this is equal to 1 for
√2
1
maximum value. So, for half power, it will be . Again, we are making a little
√2
simplification here. For large n, half power beamwidth will be small. Because, larger the
array half power beamwidth will be small. So, we can make an approximation that is sinψ/2
1
can be written as ψ/2, this is a sinc function, which is equal to . and you can solve this
√2
nψ
particular thing. AF
| |
sin
n
ψ
2
2
=
1
√2
So, solution of that comes out to be nΨ/2 = 1.3915 . In fact, what you can do you substitute
1
this value and calculate this using calculator, you will get this value of , please remember
√2
this is in radians. So, again for broadside, we can say ψ is given by this expression. And, that
is now equal to from here you can obtain this 2 goes over here 2.783/n. So, from here we can
find the value of  and then half power beamwidth is given by this particular expression.
Now, I am going to talk about what is grating lobe and how we can avoid these grating lobes?
Ok. So, to avoid grating lobes, we have to put the condition that ψ should be always less than
or equal to 2. We have seen that beam maxima comes for ψ= 0, but again beam maxima
comes when ψ = 2. So, if we maintain this condition that ψ < 2, then we can avoid grating
lobe. So, this particular expression now can be simplified
2 πd d 1
( cos ϕ−cos ϕ m ) ≤ 2, ≤
λ λ cos ϕ−cos ϕm
where  m is direction of maximum radiation. So, now we need to find what is the worst case
condition? We always do the design for worst case condition. So, that gives us d/ should be
always less than this particular term over here. So, for broadside array, this particular thing
reduces to d/  < 1; that means, d <  and for endfire array, d < /2. So, recall I did mention
to you for endfire array that example I have taken d = /2 and that is why there was grating
lobe, had we taken d < /2 there would not have been a grating lobe.
Now, let just look at the problem of uniform feed. What is the problem with the uniform
feed? The problem with the uniform feed is here the example is taken for 5 elements all the
elements are fed with uniform amplitude and phase.
For this particular case the problem is that side lobe levels are less than -13 dB or so in fact,
in fact even for a very large uniform array side lobe level can be at best 13.5 dB. There are
many applications where we would like side lobe level to be less than 20 dB or less than 30
dB. So, you can see that for 5 elements fed with equal amplitude and equal phase, half power
beamwidth is of the order of 230, but side lobe levels are of the order of 13 dB. Now, if
instead of taking this distribution, if you take binomial distribution, which will be amplitude 1
4 6 4 1, in this particular case, there is no side lobe level. However, there is a problem with
this particular case; half power beamwidth is 31 0, which is much larger than 23 0. Hence, gain
of this particular array will be smaller than this particular array. Now, this is the another
distribution which is 1 1.6 1.9 1.6 1. In this particular case side lobe level is of the order of -
20 dB, you can see this is smaller than this over here, in this particular case half power
beamwidth is about 270. So, gain of this will be smaller than this, but gain of this will be
larger than this ok.
Now, just to show you the case of grating lobe, if only 2 elements are fed, these are the 2
extreme elements. Now, what is the distance between this element and this see we had taken
spacing as /2. So, total length is 2. So, because of 2 length, you can see now there are 2
grating lobes which have occurred over here. So, this particular condition should be avoided.
So, how we can get this non uniform amplitude distribution? So, this is the uniform
distribution case shown over here is for 17 elements all the elements have equal spacing of /
4. So, total length of this particular array will be from here to here. So, total length of the
array will be equal to 4.
So, this is the distribution uniform all elements are fed with equal amplitude. For binomial
distribution you can see this will be the distribution, and you can actually notice that the last
few elements are fed with very very small amplitude. So, In fact, this almost looks like
equivalent to a 13 element array instead of 17 element array that is why gain of binomial
distribution is relatively small. So, this is the Taylor distribution, this is the Dolph-
Tschebyscheff distribution.
However, I am going to show you somewhat similar to this distribution. Which is actually
uniform, triangular, cosine squared, cosine. I will tell you little later why I have shown you
this particular thing, but let us plot these thing. So, uniform as before it is over here triangular
will be the distribution is like this cosine distribution corresponds to this particular plot here.
And, cosine squared is somewhat similar to this. So, now, let me show you the correlation,
you can see that this field distribution is almost similar to that of binomial distribution except
that some amplitude is there even at this particular element; the reason why this is more
popular because analytical expressions are available for this particular distribution.
So, just to show you uniform, triangular cosine, cosine squared. So, this is the uniform
distribution, this is the triangular distribution, cosine distribution, and this is cosine squared
distribution. And, for this particular case here, space factor is shown. In fact, space factor is
similar to array factor with the condition that the element spacing is very very small and
number of elements are large. So, you can see that analytical expressions are available for
these distribution.
So, what are the properties of this distribution let us look at these.
So, these are the expressions for half power beamwidth. So, you can see that this is the
expression for half power beamwidth for uniform, this is for triangular, this is for cosine, this
is for cosine square. So, you can see that here beamwidth is much larger compared to this
particular case over here. Hence the gain of this is also relatively small. Let just look at the
advantages, what are the advantages of cosine square? So, for uniform we get sidelobe level
of -13.2. If, we take triangular distribution it is -26.4, if we take cosine distribution -23.2 and
for cosine squared we get -31.5 dB. So, by choosing this distribution, you can actually reduce
the sidelobe level.
However, one has to pay the penalty for that and that penalty is paid in terms of reduced
directivity. So, directivity expression for uniform field is given by 2l/, where l is the length
of the array. So, directivity of triangular waveform is given by this particular expression, you
can see that it is reduced by a factor of 0.75, for cosine it is reduced by a factor of 0.81, and
for cosine squared it is reduced by a factor of 0.667. So, you can actually see the directivity
of this is about two third of the directivity of uniform amplitude array.
Now, we will shift to the next configuration, which is rectangular planar array. So, here we
have n elements along this particular axis. And, there are m elements along x axis. So,
distance between the elements along the x axis denoted by d x, dx and dx. And, along this
particular direction distance between the elements is dy, dy, all these elements have equal
distance. So, now, let us see how we can find out the overall radiation pattern for this
rectangular planar array? So, first what we do we combine the radiation pattern of one linear
array. So, just think about this one linear array. So, we know how to find out the radiation
pattern of a linear array you can see that there are M elements. So, this is the normalized
radiation pattern for all these elements over here along x axis, notice there is a small change
instead of ψ there is a ψ x, ψ x is given by this particular expression. I tell you in a short while
what does that mean?
Now, think about all these elements, now we have found out the array factor of all of these
elements. Now, think about the principle of pattern multiplication, which we discussed
earlier. So, all these elements now can be represented by single array factor. All of these
elements now can be represented by single array factor. So, you can now think about there
are only N elements and we know what is the radiation pattern of each element now? So, all
we need to do it is we multiply this particular array factor with an array factor of the elements
along the y axis.
So, you can see that there are N elements. So, this is the array factor for this particular case
over here. So, total array factor for this rectangular planar array can be obtained by
multiplying the array factor of this linear array with this linear array. So, this is the overall
array factor for this planar array. So, let us see now, what are the ψ x and ψ y values. You can
see here that I have written ψ x = k*dx sincos plus x, x is nothing, but phase difference
between the elements along x axis.
So, let us see now why these 2 terms are there? So, k =  = 2/, dx is the distance along the
x axis. Now, why we have these term here? So, let us see now we are trying to find the
radiation pattern at a point p which is at a distance r. So, what we do we take the projection of
this particular point along x-y plane? So, we take the projection over here and then draw a
line like this here. So, now corresponding to this particular x axis this angle is  so; that
means, this whole thing has to be multiplied by cos  and that is why the term cos  comes
into picture.
Now, this has to be taken along this particular direction. So, this will be now this angle is .
So, this will be 90 - . So, this will be now multiplied by sin . So, that is why ψ x has sin 
cos . Let us see what is happening for ψ y? Again, now we take the projection of this
particular thing on the x-y plane. Now in this particular case we have to move along y axis.
So, this will be now 90 - . So, that will be equivalent to sin  and then again this has to be
taken along this that is to be multiplied by sin . And, y is the phase difference between all
the elements in the y direction.
So, now let us say we want to find out what should be the value of x and y for the desired
direction of beam maxima along 0 and 0. So, what you do? you put ψ x = 0 ψ y = 0. So, by
putting this we can find the value of x and y. So, whatever is the desired direction? Suppose
we want beam maxima to be let us say at 0 = 300, 0= 450. So, you substitute this value. So,
let us say we want the desired beam maxima to be along 0 = 300 and 0 = 450 substitute these
values and you can find the value of x and y. So, just to tell you so, what will happen in that
particular case? So, this will be 0, this will be x, this will be 2 x, this will be 3x and so on.
This will be 0, y, 2y, 3y and so on. What about this here this will be y + x corresponding
to this here over here it will be 2 x + y. So, this is how you actually have to calculate the
phase difference for all these element.
So, let us see the radiation pattern of 5 x 5 planar array, I have shown here 2 different cases of
the distances dx = dy= /4 over here. And, in this particular case the only difference is that dx
= dy= /2. So, in this particular case we wanted a broadside radiation pattern. So, for
broadside radiation pattern x = y= 0. And, we have taken a square array of 5 x 5 elements.
So, M = N = 5. So, you can see the radiation pattern for d = /4 and for d = /2, you can see
that this has a much narrower beam, the reason for that is the distance is larger. So, total
aperture area will be more and if the total aperture area is more gain will be more and hence
half power beamwidth will be small.
.
So, now let us see how to find the directivity of the rectangular planar array? So, to find the
directivity of the planar array, all you need to do it is use this particular expression, where D x
is the directivity along the x axis for the linear array D y is the directivity of the elements
along the y array.
Now, what is this cos 0? Cos 0 comes into picture if the beam is not in the broadside, let us
say if the beam maxima is at let us say 0 = 300. Then you have to substitute cos 300, that
would mean directivity is relatively smaller by a factor of cos 0, but for broadside array 0 =
0. So, we can find the value of directivity as this particular expression.
Now, let us try to put the expression of directivity for broadside array over here. So, the
expression for Dx. I had shown you in the table. So, Dx = 2Lx/ Dy = 2Ly/. So, if we now
simplify it comes out to be 4Lx Ly/2 and, what is the area of the array L x * Ly, you can see
that this is the familiar expression directivity is given by 4A/2.
So, just to summarize today we discussed about linear array, we talked about uniform
amplitude followed by non-uniform amplitude array, we also talked about broadside array,
endfire array, and the beam maxima in any desired direction. This is the principle of phased
array antenna, that you change the phases between the different elements. And just by
changing the phase difference between the different element, you can scan the beam from
broadside to all the way to the endfire direction.
So, by changing the phase, you can scan the beam in this particular direction or you can also
scan the beam in this particular direction. So, that is the principle of phased array antenna.
Then, we briefly talked about rectangular planar array and we saw how to find the radiation
pattern of the rectangular planar array, by simply using the pattern multiplication concept,
where we multiply the directivity of one linear array with the another linear array. So, in the
next lecture I will talk about microstrip antennas till then bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 10
Lecture – 49
Microstrip Antennas
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on Microstrip Antennas.
This figure shows a rectangular Microstrip Antenna. So, we have a ground plane over here
then a substrate and on top of the substrate, we have a rectangular patch. If, you really see
this looks very similar to the circuits which we have discussed earlier like power dividers,
couplers, filters and other things.
Now, in case of microwave circuits, what we do? we try to send signal from point a to b on
the PCB itself, in that particular case we do not want any radiation to take place whereas, in
case of microstrip antenna we want this patch to radiate in the free space.
So, how do we achieve this? There are 2 things which we need to do. So, that a microstrip
circuit behaves a better microstrip antenna and these 2 things are we should try to choose r
value, as small, as possible and we should choose the thickness of the substrate as high as
possible. That does not mean you can take very thick substrate there is a limitation that h by
0 should always be less than 0.06. Now, as you can see it is a very simple geometry. So, it
has lots of advantages. It has lightweight low profile, planar configuration, and which can be
made conformal to let us say the host body which could be even a missile helicopter, plane,
satellite and so on.
Since, it uses of PCB technology. So, fabrication cost is very low and also mass production
can be done very easily. Both linear and circular polarizations are possible, we will show you
some of these cases later on. Also feed lines as well as matching network can be easily
integrated with antenna structure itself. I am going to show you an example of microstrip
antenna array, where feed lines as well as matching network both are integrated on the same
substrate. However, microstrip antennas have few disadvantages. One of the main
disadvantage is narrow bandwidth. Typical bandwidth of a microstrip antenna is of the order
of 1 to 5%. However, I am going to show you the techniques, how to increase the bandwidth
of microstrip antenna?
It has typically low power handling capacity after all it is fabricated on a PCB. So, it cannot
handle very high power, but again I am going to show you 1 example which can handle very
high power. There are practical limitations on the gain. So, 1 can obtain gain of around 30
dBi or so. For larger gain it is better to use parabolic dish antenna, which I am going to cover
after 2 lectures. Now, size of the microstrip antenna is large at lower frequency, you can think
about if we are designing antenna let us say at 100 MHz. What is going to be the wavelength,
3 m and if we design a /2 antenna that is going to be a very large antenna.
However, I am going to show you some configurations, where we can reduce the size of the
microstrip antenna. So, because of so, many advantages microstrip antenna finds several
applications. So, these were used in pagers of course, now days there are no pagers, but it has
been used in mobile phones microstrip antennas find application in Doppler and other radars,
satellite communication, missile guidance systems, feed element even in complex antennas
and biomedical radiator. By the way, this is not the complete list of applications there are
many other applications of microstrip antenna.
So, I have shown you the configuration only of a rectangular microstrip antenna. However,
there are so, many different shapes, which have been reported in the literature. So, these are
square, circular, triangular, semicircular, annular ring, square ring in fact, there are shapes
like pentagon, hexagon and so on also, but today in my lecture I am going to focus mainly on
rectangular microstrip antenna.
.
.
So, let us see how we can find the resonance frequency of a microstrip antenna? So, here we
have a rectangular patch whose length is L, width is W. You can see that I have shown dotted
line over here which actually represents effective length as Le, effective width as We. So,
where is this effective length coming into picture?
So, just recall now I showed you there is a microstrip patch, which is on top of the ground
plane. So, there will be fringing fields from the edges. So, these fringing fields account for
additional capacitance. The additional capacitance can be compensated by simply extending
the length outwards. So, here I am just going to show you that Le=L+2∆ L, where ∆ L is the
extension in 1 direction ∆ L is extension in the other direction. Now, for the fundamental
TM10 mode, what is TM10 mode? Well, 1 actually implies that there is a 1 half wave length
variation along the length ok. I am going to show you these things in more detail in the next
slide, but 0 implies no variation along the width.
So, now recall dipole antenna, what is the effective length of the dipole antenna it should be
/2. So, here also effective length of the rectangular patch Le = /2, but since it is printed on a
substrate  is nothing, λ = λ0 /√ ε e. So, why there is ε e and not r? The reason for that is most of
the field will be confined within the substrate material, but part of the field will be going in
the air. So, to account for the field in the air we use effective dielectric constant.
So, over here, so if we now substitute the value of 0 = c/f0, where c is velocity of light. So,
c
we can write the expression for f0 just note it is c/f. So f 0 = . So, Le is given by
2 Le √ ε e
h
Le=L+2∆ L and the value of ∆ L ≅ , I will also show you later on what is the expression
√ εe
for ε e ? But right now let us see the characterization for TM10 mode.
So, for TM10 mode as I mentioned there is a one half wavelength variation along the length.
Now, you can see that this is the voltage distribution, this is the current distribution. The
reason for that, this is an open end, at open end current will be equal to 0, it will go to
maxima and come back to 0, why? Because, the total length is equal to /2 and since it is
open circuit here, voltage is maxima here, it goes to 0 and then it goes to the negative
maxima.
And, field is uniform for TM 10 mode field is uniform along the width. So, you can see that
this voltage will remain constant and voltage will remain constant along the width. So, now
let us see how the fringing fields will vary. So, from here you can see that the fringing fields
are going outward to the ground. Since, we are feeding at this particular point over here we
are assuming this voltage is positive. So, for positive voltage field will be going from here to
the ground. And, as we move along the length, you can see that the field intensity will keep
reducing as you can see the amplitude will keep on reducing. And, then the direction changes
and you can see that now the field will be like this here. Now, you can see here most of the
field is confined within this dielectric medium, but part of the field is actually in the air. And,
that is why we use the term epsilon effective for characterizing rectangular microstrip
antenna.
Now, these field distributions can be resolved into 2 components- vertical and horizontal
component. You can see that this vertical component is going upward, this vertical
component is going downward. So, these 2 field cancel out in the broadside direction.
However, if you look at this particular thing, the direction of this is in the right hand
direction, you can see it is going in this direction, if you look at the direction of this one here,
it is also going in this particular direction. So, the analysis of rectangular microstrip antenna
can also be done by assuming that there is a one slot antenna over here, there is a another slot
antenna over here, and the amplitude of these 2 fields are equal, the reason is this is + V this
is - V.
And, we can apply array theory to find out the radiation pattern. So, just think about one slot
antenna another slot antenna. And, we can actually find out the total pattern by multiplying
the slot pattern with the array factor, rectangular microstrip antenna can also be modelled as a
transmission line. The fundamental mode of rectangular microstrip antenna can be modeled
as transmission line, reason for that is there is a no field variation along the width. So, this
length is approximately /2. So, we have a radiation resistance in parallel with capacitance,
which is nothing, but fringing field capacitance, this is the radiation resistance corresponding
to this particular slot here, and then there is another one on this particular side.
So, now let us see how we can design rectangular microstrip antenna? So, generally speaking
design problem will be that frequency is given to us and desired bandwidth will be given to
us and then we have to design the length and width of the rectangular patch, but before we do
that we have to choose appropriate substrate parameters. Later on I am going to show you,
how to choose these appropriate substrate parameter, but let us just assume that we have
chosen substrate parameters as r and h then first step is to calculate the width.
So, width can be calculated using this particular expression over here. Now, in this particular
case I just want to mention, you can take smaller or larger W, then the W obtained by using
this particular expression depending upon what is the requirement?
So, just want to mention, if you take a larger W, then what will happen bandwidth will be
more as well as gain will be more. So, bandwidth is proportional to W as well as gain is
proportional to W, why gain increases, because total aperture has increased. Why bandwidth
is increasing? The reason for that is that as W increases fringing fields will increase. If
fringing fields increased; that means, there will be a more radiation and hence Q will be small
and if Q is small bandwidth will be a large. Epsilon effective e can be calculated using this
particular empirical formula, there are many different formulas are there, but I have found
this formula to be best suited for designing rectangular microstrip antenna. e can be
calculated for chosen value of substrate parameters r and h and whatever the W value you
have chosen substitute over here. And, then we can find out the value of Le for given
frequency value. And, then after we have calculated Le find the value of L, I have given
already expression for ∆ L.
Then, comes the next point what should be the feed point location. So, I am just giving you a
simple rule of thumb that choose feed point x between L/6 to L/4. Generally we choose L/6
for narrow bandwidth antenna and L/4 for broadband antenna. So, let us take a design
example.
So, I am taking a practical design example of Wi-Fi application. Now, Wi-Fi works from the
frequency range of 2.4 to 2.483 GHz. So, we choose some substrate parameters r is 2.32, h =
0.16 cm and tan  = 0.001. Now, you might wonder why we have chosen these parameters. In
fact, I will tell you beforehand only these are not the optimum parameters for this particular
application, but sometimes you know we learn better if we make mistakes.
Then I will take some substrate parameters see what we get then I will tell you how to
improve the design? So, first step is to calculate W. I had given the expression in the previous
slide. So, C = 3* 1010, this is in cm not in meter if in meter, it will be 3*108. So,
c
W= 10 9
ε r +1 = 3 x 10 / ( 2 x 2.4415 x 10 x √1.66) = 4.77 cm 
2f0
√ 2
So, we have chosen W = 4.7 cm. For this value of W, we can now find the value of e,
εr +1 + ε r −1 10 h
−1/2
εe=
2 2
1+ [W ] =2.23. you can see this value is slightly smaller than the value
of r. So, now, we can find the value of Le.

c
Le= =3 x 1010 /(2 x 2.4415 x 10 9 x √ 2.23)cm=4.11 cm
2 f 0 √ε e
L = Le – 2 ∆L = 4.11 – 2 x 0.16 / √2.23 = 3.9 cm
So, L comes out to be 3.9 cm. So, now, we are going to take these values and do the
simulation.
Now, we take these designed values of L = 3.9 cm, W = 4.7 cm, and as I mentioned take x
between L/6 to L/4. So, L = 3.9 cm. So, we choose x = 0.7 cm. And, these are the substrate
parameter. So, simulation has been done using IE3D software. So, you can see here this is the
input impedance plot and this is the reflection coefficient plot. Z in = 54  at f = 2.414 GHz.
As, you can see this frequency is slightly different than, what we had done the design for.
Now, let us see what is the bandwidth for S11 < - 10 dB is from 2.395 to 2.435 GHz, which is
equal to 40 MHz. In fact, the desired bandwidth is much more than 40 MHz. So, let us see
what needs to be done now?
So, first start with the analysis. So, we had designed this antenna for f 0 = 2.4415 whereas,
simulated value comes out to be 2.414 GHz. That means, percentage error is about 1.1%. In
fact, we have given you very simple design equation and if you are getting error of only of
the order of 1%. In fact, it is the very good starting point. Now to improve the design of the
antenna all you need to do it is use this particular thing f1*L1 = f2*L2. So, for example, in this
particular case we had taken length as 3.9. So, L 1 = 3.9 cm, what we have obtained here that
is 2.414. So, put 2.414 here.
And, then what is the desired frequency 2.4415, calculate the value of L 2, use this value to do
the simulation, you will get nearly perfect result now comes the next part bandwidth is small.
So, what do we do if bandwidth is small, solution is increase the height. So, just to tell you
bandwidth is proportional to the substrate thickness. So, if you double the substrate thickness
bandwidth will also increased by almost 2 times. And, if you increase h remember you have
to reduce the value of L slightly, why because if you increase h fringing fields will increase;
that means, delta L will increase. So, L has to be reduced slightly.
.
So, I am going to now show you how to properly choose substrate parameter? So, here is the
plot substrate thickness is plotted along the x axis, this axis shows the efficiency of the
antenna and this axis shows bandwidth of the antenna. So, plot is for 2 different values of r,
this is for r = 2.2 this is for r = 10. So, you can see that as substrate thickness increases, for
this particular case let us say bandwidth keeps on increasing. And, bandwidth keeps on
increasing for this case also, but you can see that bandwidth is much more for r = 2.2 as
compare to bandwidth for r = 10.
However, let us see what is happening to the efficiency? As, we keep on increasing the
substrate thickness, you can see that the efficiency is decreasing. And for r = 10, efficiency is
relatively poor. So, in general I want to tell you please do not use very high value of r for
designing rectangular microstrip antenna, or any microstrip antenna. Generally, choose lower
value of r. So, that you can get better bandwidth as well as better efficiency, I just want to
also mention if you take r = 1, you can just think about extrapolating this result. So, for r =
1, this curve will be going something like this. So; that means, you can get much better
bandwidth also efficiency curve instead of going like this, efficiency curve will be almost like
this here.
So, by choosing lower value of r, you can get better bandwidth as well as better efficiency.
You can see that typically bandwidth is of the order of 5 to 10%. Even though you can see
here bandwidth is 15%, but corresponding to this particular case, you can see efficiency will
be relatively poor. So, that is the reason majority of the time people say bandwidth of the
microstrip antenna is relatively small. So, that you can get a better efficiency, but later on I
am going to show you lot of broadband antenna configurations.
.
So, this table shows effect of the dielectric constant. So, here are multiple cases of r starting
from 9.8 to 4.3, 2.55,1. Now, when we reduce the value of r, length will increase
correspondingly, width will also increase correspondingly, we have designed all of these
parameters for f0 approximately = 3 GHz. And, you can see that bandwidth increases as r
decreases. So, r decreases, size increases. So, bandwidth increase, as well as gain increases.
Why gain is increasing, because total aperture has increased both L and W have increased
because of the low value of the r.
So, let me show you the radiation pattern of the rectangular microstrip antenna for TM10
mode. So, this is the e plane pattern this is the H plane pattern do not get confused it shows
here E in  = 00 plane. So, E in  = 00 plane is this one here. So, this is E plane and
perpendicular to that will be E in  = 900 plane. So, that corresponds to H plane radiation
pattern.
Here, there are 2 plots are there 1 plot is for r = 2.32 another plot is for r = 9.8. So, one can
see that as r is reduced from 9.8 to 2.32. So, what has happened half power beamwidth has
reduced? So, why is that because as we reduce the value of r, size increases? Size increases
means gain increases and gain increases mean half power beamwidth will decrease. So, same
thing you can note for h plane pattern also this is for r = 9.8 this is for r = 2.32.
Now, we will talk about various broadband techniques. So, first technique which I am going
to talk about is gap coupled rectangular microstrip antenna configuration. So, here only 1
patch is fed other patches are parasitically coupled. In this particular case these patches are
coupled along the radiating edges of the rectangular microstrip antenna. This is the
configuration where, parasitic patches are placed along the non-radiating edges of the fed
patch. Here 4 patches are placed along the 4 edges of the rectangular microstrip antenna. You
can see that only one patch has been fed and all other patches are parasitic patches.

So, let us see the result. So, I have actually shown the result for 4 edges gap coupled
rectangular microstrip antenna, I have shown all the parameters over here r, h, L = W = 30
mm or you can say 3 cms. Feed point is almost at the edge which is 14 mm from the centre.
So, these are the dimensions for the parasitic patches along radiating edges. So, both the
parasitic patches along the radiating edges are taken identical equal to 27.5 mm, the gap
between the patches is taken as 2.5 mm. However, along the non-radiating edges length of the
parasitic patches again taken equal, but equal to 25.5 mm, in this particular case gap is much
smaller. The reason for that is along the radiating edges field is uniform. However, along the
non-radiating edges field is varying sinusoidally. Since field is varying sinosoidally coupling
will be relatively weak. Hence we have to take smaller gap to increase the coupling.
You can see 2 loops in the smith chart over here this is lowest frequency. This is the highest
frequency, as frequency increases this particular patch becomes resonant. So, this loop
corresponds to length L1. And, then you can see another loop here, this loop corresponds to
the length L2, which is happening at a higher frequency. You can see that both the loops are
within VSWR = 2 circle, and that you can see from VSWR plot versus frequency and you can
say that the bandwidth for this particular configuration is almost 18%. So, you can see that it
is not 1%, 2%, or 5%, it is a very large bandwidth and in terms of MHz it is 569 MHz
bandwidth.
Now, this is the another configuration, where patches are electromagnetically coupled. So,
there is a one patch at the bottom layer there is a another patch which is put on the top of the
bottom patch over here. Here, we have used thick metallic plate and these are suspended in
the air by using a central shooting post over here, you can see, this is the feed point for this
particular antenna configuration. So, let us see what are the dimension? So, L 1 = 15.2 cm we
have taken square microstrip antenna. So, L1 = W1 = 15.2 cm that is the dimension of this one
here. L2 is the top patch dimension is 12.8 cm; 1 is the gap for the bottom patch which is 1.1
cm, 2 is the gap between the top patch and the bottom patch, which is 1.3 cm. And, in this
particular case Lg = 24 cm, Lg corresponds to length of the ground plane.
So, you can see this is the radiation pattern of this particular antenna you can see that
radiation is mainly in the broadside direction and there is a very little radiation in the back
side. So, we can define front to back ratio as this value subtract this value in terms of dB. So,
that is approximately 15 dB, this is the gain plot versus frequency you can see that over this
particular bandwidth gain is almost flat which is of the order of 9 dBi. And, measured
bandwidth for VSWR  2 is from 872 to up to 1000 MHz it covers the GSM 900 band from
890 to 960 MHz.

Now, let us see how we can realize a compact microstrip antenna. As I mentioned earlier at
lower frequency size of the antenna becomes large. So, here let us see the field distribution of
TM10 mode again. So, field varied from - to 0 to + and along this width field is uniform. So,
you can actually see that along this particular thing field is 0 and if the voltage is = 0 that can
be replaced by a short circuit. So; that means, instead of using a /2 length RMSA, we can
actually use /4 length shorted RMSA. So; that means, we have reduce the size by almost
50%. In fact, instead of shorting this entire width if we just put single short over here size will
reduce even further, in that particular case what will happen if there is a single short then this
length will become /4.
One can also realize compact antenna by cutting slots within the rectangular patch. So, just
think about this was the original rectangular patch we have cut 1 slot over here, we have cut
another slot over here, it looks like the shape of a edge. Now, in case of rectangular
microstrip antenna length was from this point to this point which was equal to L, but;
however, for H shaped MSA effective length will be now equal to average of the lengths
from this point to this point and going around up to this here, then another path over here then
another path over here. So, we have to take average of these path; that means, total path
length will be definitely more than the length l and hence frequency will reduce.
So, we can realize that compact antenna simply by putting shorted over here. So, if we do
short circuit over here. So, now, we can say that this particular length will be approximately
equal to /4. So, size is reduced further. In fact, I have just shown one slot over here, one can
use multiple slots. So, that effective length is increased thereby reducing the frequency of
operation.
Now, we can also obtain circular polarization using square microstrip antenna. So, what we
need to do it is? This is a square microstrip antenna. So, we feed along X axis let us say with
10, we feed along Y axis by 1900 for left hand circular polarization. Now, I just want to
mention again for this particular feed this is actually null ok; that means, 0 field. So, hence
any feed over here will not affect the performance of this particular feed here.
Similarly, for this particular feed this is orthogonal point. So, that will correspond to the null
or short circuit. So, hence this will not affect this particular feed. So, both the feeds will be
isolated from each other. So, let us see the radiation pattern of this particular antenna. So, I
have shown here not normal E or E pattern, but I have shown here EL and ER. EL is left hand
circularly polarized components; ER is right hand circularly polarized component. So, you can
see that it is a good left hand circularly polarized radiation pattern and the orthogonal
component here is relatively very small.
Now, let us take an example of array to increase the gain of the antenna. So, 8 x 8 corporate
fed microstrip antenna array is shown in this particular slide over here. So, you can see that
the entire feed network is also integrated along with the patches. So, let me start with this 2 x
2 array first. So, we will start with the 2 x 2 Array first. So, you can see that there is a feed at
the edge. At the edge, impedance will be relatively high. So, hence we have to use a quarter
wave transformer at this particular point quarter wave transformer we put it over here. And,
then another quarter wave transformer has been placed over here to transform this impedance
to about 100 . Now, this is identical to this particular portion. So, 100 in parallel with 100
will be 50 .
So; that means, if you just use this 2 x 2 Array feed over here you will have a 2 x 2 matched
Array ok. And, that will of course, have a more gain compared to a single patch. Now, this 2
x 2 array is extended to 4x4 array. You can see this is repeated over here. So, another 2 x 2,
another 2 x 2, another 2 x 2 and now these are connected together. So, again as before what
we do we transfer this impedance using quarter wave transformer. Another quarter wave
transformer to transfer this impedance to 100 , 100||100 = 50. So, just this particular thing
will become 4 x 4 array. This particular concept is extended to 8 x 8 array. So, let us see the
result of this particular array.
So, we have again simulated using IE3D software you can see that this is VSWR plot versus
frequency. So, you can see bandwidth for VSWR < 1.5 is from 8.55 to more than 9 GHz,
which is about 5% bandwidth. Let us see the radiation pattern at 8.75 GHz, which is
approximately the centre frequency of this particular antenna.
You can see that this is the main beam and there are multiple side lobes are there, please
recall array theory when we talked about linear array and planar array. I did mentioned to you
there will be side lobe levels. So, here there are 2 plots are there, they look kind of identical,
but there is a one plot for E-Plane and another plot is for H-Plane. So, E-plane half power
beamwidth is 9.90, which is almost same as that of H-plane half power beamwidth which is
9.40. Side lobe levels you can see that they are below 12.5 dB, other side lobes are below this
particular value here. And a gain of this particular antenna is 21.3 dB. So, just think about for
a single patch we had a gain of 6 dB for a dipole antenna we had gain of only about 2 dB, but
by using an 8 x 8 microstrip antenna array we can obtain a gain of about 21 dB. Of course,
this concept can be extended to 16 x 16 array or even 32 x 32 array to realize much larger
gain.
So, just to quickly summarize today we talked about microstrip antenna which has several
advantages that is why it finds lot of applications. There are certain disadvantages such as
small bandwidth, but we talked about 2 different configurations to increase the bandwidth, it
has the disadvantage of higher size at lower frequency. But, we talked about compact antenna
to reduce the overall size of the antenna, it has the disadvantage of low power handling
capacity, but we showed you 2 metallic plates which was suspended in the air and supported
by metallic post at the centre that can handle kilowatts of power. It has a disadvantage of
small gain, but we use 8 x 8 corporate fed array to realize gain of 21 dBi. Of course, gain can
be increased by using larger number of elements. So. Thank you very much.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 10
Lecture - 50
Horn and Helical Antennas
Hello and welcome to today’s lecture on Helical and Horn Antennas. First, I will talk about
helical antennas and then I will cover horn antennas. So, helical antenna in general can be
realize, if you just take a wire and wrap it around let say a finger like this, so the shape, which
is formed is nothing but helical antenna. You may actually say even an inductor looks like
that only, which is actually correct. So, you can say even an inductor can act as an helical
antenna provided, we take care of certain design specification.
So, let us see, how we can define a helical antenna. So, helical antenna is defined by its
diameter D. So, you can see that this is how the helix shape is, so this particular dimension is
D. Wire diameter is d. The spacing between each turn is defined by S. So, if there are n turns
in an helix, then what will happen, total axial length will be equal to n times spacing between
one particular turn.
Now, this particular geometry for a single turn can be represented in this particular fashion,
where L is the length of one turn as you can see from here to this particular position. C = πD,
which is circumference of this particular helix. S is the spacing between the elements. So, we
can now write that L is nothing but given by this particular expression, which is L=√ S2 +C 2.
And how we can define angle ? We can say that.
S S
tan=
πD ( )
¿ tan−1
C
Now, helical antennas in general can be used in two different modes. So, one mode is known
as axial mode, where circumference C = πD = . And when we choose this particular
dimension and take some other parameters into account, which I will show in the next slide.
This is generally designed for circular polarization. The other mode, which is commonly used
is normal mode. In this particular case, circumference is much much less then . In fact, we
will see later on that typically a normal mode helical length maybe of the order of /4. And
you can see this dimension is much larger just one turn itself is equal to . So, normal mode
helical antenna is generally designed for linear polarization.
So, first we will talk about axial mode helical antenna. So, axial mode helical antenna as I
had mentioned that, it will radiate in this particular direction, which is the axis of the helix.
And generally speaking for this particular configuration, radiation is maximum in this
particular direction and it is generally designed for circular polarization. Since, we want the
radiation to be in this particular direction, we need to have a ground plane over here.
Now, in general let us say C =  D . So, from here we can say diameter D = /. You can
see that, the ground plane dimensions should be at least 3/4, so that the back radiation is
reduced. However, you can see there are different shapes of ground plane, which we have
used. So, let us see what are the reasons for that. So, when we take a flat ground plane of the
dimension, let us say 3/4 there still will be considerable back radiation that means, it will
have a low front to back ratio, because back radiation is more.
So, to reduce the back radiation, one can use something like a shallow cup shaped ground
plane. In this particular case, back radiation is reduced. So, it will have a medium front to
back ratio. And for certain applications, where we want back radiation to be as small as
possible then one can use something like a glass shape or a bucket shaped ground plane. In
this particular case, you can see that, the back radiation will be very very small. Hence, it will
have high front to back ratio and also if the back radiation is reduced that means, gain also
will be enhanced slightly.
Now, let us see what is the input impedance of axial mode helical antenna, it all depends how
we feed. If we feed the helical antenna using this perpendicular thing, that is known as axial
feed, then input resistance is given by this particular expression, which is 140*C , C here
stands for C/. If it is fed along the periphery that means, if this is the helix, if you feed like
this, in that particular case R is given by this particular expression.
But, generally speaking C is going to be approximately equal to 1. You can see that, if this is
1, R = 140 . And for Peripheral Feed, C = 1, this will be approximately R = 150. You can
see that the variation in the impedance is not very significant. What about the reactive part?
In general reactive part is very small. So, we can neglect the reactive part.
Now, input impedance as you can see that, it will be of the order of 140 to 150 . And if you
want to feed with a coaxial feed, which is 50 , then what we need to do, we need to design a
tapered micro stripline for input impedance matching. So, one has to design tapered micro
strip line, let us say at one end, it can be 140 to 150 . And in this side, it will be 50 
typically the length should be taken as about /2 or you can use two quarter wave transformer
to do the impedance matching.
Now, there are three conditions to obtain circular polarization using helical antenna. The
condition number one is that C = 0.8 to 1.2. If you really look at it, this actually gives
bandwidth of approximately 40%. So, axial mode helical antenna does give very large
bandwidth. Typical value of  = 120 to 140 degree. And it is recommended that you take n >
4.
So, this will also give us decent gain also. As we will see later on, what are the different gain
expression? I just want to also mention that the diameter of axial mode helical antenna is not
very important, you can take 1 mm also, you can take 5 mm or 10 mm. The performance is
very little affected by the diameter of the axial mode helical antenna. However, story will be
different, when we talk about normal mode helical antenna.
So, let us just take some example. So, here one helical antenna has been designed around 400
MHz. It has 6 turns pitch angle is  = 140. So, let us see the response of this particular
configuration. So, one can see that C  1. And what are the plots over here, here solid line
shows horizontally polarized component, dotted line shows vertically polarized component.
And you can see that, both the components are approximately equal.
And you can see from 0.73 up to 1.22 value of C, variation is very small. As C increases,
you can see now the deviation between horizontal and vertical component is much more.
Similarly, over here when we go to C  = 0.66, you can see that there is a very large variation.
So, hence for this particular range one can get decent circular polarization.
So, let us see, how we can calculate the gain of the axial mode helical antenna. I just want to
mention axial mode helical antenna can be approximated as array of n different elements. So,
each turn can be represented as one particular antenna, then n different turns will mean that
there are n different elements are there. So, one can actually apply the concept of the end fire
antenna array. And by using the end fire array concept, we can calculate the half-power
beamwidth. So, this is the expression for half-power beamwidth. And this is the expression
for beamwidth between first null.
Now, you can see that the factor over here is of the order of 2.25. When I talked about the
antenna fundamentals, I had mentioned that for larger array directivity can be approximately
found by using this particular expression. So, if we substitute the value of half-power
beamwidth, which is given by this particular expression over here, this thing get simplified to
Directivity=12C λ n Sλ .Now, I just want to mention that this is directivity, this is not gain. In
2
fact, in some of the books, they have written directivity as gain, but that is not correct at all.
Gain is efficiency multiplied by directivity and typical efficiency of axial mode helical
antenna is of the order of 60%. So, please apply this particular number to find the gain of the
antenna.
So, let us just take it a design example. So, let us say it is desired that we want directivity =
24 dBi. So, the first step is you convert that to its corresponding numeric value. And that can
be done this way that, you can just check 10 log of 251 = 24 dB. Now, we want to design for
axial mode circularly polarized antenna. So, what we do, we take C  = 0.8 to 1.2. So, in this
example, we have taken C = 1.05,  should be taken between 12 to 14 degree. So, here it is
taken as = 12.7 degree. So, the first step is calculate S , which is given by S = Ctan .
Now, we know this is the expression for directivity. So, from here, we can find the value of n.
So, Directivity=12 C 2λ n Sλ  n = 80. So, it requires 80 turns to realize directivity of 24 dBi.
So, in general nobody designs helical antenna for 24 dBi gain.
Generally, people realize a helical antenna for 10 dBi or 15 dBi gain. So, you can actually see
that you just change this particular number over here. And then correspondingly, you can find
the value of n. And here as you can see everything is in the normalized fashion. So, let us say
you want to design antenna at 1 GHz, so at 1 GHz,  will be 30 cm. So, from here you can
find C = 1.05. So, C = 1.05*30. So, from there, you can calculate the value of d. And you
can take any wire diameter, as I mentioned wire diameter is not very important. And this
way, you can realize the axial mode helical antenna.
Now, let us talk about normal mode helical antenna. So, here a normal mode helical antenna
is shown, as you can see this is the diameter of helix, spacing between each turn is given by
S, there is no change over here. As far as the configuration is concerned the only difference
here is that circumference, which is equal to D has to be much smaller than wavelength. So,
for the condition, where circumference is much much smaller than wavelength.
This particular normal mode helical antenna can be approximated as, you can see over here
one straight line, then a loop antenna, then straight, then a loop antenna, then straight, then
loop antenna ok, so that means, this whole particular configuration can be realized in two
different components. One component will correspond to one monopole antenna. And then,
the other components will consists of multiple n turn loop antenna.
Now, we had seen the radiation pattern expression for small dipole is given by this particular
expression. And for small loop, it is given by this particular expression. So, if you look at the
sin  term, so if  = 0, what will happen, this term will become 0, so that implies 0 radiation
in this particular direction. And if  = 90, sin 90 = 1 maximum radiation in this particular
direction.
In fact, a normal mode helical antenna almost radiates very similar to a monopole antenna.
So, what is the difference in case of monopole antenna, we need length of /4 ok, for
extremely large ground plane. Whereas, in case of normal mode helical antenna, we need a /
4 length, this is according to the book little bit later on. So, the same /4, if we now wrap
around, so what will happen, my total height will be reduced.
Let us just take a simple example. Suppose, you want to design antenna at let us a 100 MHz,
at 100 MHz wavelength will be equal to 3 meter. /4 will be equal to 75 cm and that will be
very large. But, if you take the same wire length and wrap it around like this, then the total
height can be reduced. You will still get similar radiation pattern.
So, let us just take a design example. So, this design example is for infinite ground plane ok.
And this particular thing has been taken from the cross book and I have also mentioned page
337. So, let us first see, what this particular example is and then I will tell you what needs to
be modified for practical antenna.
So, here what they have done, they have taken C = 0.04. So, D = C/, S = 0.01, so in this
particular case, they have taken n = 6,  = 140. So, total height comes out to be 0.06. You
can actually calculate, this wire length will come out to be equal to /4 and you can test that.
So, we know that L❑= √ S❑2 +C2❑ multiply that with n = 6, you will get the total wire length as
/4.
Now, how to feed this particular antenna? So, here you can see a tap has been used from the
coaxial feed at this particular point. So, this particular tap has been used, so that we can get
input impedance matching with 50 . So, why it has been taken over here. So, you can just
see that there are 6 turns are there. So, I will just give you approximate concept ok. So, here
this is short circuit. So, input impedance will be 0 here, here it is open circuit. So, we can
actually just take an approximation as that this is to be matched with free space. The
impedance of that is about 377 .
So, if you take about a tap around one-sixth of that, you can approximately get up 50 
impedance matching. So, however this is a very very approximate design. And I also want to
mention that this length, which has been taken as /4 that is a text book design, this is not a
correct thing. For practical design, this wire length should always be greater than /4, there
are multiple reasons are there.
First of all, whenever you bend a wire, helical structure is also known as slow wave structure.
So, wave gets slow down over here. So, effectively it does not see /4 length. So, you have to
take larger than /4 length, it can be 0.3 or even 0.4. But, however that is still true for very
very large ground plane. If the ground plane size is very very small, we have seen that this
wire length may be as large as 3/4 ok. So, please take care, when you are doing a practical
design. Again everything is in the normalized fashion.
So, let us say you want to design antenna, let say at 3 GHz of wavelength will be 10
centimeter. So, C will be equal to 0.04. So, C = 0.04,  is 10 cm. So, you can actually find
the value of C and correspondingly you can find the other parameters. Of course, here it is
very very important for normal mode helical antenna diameter of the helix plays very very
important role. Bandwidth is directly proportional to the diameter of the helix wire. So, if you
want a larger bandwidth, please take thicker wire diameter.
Now, let us talk about horn antennas. So, we will start with simple rectangular waveguide. As
you can see here, this is a rectangular waveguide. The dimensions are a and b, we have
discussed about this particular thing, when I talked about waveguide. And most of the time
horn antennas operate at the fundamental mode of rectangular waveguide, which is TE 10. And
for fundamental TE10 mode, if you recall, 1 implies half wave length variation, 0 implies, no
variation.
So, in this particular case, E varies half wave length along this particular dimension. So, this
is short circuit, because it is a solid wall. So, short circuit means E will be 0, E will be
maximum and the E will go to 0. So, there is a sinusoidal variation along this particular axis
and field is uniform along this particular axis. So, if the waveguide is flared, along this
particular E-plane, it is known as E-plane sectoral horn antenna. If waveguide is flared in this
particular plane, it is known as H-plane sectoral horn antenna. And if the waveguide is flared
in both the directions in this as well as this, it is known as pyramidal horn antenna.
Today, I will talk only about pyramidal horn antenna. As E-plane sectoral horn antenna as
well as H-plane sectoral horn antennas are special cases of pyramidal horn antenna. So, let us
see the side view of this particular thing overheads. So, if we just look at the side view from
here, this almost looks like a E-plane sectoral horn antenna. And if you look from the top,
then you can see top view is nothing but similar to H-plane sectoral horn antenna.
So, let us say now the wave is launched in this particular waveguide and these are the
boundaries of the pyramidal horn antenna. So, when the wave is launched from here, it will
go in this particular fashion, the wave is launched like this. So, as you can see that, there is a
large distance between these two points compare to this particular point over here. So, let us
take this as a reference point, then one can see that the wave reaching over here, will have a
delayed phase response.
So, let us take reference as the wave has a phase angle 0 0, but at this particular point, it may
be 100 over here, it may be 200, 300 and so on. So, maximum phase error will come over here.
This is for E-plane sectoral horn, same thing will happen for H-plane sectoral horn antenna. It
has been mentioned in the books that for E-plane sectoral horn antenna, maximum phase
error allowed is 900, whereas for H-plane sectoral horn antenna, maximum phase error
allowed is 1350. However, I do not think that is a very good idea. Generally, I recommend
that you take maximum phase error as 450 or so. I will show that particular thing little later
on.
So, let us see how we can find the optimum dimension for given directivity. So, here is the
plot, gain is given along this particular direction and these are the different dimensions of the
horn. So, let us say we want to have a gain of 19 dBi. So, you draw a vertical line, it cuts all
these different curves at different points over here. So, here I just want to mention these
nomenclatures are slightly different than the nomenclatures I had shown in the previous slide.
The reason is, different books use different symbol ok, so do not get confused. If you read
one book or other book, you should be familiar with the concept symbol can be anything ok.
So, this curve again I have taken from the cross book. And the design given over here is for
efficiency, approximately equal to 60%. And this curve actually makes the design very very
simple. So, corresponding to this 19 dBi, just note down the corresponding value of L , a H
and a E, your design is actually complete.
Now, I am going to show you how to practically design a coaxial feed pyramidal horn
antenna. So, just to show you here, so here, this horn antenna is fed with the coaxial cable
over here, you can see that the probe is extended. In fact, I just want to mention that, this
probe acts as a monopole antenna. And since, we have a very large ground plane, we can use
approximation as length to be equal to /4.
Now, one can see that this is short circuit. So, if this is short circuit over here, this will do the
loading on this particular probe. So, generally what is done, to avoid the loading of this short
circuit over here, take this facing as approximately g/4. So, if you take this spacing as g/4,
what will happen shot will act as open circuit. But, we do not always take this length as g/4,
we may take slightly different value to do the impedance matching with 50  line. So, again
this is the side view, this is the E-plane view, this is the top view, which is H-plane view. And
these results, which I am going to show, these are written by us only and it appears in this
particular symposium preceding.
So, we have designed this particular horn antenna at 900 MHz. So, I will start with the probe
length, you can see that this length is approximately equal to /4. The radius of this has been
taken as 3.5 mm that means, the diameter of the probe is about 7 mm. So, we know that
bandwidth is proportional to the diameter of the monopole antenna, hence larger diameter is
taken. These are the other dimensions. So, for 900 MHz waveguide, we have taken a = 240
mm, b = 120 mm. The flared values of the pyramidal horn antennas are small a becomes
capital A= 450 mm. Small b becomes capital B = 320 mm. And we have taken this particular
length RE = RH has been taken as 250 mm, but later on I will show you, what is the effect of
this particular dimension.
So, this is the efficiency curve versus horn length, which is R E = RH. So, let us see, you can
see that as this particular length increases, we can see that the efficiency is increasing. Here,
we have shown the plot for two different frequencies, 850 MHz and 1000 MHz. So, we know
that gain increases with increase in frequency. So, let us look at the efficiency curve
corresponding to 850 MHz. One can see that as the horn length increases efficiency increases.
In fact, if you look at different books, for example in the Balani's book, they talk about
efficiency of the order of 50%. Cross book talks about efficiency of the order of 60%.
However, you can see here, if RE = RH > 150 mm. If you look at this particular line,
efficiency is greater than 70%. However, if we take RE = RH > 250 mm, then efficiency is of
the order of 80%. However, you can see that if you take much larger dimension, there is not
much of improvement in the efficiency. So, one should choose the typical efficiency value in
this particular region.
So, let us see what are the results of the designed pyramidal horn antenna. So, there are two
views of this particular pyramidal horn antennas, you can actually see there is a coaxial feed
over here. And from the side if you see, this is how the coaxial feed is coming out from this
particular portion over here. So, for this particular antenna, we have done simulation using
IE3D as well as CST software. So, you can see that bandwidth for S 11 less than minus 10 db,
you actually draw the line like this here ok. So, bandwidth is of the order of 47%, 49.5% at
measured bandwidth is of the order of 52%. You can see that, these results are in reasonably
good agreement.

Now, let us see radiation pattern of pyramidal horn antenna in E-plane and H-plane. So, here
we have shown the plot, it is not a normalized radiation pattern plot, it is actually normal gain
plot versus angle. So, one can actually see the relative gain also. So, one can see at 700 MHz,
gain is relatively small as frequency increases, one can see that gain is increasing. Why,
because gain is given by efficiency multiplied by 4 area / square. What is the area? A * B.
If you look at this particular gain expression, you see that A dimension is coming, B
dimension is coming, but there is a nothing coming directly as far as the length of the horn
antenna is concerned. However, we have seen efficiency of the horn antenna depends upon
the length of the horn antenna. So, the length of the horn antenna comes indirectly in this
particular gain expression. One can see  is in the denominator  = c/f. So, as frequency
increases, gain increases. So, same thing you can notice over here, as frequency increases
from 700 MHz to 1100 MHz, gain increases. So, this is the pattern for E-plane, this is the
pattern for H-plane. So, you can see that there are little bit of side lobes present in the E-plane
pattern, whereas there are less side lobes present in the H-plane pattern.
So, to conclude today’s lecture. Today, we talked about two different modes of helical
antenna, axial mode helical antenna and normal mode helical antenna. Axial mode helical
antenna is generally designed for circularly polarized radiation pattern. Whereas, a normal
mode helical antenna is generally designed as a replacement of monopole antenna and it
radiates in a similar fashion as that of monopole antenna.
Then, we talked about horn antenna, we talked mainly about pyramidal horn antenna as E-
plane sectoral horn antenna and H-plane sectoral horn antenna are special cases of pyramidal
horn antenna. We had seen that efficiency can be improved by increasing the horn length and
we saw that efficiency can be of the order of 70 to 80%.
So, thank you very much. In the next lecture, I will talk about some different types of
antennas, till then bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 11
Lecture - 51
Yagi - Uda, Log-Periodic and Reflector Antennas
Hello, and welcome to today’s lecture on Yagi-Uda Log-Periodic and Reflector Antennas.
We will first start with Yagi-Uda, then we will talk about log-periodic, and then reflector
antennas.
So, Yagi-Uda antenna consists of one driven dipole, which you can see over here. And then,
we have a one reflector behind the dipole, and then after that we have multiple directors on
the other side. So, what is the purpose of all of these thing. Now, we have covered that a
dipole antenna has a radiation pattern which is omnidirectional radiation pattern. So, it will
radiate equally in all the direction.
However, there are many applications, where we want the radiation to be only in one
particular direction. So, if we put a reflector behind this particular dipole antenna, then what
will happen, the radiation from that dipole will reflect back from the reflector, it will go in
this particular direction. So, just by putting a reflector behind the dipole antenna; suppose if it
is a /2 dipole antenna, gain will be approximately 2 dB. And if you put a reflector behind
this particular thing at an approximate distance of /4, then gain will be of the order of 5 dB,
because it is double of the previous value.
Now, if you put a director; suppose we put just one director, you can see that now the total
aperture will increase by 2 times. So, hence ideally the gain may increase by 3 dB, so that
means, 2 dB + 3 dB =5 dB, 5 dB + 3 dB = 8 dB. However, practically we do not get 8 dB,
practically we may get around 7 dB. However, by putting multiple directors, we can increase
the gain of the antenna. So, this particular radiation pattern is also known as end fire array
radiation pattern. So, radiation is mainly in this particular direction. So, you can see that main
beam is in this particular direction, part of that is going back here, because we are not
providing infinite reflector. Reflector is also a simple wire. Hence, there is still a back
radiation. So, we define another quantity, which is known as front to back ratio. So,
compared to this value, how small this value is. Generally, we would prefer front to back
ratio to be greater than 10 dB.
So let us see; what are the typical dimensions for these Yagi-Uda antenna elements. So, I will
start first with the feeder length.
Now, what I have shown you here, these are the values given conventionally in the books.
However, based on our experience, these are my recommended values. So, let us say feeder
length, what is recommended in the book is typically 0.47 to 0.49. However, I recommend
that l + d = 0.48, where d is the diameter of the dipole antenna, and l is the length of the
dipole. So, if we take let us say d = 0.01, l = 0.47 . If we take let us say d = 0.02, then l =
0.46. Then after that, we will talk about reflector length. Reflector should be greater than the
feeder length. So, here depending upon what is the value of d, we can choose the reflector
length between 0.49 to 0.51, it should be greater than this particular length.
Then comes the director, so that length of the director, typically they have recommended to
be 0.4 to 0.45. So, whereas what we have found, typically 0.43 to 0.44 length of the director
gives good gain. As far as the spacing between the reflector and the feed dipole is concerned,
so that is generally 0.2 to 0.25, I agree with this particular thing. Director spacing, they have
recommended as 0.3 to 0.4, whereas my experience is typically it should be 0.25 to 0.3.
So, let us see what happens to the directivity as number of elements increase. You can see
that starting from one element all the way to eleven elements. We can see that the directivity
is increasing. So, you can see for a single element, directivity will be approximately 2 dB. If
you take two elements that means, one dipole antenna and one reflector antenna, then the
directivity will be of the order of 5 dB. If we take three elements, approximate directivity can
be 8 dB, but as I mentioned gain is 1 to 2 dB less than this particular value. So, depending
upon the requirement, you can take larger number of elements.
Now, let us talk about log-periodic dipole array antenna. Here, purpose is different than the
Yagi-Uda antenna. In case of Yagi-Uda antenna, we try to increase the directivity of the
antenna, whereas bandwidth is relatively limited. However, in case of log-periodic, more
emphasis is given on the bandwidth. So, here all the dimensions of the dipole antenna vary
logarithmically. So, let us see what the configuration is. So, here we have a one dipole,
another dipole, another dipole and so on.
Feed is generally given at the smallest dipole dimensions. So, you can see that feed is
connected over here, and then all the alternate elements are connected in the cross manner. So
that means, let us say if we assume this is +, so this + will come here then + goes here,
whereas minus of this, goes up over here. So, you can see that this particular dipole element
is fed with 1800 out of phase ok. And then another element is fed out of phase, which is 180 0.
Again, this whole thing acts as a end fire antenna. So, the radiation pattern now is in this
particular direction. So, you can see that main beam is in this particular direction, there is a
back radiation, and again front to back ratio should be as large as possible.
Now, in case of log-periodic antenna, all the dipoles are fed. So, what happens as frequency
increases? So, what will happen at the lowest frequency, this dipole will be resonant? As
frequency increases, now this dipole will be resonant, then this dipole will be resonant, then
this dipole will be a resonant. So that means, what is happening, as frequency is increasing,
the active region of the dipole antenna is basically shifting towards the smaller dipole. Why
smaller, because at higher frequency smaller dipole will act like a resonant length.
So, let us see now, how we define these lengths. So, typically scaling factor is defined, which
R n+1 Ln+1 dn+1

is equal to τ = = = So let us see; where are these parameters here. So, you can
Rn Ln dn
say that this is L1, then this is L2, L3 and so on. The distance here this is let us say Rn, this will
be Rn + 1. So, Rn + 1, you can see is smaller than R n; hence τ will be always smaller than 1.
Ln+ 1
Similarly, Ln+1is this dimension. Lnwill be this dimension. So, again will be small.
Ln
Now, you might feel, where is log coming into picture, log comes into picture if you take log
on both the sides, so what will happen now log τ = log R n+1- log R n. So, we can say that every
progressive dimension is actually changing by a factor of log τ . Here all the dimensions vary
in the same fashion.
Let us define another quantity, which is space factor. What is space factor, so space factor
dn
σ= . Let us see now, where is dn, so you can actually see that dn is somewhere this
2 Ln
particular distance here. So, if we take the centre of this particular point which is dn/2 and that
is divided by the length. So, basically this defines the space factor for a given array.

Here, we have design curve for log-periodic dipole antenna, for various values of directivity.
So, let us see what we have here, so we have several constant directivity curves. So, if you
take any point along this particular curve directivity will be constant. So, what we have here
now, scaling factor is given along this axis space factor is given along this particular axis.
And what is mentioned here that if you take the point along this dotted line that will give us
the optimum value of the sigma and correspondingly tau value.
So, let us just take a case that we would like to design an antenna for the directivity of 7.5 dB.
So, you can see that this is the directivity curve for 7.5 dB. If we take this optimum point
along this dotted axis, so if you draw the line here, you can see that this comes out to be 0.8 is
here, 0.84 is here, so roughly slightly greater than 0.82. Correspondingly, we draw the
horizontal line. You can see it is between 0.14 and 0.16, so we can say it is approximately
0.15.
I just want to mention here. So, in the book, generally that write this as directivity curve or
some books write this as constant gain curves. However, based on our experience, gain is in
general 1 dB less than these value, so that means, if you want a gain of let us say 6.5 dB, you
choose this particular curve here. Let us say if you want gain of 8 dB, then we should choose
this particular curve over here. So, now let us take a design example.
So, we are taking a design example of a log-periodic dipole antenna array from 54 MHz to
216 MHz. Let us say the desired gain is equal to 6.5 dBi. Now, as I mentioned for gain equal
to 6.5 dBi, choose the optimum values of τ and σ for directivity equal to 7.5 dBi, assuming 1
dB loss. So, we can read these values of tau and sigma from the previous curves, so τ =
0.822, and σ = 0.149. So, from here, we can also calculate the angle of the dipole antenna
array.
So, if you see that all the dipole, let us just look at the previous slide, so this is the angle, this
is the  . So, we can actually find out this  . So, how we can find the value of ; let us
say if you draw the line like this, so this will be /2. So, tan /2 can be written as this length
divided/this particular distance. So, let us say for this particular length Rn, dipole length will
be Ln. So, half of that will be Ln/2. So, tan /2 will be Ln/2 divided/Rn. So, now we can
calculate the value of  which is given by this particular expression, and we can find the
value of  over here.
So, now let us proceed with the design of LPDA. So, first thing what we do, we find the
length of the longest dipole corresponding to the lowest frequency. So, here you can see that
the length of the longest dipole is approximately taken as 0.5 times  L. L corresponds to the
lowest frequency; otherwise  is the largest ok. So, these symbols are mainly for the lower or
upper frequencies. By 200, I had mentioned that we should choose l + d equal to 0.48 , then
why I am taking L1 as 0.5  L.
You can take L1 + d = 0.48, but even this expression is valid. In the sense, we are designing
a very broadband antenna. So, small deviation in the frequency will not make any difference.
So, corresponding to 54 MHz,  = 5.55 meter, so this length comes out to be 2.78 meter.
Similarly, corresponding to 216 MHz, we find the length Ln, which comes out to be 0.694
meter. Now, we have to find the length of all the in between elements.
So, we start with the other elements calculation using that scaling factor ok. So, we start with
2.78 meter, so L1 is this. So, what will be L2, tau times L1, so we obtain here. Then L 3 will be
tau times L2.
Keep doing this particular process, till we reach to a point where this length is smaller than
this particular length over here. Please do not stop over here, take this particular element ok.
So, now you can see, we need total 9 number of dipole antennas to design this particular log-
periodic array. The spacing between the elements can be found using this particular
expression dn equal to 2 sigma Ln. And then, once we know this particular value here, you
can find the different values of d using these values of length.
So, let us see the result of this particular design. So, you can see that this is gain versus
frequency, this is VSWR versus frequency. So, one can see that VSWR is less than 2 over
this entire band. Now, let us see gain. Gain as you can see here, gain is relatively small at the
lower frequency, whereas gain is (Refer Time: 15:41) at the higher frequency. The reason for
that is behind the longest dipole element, there is a nothing which is reflecting back.
So, what happens, the longest dipole will radiate like this, and nothing is there to reflect back,
hence gain is small. So, in fact, I too recommend that you actually put one reflector behind
the longest dipole. To that this whole gain curve will improve. In fact, if you put a reflector
behind this curve instead of starting from here, it will almost start from here. And then, it will
move like this here so that will give you relatively constant gain over the desired bandwidth.
Now, let us go to the next configuration. So, we will start with corner reflector antenna. So,
corner reflector antenna is defined by its  between the two metallic plates over here. Now,
generally speaking these metallic plates are defined by the height and the length of each
section. So, most of the derivations in the book, assume h to be infinity and l to be infinity.
However practically that will never be the case. So, let me give you some practical tips over
here.
Now, assuming that the feed dipole element has a length equal to /2, then height can be
taken approximately as , there is a no need of taking larger than . As far as this length l is
concerned, typically this length can be 1 to 2 depending upon this particular . Now
instead of using this particular configuration, one can use wire grid arrangement. Let me first
tell you why we use this particular thing. Now, think about if this particular antenna is
mounted on the rooftop, what will happen because of the wind, there will be lot of wind
loading will be there. So, if the wind is coming from this direction, and let us say reflector
antennas is placed like this, so there will be lot of pressure on the antenna.
However, instead of using this if we use this wire grid arrangement, then what will happen,
there will be very small wind loading. Then the question comes what should be the spacing
between these wire grid arrangement. So, I will just tell you, generally speaking this value of
g should be less than /4. However, one can take this value as /10, and the absolute
maximum for this particular value is /4. Never ever take the separation between the 2 as
more than /4, and also there is not much need to take this length smaller than /10.
Now, comes the next part, you cannot have these wires suspended in the air, so you too need
a supporting structure. So, here I have shown only one supporting structure here, but one can
have multiple thing like this. So, basic advantage of this particular configuration is wind
loading will be less, total weight of the antenna will be also less. However, this arrangement
is good only for vertically polarized antenna. Please do not take this arrangement for
horizontally polarized antenna.
So, now let us see what happens if we have let us say different angle between the corner
reflector antennas. So let us take a example of corner angle to be equal to 90 0. So, this is the
top view of the corner reflector antenna. So, from the top if we see, we will only see the line
and the dipole antenna will only see the tip.
So, if we not take this particular thing as current going towards this particular direction, so we
represent that as an arrow going over here, so we see the point. Now because of this metal
plate, there will a reflection, so image will be form, image will be in the opposite direction.
Just think about it, if you stand in front of a mirror, then what happens your right hand looks
like a left hand in the mirror, and left hand looks like a right hand in the mirror. Exactly the
same way, so this particular current which is going up here, it will be appearing going into
the paper here, so that is shown as cross. Similarly, for this particular plate, there will be a
cross over here.
Now, how do we construct this particular thing, this can be imagined in a slightly different
way. So, just think about that this whole thing is extended like this, and this whole thing is
extended like this over here. So, in that particular case, if this is extended like this here and
this one is extended, you can actually imagine that image will be formed because of this
particular thing, which will come over here. Similarly, image will be formed because of this
here, which will come over here. So, there will be total three images for  equal to 90 degree.
Let us see what happens, if  = 600. So, again if we have a dot here, it will have a cross, it
will have a cross here. Now, you again imagine this going all the way like this, this one going
all the way like this over here, then because of these thing, there will be images, so we have
dot, cross, dot, cross, dot, cross. So, now we will have total 5 images. So, this concept can be
extended to any value of , and then number of images n can be found using this particular
expression here, which is 360/ -1. So, here  = 900; 360/90 = 4, 4 -1 = 3 Images.  = 600; so
360/60 = 6 - 1 = 5.
Now, one can actually imagine that. Since for smaller angle, we have more number of images
that means, larger number of antenna array element, hence as  decreases, n increases, and
hence gain increases. You can even think in a slightly different way also. Let us say if this
particular dipole antenna had this been not there, it would have radiated in all the direction.
But, now because of this particular reflector here, what will happen, all of these reflection
will go in this particular direction, and a beam will be actually formed only in this particular
area.
So, you can see that for this particular case, beam will be confined within  = 600. Here,
beam will be relatively broader, so we can generalize that as  decreases, that mean these
metallic plates are coming closer. So, radiation will be confined only in this particular narrow
region, so half power beam will decreases, which results in higher gain.
Now, we will talk about the next configuration, which is parabolic reflector antenna. So,
basically a parabolic reflector antenna is something like a dish antenna, you might have seen
at various places. So, generally you will see that a dish antenna has a some another feed
antenna at the focal point of this particular dish antenna. Now, most of the time, it is actually
nothing but a parabolic shape. So, just think about a parabolic shape here, and then you rotate
this parabolic shape to make a complete circle. So, dish antenna will look like a circle here. If
we look from this particular point, but otherwise it has a depth, and this particular thing varies
in a parabolic fashion.
If you recall your high school, for parabola we know that OP + PQ is constant, let us see
where are these points. So, this is o, which is a focal point of this particular parabolic
reflector. So, wave goes from here, and then reflects back, so this will be OP + PQ. Similarly,
we can say that this wave goes over here reflects back. So, what is this distance, this is f and
then comes back here so that will be equal to 2f. So, we can write in general OP, P can be any
point on this particular parabola and reflected over here, can be any point Q over here, so we
can say OP + PQ is equal to 2f.
Now, let us see what is OP. So, you can see, its origin has been defined over here. So, this
distance is equal to r dash, which is equal to OP. And this distance PQ is nothing but r dash
multiplied by angle cos theta dash. So, this is theta dash. So, this angle will be also equal to
theta dash over here. So, this can be simplified now so, OP is r’, PQ = r’ cos ’, so
2f 2f
r '= =
1+cosθ ' θ' .
1+2∗cos2 (θ¿¿' /2)−1=f sec2 ()
2
¿
So, this is the equation of the parabola, which is valid for θ '  θ 0' . So, theta 0 is the angle,
which is at the tip of the parabolic reflector antenna. We can also define θ 0 in terms of the
diameter of the parabolic dish antenna. So, diameter is small d over here, diameter of the
parabolic reflector antenna is taken as small d. So, how we can write tan θ 0, so tan θ 0
d/ 2
tan θ 0 =
z0
So, now let us see how we can design a parabolic reflector antenna, how we can find the gain,
and aperture efficiency of the reflector antenna.
So, we will start with the design, and then I will tell you the different terms over here. So, we
have to design a parabolic reflector antenna for a gain of 40 dB at 4 GHz. Assume ❑ap =¿0.7.
In fact, 0.7 is considered fairly good aperture efficiency. In fact a badly designed reflector
antenna may even have aperture efficiency of 0.4 or 0.5 also.
So, let us see now, how we can find the diameter. The desired gain is 40 dB, which comes out
to be 10,000 and  = c/f. Here I have written c = 3 * 10 10 cm/s. You might be familiar more
like 3 * 108 m/s, but we have converted that to cm. So, this is 3 * 10 10 cm/s, frequency which
is equal to 4 GHz = 4*109,  = 7.5 cm.
So, gain of the parabolic dish antenna is given by ap* d/2, this expression I had given in the
earlier lectures. So, basically this whole thing is equivalent to 4a/ 2, where a is nothing but
d2/4. So, if we now substitute the various values gain is 10,000.
Gain ¿ap (d / λ ¿ 2  10000 = 0.7 (d /7.5 ¿2
d = 285.3 cm = 2.853 m
Now, just to take another example, suppose if the required gain is 60 dB, corresponding to
this the numeric value will be 10 6. If we substitute this value in this particular expression, d
will increase by 10 times, resulting into gain increase of 100 time. So, instead of 2.853, it will
become now 28.53 meter. So, you can actually imagine, you need a very large dish antenna to
realize gain of 60 dB. I want to now show you large reflector antennas, which are present in
the world.
So, here are the examples of different reflector antenna. So, just to tell you what we have
here, here is a wavelength in centimeter, this is the gain in dB. So, just to tell 10 cm will
correspond to 3 GHz, 1 cm will correspond to 30 GHz. And these are the different reflector
antennas, which are available in the world. So, just look at this particular antenna over here, it
has a diameter of 305 m, it is a huge antenna. This one here has a diameter of 215 m, and you
can see that their gain is very large. And these are the antennas, which are designed at higher
frequency corresponding to lower wavelength.
So, you can see here very large antennas have been designed in the world to realize very large
gain. You can think about this number here 60 dB corresponding to 106 gain. And you see
over here, this particular line corresponds to 70 dB gain; 70 dB gain implies 1 Crore or
10*106. You can see that, you can really realize the very large gain by using these particular
reflector antennas. In fact, to realize very high gain antenna, there is a only one choice, and
that is to use reflector antennas.
Now, to conclude this particular thing, I would like to mention that in this MTT course, I
have covered antenna topics in roughly six 30-minutes lecture. I have recorded Sixty 30-
minutes lectures in the Antenna course through NPTEL. So, you can actually think about six
30-minutes is about one-tenth of what I have recorded through antennas course NPTEL.
You can really think about, I have shown you a large trailer of a movie ok. So, for more
detailed information, please see these videos. You can also referred to the E-book, which is
written by me and my two PhD students, the book name is Antennas-Concept and Design.
You can download this thing free from this particular link over here. I just to tell you the code
of this particular link also anm stands for antenna microwave lab at IIT Bombay, and this acd
corresponds to antennas concept and design. So, enjoy reading this particular E-book and
enjoy watching the larger version of the antennas through this NPTEL course.
Thank you very much. Bye.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 11
Lecture No - 52
RF MEMS and Microwave Imaging
Hello, in this lecture, we will talk about RF MEMS and Microwave Imaging. So, let us start
the lecture with RF MEMS. MEMS stands for Micro Electro Mechanical Systems; MEMS
are the tiny devices nearly invisible to human eyes. They are also known as micro machines
or micro systems.
The MEMS element ranges in size from 1 to 100 μm. MEMS devices are categorized into 2
categories; sensors and actuators. Sensor sense the data from the surrounding environment
and converts it into electrical signals. Then actuator process this data using the electrical
signals and perform the action. So, it creates a force to manipulate itself or other devices or
perform an action on the surrounding environment to do the useful task.
MEMS devices are fabricated using basic fabrication techniques and then multiple layers are
deposited on the base, then the selective areas are edged out to form the 3 dimensional
structure. Now, the recent development of communication devices has lead towards the
miniaturization of devices which is possible with the help of MEMS technology.
Therefore, RF MEMS is one of the emerging area in MEMS devices. In MEMS functional
components are controlled by various method of actuations, they could be electrostatic forces,
piezoelectric forces, electromagnetic forces, electro thermal forces. Now, the RF MEMS
based components can be of various types. It could be variable capacitors, inductors,
switches, phase shifters, filters, high quality resonators, antennas, microwave transmission
lines. Now these RF MEMS devices provides the components with reduced size and weight
they provide very low losses, with low power consumption over a wide bandwidth.
They provide high linearity with low phase noise and better phase stability with very high
isolation.
Now, I would like to talk about the various microwave components, which are made using
the RF MEMS technology. So, the first component is the RF MEMS capacitor. For most of
the wide band applications, performance is given by the electrical parameters of capacitors,
which is wide tuning range and low phase noise and wide bandwidth. In case of capacitors,
that is of semiconductor type, they do not provide the wide tuning range at higher
frequencies. Additionally they provide the high insertion loss.
The RF MEMS type of capacitor provides a prominent solution and they provide the wide
tuning range at higher frequencies with relatively low losses. These capacitors are of parallel
plate capacitor type, here the bottom plate is the fixed plate and the top plate is suspended at
an air gap.
This top plate is suspended using the T shaped beams, which supports it for the suspension of
the top plate. Here these metal plates are separated by air gap. And the capacitance of these
plates can be changed by wearing the gap through various types of actuators. These could be
electrostatic, electro thermal or piezoelectric.
So, in this case firstly, the gap is changed by the electrostatic actuator by applying the bias
voltage. This can be changed to one third of the gap between the plates, which corresponds to
50% increase in capacitance. The electrostatic actuator based capacitor provides low power
consumption. They also provides high activation speed and large deflection capability.
But, the tuning range in these capacitors is relatively less. This tuning limit can be overcome
by the electro thermal actuators, where the gap is reduced using the thermal mismatch. So,
differential thermal temperatures are provided between the wide and the narrow strips of the
parallel plate capacitors, in this case the narrow strips wide is more so, they bends down.
Therefore, it removes the limit of 50% increase in capacitance, but these Electro-thermal
actuator based capacitors are relatively slow. So, the both of the capacitors, they suffers with
the low power handling capability, because for high capacitance ratio the gap should be as
close as possible.
But, it may results in RF breakdown. Next type of capacitor gap can be controlled by the
piezoelectric actuator. They provide linear tuning of the capacitor and they provide low
driving voltage. So, these are the advantages of piezoelectric actuator, when the bias voltage
is applied between the controlling pads. The piezoelectric actuator moves down the dielectric
of the top metal plate. It provides the area tuning instead of gap tuning, because there is no
limit on the area tuning. One of the common structure of these type of structure is the comb
structure, where the resonance frequency is controlled by changing the length of the comb
structure and the spring constant of these structures.
Now, these capacitors can be used in variety of application areas like, voltage control
oscillator, tunable filters, tunable networks, impedance matching networks and phase shifters
in.
Next type of component is the RF MEMS Inductors. The most important properties of the RF
inductors are the inductance value, the quality factor, and it is self-resonance. Among this
quality factor is the most critical parameter.
So, in case of voltage control oscillator, if you remember the phase noise is the critical
parameter and it should be low. The phase noise of the VCO is given by the inverse of square
of the quality factor. Now, in general the inductors are made in three dimensional geometry,
but there are demands of the planar inductor. the high quality inductors, in the RF design
should provide high gain low insertion loss less phase noise and high selectivity.
The RF MEMS base inductors is the solution to that, these are of 2 types- planar inductors
and the solenoid inductors. The planar inductors could be of 2 types a spiral and the
meanderical in shape. The spiral inductor inductance can be increased by increasing the
number of turns, but it increases the capacitance between the turns, which reduces be quality
factor.
So, it should be optimized properly. So, the optimum value between the quality factor and the
inductance value can be selected by narrowing down the inner strips and widening the outer
strips. These inductors can be easily fabricated by the current fabrication technology.
Now, the in case of the spiral inductor the size is relatively more, additionally these suffer
from the direction of the flow of flux. And, in case of meander type of structures they provide
the low inductance value, and these problems can be overcome with the help of solenoidal
inductors, but they are difficult to fabricate due to their 3D geometry. Here, they can be made
using the metallic strips over the core, but as I mentioned the fabrication of these inductors is
relatively difficult due to the limitation in the fabrication technique. The losses will be there
in these types of inductors due to the substrate that is used to make the core. These losses can
be reduced by using a air core based inductor, which is shown over here. Here the air gap
between the substrate and the metallic strips reduces the stray capacitance.
Now, the losses in the core occur because of the 2 reasons; one is the capacitive coupling
which occurs due to the conduction current in the metallic strips, and the current between the
metal and the substrate region. The other is due to the inductive coupling which is due to the
current loops and the magnetic field which flows between the metal and the substrate. And,
these provide the losses, and this reduces the quality factor of the inductor.
The quality of the inductor can be improved by narrowing the inner turns and by widening
the outer turns. Now, these inductors can also be used in the similar applications as we
discussed for the capacitors. They can be used in low noise oscillators integrated LC-filters,
in amplifiers, on chip matching networks. They can also be used in impedance transformers
and phase shifters.
The next we will talk about the other microwave component that is switch. So, a switch is a
device to make the electrical connection or to break the electrical connection. The RF micro
electro mechanical switch is a switching device that is fabricated using micro machining
technology, where the switching between the ON and the OFF states is achieved by the
mechanical displacement of a freely movable structure.
Now, if you remember in case of switch, there are various important features like, they
should provide the low insertion loss, they should provide high isolation. The lifecycle should
be more and they should have series resistance with low value; the transition time should also
be less for the switches. These characteristics will be provided by RF MEMS switches.
Now, if you remember there are 2 type of microwave switches; mechanical and
semiconductor type. The mechanical type of switches could of either coaxial type and
waveguide type; they provide low insertion loss and the RF power handing capability of these
switches is also high. Additionally they provide the high isolation in reverse case, when the
switch in OFF state, but they are bulky in size the next type of switch is a semiconductor type
switch, which are made using the pin diode or the FET.
So, the size of the semiconductor type switch is relatively very less, but this suffers from the
low insertion loss and low isolation at higher frequencies. So, RF MEMS switches, combines
the advantage of both mechanical and the semiconductor type of switches. So, they offers the
advantage of both the switches.
The benefits of these switches are they are simple and they can operate in a simple way
through electrostatic actuation, they provide the ultra-low power consumption. The isolation
is also very high in these switches; they provide high signal linearity and Low DC standby
power. The insertion loss is also less in these switches as compared to semiconductor type.
And, they are more suitable for broadband operations. However, they suffer from the
challenges like they provide low switching speed, and low power handling capability as
compared to the semiconductor type of switches. They are also limited in terms of reliability
of the metal contacts.
Now, these switches could be of 2 type series or the shunt. The series switch can be of
various types the contact switch, relay switch or the capacitive switch with contact less
geometry.
The shunt switch could be of various type the shunt capacitive switch and the shunt contact
switch. So, here is geometry of series switch which is made by Motorola and the 2 up and
down state of this switch is shown here. This series switch is made using the cantilever,
which is fixed at one end and the metal strip is made at the cantilever. It is connected in series
with the microstrip line and a metal electrode is placed below the cantilever which is
suspended. This electrode is known as the pull down electrode, the operation of this switch is
given by 2 mechanism. Here in the metal strip is connected to the anchor region it provides
the supports to the wider region. And the second part is the wider region which is overlapping
with the metal electrode. So, they form a parallel plate capacitor.
Now, when the actuation voltage or the electrostatic actuation is applied, they forms a closed
path and it is in conducting state. Now, when the bias voltage is applied it tries to pull down
the cantilever. And, it creates a tensile force which will try to pull it back, when the bias
voltage is increased further, when it is greater than the threshold voltage then the tensile force
will not be able to balance this electrostatic force which is created due to the bias voltage. So,
it will fall down and it will fall to the pull down electrode. Now, if you see in this case in
unactuated state there is no current pass. So, it provides a high impedance state. So, they will
not be any DC current in this type of switches. So, in this case the DC biasing can be
provided with the help of resistor. However, if you member in case of solid state switches
there is a large amount of DC current flow. So, the biasing cannot be provided with the help
of resistor because they will result in voltage drop of high amount. So, the biasing is provided
with the help of inductor in case of solid state switches,
Next is the example of low voltage MEMS shunt switch which was made by University of
Michigan, it is a capacitively coupled switch. In this case the pull in voltage is reduced by
increasing the area or it can be reduced by decreasing the gap between the capacitor and the
switch and by decreasing the spring constant value. So, if you see in this case, the increase in
area is not a feasible solution, because the MEMS devices are invented by the target of
miniaturizing the devices only. If you reduce the gap then in that case there maybe chances
that the RF isolation of the switch may reduce. So, that is also not a feasible solution. So, the
most feasible solution to decrease the pull in voltage is to reduce the spring constant value
with low mass if possible.
The next type of component is the RF MEMS phase shifter. In case of semiconductor phase
shifter, if you remember, they do not provide the desirable insertion loss at higher
frequencies. Additionally, they do not provide the continuous phase variation. So, they are
not suitable in the phased array antenna or in adaptive array antenna. Now, the RF MEMS
based phase shifter is a solution to this because they provide very low insertion loss at higher
frequency in millimeter wave frequency range.
The phase change in these types of phase shifters can be controlled by varying the path length
with reference to the reference state. Now, these switches are divided into 2 categories
analogue phase shifter, digital phase shifters. The analogue phase shifters can be designed
using distributed and capacitive shunt switches. In case of digital phase shifter, they are made
using the discrete phase changes, here the phase shift is achieved by switching between the
different phase paths. So, here is the example of a digital phase shifter, which is a switched
line phase shifter, it is designed for Ka band. In this case, here the DC biasing is provided
here. This is a via-less topology, here the resonant strips acts a RF ground.
In this case to turn OFF a particular section 2 quarter wave transformation technique is used
between the resonant stub and the T junction. So, one quarter wave transformer is from the
quarter wave stub to the centre of the switch, here it is open. So, it will act like a short at the
centre of the switch. The, another quarter wave transformation line is this. So, the centre of
the switch is short. So, it will act like a open at the T junction. So, in this way, when the
switch is in actuation state or if you want to have the phase change with respect to the
reference state, then the signal which is passing through with this line will see an open circuit.
So, it will move to the desired path to provide the additional phase change in the reference
path by providing this additional length. So, this is geometry for 1800 phase shift.
Similarly, the line length can be adjusted for the 90 0 width and 450 width. Here with this
geometry, the phase change can be achieved from 00 to 3150 with a step size of 450. This
geometry provides the insertion loss of 1.7 dBi at curve end. Now, these type of phase
shifters provide the low insertion loss high isolation, negligible actuation power and lower
standby power consumption. So, these are the advantages of RF MEMS based phase shifter.
The next component which is based on the RF MEMS topology is the filter. Now, if you
remember in case of filter it is desired to have the flat band pass response, high out of band
rejection ratio and high roll off factor. Now, if you see in case of RF MEMS filter the
performance of the RF MEMS filter is enhanced by using a series of resonator tanks
connected together with the coupling network. Here, the number of resonated tanks decides
the order of the filter. More will be the number of resonated tanks, more will the order of the
filter and it will improve the selectivity of the filter.
The one of the common configuration to make the filter is the parallel plate capacitor of the
type comb structure. Now using comb structures 2 type of configurations are possible. In the
first configuration structure, the structure is driven on one of the comb structure and it is
sensed at the other comb structure, for the capacitive variation. In the second structure both
the comb structures are used to drive differentially, while the sensing is achieved by
monitoring, the shift in the impedance at the resonance frequency.
Now, there are 2 topologies of these filters series and parallel. In case of series filters, the
resonant structures should be separated by the square truss spring and the resonance
frequency of this structure can be controlled by lowering the spring constant value of this
square truss spring.
In case of parallel structure, it can be measured by the input and output current they should
add up in phase. To design the band stop filter, they should be added in reverse phase. One
more thing I want to highlight here, in order to reduce the coupling or to reduce the excitation
of higher order modes. The ground plane should be used over here, which is shown here.
And, the number of resonators can also be increased here to increase the selectivity of the
filters. These filters can also be used in the similar applications in various Transreceiver or
tools or wherever the band is to be selected from a wider band, these filters can be easily
used.
So, far we have discussed about the RF MEMS components and the RF MEMS topology.
Now, we would like to discuss about the microwave imaging. So, microwave imaging is a
science, which is evolved from the older detecting and locating techniques in order to
evaluate the hidden or embedded objects in a structure using electromagnetic waves in the
microwave region. Engineering and application oriented microwave imaging is known as the
microwave testing. The microwave imaging is an area of research, where the idea is to make
use of low power to detect the physical and the electrical properties of the device and a test. It
is an efficient diagnostic procedure for non-invasive visualization of dielectric properties of
non-metallic bodies.
The dielectric properties of the material cannot be measured through any insitu procedure as
any direct or insitu procedure are destructive in nature. The measurement of dielectric
properties for a wide variety of material over the broad frequency range is the area of
research and it is crucial in the microwave imaging and sensing. The microwave imaging can
be classified into 2 ways to quantitative techniques and the qualitative techniques.
In case of quantitative techniques, they give the electrical and the geometrical parameters of
the image object. The electrical parameter means that the electrical and the magnetic
properties and here the geometrical parameter means the shape, size and the location of the
hidden object. And, the qualitative techniques calculate the refractivity function of the hidden
object and then use this simplification approximation to simplify the imaging problem. And,
then use the back propagation algorithm to construct the unknown image profile. Synthetic
aperture radar, ground penetrating radar, and the Doppler radar belongs to the qualitative
technique.
.
Now, this microwave imaging principle can be defined in the 2 ways; through hardware
components and the software component. The hardware component collects the data from the
sample under test. It sends the electromagnetic waves through the antenna to the sample
under test. Now, if the sample is of homogeneous type and it is of infinite size, then they do
not reflect any EM waves. Now, if there is any anomaly in this sample, then it will reflect the
EM waves. So, more the anomaly is more will be the reflection. Now, this is a reflection can
be captured by the same antenna in case of monostatic system and buy a different antenna in
case of bistatic configuration.
Now, the cross range resolution of these antennas can be improved by using the array of
antennas, but these arrays should be separated by less than one wavelength, but in this case,
there could be coupling which may reduce the accuracy of the measurement. So, therefore, a
single antenna should be used and it should scan the overall area and the mapped data can be
collected in terms of coordinate system, which can be further post processed using the
software and the various imaging algorithms to construct the unknown object image profile.
The microwave imaging has applications in various areas like, medical imaging; the next type
of application is the non-destructive testing and evaluation through wall imaging, and his
structure wall monitory, concealed weapon detection at security points. We will discuss these
applications one by one in a while. So, the first application of the microwave imaging is the
medical imaging. In case of head imaging the idea is to detect and locate the damaged brain
tissue, which happens due to either any injury or due to hemorrhagic stroke in the head.
So, here is this system for head imaging. It contains the 16 antenna elements; it is a
corrugated slot antenna operating in the frequency range 1 to 4 GHz it provides the
directional radiation pattern. So, it is confined in the area of interest. This plate form contains
2 metal plates; one plate is the adjustable one to accommodate the head phantom. And, in this
case it is adjusted in such a way. So, that there is not any error in case of measurement, the
radius of this plate is 34 cm. In the second plate the inner radius is 17 cm and the outer radius
is 42 cm. It is selected to accommodate the various size of the head phantom, it contains the
adjustable pole which can be varied any height. It also contains the horizontal slots to fix the
antennas in these slots. They contains the holders where the horizontal location can be varied
according to the head phantom. These antennas are connected to vector network analyzer.
And, they are selected using the 2 SP8T switches. The first switch select the antennas from 1
to 8 and the second switch select the antenna from 9 to 16.
Now, this platform considers the normal human brain conditions, which contains the skull,
white matter, grey matter, and cerebral spinal fluid. Now for the measurement a hemorrhagic
stroke affected brain head phantom is taken. And, the set of measurements are taken to
collect the data. Head data is collected in terms of reflection coefficient in s parameters. And,
then by using the post processing algorithms the N image is created. So, this is the image
created after post processing, it indicates the 2 location of brain stroke. So, in this way with
the help of this platform one can locate the brain stroke in a head phantom with the help of
microwave imaging.
So, next application of the microwave imaging is non-destructive testing, here it can be used
to do the measurement of corrosion in the steel bar. So, this is a setup of non-destructive
testing system. This is an antenna which is of horn type the size of this antenna is 14 x 24
cm2. It is separated from the steel bar by a gap of 1 cm it is radiated by a 10 W of power. So,
in this steel bar it is corroded by 4 types of corrosion and they are separated by 1 cm gap,
when they are radiated you can see that with the help of a thermal camera and image profile
is created at the frequency 2 GHz, 2.5 GHz and 3 GHz. So, in case of uncorroded a steel bar
they will be the maximum absorption. However, in case of the corrosion the absorption will
be less. So, it will show the highlighted spots to yes, you can see the highlighted spots which
corresponds to the corroded areas. You can see here at higher frequencies the absorption is
even less. So, it provides even brighter spots. Now, we will see what will be the effect of
these steel bars when they are embedded in a concrete metal.
So, here is the example; in this 2 steel bars are taken, in this half of the area is uniformly
corroded in another steel bar, it is non uniformly corroded in some of the area and the
corrosion is more in this area. When this is exposed by a microwave oven at 2.45 GHz for 10
seconds and the thermal image profile is taken by a thermal camera, then these types of
images are created here the black circle shows the area of corrosion.
So, this is the thermal profile of this rod, it shows the brighter spots for the corroded area in
the half length. In the second case corroded area is confined in this region, which can be seen
from the thermal profile. From here you can see this shows the uncorroded steel bar. Now,
when these steel bars are embedded in the concrete region then the absorption is more. So,
you can see from the image profile, the corroded region can still be identified with the help of
microwave testing. Here, the intensity of a spot is less, because of the loss tangent of the
concrete metal. With the help of microwave imaging the non-destructive testing for the
corrosion can also be done.
The next application is the concealed weapon detection at security. Here is the photograph of
the mannequin; it contains the cloths along with the concealed weapons these concealed
weapons could be of various types like scissors knife, pistol chip or any non-metallic body.
When, it is exposed with microwave radiation it will show different reflectivity profile for the
non-metallic objects or the metallic objects. So, it will be different from the human body the
corresponding variations can be seen in the image profile when it is created after post
processing. So, this is the image which is created after post processing. So, it shows the
concealed weapon which is with the person.
The colored image can also be created here in this case this red color shows the less distance
with respect to the measurement system, and blue color represents the more distance with
respect to the measurement system.
Now, similarly this microwave imaging can be used for the through wall imaging
applications. So, this is the through wall imaging radar system, the size of this radar is 2.4
meter in it is expanded form, it can locate the person inside a building at an offset from the
building. It can also tell about the size of the building and the activities that are going in the
building. So, it is very useful for the strategically operation of the security. So, here is the
image shown for a person, when it is measured using this system.
In this case a person is moving first to the left side, then it is moving towards the wall, then it
is move in right side, then it is moving towards the another wall and then it is taking the
reverse motion. Now, in this case the walls are stationary. So, the reflection will be constant.
However, reflection will vary due to the movement of the person. So, the reflection due to
walls can be suppressed and the motion of the person can be tracked easily with the help of
this system. So, this is a very useful application from the security point of view.
The next application is the Doppler weather radar, which is used for the measurement of
weather conditions for the extreme weather changes, these weather changes could be like
cyclone, extreme heavy rainfall, extremely high wind loading etcetera. So, with the help of
this Doppler weather radar one can easily intimate in well advance. So, that the proper
measures can be taken to save lives and other things so, here is the S band Polarimetric
Doppler weather radar which is made by the ISRO and BEL organization. It is install in the
cherrapunji which is known for heavy rainfall, this radar can successfully provide the weather
changes at 500 km. So, with the help of this radar in well advanced one can be notified about
the extreme weather changes. So, that they can save their life or they can take the proper
measures to counter attack these extreme situation. So, these are the applications of
microwave imaging.
Now, with this I would like to conclude we started with RF MEMS, we saw how the RF
MEMS devices are made. Then we talked about various types of RF MEMS components we
talked about RF MEMS capacitor, inductor, switches, phase shifters and filters and then we
saw how they are different and superior over the semiconductor microwave devices.
After, that we talked about the microwave imaging we talked about the principle of operation
of microwave imaging; then we saw the various application of microwave imaging in various
areas like we saw, the application of microwave imaging in medical field for brain stroke
detection. After that we talked about the application of microwave imaging for non-
destructive testing. We saw the identification of corrosion in steel bars after that we talked
about the application of microwave imaging in concealed weapon detection, then we talked
about the application of microwave imaging in through wall imaging applications, then we
talked about the application in the weather measurement using the Doppler weather radar
with this I would like to conclude.
Thank you very much bye.

Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 11
Lecture - 53
Microwave Systems
Hello. So, far in the course we have studied various Microwave Devices and Circuits, be it
passive circuits like power dividers, couplers, filters or active circuits like; oscillators,
amplifiers, mixers and so on. In this lecture, we are going to study how these different
passive and active circuits are integrated with each other depending on a particular
application to form an entire Microwave System. Let us begin.
So, we are going to discuss 4 different Microwave Systems. The first one is spectrum
analyzer, the second is network analyzer, the third is mobile phone jammer or silencer and
the fourth one is ground penetrating radar which is GPR.
Let us start with the first one spectrum analyzer. Spectrum analyzer is a test instrument used
for signal measurements, such as signal frequency measurements, power measurements,
phase noise measurements; it is also used to measure different distortions such as harmonic
distortions and inter modulation distortions or IMD. The spectrum analyzer typically looks
like this.
So, you have a display embedded into the instrument and you have various controls to enter
and analyze various parameters. The spectrum analyzer basically functions as follows. So, the
spectrum analyzer has to display various frequency components present in the input signal
which is given over here, along with their power levels which is displayed on the Y axis.
For the spectrum analyzer X axis consists of frequency whereas, the Y axis displays the
power levels typically in dBm. Let us have a look inside of the spectrum analyzer.
So, there are various architectures available to implement spectrum analyzers. And, super
heterodyne architecture is the most widely used architecture, this is the simplified block
diagram. So, we know about the super heterodyne, down conversion principal. The input
signal is down converted to an IF using a mixer and local oscillator input. The local oscillator
is implemented using a VCO and a reference oscillator. The VCO is governed using a sweep
generator, which mean that the local oscillator frequency sweeps from a lower value to a
higher value in the operation.
The, IF signal which is available at the mixer output is processed using an IF amplifier and an
IF filter. And, the power level of this IF signal, which corresponds to the input signal
frequency components power level is detected using an RF detector and log amplifier. The
signal is further processed using a video filter and given to the Y axis of the display. The X
axis of the display which corresponds to the frequency is governed by the sweep generator
output.
So, the sweep generator generates a sawtooth voltage waveforms, which sweep the LO
frequency at the input of the mixer from a lower value to a higher value. And, from that range
various frequency components correspondingly in the input signal are displayed on to the
display.
The, input attenuator is important to prevent the damage of rest of the circuit components
from a very high level input signal. This is typically implemented using a variable attenuator
technique, which we have discussed in the course. These are some important specifications of
a spectrum analyzer; we have frequency range, which is nothing, but the range of analysis
through which the spectrum analyzer can work. Dynamic range is defined as the difference
between the highest signal that can be displayed on to the spectrum analyzer display. And,
the minimum signal that can be detected and displayed on to the spectrum analyzer display.
Sensitivity is the minimum detectable signal and is governed by the noise floor of the
spectrum analyzer, which arises due to noise in the various components of a spectrum
analyzer. Resolution bandwidth of a spectrum analyzer which is abbreviated as RBW, it tells
the ability of the spectrum analyzer to differentiate between 2 closely spaced frequency
components in the signal. And, there are accuracy specifications we have frequency accuracy
and amplitude accuracy, which measure the accuracy of the entire system. Refresh rate is
governed by the frequency of the sawtooth voltage waveform, which is generated by the
sweep generator.
Let us have a look at a practical spectrum analyzer system which was implemented at IIT
Bombay. So, this is a narrow band spectrum analyzer, which works from the frequency range
of 800 to 1000 MHz this is a system. So, the system consists of a microcontroller section the
microcontroller used is PIC18F4550. The microcontroller section generates a voltage
sawtooth waveform, which governs the VCO, the VCO or the PLL or the frequency
synthesizer is implemented using ADF4350 IC.
The VCO output is given at the LO input of the mixer the mixture is implemented using a
MAX2680 IC from maxim semiconductors. The input signal is down converted using this
mixer and the LO signal to an IF. We have an IF filter implemented using a coupled line
microstrip filter. This IF amplitude or IF power level is detected using an RF detector, which
is implemented using MAX2015 IC. So, you can see all the different components in the
circuit are designed based on the requirement using several market available ICs and
microstrip techniques which we have studied in this course.
The RF detector output which is the voltage output is given back to the microcontroller unit.
The microcontroller sends the sawtooth waveform information and the detected signal level
to a PC or to a software which is running on a PC, where it is displayed along the X axis and
Y axis. The frequency is displayed on the X axis and amplitude level is displayed on the Y
axis. So, this system does not have its own display, it uses the display of any available PC,
which is personal computer and it requires a software to run on that computer.
So, these are the results of this narrow band spectrum analyzer, as you can see we have used a
laptop a software running on this laptop enables the display. So, the entire circuit is packed
into a small box this is your spectrum analyzer, it gets powered by the USB of the computer.
So, it is very compact and portable the output is given again through USB to the software
running on this PC. The software backend processes the data and displays on to a GUI the
GUI looks like this. So, you have different options to enter the start and end frequency; you
have some error console and you have a monitor as well.
And, this is the main graph where you have frequency on the X axis and power level on the Y
axis. We also have marker functionality. So, the marker values are displayed over here. So,
the as a result the dynamic range of the system comes to be around 23 dB, the resolution
bandwidth is 9.69 MHz, which is equal to the IF filter bandwidth. And, frequency error is
quite low which is plus minus 0.025 percent. And, a very accurate system has been developed
at least in the frequency domain to have a functional spectrum analyzer. Moving next we
have a network analyzer system.
So, this is a test instrument used for network measurements, which are nothing, but S
parameter measurements. There are 2 types of network analyzers; one is a scalar network
analyzer which is SNA. Another one is a vector network analyzer which is VNA. SNA is
capable of displaying only the magnitudes of the S parameters. So, only amplitude
measurements are done in SNA whereas, VNA is capable of displaying both magnitude as
well as phase information of the S parameters, which are being measured a typical network
analyzer looks like this.
So, you have an embedded display, you have various controls to enter and analyze different
parameters. There are 2 ports, which can act as in an out ports and the DUT, which is device
under test whose S parameters are to be measured is connected in between these 2 ports.
We will see what is inside a network analyzer next. So, this is very simplified architecture of
a network analyzer, you have a variable frequency continuous wave source, which is given to
the input of 2 power dividers or splitters through a level adjustment which is nothing, but a
variable attenuator. Through a switch this power dividers one end is connected to what you
see here is a power detector, again power detector. The other half of the power is given to a
directional coupler, we have direction coupler here as well and in between these 2 sets the
DUT, there are 2 more power detectors which are test 1 and test 2. We will discuss the
operation of this network analyzer in a while.
So, as you can see there are various blocks which are VCO power divider, coupler, which we
have studied in this course in detail. So, let us see the operation the signal that has been
generated by the variable, frequency, continuous, wave source. Is split into 2 halves the 1 half
that goes into this power detector actually corresponds to the incident power level. The
second half that goes through the directional coupler to the DUT some part of that signal is
transmitted by the DUT, and is measured using the test 2 power detector. So, the
measurement of this power detector corresponds to transmitted power level.
Some of the signal might get reflect back depending on the characteristic of this DUT. So, the
reflected signal through the coupler is incident on this power detector and the measurement of
this power detector corresponds to the reflected power level. Now, the ratio of reflected
power level and the incident power level enables the calculation of S 11. Whereas the ratio of
transmitted power level and incident power level enable the calculations of S 21, and these
calculations are performed in the processor. And, these calculated values are given to the
display unit, where on the Y axis this S parameter magnitudes or phases are displayed and on
the X axis the frequency which is generated by the continuous wave source is displayed.
So, this is how a very simplified model of network analyzer works and these are some
important specifications for a network analyzer system. So, first is the frequency range which
specifies the range of frequency values, which can be displayed on to the network analyzer
display. Second is the type of the network analyzer whether it is a SNA or a VNA. Third is
the dynamic range, in this case the dynamic range is defined as the difference between the
output power levels for open or short load which is close to 0 dB. And, that of a matched
load, which is typically 50 Ω. Fourth one is the noise floor, which arises due to various
components inside the network analyzer. And, fifth one is measurement uncertainty which is
nothing, but errors in the measurements.
Let us have a look at a practical implementation of a network analyzer, scalar network

analyzer in particular develop at IIT Bombay. The measurement frequency range is from 800
to 2500 MHz, the system consists of an MCU which is microcontroller unit and PLL on a
single board. The MCU is implemented using a PIC18F4550 microcontroller. The PLL or the
frequency synthesizer is implemented using LTC6946 IC from Linear technology. The output
of this PLL is given to the harmonic suppressor to suppress out various harmonics present in
the PLL output.
And, we wish to process only the fundamental frequency. This fundamental frequency
component is then divided into 2 parts, we can see incident power detector over here. And,
the rest of the part is given to the DUT, through test set some of the power gets transmitted by
the DUT, which is measured using transmitted power detector. And, the reflected power is
separated from the incident signal using this test set and is measured at this particular point
using reflected power detector.
So, these are various system components and you can see the power detectors are
implemented using MAX2015 ICS, the harmonic suppressor power divider and test set are
implemented using passive micro strip techniques.
Let us have a look at the results of this system. So, on the left top you see the results for open
shot and matched, which is 50 Ω load and you can see that the for open and short the results
are closed to 0 dB which is the ideal case. And for load case the results are well below minus
30 dB which is also good. So, the dynamic range that is achieved is around 30 dB and these
are uncalibrated results. If you connect the DUT which is dual band stop filter in this case and
in this graph the SNA results are compared with a standard VNA, which is E5071. And, you
can see that the results of SNA are in close agreement with the actual measured results using
a market available VNA.
Of course, a calibration is required to make these results more accurate and on the right side
you see that the GUI of the system, which is a result of a software running on any computer.
So, the GUI consists of start stop step input for frequency and you have various options
available here calibration display options and so on. You also have marker functionality.
What you see currently on the graph is S 11 of log periodic antenna. And this is of course,
magnitude this being a scalar network analyzer; it will display only the magnitude part of the
S parameters.
Next is a mobile phone jammer or silencer system. A mobile phone jammer generates noise
in the transmit bands of a mobile phone tower which is nothing, but the downlink frequency
bands, which prevents cellular phones from receiving and transferring signals to the base
station.
So, the downlink frequency bands are jammed using this jammer which prevent the mobile
phones from sending and receiving any data or voice. So, this is a typical image of a tri band
jammer what you see protruding from this rectangle are the antennas, which are for 3
different bands which is CDMA GSM 900 and GSM1800. Let us have a look at the
architecture of a mobile phone jammer.
This is a very simplified architecture, but it explains the functionality of the jammer
remember the objective of the jammer is to jam the signal that is received from the base
station to the cell phone.
So, all the system needs to do is to create a noise signal and translate it in the same frequency
band as used by the downlink band of the base station. So, the system consists of a VCO,
which is voltage controlled oscillator, which generates the frequency of the desired frequency
band. This VCO is controlled using a tuning circuit the output of the VCO is amplified by
using an RF amplifier. So, that we have enough power transmitted by the antenna and entire
system is powered using a power supply.
The specifications are number of frequency bands that can be jammed by a mobile phone
jammer. The, output power level which specifies the distance range that can be covered by
the jammer, coverage area which has the directional properties and specific to the antenna
that is being used inside the jammer.
And we have power supply requirements. So, depending on the output power level and hence
the distance range to be covered the power supply requirements will change.
Let us have a look at a practical implemented system of mobile phone jammer, which is quad
band jammer. This system can jam 4 bands, which is CDMA 869 to 890 MHz GSM900
which is 935 to 960 MHz, GSM1800 which is 1805 to 1880 MHz and 3G which is 2110 to
2170 MHz. As you can observe, all these bands are downlink frequency bands and not
uplink, this is an important factor to be remembered the system that is implemented looks like
this.
So, the VCO is implemented using BFP520 transistors from Infineon technologies. We have
studied the VCO implementation using BFP 520 in the oscillator class. This VCO is
controlled using Varactor BBY52-02. The VCO output is given to the cascaded arrangement
of amplifiers and these amplifiers are implemented using MMG3001 and, MMG3003. The
power requirement which is quarter watt or 0.25 watt in this case for single band cannot be
achieved using a single stage of the amplifier, and hence the cascaded arrangement.
The power at the output of the amplifier is transmitted using an omnidirectional antenna.
And, entire system requires a voltage of 7 V DC and maximum current that can be drawn
from the source is 1 A. So, this system is only for a single band and for 4 bands, 4 such
separate systems have to be implemented. As, a result the output power of this system is 0.25
watt per band, there are 4 such bands. So, one watt of power is actually outputted or
transmitted in air, and the jamming range of this particular jammer is in 10 to 20 feet range
depending on the signal strength in that area.
So, this is how a jammer can be implemented using the circuits that we have already study in
the class. So, we have studied the VCO circuits, we have studied the MMG 3001 circuit in
the class, and simply you have to connect all the systems along with the antenna that we have
also studied, and connected together properly to achieve the functionality of a jammer.
Lastly, we will move to the ground penetrating radar or GPR system.
So, this is a non-destructive method of detection and imaging of buried objects. The system
looks like this I will explain the working principle using this image.
So, there are 2 antennas; one is a transmitter antenna, second one is a receiver antenna. Both,
these antennas are placed on the ground surface and the objects are actually buried inside the
soil. Now, the transmitter antenna transmits a signal at a particular frequency at a particular
power level. This signal penetrating the ground reaches the buried objects and because of this
object, which has different dielectric properties compare to the soil. Some of the signal gets
reflected back and that signal is received using the receiver antenna, this received signal is
processed using a processing unit and finally, displayed on to the display.
So, the processing involves finding out the depth of this object primarily. The depth of
penetration depends on the power level of the transmitter antenna, and the frequency of
operation which is used by the transmitter and receiver antenna.
Let us have a look at a practical implementation system or an architecture of GPR, this is a

continuous wave single frequency radar. In the transmit change you can see there is a VCO,
which is voltage controlled oscillator followed by an amplifier a power divider and finally,
the signal is given to the transmitting antenna.
The signal that gets reflected from the object buried inside the soil is received by the
receiving antenna, the signal is amplified using an LNA, then band pass filter then given to an
I-Q Demodulator, which gives the phase and amplitude of the received signal. And, this
phase and amplitude signal is further processed using a microcontroller unit after digitization,
and then given to a software running on a PC for further processing and display. So, such a
system has been implemented at IIT Bombay and these are the various practical ICs and
circuits that were been used.
In transmit part the VCO is implemented using a BFP 520 transistor we have seen this circuit
already. The amplifier is implemented using an MMG3001IC, the transmitting antenna is of
rectangular micro strip type which is RMSA. So, is the receiving antenna again an RMSA,
the received signal is amplified using an LNA, the LNA is implemented by SGL0622 IC the
band pass filter is implemented using microstrip coupled line. The I-Q Demodulator which is
the key part in the system is developed using AD8347 IC and the controller has a inbuilt
ADC, which is ATMEGA 8.
The signal that has been received by the I-Q demodulator through the controller is given to
software running on a PC for further processing and display.
Let us have a look at the results of this GPR system. So, this is a experimental setup. So,
transmit and receive antennas are there, below that a wooden table is kept with the thickness
of 4.5 centimeter. And below that after the air gap of around 2 centimeters there is a bucket
filled with soil and inside that soil a metal object or metal plate is buried. Now, the
transmitter antenna transmits the signal the signal travels through the wooden block air soil
and reaches the metal plate where it gets reflected back.
And the reflected signal is received by the receiving antenna. The amplitude and phase
information of the signal received by the receiving antenna is shown over here. So, this is the
amplitude information and this is phase information and based on this information after
further processing we can estimate the depth of this metal plate from the system. So, as you
can see there are different depths at which this metal plate was kept. So, at 21.5 centimeter 13
9 and 3 and these are the amplitude ratio and phase differences of the received signals.
And, the estimated or calculated height or depth of the metal plate in each case is like this.
So, for actual depth of 21.5 centimeter the estimated or calculated depth was 18.6 centimeter
for 13 it is 11.9 4 for 9 it is 7.2.
However for 3 cm depth the estimated or calculated depth was 10.2, which was incorrect. So,
further calibration is required to make the results more accurate and the system performance
can be further improved after calibration and finally, design the different circuit components.
So, just to review we have discussed 4 different an important microwave systems in this
lecture be focused on spectrum analyzer system, which is widely used for signal
measurements, then we focused on network analyzer system, which is again widely used for
S parameter measurements. Then, we focused on a mobile phone jammer system, then we
studied GPR, which ground penetrating radar system. And, in all the 4 systems we saw that
all the building blocks are the blocks that we have studied in this course, we have studied
how to design this blocks from scratch, using ICS or using components and you can build an
entire microwave system, depending on the specifications using the material that has been
taught in this course I hope this was beneficial to you.
Thank you.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 11
Lecture – 54
Measurement using Network Analyzer
Hello, welcome to the lecture on Microwave Measurements. In this lecture, we are going to
study how to measure the circuit characteristics using test instruments. We will study this in
two parts, in first part I will explain some fundamental theoretical aspects of microwave
measurements and in the second part we will study how to do the measurements practically.
Let us begin.
So, unlike low frequency circuits where voltage and currents are measured against time in
microwave circuits we usually make power and phase measurements in frequency domain.
So, the basic quantities which are measured in RF and microwave circuits are frequency,
power impedance, port parameters which are S-parameters and noise. And these
measurements are primarily done by using two main instruments which is spectrum analyzer
and network analyzer.
The spectrum analyzer is capable of doing signal frequency as well as power measurements
fundamentally, it can also measure the phase noise of a signal, it is also used to measure the
harmonic distortion as well as inter modulation distortion. Network analyzers are used for S
parameter measurements primarily and it can be also used to measure the impedance of a
network which is input or output impedance and it is also used to measure the gain
compression point which is P1-dB of a network.
Let us see how frequency power and phase noise can be measured using a spectrum analyzer
instrument. So, some basics we have a sinusoidally varying signal v (t) = A cos (2πf1t), and
ideally the spectrum looks like this. So, we have an impulse at frequency f 1 and height of this
impulse should be A, but practically the impulse is flared at the bottom mainly because of
phase noise present in the signal and we can see that this phase noise is measured in dBc per
Hertz at some ∆f offset from the centre frequency which is f1.
The setup is quite simple the DUT which is typically a VCO or signal generator or PLL is
connected to the input of a spectrum analyzer and the measurements can be done accordingly.
Now, for phase noise measurements the DUT which is the VCO or PLL has to be noisier than
the spectrum analyzers reference source, then only the spectrum analyzer can measure the
phase noise of the DUT. The power and frequency measurements are straight forward and we
will see these in the practical measurement of these quantities.
Next is harmonic distortion measurement. So, you have an RF excitation source for a non-
linear DUT. The output of the DUT is connected to the input of the spectrum analyzer. Here
are some settings of the spectrum analyzer and we have to make sure that the output of the
DUT let us say in case of amplifier should not hamper the spectrum analyzer circuitry. In that
case you may want to put an attenuator in between the DUT output and the input of the
spectrum analyzer. This is the precaution we have to take.

Next is IP 3 measurement. So, there are two tones applied at the input of the DUT through a
power combiner and the third order inter modulation product which is nothing but 2f 1 -f2 or
2f2 - f1 is present at the DUT output. These are some spectrum analyzer settings. One thing to
be noted here the power combiner should give a very high isolation between these two ports
and also it should have a very high return loss for f1 and f2.
Now, comes network measurements which are done using network analyzers or vector
network analyze, VNA.
And the DUT to be measured is placed across the two ports of the VNA. In case of two ports
DUT in case of one port DUT you simply connect it to one of the two ports available at the
vector network analyzer.
So, before starting the measurements of the DUT calibration has to be done for the VNA.
Calibration is a process to remove the measurement errors arising due to the imperfections
within the VNA system which are called as systematic errors, and during the process the
systematic errors are actually quantified by measuring characteristics of known devices
which are called as absolute impedance standards. And once these quantified systematic
errors are known they can be adjusted in the actual DUT measurements to give more accurate
results. We will see how to do the calibration process and how to actually measure the S-
parameters in the practical aspect of this lecture.
Hello. Welcome to the second part of the lecture on Microwave Measurements. In this lecture
we are going to demonstrate how to use spectrum analyzer and network analyzer to test or
measure various characteristics of microwave circuits such as frequency, power levels, gain,
phase, noise, S-parameters and so on. So, the instrument that we are going to use are mainly
the spectrum analyzer and the network analyzer. Along with that we are going to use a signal
generator, A DC power supply and here is another signal generator and here you can see the
spectrum analyzer.
We restart the spectrum analyzer first and then will move to network analyzer measurements.
Let us begin.
So, we have a road and shorts spectrum analyzer of FSL type. So, the spectrum analyzers
frequency range is from 9 kHz to 3 GHz and as you can see the spectrum analyzer has an
embedded display and various controls to enter different settings and measure different
parameters. So, the display typically has an x axis and the y axis, on the on the x axis we have
a frequency and on the y axis the amplitude level or the power level of the frequency
components are displayed.

This is VCO cum PLL board. So, the IC that you can see here is LTC 6946 its frequency
synthesizer along with PLL and VCO. So, we have studied this particular circuit or we have
studied this IC based VCO design in the oscillator lecture, and a microcontroller PIC18F4550
is used to program the PLL IC. The output of the PLL is taken over here and what you see
here is an SMA type connector. This is a USB connector and the entire board is powered
using this USB power cable.
Let us power on the board this PLL has been programmed at a frequency of 1 GHz, now we
wish to measure whether the output frequency is one GHz or not. So, for that you have to go
to the frequency button press the frequency button and you can enter the desired frequency
value which will be the centre frequency value for the spectrum analysis. So, I will enter 1
GHz enter. So, now, you can see that the display has been centered to 1 GHz. The span
currently is 2 GHz; I will reduce the span so that I can view this particular thing more clearly.
So, I will set the span to let say 200 MHz.
Now, you see that you can view the frequency component in more details, but still the
amplitude level is not correctly shown, for that if you read the reference level is minus 20
dBm and we need to increase the reference level for that go to amplitude and reference level
set the reference level as 0 dBm. Now, I can see the peak of the frequency component. To
measure the frequency go to markers, set the marker you see that marker m1 has been placed
and the marker reading can be read from these two line. So, m1 has a frequency reading of
1.000400000 GHz which is very very close to the 1 GHz value which has in program in this
particular PLL.
So, the at the output of this PLL we have a frequency component at one GHz and the level of
this frequency component or the power level of this frequency component is minus 1.85
dBm. The program value or the program amplitude level was 0 dBm and the minus 1.85
dBm, accounts for the cable losses and other losses in the circuit. So, this is how we can
measure of frequency and the corresponding power level of a signal using spectrum analyzer.
For phase noise measurements you have to keep the span to the lowest value possible. So, let
us reduce the span click on span and span manual and let us keep the span to 50 kHz value.
Now, you see that the signal can be observed in more detail and you see that the noise level is
quite visible now. To smoothen this, let us go to trace, click on trace then click on trace mode
and choose the averaging function. So, click on the average and now you see that the things
are more stable.
Now, let us go for measurement of the phase noise. So, go to marker, now the marker m1 has
been set to the desired centre frequency which is approximately 1 GHz. Now, go to marker 2,
marker 2 is of delta type d 2 and the delta is displayed over here for phase noise measurement
all you have to do is click on this function which is phase noise reference fixed function. So, I
will hit on this. And I will see that the offset is currently minus 100 hertz. Remember phase
noise is measured at a particular offset frequency which is typically 10 kHz, 100 kHz or 1
MHz.
Let us keep the offset frequency to 10 kHz. So, I will enter 10 and kHz and all you have to do
to know the phase noise is to read the d 2 marker measurements which is shown over here.
So, if you observe phase noise 2 which corresponds to marker 2 is around 67 dBc per hertz at
an offset of 10 kilo hertz. Now, the rated phase noise of this PLL IC according to data sheet is
around minus 85 dBc per hertz but due to the overlapping of AM noise and the system
limitations of this particular board we get the phase noise measurement of around minus 67
dBc per hertz which is close to the desired value. This is how the phase noise measurements
can be done using a spectrum analyzer.
Next I will demonstrate how to measure the harmonic distortion in a non-linear circuit. This
is an amplifier circuit developed using MMG3001 IC and we are going to measure the total
harmonic distortion using spectrum analyzer. Let us have a look at the setup. So, we have a
signal generator which is generating an input signal of 500 MHz frequency and the amplitude
is 0 dBm. The signal is given at the input of the amplifier circuit over here and the output of
the amplifier will be checked on to the spectrum analyzer. Now, this amplifier circuit will be
powered using a DC power supply the voltage is 5.6 volt and the current will be drawn
accordingly by the amplifier operation.
Let us turn on the amplifier. So, as you can see the voltage is 5.6 and the amplifier is drawing
around 100 mA of current which is the correct operating point and now we will observe the
output of this amplifier on the spectrum analyzer. As you can observe on the spectrum
analyzer display we have the fundamental frequency output which corresponds to 500 MHz
and we have different harmonics of the fundamental frequency appearing into the output
because of the nonlinearity present in the amplifier.
Now, we will see how to measure the total harmonic distortion, for that you have to go to
measure click on it go to more. You can see harmonic distortion function, select it; you can
see that the upper graph demonstrates the fundamental and various harmonics of the
fundamental against time and amplitude levels. On below table you see that the first
harmonic which is the fundamental frequency is 500 MHz and this table has a frequency
resolution bandwidth and power level. So, the fundamental frequency which is 500 MHz has
been checked or analyzed with the resolution bandwidth of 3 MHz and the power level is 17
dBm.
The second harmonic which is at 1 GHz has been analyzed or measured with the resolution
bandwidth of 10 MHz and the power level is minus 23.2 dBc. Now, dBc is the power level
with respect to the fundamental power level third harmonic, fourth harmonic, fifth harmonic
and so on. So, the total harmonic distortion is 7.9 percent in dB it is minus 21.9 dB. So, this is
how you can measure the total harmonic distortion present at the output of any non-linear
circuit.
Next we will see how to measure IP 3 point of a non-linear DUT using spectrum analyzer.
Let me explain the setup to you.
The setup contains the DUT under test which is the MMG amplifier which we have just seen
at the input of the amplifier for IP3 measurements we have to give two tone input which
means two frequency input. This two frequency input is given to the input of the amplifier
using a power combiner such that the there is a isolation between these two input frequency
sources. This power combiner has been designed using the techniques that has been taught in
this course and the isolation between these two ports is around 25 dB.
The first tone which is at a frequency of 500 MHz and an amplitude level of minus 5 dBm is
given to one of the input of the power combiner. Now, make sure that the amplitude levels of
these two frequency tones has to be very close to each other or nearly equal. The MMG is
powered using a DC power supply with a 5.6 volt input and the current drawn is around 90
mA which shows correct operation. Now, with the two tones at the input of the amplifier we
will observe the inter modulation distortion at the output of the amplifier and the IP3 point is
measured by measuring the level of the third order modulation products which is 2f 1 - f2 or
2f2 - f1 frequency components relative to the fundamental frequency amplitude.
Let us see the response of this circuit on the spectrum analyzer display. So, this is how the
output of the amplifier on the spectrum analyzer looks like. So, as you can observe there are
two fundamental outputs which correspond to the two tone input signals and along with the
along with those you can see various spurious signals generated and we are interested in the
third order spurious signals or third order distortion signals which are at 200 MHz and 1.1
GHz to the input signals of 500 MHz and 800 MHz. So, twice f 1 minus f2 or twice f1 will give
us the values of 200 MHz and 1.1 GHz.
Verify that we get some signals at this frequencies for that let us go to markers and we have
marker m 1 you can move the marker like this, and you observe that at 200 MHz we do have
some signal is nothing, but twice f1 minus f2 where f1 is 500 MHz f2 is 800 MHz and at 1.1 let
us see if you have any signal. So, even at 1.1 GHz we do have some signal at an amplitude
level of minus 35 dBm and the TOI which is third order intercept point can be measured by
using inbuilt functionality of the spectrum analyzer. For that again go to the major tab so
click on this button measure and you see that you have a TOI function here just select that
function and you observe that there are two markers m 1 and m 2 at the fundamental
frequencies. So, m 1 is at 505 which is close to 500 MHz, m 2 is at 800 MHz approximately
and m 3 and m 4 should be at the desired third order products.
So, let us move the markers slightly. So, that they are at the exact level. So, m 2 or m 3 I will
move it to 200 MHz, and m 3 I will slightly move it to 1.1 GHz, ok. And the third order
intercept point as you can read from this line is 29.6 dBm. The data sheet mentions the TOI to
be 32 dBm which is the output IP3 point and the measured value by using this spectrum
analyzer and this setup is 29 dBm which is very close to the specified value.
Hello. Here we will be using vector network analyzer to measure input impedance, S-
parameter, and VSWR, and phase. So, you have been taught many micro step circuits like
power combiner, filter, coupler etcetera. In this case vector network analyzer that we are
using is a two port vector network analyzer.
So, we will be using this power combiner measure the S-parameters input impedance and
VSWR.
So, the vector network analyzer that we are using is E5071C, the frequency range for this
vector network analyzer is from 100 kHz to 8.5 GHz. So, to a start the measurement firstly,
you should be knowing about your DUT, what is the frequency range in which you want to
do the measurement.
So, this device that I showed you power combiner is design for GSM 900 band the bandwidth
that it provides is from 400 to 1.4 GHz. So, we will select the frequency range accordingly. In
order to select the frequency range select start give the start frequency range that is 400 MHz
then give stop frequency range is 1.4 GHz, then you need to do the calibration. In order to
select the frequency range use this option start click here then give the start frequency range
that is 400 MHz.
Then you find stop frequency range use this option stop give the stop frequency range that is
1.4 GHz. So, you have selected the frequency range, next you need to do the calibration. So,
select cal then you should selected cal kit that you are using for the calibration.
So, the calibration kit that we are using is 85033E. So, the manufacturer provides you open
load and short terminals so firstly, I will tell you what is the calibration.
So, the calibration accounts for the extreme condition like when the cables are connected to
open load and the short, and the account for the losses in these terminals and then accordingly
it adjust the measurement results. So, select the calibration kit you can use this option cal kit
then select the cal kit that you are using, we are using the 85033E. So, we are selected this
number then press calibrate.
Now, we know this is a two port network analyzer and we are doing measurement for power
combiner or power divider. So, we need to do the calibration for two port. So, press two port
calibration, then press reflection, then you should connect the cables with open load and
short. So, first connect with open and then press this option then click on this option port 1
open. Next you connect the port 1 to short after connecting this cable with shot again click on
port 1 short, then again connect this cable to load and then click on port 1 load and similarly
you replicate the procedure for port 2.
Now, after doing the calibration for reflection you should check the calibration for how much
power is going from this cable to this cable. So, use this transmission option and connect
these tables using the female adaptor. Now, connect this adaptor to connect these cables you
see here these are the cables which have SMA male on both the ends. So, connect these
cables using SMA female adaptor. After connecting this, just click on this option port 1 to
port 2 through we had just connected these cables. So, S21 and S12 ideally it should be 0, but it
is showing some value which is because of the losses in the cable.
However, if you see S11 and S22 they are well below 20 dB throughout the range. After doing
this just press done and disconnect the adaptor. So, after doing calibration this vector network
analyzer accommodate the losses in the cable. So, here you can see this is S 11 is 0 you can
also see S21. So, it is less than minus 50 dB. So, it is calibrated. Now, you should connect
your device to these cables to do the measurement you can also save this calibration state
using this option save recall, then select save type state and cal then select state only and save
state and you can define whatever name you want to define. So, I will just maybe the name as
1 2 3 4 5 and then enter. So, at the later stage if you do not want to repeat the calibration you
can we call this calibration state. In order to recall select save and recall then recall state and
then from file dialogue box you can use the sate that you have saved, ok. Now, you connect
these cables with the DUT.
Since we have only two port vector network analyzer so we will have to terminate one port
with load. So, here I have connected these cables at the two ports and I will terminate the
third port with load, then you can see S 21 that is the transmission from port 1 to port 2. So,
this is S21. If you want to see S11, S21 all the transmission and reflection coefficient in one
window then just select this display and select the number of traces as 4 and then you define
these traces. In order to define select measure then let us say for the first trace you will give
the value S11, for the next trace we will define S21 and for the next trace again we will define
S12 and for last trace we will define S 22, ok. Now, after allocating all the traces that is S 11, S21,
S12 and S22 you can see here all the transmission coefficient and reflection coefficient in one
window.
Now, just to locate the value of these transmission coefficient or reflection coefficient select
marker press marker 1, then you can move the position as per your desired frequency point,
ok. So, our case just maybe selects 900 MHz. So, here you can see the value of green curve
that is S22 at 900 MHz. Now, if you want to see S21 all you need to do is move to next trace,
ok. Now, here you can see the value of S 21 is minus 4.4 dB. So, ideally this power divider
should provide minus 3 dB, but this power divider is designed on FR 4 substrate which is
lossy. So, that is why you are getting minus 4.4 dB, and S11 you are getting minus 17 dB you
can see here it is well below 10 dB throughout the frequency range. So, this is how you
calculate the transmission coefficient and reflection coefficient.
Now, I want to show you that when you connect the output ports of these power divider how
much will be the isolation. Now, if I connect these two cables at these two output ports and
terminate the other port with the 50 ohm like this, then I should get the isolated power that is
how much power is going from this port to this and that will be the measure of S 21. Now, you
come to window here you the blue line or the pink line it shows you the value of S 21. So, if
you just try to locate one more marker go to marker then select one more marker and then just
try to locate it this give the value 700 MHz and for marker 1 maybe give value 1000 MHz.
So, here you can see that the isolation between these ports is less than 20 dB throughout this
particular frequency range. So, we can say that the output ports are isolated. So, this is how
you can measure the various parameter of your device whether it is a one port device or two
port devices.
Now, we would like to do the measurement for active device. So, the active device that we
are using is low noise amplifier. Here this is the IC of low noise amplifier the IC number is
SGL0622 the voltage requirement for this IC is 3 volt and it withdraws 10 mA current. So,
here we have given 3 volt as voltage and the current withdrawn by this it IC is 10 mA. So, I
have connected first port to the RF in of this IC and the second port to the RF output. Now,
this vector network analyzer can receive the power up to 17 dBm. So, we should reduce the
RF in power, so the gain for this IC is around 33 dBm. So, by default the network analyzer
power is 0 dBm if we give 0 dBm power then it will show you wording because it will
saturate. So, we will change the power level from this options sweep then go to power then
give maybe minus 40 dBm, ok. Then go to measure and you see here.
If you see here it shows you the variation of S 21 and this is a variation of S12 and this is the
variation of S11 and S22. So, that is the reflection coefficient at input and output port and this is
the transmission when the power is given to port 1. So, here you can see how much is the
gain of this particular low noise amplifier by just locating the marker. So, here you can see
from S21 that the gain provided by this particular low noise amplifier is around 33 dB at 570
MHz. So, this is how you can check the gain of this active device in the frequency range of
your interest.
To summarize at microwave frequencies instead of measuring voltage and currents against

time or in time domain we measure the signal power and phase in frequency domain. And for
different microwave circuits that we have been studying in this course we can measure the S-
parameters, the gains, the noise figure, the linearity using spectrum and network analyzes.
And we have studied how frequency, power, port parameters, impedance values can be
measured simply using these test instruments. We will stop at this point.
Thank you.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 11
Lecture - 55
CST Software Introduction with Filter Design
Hello today I will be taking a session on simulation software that is CST microwave studio,
where CST stands for Computer Simulation Technology. Basically this software is a
modeling package for high frequency simulations. So, let us starts CST software.
So, to do that open CST microwave studio so, when you open this you will see two menus,
one is file other one is home.
So, file is see conventional menu, where you can save the file with your selected name or you
can open the previously made files or you can create a new project and here you can see other
information related to licenses and projects.
The another option is home, in this option you can create new project. You can see various
windows; the windows which are shown over here are workspace message window and
progress window. So, whatever is ticked the over here those windows are displayed here in
this course. Firstly, we will tell about the software interface then we will design a filter at 1
GHz on a substrate FR 4 whose dielectric constant is 4.4 and thickness is 0.8 mm. So firstly,
just create a new project to do that click on new and recent project, then click on create
project.
So, when you will create project you will see this window, where you will find various sub
modules. So, corresponding to this sub module you can see various options you can design
these type of circuits.

If you select this menu you can design PCB packages and other things similarly you can
select various modules as per your requirement.
So, in this particular session we will be designing filter. So, we will be selecting microwave
RF and optical modules and as we are designing filter. So, we need to select circuit and
components, then click on next.
In the next window we will see various sub modules. Now I have already mentioned that we
will be designing filters. So, we will be selecting this filter planar filter and if we want to
design waveguide, cavity, couplers and other things then accordingly we will select the
relevant module.
So, click on planar filter then go to the next option now you will see various solvers which it
can use for its simulations. So, there are frequency domain solvers, time domain solvers and
other then that few solvers are also there. So, this time domain solver is used for broad
frequency range where as the frequency domain solver is more suitable for less frequency
range. So, here we want to see the simulation for broad frequency range therefore, I would
select time domain solver. So, click on time domain solver then go to next.

Then here we need to give preliminary settings like dimensions, frequency, time, temperature
etcetera since I mention that we will be designing filter at 1 GHz. So, I will keep these
dimensions as it is I won’t change anything and then click on the next.
In the next section you need to define the frequency range for which you want to do the
simulation. So, here I will give the frequency from 0.5 GHz to 3.5 GHz. Then if you want to
see the E-field H-field or far field radiation pattern in between then you can define your
monitors accordingly. So, by default it takes the end frequencies and the centre frequency.
So, when I clicked on E-field H-field and far field you can see here the three monitors are
defined which are corresponding to the end frequency and the centre frequency. Now, since I
said that I am designing filter at 1 GHz. So, I will keep one monitor at 1 GHz and other
monitor I will keep on the third harmonic that is 3 GHz. So, then click next.
Now, it has created a template with some default name. So, here you can rename as per your
convenience. So, right now I will just rename it as filter you can see whatever template we
have created the relevant information is given here. So, the dimension is in mm frequency is
in GHz, time is in nanoseconds and the temperature is in Kelvin where as the frequency
ranges from 0.5 to 3.5 GHz and the monitors at 0.5 GHz 1 GHz and 3 GHz. So, we have
defined the preliminary settings, now finish this.
When you finish this so, it will create a temporary project file, you can see here various
menus are there. So, one is file menu we have already explained about the file menu the next
one is modeling menu, in this the first option is import. So, using this option you can import
sub projects which were created in CST, you can also import various 3D models like sat
model IGS model etcetera whatever options are given you can easily import these models to
create the geometry. If you have made this geometry in any other software similarly you can
import 2D models in the given format.

Similarly if you want to export the model from CST you can export in set format IGS format
stub format and various models whichever is given here. And for today you can create Gerber
file, GDS file etcetera next part is background. So, background contains the background
properties.
Here you can see by default background is normal. So, if you want to change the background
material from properties by defining the conductivity, r, μr you can change the material.
.
But here we want to keep the background material as air. So, we won’t change anything next
part is material library. So, by default CST contains many materials.
That are predefined and their libraries are imported in CST. So, you can see the list of
materials which are already defined is CST, you can see here. Now suppose if you want to
create a new library which is not given here you can make a new material library from here
and then define r, μr, conductivity and other things just to define the material library.

Then next option is related to the geometries here you can see various pre defined shapes are
given. So, you can easily make these shapes just click on this, click here then you double
click and make the geometry.
You can see wherever I click the mouse accordingly, it took the dimensions and it created the
geometry corresponding to that. So, this is the geometry which I have created. So, this is a
basic rectangular shape.

If you want to make this sphere you can also make this sphere, similarly if you want to make
cone, you can make cones. Similarly if you want to make toroid, you can make toroid if you
want to make a cylinder then you can make cylinder also just double click and then move
your mouse in the height it will create cylinder as per your requirement. So, these are the
predefined options.
There are some other options like the extrude option; to use extrude option you need to select
a face. So, to select the face just move to the right side here one option pick is given. In pick
you can pick points, you can pick edges you can pick faces and other things whatever is given
here. So, if I want to extrude it I need to select a face. So, for example, if I select this face and
if I use extrude I can make a shape on this particular face by giving some height let us say
0.5. Now I want this to be twisted let us say may be 60 0 and tapered by 700 and I can change
the material if I want to change. So, suppose if I change it to PEC I can change it here then
press you see it has twisted as well as it is tapered. So, by these options you can create
various geometries.
Suppose now if you are interested in some type of geometry which is not given here, for that
you need to use this option curve like for example, you want to create a pentagon. So, use this
polygon option this, then click on next then next again next point double click and then
double click. So, it has created a polygon, but it contains only wire you can see here these all
geometries were 3D polygons.

So, corresponding to these polygons one solid is created over here you can see; however, this
is wire. So, related to this details it is given in this curve, Now, if you want to make a polygon
using this for this you need to select this curve tool use extrude option extrude curve, then
double click on this and give a thickness for which you want to create a polygon. Suppose I
will give here 0.5 may be then it will create a polygon. Now you can see corresponding to
this one polygon has created which is solid 7. So, in this way you can create a polygon of
your desired shape. So, these are the options.
Now if you want to select a edge, you need to select pick edge and then select the
corresponding edge double click. So, in that way you will select the corresponding edge
similarly if you want to select the middle point of a edge or the endpoints, you can use the
relevant options from here. Now, if you want to clear this picks use this option this is the
property option this gives the information about the objects which were created in the
workspace. So, this is the workspace where we create a full geometry. The next is history list
this option is very useful when we want to debug a particular geometry if there are some
errors, then this particular option is very useful to debug the errors which we have made. I
will talk about this option little later
The next is calculator here you can give expression and it will give you the results maybe
suppose if I take let us say 20*30 then. So, then this product it will create and the result will
be 600. So, in the similar way you can give various expressions and it will give you the value
corresponding to that. Then next is the WCS; WCS here by default in CST there are two
types of coordinate system, one is global co ordinate system another one is local coordinate
system. So, this x y z is global coordinate system, we cannot change this co ordinate system.
So, if we want to change coordinate system to a particular location, then we should use this
local co ordinate system. So, in general I would suggest whenever you make your design you
work using these local coordinate system. Now if you want to align these local co ordinate
system with edge or particular point you can do with these options easily. The next one is the
cross sectional view. So, if you want to cut and if you want to see at particular instant, you
can use this particular menu here in x plane you can see this it is shown using the cross
sectional view of at x = -3 you can change the location similarly you can see it in y plane and
in the same way where ever you want to see, you can see.
The next option is simulation. So, first one is frequency. So, if you have not defined the
frequency earlier, here you should mention the frequency, next option is background. So, in
the background I have already told we will be using normal, you can change here if you want
to change it at later stage. Next is boundaries so, in our case will be using boundaries. So,
here you can use various type of boundaries like perfect electric wall, perfect magnetic wall
open add space etcetera. So, we will be using open add space. So, I will make those changes
in all the directions.

Then these information is related to port. So, in case of microstrip, we will be using the
waveguide port and in case of wire antennas we will be using discrete port
The next part is lumped elements. So, in lumped elements we can provide RLC components,
diodes we can provide the specifications as per our requirement and correspondingly, it will
give you the simulated results. The next is field monitors so, if you want to define a field
monitor for E - field H-field surface current or various options whichever is given here, you
can define it for a particular frequency point. The next is voltage monitor current monitor. So,
you can apply all these monitors as per your requirement the next is the transient solver
which you have selected, the next option is optimizer. So, by default it provides few
optimization algorithm like you can see here CMA evaluation and this trust region frame
work. So, these algorithms are used to optimize if you want to optimize it for a particular
function, you can define that function over here.
So, these options if you want to explore you can use it. The next section is parameter sweep, I
will talk about this little later, the next is lock file which will show the results again I will talk
about this later these options I have already explained this one is mesh view, which will show
the meshed view of your structure the next is global properties. So, if you want finer machine
or maybe the mesh size of relatively more size, then you can change these settings as per your
requirements, but for the time being I won’t change these things next section is intersection
check. So, if some polygons are overlapping with each other then this particular section
intersection check should be used. Another one is electrical connection. So, this particular
option is used to check the electrical connectivity between the polygons.
So, this particular window is for the post processing parameters like S parameters, gain far
field and other things. So, these are the option you can try from even template based
processing you can see you can select these options. 2D far field results far field antenna
properties s parameters and all those things and accordingly you can do the processing.

And last option is related to the structure view. You can view this the structural design in
different ways by just rotating or by zoom in zoom out on other things you can see here. In
this option here you can see in windows you can select the window of your interest whatever
you want to see suppose if we I will and click this window, you can see I cannot see this
navigation window and if I click it appears again. So, I just want to tell you in this navigation
window, these options to this point, these are related to the modeling of the structure and
below this these are related to the post processing parameters, which shows the results of the
design. This one is a parameter list window here we define various parameters, here you can
give the variable name and the values and we can define their type to remember at the later
stage.
The next is a message window which displays the various types of errors or alerts or
warnings whatever comes in the simulation. Next part is a progress window which shows the
status of the simulation when we run it whether it is completed or not; let us start with the
filter design. So, as I mentioned that we will be designing filter on FR-4 substrate, the
resonance frequency of the filter let us take it as 1 GHz. Firstly, to define a substrate go to
modeling and we know a substrate is basically a brick before this I would just suggest that
whatever geometries we created just delete first all those geometries. Because, those
geometries were created to give you a reference that what type of geometries can be made
using this particular interface. So, press on brick then escape then you can see here the local
coordinate system is active.

So, in u direction let us take it is a length and in we take it is as a width. So, for length now I
would just suggest all of you to define these lengths and widths in terms of variable
parameters. Because here if you define it in terms of constant then at later stage if you want
to change it would be more time consuming because at every stage you will have to change it
manually while if you define the variable. You need to just simply replace in the variable it
will automatically change, I will show you at the later stage. So, let us just define it as a
substrate may be l sub as variable name then the next is just keep this term coordinate system
as symmetric and then define it from 0 to w substrate, and the thickness of the substrate let us
take it h substrate. Now I will define these parameters l substrate I am taking may be 20, w=
70 and then h we are using 0.8 mm thick substrate.
Now, here you can see the component is one, you can change to another component and if
you want to keep it in the same component you can keep in the same component. And I want
to rename the solid as substrate, the material since I told you that we are using FR 4 substrate.
So, we need to see whether we have FR4 substrate in the library or not. So, we need to just
check it in the library just scroll it down to check it ok. So, FR4 lossy you see we have
selected.
This is the substrate we have defined now we need to make a ground plane on bottom side.
So, just select this face and then use extrude option and name it is as ground and give a height
thickness as t for the copper, and use t = 35 μ.
Because when we get it fabricated in general, 35 μ thick copper layer is printed and the
substrate material should be perfect electric conductor for this case. So, we have defined the
ground plane and the substrate now we need to define the microstrip.

So, to do that first start here and then align WCS, then we want to may be start from
somewhere inside. So, for that you can use transform you can use y transfer and maybe just
give this value as 10 just see this geometry here. So, in this particular bottom strip is of 50 
impedance. So, we need to find how much will be the width corresponding to 50 
impedance.
However it is given here it is 1.5 mm, but I will show you how to calculate using CST. So,
here if you check in home there is a option macros you go to calculate then use calculate
analytical line impedance. Then go to thin microstrip option and here various options are
given. So, you can calculate the various lengths and widths corresponding to various options
like coaxial strip lines and other things to select thin micro stripline. Give r = 4.4 and the
thickness we know it is 0.8. Now just check for w equals to 2, how much will be the
impedance it is 42.48.
Now, we know w and z are inversely proportional. So, if we reduce the w my impedance will
increase. So, let us take maybe 1.5. So, you see corresponding to 1.5 it is 50.82. So, from here
you can calculate the thickness of 50  strip. Now we need to make 50  strip. So, to do that
just name it as strip minus maybe take same as l substrate length lsub/2 and then -w. I am just
giving the variables and I will put the value of these variables. So, thickness of this copper
you take as 35 micron again. So, w50 = 1.5. So, we have created this strip for 50  line you
see.
Now we need to create the /4 stub. So, to create the same again use strip and just name it as
a stub maybe from let us take the width of the stub as 0.5 mm. So, w stub may be give
variable name as wstub/2 from this. So, let us take the width of the stub as w stub and
accordingly define, and l stub corresponding to /4 using that same micro option it will come
around 42 mm. So, we will define the same so, let us take it 0.5 and then lstub of 42 then we
should define port.

So, to define port, we need to select this face, then define port this should be 3* w50/hsub
yes; in the similar way you define another port which is this side yes and then you start the
simulation we will take some time.
So, I just want to tell you that we have used the /4 strip line and it is open at this end. So, for
the /4 strip line we know that it inverts its behavior. So, now, if it is open, it will act like a
short for the frequency for which it is /4. So, all the currents will go to this end. So,
corresponding to that frequency, it will act like a band reject filter. So, the respond should act
like a band reject filter will see the response.

So, in between as I was mentioning, in the progress window we can see what is going on the
progress in the message windows we can see various warnings and all those things, in
between we can see the simulation results from the s parameter window you can see here, the
simulation is still going on it will take some minute here.
So, we selected w stub 0.5. So, this will be the response corresponding to 0.5, you see S 21 it is
showing a notch which cause which means that it is a band reject filter and S11 is very high.
So, it shows that at 1 GHz it acts as a band reject filter and at third harmonic it will behave in
the same way. And while as if you see at 2 GHz that is up to twice of this frequency the
length will be /2. So, open will act like a open so, it should act like a band pass filter. So, it
is showing the same behavior as band pass filter should do. So, this is how we saw that how
this /4 direct coupled resonator will act like a band pass filter or band reject filter.
So, with this I would like to conclude; today we discussed about the interface of CST
microwave studio, then we tried to design the band reject filter using FR4 substrate with
thickness of 0.8 mm and with a /4 resonators. In the next lecture we will extend this and we
will say how /4 resonator will act like a band pass filter and after that we will discuss about
the design of power divider and hybrid coupler. Thank you very much.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 12
Lecture – 56
Power Divider and Combiner Design in CST
Hello, in the last lecture, we discussed about CST microwave studio. Firstly, we
introduce the interface of CST microwave studio. We started with different modeling
shape, we tried various shapes using CST microwave studio modeling option. After that,
we saw different solvers, which we can use using CST microwave studio. And we tried
various features of CST microwave studio. After that, we tried to make microstrip filter.
So, we started with band reject microstrip filter, and we tried to model microstrip band
reject filter. So, let us continue.
So, we made a microstrip band reject filter.

Just to show the concept, this is a band reject filter. Here we use the input and output
microstrip line just to give the input, and measure output signal and it is tapped by a λ/4
microstrip line, which is opened. So, if it is open at this end, it will act like a short circuit
because of quarter wave transformer behavior. So, we modeled this particular microstrip
band reject filter in CST microwave studio. So, let us open the CST microwave file. Here
we made this strip line to measure output and give input. And then, we used in λ/4
microstrip line of 0.5 mm width and 42 mm length. And then, we tried to simulate this
particular filter.

After simulation, we received these results. Now, if you see here, you can seen from this
particular plot is S2,1 is showing, band reject behavior at 1 GHz, and at 2 GHz. It is
showing band pass filter, and at 3 GHz, it is showing again band reject filter. So, at 1
GHz, we made a λ/4 microstrip line. So, it was showing the band reject filter. Now, if
you see at 3 GHz, it is thrice of the 1 GHz. So, the length corresponding to this frequency
will be 3λ/4. So, again it will show band reject filter.
However, if you see around 2 GHz, the length will be around λ/2. So, an open will act
like a open. So, in that case, it will act like a band pass filter. Now, I just want to tell
about the other features. Here, as I told you in the parameter window, we have used
various parameters using variables. Now, we can change various parameters using this
parameter sweep options.
Now, go to parameter sweep, select first new sequence, then you select new parameter.
Now, I want to change the width of the stub, because I want to see the behavior of the
stub width. So, I will select wstub, and this range is 0.5. So, just to see, I will change this
width from 0.5 to 2.5 in the step of 1 mm. So, I have given here 1 mm step width, and
then press.
Now, you see here, three samples are created. One is 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, because I took the step
width of 1 mm. You can take the width as per your requirement, and then you can do the
analysis for all the values. Now, just start this parameter sweep. It will just take some
time. So, in this way if you want to optimize your particular design, and if you are not
sure about the final parameters, then you can use the parameter sweep option. It will
show you the results corresponding to various parameters, which you have chosen.

Right now, I have just changed this from 0.5 to 1.5. So, you can see here, it will show the
results corresponding to all the design parameters.
So, right now the simulation is going on just wait for few seconds, then it will show the
results. Now, it has already stimulated, now just see the results.
Now, if you see, so this is the result corresponding to our 3 simulation, which we did.
Now, here you see various curves are there, and you varied different values. These
curves are corresponding to those values. Now, if you want to see which value,
corresponds to which curve. So, to check that go to parametric levels, select your
parameters, which you have used for parametric study. So, we selected wstub, so I will
just select here wstub. Now, you can see here, this first curve, this one is corresponding
to wstub equal to 0.5 mm, then this one is corresponding to 1.5 mm, and this one is
corresponding to 2.5 mm.
So, now you see these curves simultaneously, you can see here by changing the stub
width. Let me just select for your reference yeah. So, now I have selected these 3 curve.
One is corresponding to 0.5, another one is corresponding to 1.5, and this red one is
corresponding to 2.5. Now, you can see by varying this stub width, the band reject
bandwidth is changing. So, in that way, you can design the filter as per your requirement.
So, this feature is in CST microwave studio.
Now, next I want to tell you, how this band reject filter can be used as a band pass filter.
So, if you see the concept part, in this, suppose if I put a short here, if I put a via and
short it with ground, then it will act like a short. And now, this short will act like a open
at this end. So, it will pass, all the frequency points corresponding to λ/4. So, then it will
act like a band pass filters.
Now, we will try to design band pass filter. So, to do that, just go to modeling, select this
edge align WCS. And then just give a offset, because you want to put a via over here. So,
give some offset for local coordinate system. So, use transform, and now you need to
transform in V by some x parameter. Let us take x as around may be 1 mm.
Now, you try to make a via so, via will be a cylinder between the ground plane and the
upper strip. So, it will make a electrical connection in that way, it will act like a short.
So, now we will try to make the cylinder. So, go to cylinder, select that option, name it as
via maybe give outer radius as may be rvia. And then, you define the W coordinates,
because W is representing the thickness in this case, so you define W coordinates. Center
we have selected 0, 0, because we align the local coordinate system, it is center point of
via only. So, we need not to give the absolute value of this, it will be 0, 0 in this case.
So, our local coordinate system is aligned and with the upper strip so, W maximum will
be 0, 0 whereas W minimum will be equivalent to -2*t-h substrate. So, now if you see
here from geometry itself, it has created a cylinder. Just to show you, I will just then
press ok. And just to show the proper connection, I will just hide the substrate. And now,
if you see here, this via is making connection between ground plane and the upper strip.
So, in this way we have created a short. Now, just to see its behavior, we will simulate it
again, simulate. Now, you try to observe its behavior. So, let us see the response yeah.
So, now if you see the response, just try to observe S2,1, because S2,1 is the measure of
how much power is going from port 1 to port 2. This is port 1, and this is port 2. So, how
much power is going from port 1 to port 2. Now, if you see here, this is S 2,1 green curve,
and this red curve is S1,1. So, if you see S2,1 response, so it is acting like a band pass filter
at 1 GHz. However, earlier it was acting like a band reject filter. So, just by placing a
short at the end of stub, it is behaving like a band pass filter. So, in this way we can
design band pass filter or band reject filter using microstrip line easily.

Now, we will try to design a two way power divider. So, this is a PCB for two way
power divider, it is made on FR-4 substrate, whose thickness is 0.8 mm. Here, this is
input port, and these two are output ports. So, you can name it as port 1, 2 and 3. So, if a
power of 1mW is given at port 1, you will get half of the power at port 2, and half of the
power at port 3.
So, just to show you the design concept this strip is a 70.7 Ω impedance strip and its
length is λ/4. It is just the basic concept of two way power divider the same is in the case
of this particular strip. So, now we will try to make this particular power divider. On the
back side if you see, it is full ground plane. So, how we will start, we will first make the
substrate. And then on the bottom side, we will make full copper that is ground plane.
And on the top, we will try to make this type of design.
So, let us start with this design again open CST microwave studio, then create a new file.
And just repeat the same options that I told you in the last class, select the appropriate
component.
And then, select the appropriate module where you want to work.
And this time, we will do the simulation in frequency domain. Last time, I did the
simulation using time domain method, this time we will use frequency domain method.
So, I have selected frequency domain.
Here all the dimensions are already selected. If you want to change, you can change.
Since, this power divider is designed for 900 MHz.
So, we will select the frequency range from 0.4 to 1.4 GHz, so that the center frequency
will be around 0.9, and it will come in this particular range.
Then next, then you can give the template name, if you want. So this part, I will not
repeat again, we will just simply go for the design part.
So, just to make this, as I said firstly, we will try to make the substrate first. So, to make
substrate, go to brick, make substrate. Try to define all the parameters in terms of
variables. So, here I will just give -lsub/2 for substrate length, I am using the parameter -
lsub. And for substrate width, I am using the parameter wsub. And as I told the thickness
is 0.8 mm. So, right now I am just defining all in terms of variable. The later stage, I will
just give the values.
And, to select the substrate, I have again used this material then from here select FR-4
substrate select a FR-4 lossy and then load it. Now, you give all the parameters. Maybe
let us take substrate length as 42 mm, say width is 42 mm, and h of substrate as I told we
will be using 0.8 mm.
So, we have created a substrate. So, this is a substrate, which we made right now. Now,
you can see all the parameters and corresponding details are already updated here. Now,
suppose if you want to make ground, so you need to select one face. Just select one face,
and then use extrude option to make ground, name it as ground give thickness as t. And
by default in most of the fabrication lab the thickness of copper strip is 35 micron. So,
we are taking as it 35 micron.
So, I did not change the material for this. For this copper the material should be PEC. So,
I will change the material from here to PEC that is Perfect Electric Conductor, which
will correspond to copper only. So, so far we have made the ground and the substrates.
Now, we need to make the geometry of radial stubs. So, to do that again, you enable
local coordinates system. Just select this face, and align WCS with it.
Now, we need to make the radial stubs. To make the radial stubs just to show you, here
we will be using ɛr = 4.4 and h = 0.8 mm. So, the inner radius and outer radius
corresponding to 900 MHz will be 17 mm and 17.8 mm respectively, so we will be using
these radius. And the thickness of radial stub will be 0.8 mm, this is corresponding to
70.7 mm. So, you can use the impedance line calculator in order to calculate these width
of the radial stub. And the angular variation, which we are taking for this is 320°.
So, just try to design this so, to design this go to curve use arc option. You can see here,
this option is arc, select this option, then press escape. Now, see here just keep center as
0, and 0, and maybe give the parameter as angle. So, this let us take as 320°, and for
radius you need to select rin for the inner radius that maybe keep it as 0 give rin =
17 mm. Now, you see it has created a arc circular arc.
In the similar way create an outer arc use same option. Now, in this case use 17.8 mm
instead of 17 mm, because this will correspond to the outer radius of the radial stub. So,
give rout, angle you keep same. So, variable that we were using was angle, so I have just
use the same variable. Now, rout just take as 17.8 mm. If you see here, it has created
another arc of 320° angle. It is starting from 0 and going up to 320°. So, this is what it is
then press . So, now you see, it has created two arcs of 320° angular variation. Now, you
need to connect these two using the line.
So, just to make that just use this option line, again escape. So, one will be here. So, for
that you need to use rin if you see in terms of coordinate, so rin this will be cos0 and rin
sin0. Similarly, for this outer part, it will be rout. Just use simple coordinate geometry to
locate these points. So, I this should be 0 I have, this is rin*cos0, and sin0, cos0, and
sin0. Now, click on preview. So, you see here, it is creating a line over here, so it is
connecting at this end. So, this is one line for another line, this coordinate will be
rin*cos320. And this will be rout*cos320 and rout*sin320, if we see x and y coordinate
system. So, we need to make the line accordingly.
So, again click on line, then escape and then just enter those enter those coordinates. So,
rin cos maybe again I will give this parameter as x, then rin*sin x, rout*cos x, rout*sinx.
Now, just define x here this angle inside cos, it take it as radians. So, we defined earlier it
terms of degree just to convert it in radian. All we need to do is just write here, angle *pi/
180. So, now we have converted it in radian. Now, if you try to locate it, so here this is
rin yes. So, you need to give negative of that this has this has created the line, now if you
see here. Then press ok, now you see it has created the geometry.
Now, this is just a arc. So, it has created the lines. Now, you want to make the polygon.
To make the polygon, you need to select this full curve from here, just select the option
curve and then use curve extrude curve and then double click there. Now, if you double
click, it will create a polygon and it will ask for the thickness, which you want to make.
So, just name it as maybe radial stub. So, thickness will be again copper thickness, so
that will be t. And the material for this will be again copper that is PEC. So, now if you
see here, it has created a radial stub. Now we want to align, so all we need to do is we
need to just rotate it. So, just select this and use transform.
Then select rotate, and then in W you give angle/2. So, now it has rotated, then press ok.
Now, if you see, it is aligned with the coordinate system. Now, we need to make the
ports. So, to make port again select brick, define ports, so maybe just take as output 1.
And if you see now, you try to make it from here. So, just make a strip from this end to
this end. So, this is rin, and outer will be lsub/2 ok. And for V this should be 50 Ω strip.
So, for FR-4 substrate with 0.8 thickness, the w is 1.5 mm. So, for the time being we
name the variable as w50. And thickness should be again t. So, w50 is 1.55, you can see
this has created 1 microstrip of 50 Ω impedance line. So, in the similar way, you need to
create the port at this end, select this edge. And then, you align WCS yes.
Now, you create the port name it as out 2, and from 0 to all you need to give is Lsub/2 -
rin*cos y. And W it will be w50/2 yes. So, this is now port 2.
And for creating thickness, since we selected center. So, we need to take –t/2 and t/2, so
this is port 2. In the similar way, you can transform this port. So, just transform, copy,
transform, you need to transform in y. So, in y if you transform, it will be -2*rin*sin y,
so this is port 2.
So, now we have created port 2. Now, you need to just locate the port, and do the
simulation. So, just to locate it, just select this, select this edge, go to simulation, define
port.
And as I told in the last class in the same way, you define the port at all the output ports.
So, this is how you will create the port. So, in the similar way, you create the port for
other two outputs. So, in that way, you will make the geometry, where you will generate
all the output ports. In this way, you will create this geometry, you see here. This is
output port 1, this is output 2, and this is output 3.
So, you have made the port you have made the geometry, next you need to do the
simulation. So, to do the simulation, go to simulation, again go to frequency setup solver.
Before this, you need to give the settings, here you give the frequency range, if you have
not defined it earlier, give it from 0.4 to 1.4, and then boundaries. Use open add space in
all the planes, and then simulate it using frequency domain solver. Now, just wait for its
response.
So, now it has been simulated, just to check the response, here you can see. So, this is S1,1
this red one. So, you can see it is below 10 dB in all the frequency range from 0.4 to 1.4
GHz, and at 0.9 GHz, it is resonating. Now, if we see S 2,1, and just try to locate the
marker using this option, axis marker. Now, if you read the value of S 2,1, it is -3.21 dB.
So, ideally if there were no losses in the substrate, it should be -3 dB, but since the
substrate is lossy.
So, it is giving is -3.21 dB output power. Similarly, at port 3 again it is giving 3.18 dB.
And now I just want to highlight here. In the similar way all other results are coming, if
you see yes. So, you can read all the values by just locating this marker. Just move this
marker from here to here, you can read the value at the frequency point of your interest.
Now, just I want to highlight here one thing, you see S 3,2 that is this now read the value
of S2,3 or S3,2, it is -6 dB.
So, if you are giving the power at port 2, so the power that is going to port 3 is 6 dB. So,
the isolation between these two ports is very poor. So, this is the drawback of power
divider. So, if we give input power at these two ports port 2 and port 3, then in that way
we will not get this sum at input port. So, to get this sum these two ports should be
isolated.
So, in the next lecture, we will see how to design this power combiner. So, if we give
power at these two port, how we will get the sum at this output port. So, in this particular
lecture, we tried to design a power divider two way power divider. And we saw, how to
design this power divider using radial stub. We use the different geometries using arc
method, and then we simulated this power divider. And then we saw, how the power is
divided in equal half at the output ports. So, in the next lecture, we will extend this
geometry. And we will try to use this geometry as a power combiner by doing some
modifications.
Thank you very much, we will see you in the next class.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 12
Lecture - 57
Hybrid Coupler Design
Hello, in the last lecture, we tried to design Microstrip Bandpass filter and band reject filter
then we saw how to do the parametric analysis, if we want to change a particular parameter,
after that we tried to design a 2 way equal power divider.
So, this is the geometry of 2 way equal power divider, this we tried to design in CST
microwave studio on FR4 substrate and then we saw the simulated results. So, let us go to the
CST microwave studio.
So, you see this is a geometry that we created in the last lecture of 2 way power divider. We
simulated this design to see its parameter, and then we saw when the output is given to port 2,
the power at port 3 is very high. So, the isolation between these 2 ports is very less. This is
what we saw in the last class, now if we want to improve the isolation between these 2 what
do we need to do.
So, in order to do the isolation, if we go into theory or if you revise the previous lectures, we
need to attach a resistor this should provide me the isolation. So, in case of 2 way equal
power divider, we should attach a resistor between these 2 ports, the value of the resistor
should be 100 . So, in this cases we are working at 900 MHz we will use the SMD resistor
and the size of the SMD resistor is very less. So, in our case we will be using 0603 SMD
resistor. So, we should make the pads accordingly. Now, just to show you the results of 2
way power divider if you see here.
So, if you see S 12 and S 31 = -3 however, if you see S 32 = - 6 dB. So, the isolation is very less,
now suppose if you have made this geometry and if you are not worried about the isolation
between these 2 ports and if you just simply want to fabricate this particular PCB. So, what
do you need to do you need to just simply select this.
So, to select this, select the phase in which you have made the geometry then align your WCS
with this phase. So, we have aligned here. Now if you want to fabricate this particular PCB,
all you need to do is you need to export it in Gerber format. So, I will show you how to
export in Gerber format right now I have aligned my local coordinate system with the upper
layer of this particular PCB. So, then if you go to export and then select 2 D option here you
have a Gerber format. Now if you want to use other formats you can select the appropriate
format. In most of the fabrication lab we need to give Gerber files. So, that is why we will be
exporting it in Gerber format. So, just select it.
So, you can here select the appropriate folder, where you want to create the Gerber file of
your geometry and you can name it as per your requirement. So, maybe I will just give the
name as top. So, it will create the Gerber file, all you need to give is you need to just give that
Gerber file to the manufacturer, and you need to tell about the substrate and the substrate size
and you need to give the dimension and you need to tell them that it is a double sided PCB.
So, he will fabricate your PCB.
So, this is regarding the fabrication process; now if you want to use this particular geometry
as a combiner also. So, what you need to do? You need to provide a resistor between these 2
and to connect the resistor we should provide the pads accordingly. So, just to make the
geometry of pads I will just select this layer, I will select this edge and then I will align WCS
with this, and then I will make a strip between these 2 just to show you the geometry here this
is a geometry of power combiner.
If you see here rest of the geometry whatever you see it is similar to the previous design, but
in between you can see here one resistor is there. The size of this register is 0603. So, 0603
resistor will be soldered on the pads. So, we need to make the pads to solder this particular
resistor. So, here we will be making the pads. So, go to CST again and try to make these
pads. So, we will simply create a brick.
So, to create a brick again go to brick and may be write it as pad, then in u here you need to
just ensure that this line should be 50  line. So, again the width of this should be
corresponding to 50 . And so, V here will be nothing, but 2 into yeah. So, we have created
one strip the thickness of this strip will be same as the copper thickness. So, t and the material
will be PEC. So, now, we have created a pad. So, this is a strip now here there should be
some portion which should be cut, because you want to place a resistor here and then you
want to solder at these 2 ends. So, at the centre just select the centre of this particular layer
and then align WCS with that and then you cut a strip of this size, you select the size as per
your resistor size. So, in our case this resistor that we will be using is 0603. So, for 0603
resistor the length is 1.6 mm and the width is 0.8 mm.
So, accordingly I will cut the patch from this microstrip pad. So, in U length will be same and
then V may be just take the variable name lsmd by 2 sorry in this and for thickness may be –
t, 0 yes. So, here may be just take it 1.6 or may be 1.2 whatever you want so, just to make the
connection. So, we have created this step. Now, we need to just cut this from the pad. So, you
can see here just select this pad go to Boolean subtract, and then subtract this cut, now you
can see you have created this space now what do you need to do? You need to just simply
connect the resistor in between. So, just to connect the resistor you just select this edge.
Similarly, you select second edge, and then go to simulation and select this lumped
component option. In the lumped component you can see here you can rain your rename your
component as per your requirement. So, I will name it as resistor, and I will give the value as
100 . So, now, you can see here if you go in to navigation tree one component of resistor
has been created. So, now, my geometry is like this now we have created the geometry.
Now, we should see the performance and to see the performance just again start the
simulation go to simulation or a then start frequency setup solver and then start the simulation
in this case what we are expecting? We are expecting that the isolation between these 2 ports
should be very high. So, the power from port to port through a port to port 3 should be very
less. So, we will see results just wait for the simulation just wait for sometime yeah.
Now, if you see in this file.

So, in this particular case now if you see this is the geometry for the combiner this is a
geometry corresponding to combiner.
If you see the results simulated results here if you see this is my S11, this is S12 that is now if
you put the marker put here marker you see S 21 = -3.24, S31 = -3.23. So, is approximately
same as it was in case of 2 way power divider without resistor.
Now, if you try to observe S 32 see this value. So, this value is very less; however, in earlier
case it was - 6 dB. So, the isolation between port 2 and port 3 is very less now, if you give the
input power at port 2 and port 3, then you can get the sum of these power at port 1. So, in this
way you can design the power combiner. Now again if you want to fabricate this particular
PCB use the similar procedure, just select this layer and then export it in Gerber form and
then give it to manufacturer.
So, just to compare I have just fabricated these PCBs I showed you the PCB of these 2 power
divider and combiners, now I will just show you the measured results of power divider in
combiner, you see here in this is the geometry of 2 way power divider.
I measured these results here if you see this is S 21 and S31. So, the power level is around - 3
dB and; however, if you see S 23. So, this brown colour line is S 23. So, this level is very high
because the isolation between those 2 ports; port 2 and 3 is very high. So, that is why this
level is very high; however, if you see S11 is just it is fairly matched in this particular
frequency range.
Then we made the power combiner; to make the power combiner we use the SMD resistor.
So, this is the geometry for 2 way power combiner and then we measured this using network
analyzer. So, in this case you need to have at least 2 port network analyzer, all you need to
give is you need to give power at one port and you need to measure from other port. So, if
you have 2 way power divider, you simply connect one cable here and another port over here
and then terminate this with 50 . If you have 3 way power divider then you give power
from here and observe at these 2 ports.

So, if you see the measured results of this power combiner, here you can see in this particular
case the S31 and S21 = - 3 dB and S23 that is the isolation between port 2 and 3 is very good as
compared to the previous case. It is below - 15 dB our desired range, even you can say below
- 20 dB also. So, in this way we designed power combiner. In the next lecture we will try to
design hybrid coupler.
Now, we will try to design hybrid coupler that is rat race coupler, we will try to design the rat
race coupler at 1.8 GHz. So, this is the geometry of rat race coupler it is also designed on FR4
substrate for 0.8 mm thickness. So, here this is rat race coupler, the all these sections are /4
sections and this section is 3/4 sections. Now if you recall the basic theory of rat race
couplers.
So, this line length is 3/2, if you see the electrical separation between these. So, this is/4, /
4, /4. So, this is 900; however, if you see spatial separation. So, they are separated by 600.
Now, we will try to design this hybrid coupler in a CST microwave studio. So, let us start
again CST create a new file.
And repeat the same procedure.
So, this hybrid coupler we are designing at 1.8 GHz.

So, maybe take the frequency range from 1.2 to 2.5 GHz.
So, in order to design this, since it is a circular geometry we will take the substrate of circular
geometry only. So, to design circular substrate go to in modeling, go to cylinder and then
escape maybe name it as again substrate write it as r sub then z is hsub. Take rsub as 38 mm,
hsub as 0.8 mm.
So, just to tell you here the dimensions that we are taking for this hybrid we are taking FR4
substrate of 0.8 mm thickness, we are taking the inner radius is 22.4 mm and outer radius is
23.2 mm. These things you can easily calculate using the line calculator you know this
electrical length and you know this periphery that is equal to 2 pi r and electrical length is 3/
2. So, that will be equivalent to 540 degree. So, you can use simple line calculator and from
there you can calculate the inner and outer radius. Here the strip width is 0.8 mm that
corresponds to 70.7  how does this come for that you can refer the theory of rat race coupler
this particular impedance calculation was told to you in the previous lectures. So, we will just
simulate this geometry here. So, now, if you see here this has created the circular section.
Here you can define the number of segments, I will take it as may be variable again we will
define the number of segments let us take it as 36 and the substrate again FR4 substrate select
it from the library option; load. So, this is FR4 substrate.
So, we have created the FR4 substrate. Now to make the radial circular stub enable first local
coordinate system align it with the top face and on the back side as I told you we need to
make the ground. So, you can make the ground just to do that select the other face and again
use this that extrude option, and then name it is ground and give the thickness as you use it
for copper that is 35 micron. So, far we have made the ground and the copper. So, for the
ground the substrate should be chosen as PEC substrate. So, mistakenly if you select any
other substrate you can change it from this option.
Now on the top side again you draw a radial stub, for radial stub what do you need to do?
You need to just again go to cylinder escape radial then you name it as rout then rin 0 t and
again the number of segments keep it as 36. So, rout take it as 23.2 I do not recall just to
recall I think its 22.4 and 23.4. So, this is rout is 23.2 and rin is 22.4. So, substrate for this is
PEC. So, now, we have created the radial stub.
Now, to make port all you need to do is. Just go to the option yes.
So, select this particular segment substrate. Select a segment to select a segment select a
particular edge may be this one, align your WCS with edge now you need to define a port.
So, to define a port again go to brick and then may be in name it as out one, and this port
should come up to this particular point.
So, to define it you know this separation is how much this is rsub - rin. So, we will take it
accordingly. So, in V coordinates what you should give rsub - rin plus some extra length just
to ensure that there is a connection between radial stub and the output port and thickness t.
And in U this should be - w50/ 2, w50/2 and w50 = 1.55 and ex maybe take 0.3. So, here this
you need to take in negative because positive is on the other side this should be rsub = 0.2.
Now, what do you need to do you need to just First with this particular face align your local
coordinate system and then you rotate these faces by 60 0. So, to rotate it select this out
transform then rotate and copy here you give 60 0 and since you want to make 3 other ports.
So, you can increase the repetition factor you can see here right. So, you see we have created
4 ports.
So, this is a geometry corresponding to our requirement. Next we need to make the ports. So,
to make ports all you need to do is again replicate the same procedure, select this particular
edge yes then define waveguide port and use the same procedure as we told you earlier 3*
hsub and this 4* hsub.

So, this is how you create a port and then you can rotate this port again. So, transform to
rotate it; select rotate, select - 60 and copy you see you can simply create these number of
ports if you see this is a geometry.
Now, we have created all the ports 1 2 3 4 now we need to simulate. So, to simulate it again
you need to give all the background properties, boundary conditions and the frequency range
for that, go to simulation define frequency range since we have already given the frequency
range we need not to define it again then you select the boundary properties open add space.
If that is already not unable you need to apply it in all the directions and then start frequency
setup solver, start the simulation and then wait for the results. So, it just takes some time. So,
mean while we will discuss what we are expecting from our simulation.
So, now if you give input at this particular port, this length will be /4 and this will be /4.
So, power here will be in same phase, now if you see at this particular port this length is /2
and this length is . So, they are in phase reversal. So, the phase difference between these 2 is
1800. So, here at this particular port the power will be in opposite phase. So, it will cancel out.
So, ideally the power at this port should be 0.
Now, if you see at this particular port this length is 3/4, again this length is 3/4. So, again
here the power should be half and it should be in same phase. Now, if you compare these 2
ports. So, here it will be shifted by 900 and in this case it will be shifted by - 2700. So, we will
try to observe this in the our simulation result now just go to simulation result so, the
simulation is still going on. So, in between I will just show again if you want to fabricate this
particular design you export the geometry in Gerber format.
You see this is the fabricated PCB, now again just to measure it you give input at one port, if
you have 2 port network analyzer, then you connect the other port at any of these outputs and
other 2 port should be terminated with 50 .
And in the similar way you can do the measurement for all the ports. So, these are the
measured results for this geometry, you can see here this is S 11 black one, this line is S11 this
blue one is S22 and this red curve is S33. So, this was designed for 1.8 GHz and for S 13 as I told
you that is isolated ports you can see S13 the isolation is very high at this particular port. So,
the power going to that particular port is very less. Similarly, if you feed at port 4 that is port
4 let us take may be this as port 4, then the power at port 2 will be very low. So, you can see
S24 that is this one this is very low. So, in this way you can design a hybrid coupler just to see
the simulated results here these are the simulated results.

In the red line you can see that this is the S11 curve, the green one is the S21 curve. So, at port
2 the power should be -3 dB similarly at port 4 power should be -3 dB. So, S21and S41 both are
-3 dB wherever S31 is very less. So, it should be will be low -20 or -30 dB which we will
show that this port is isolated. So, in this way we will simulate the hybrid coupler.
So, in this particular lecture we tried to design the power combiner and then we tried to put
the SMD resistor component between the 2 ports and then we saw the performance of power
combiner. And we saw that the power from port 2 to port 3 is very less. So, these 2 ports if
we feed the power from the 2 output ports of power divider, then the power can be combined
and the combined power can be observed at the port 1. After that we tried to design the
hybrid coupler 4 way rat race hybrid coupler and then we saw the performance if we feed
power from one port what will be the power at other port.
Now, just to highlight one more thing if we give power from port 1 and port 3 by using a
same concept here we should get the sum of these power and here we should get the
difference of these power. So, by using the same concept you can do the simulation. Just to
excite these ports you need to just give power here and at this particular port and just give the
amplitude 0 at these 2 ports and you can easily verify the concept of hybrid coupler. So, in
the next lecture we will try to do the simulation of active circuits using CST microwave
studio. So, for this lecture thank you very much, we will see you in the next lecture bye.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Indian Institute Of Technology, Bombay
Module - 12
Lecture - 58
Antenna Design and Amplifier Simulation in CST
Hello, in the previous lectures we discussed about microstrip circuits, we started with
microstrip band pass filter, then we tried to design microstrip band reject filter. After that we
tried to design two-way power divider. And then we saw by inserting a isolation resistor how
we can use the power divider is a power combiner. After that we tried to design four port rat-
race coupler. And then we saw that using this four port rat race coupler. If we feed a power at
port one, how we can measure half power at two ports and the third port is isolated.
So, up to now we discussed about Microstrip Circuits only. Since, we know in this course we
are also covering antennas. So, in this particular lecture we will be firstly taking antenna. So,
we will design microstrip antenna first. After that we will try to design active circuits. So, let
us start CST microwave studio, and try to design microstrip antenna.
So, for that open CST, and create a new project.

Use microwave and RF optical option and then select antenna.
And since we know micro strip antenna is a planar structure. So, select the planar module
only and create a template.
I have already discussed these things in previous lecturer. So, I will not talk more in detail
about these things.
So, in the previous lecture you already know how to calculate the length and width of
microstrip antenna. So, I have given here the expression of length and width of micro strip
antenna. In this particular lecture, we will try to design microstrip antenna for Wi-Fi
frequency band that is 2.4 to 2.483 GHz. Now, if you use a previous expression that is
c
W=
ε r +1 , and other expression whatever is given in this particular slide. So, by using
2f0
√ 2
these expressions you can calculate these dimensions.
So, these are the dimensions we have calculated using the expression for microstrip antenna.
So, the W = 4.7 cm, and the length of the patch will be L = 3.8 cm. And the substrate length
and width we will be taking 6 cms. So, let us try to design in CST. So, we have created a
project open CST.
And firstly just design substrate. So, to design a substrate, select the brick name it as
substrate. And define all the parameters in terms of variables. So, we have given the
parameter lsub for substrate length, and wsub for substrate width, and hsub for substrate
thickness. And the substrate that we are taking here is RT duroid 5870. Its dielectric constant
is 2.32, and the thickness that we are taking is 1.6 mm. So, we will try to just find out
whether the substrate is available in this particular CST library or not.
So, just to check the substrate, check in the library option. If you see here, you can see
RT5870. So, this sub load this particular substrate, and then you give the dimension l
substrate we have taken 60 mm, w substrate again we have taken 60 mm, and thickness of the
substrate we have taken 1.6 mm. So, just enter all the values, and you can see this polygon
created corresponding to the substrate dimension.
Now, we should design ground plane. So, if you try to recall, what is microstrip antenna. So,
basically if you try to visualize this is a substrate then at the bottom you have a ground plane,
and on the top you make the patch of your desired dimension, then you try to feed using
coaxial feed. So, in previous lectures whatever type of feed we use that feed is microstrip
feed. So, in this particular antenna design we will be using coaxial feed. So, we will show
you how to design the co axial feed also. So, now, to make ground plane just select this layer.
And then use extrude option to make ground and name it as ground. And give some thickness
for ground plane. Here, we will give the substrate thickness of 0.035 mm and select this
material is PEC. So, so far we have made the ground plane and the substrate. Now, you
enable local coordinate system to make the geometry of microstrip patch. Select this
particular upper layer and align your WCS to the upper layer. Now, you try to make the
dimensions of patch.
Again select break press escape and then give variable corresponding to the patch dimension.
So, we are making it along the origin. So, we are keeping the origin of local coordinate
system as the centre point, and we are making the geometry symmetric along the centre point.
Again the thickness of copper you take 35 micron that is t in this case the variable name is t
and name it as patch. So, as I calculated this is 38 mm, the length of the patch is 38 mm, and
width of the patch is 47 mm and you see. Now, if you try to see here, this is the patch
dimension. So, far we have made the ground plane substrate and the patch. Now, we need to
feed. So, we know from the conventional theory of micro strip antenna that feed should be
placed between L/4 to L/6 where L is the length of the substrate. So, we will see how to play
this feed.
So, just to make a feed select the bottom side that is ground plane. Align a WCS with this
particular phase and then you give a offset. So, in this particular case we will take the feed
position at 7.5 mm. It lies between L/4 to L/6 you can try by calculating these dimension you
can check. So, just transform this local coordinate system. So, you can see here, this is length
and this is width. So, we need to move along u coordinate. So, in u coordinate you give some
parameter x feed and just give the value as 7.5. So, you can see we have transformed. Now,
we need to make the co axial feed over here. Now, I just want to tell you little bit about the
connectors. So, in this particular case we will be using SMA connector. So; firstly I will tell
you the various type of connectors one of the connector is n type connector.
You can see in this geometry this is n type of connector. Here, if you see the inner diameter
of this conductor is 3 mm, whereas the outer diameter of this conductor that is this one is 10
mm. So, you need to select the dimensions accordingly, because this inner and outer diameter
corresponds to 50 , whereas in the middle you can see this white colour this is Teflon. So,
these dimensions you can calculate using the line calculator that I have already told you in the
first class.
This connector is generally used when we want to feed with high power or if you want to
make the antennas at lower frequency, then obviously the dimension will be large. So, this
particular connector will provide better support. So that in lower frequency range we use n
type of connectors. Another type of connected is SMA type of connector.
So, this is SMA type of connector. Here you can see this inner conductor inner cylinder
metallic one. The diameter of this particular conductor is 1.2 mm. And the outer diameter is 4
mm approximately, and in between the Teflon is inserted. So, we will try to make this
geometry. So, when we use this particular connector to feed it, so this particular inner
conductor will be connected to the patch, and the outer conductor this should be connected to
the ground plane. So, in the similar way we will try to make this geometry in CST microwave
studio.
So, to make this again go to CST and make a cylinder here. So, let us take the outer
dimension plus take some extra lengths. So, if you see in this particular connector, so this
inner diameter of outer conductor is 4 mm, and the outer dimension will be little more. So,
we will take some extra dimension may be take the variable as extra and then thickness is
minus t. So, this variable name it as rout, and take rout as 2 mm, and extra maybe 0.2 mm,
and make this conductor. So Firstly you need to make this particular place. So, you need to
subtract this from the ground plane to select ground plane. Then use Boolean option and then
subtract and then cut this alright.
So, you can see we have cut the slots here. Now, we should make conductor here. So, to
make the conductor firstly we will be making outer conductor. So, to make outer conductor
go to cylindrical option go to cylinder select rout plus extra is outer radius, and rout is inner
radius. And w you take little extra. So, maybe give the variable name as add and use r out ok.
So, give the value of add variable as may be 0.5 mm name it as outer conductor. So, you can
see here we have made outer conductor.

Now, we need to make the Teflon. So, to make Teflon again select circular cylinder escape
name it as Teflon give the variables. So, we know the inner radius of Teflon should be
equivalent to the radius of inner conductor and outer radius should be equivalent to the inner
radius of the outer conductor. So, name it as r out and r in and for Teflon again give the same
thickness and then this is minus t.
So, this r in will be 0.6 mm, because I told you the diameter of the inner conductor in case of
SMA connector is 1.2 mm. So, the radius will be 0.2. Now, for the Teflon we need to select
the material. So, select here and then try to search whether Teflon is available in the library or
not. So, we can see Teflon is available we will try to load this one and then press ok.
So, far we have made the Teflon and the outer conductor. Now, we should make the inner
conductor and we know, now that the inner conductor should be between the ground plane
and the patch that is on the other side of the substrate. So, again make cylinder name it as
inner conductor. Then the outer radius of inner conductor will be rin that is 0.6 mm radius.
Now, if you try to notice, that this W minimum will be W coordinate which corresponds to
patch. So, that will be minus twice of t minus h substrate.
So, this contains the substrate thickness, and the thickness of both copper. So, just enter these
values and then add, and select the material as PEC. Now, you can see we have created inner
conductor, outer conductor and the Teflon. And we have made the coaxial connector. So, you
can see if you hide this particular, you can see this, your inner conductor is making the
connection with the outer patch. You can see it is going inside this particular substrate Now,
we need to provide the feed or before this just save it.
So, to save select option, give name as maybe antenna or MSA. Then we need to excite it. So,
to excite it again select this particular phase.
And give some extra dimension to waveguide port. So, maybe take the variable x and give
that much of extra length. So, basically when you want to excite a port, the dimension
correspondingly port should be such that it should cover the whole geometry. So, we just to
ensure this we take little extra dimension.
So, this is given so far we have created the geometry, and we have made the port. Now, we
need to give other details like frequency give frequency. So, we designed this antenna for
2.45 GHz. So, we will take the dimension between 2 and 3. And will see where it resonates
then we need to see the ground properties it is normal. So, we need not to change it again for
boundaries, again we need to check it is open add space in all the directions. So, we need not
to change anything. Next part is we should place the monitor just to see its behavior and far
field.
So, we will put far field monitor. So, click on this right click new field monitor put the far
field monitor at 2.45 GHz, E field monitor then H field monitor, and far field monitor also.
So, we have made 3 monitors at 2.45 GHz. One corresponds to far field and other two
corresponds to E field and H field. So, you can see there were too many options. You can
select the option according to your requirement. Now, start the simulation, so you can see
here again in the progress window it is showing you what things it has already simulated.
And what is the process that is going on. One more thing I want to emphasize in this window
you can see all the parameters whatever we entered.
So, if at later stage, if you want to change these parameters, you can change. So, suppose if
my feed point is not at the proper location, and if I want to change I can simply change it
here, it will automatically update. We need not to go to that particular component just to
make the change. We will simply change here, and it will automatically update, so that is the
advantage of using the parameters instead of constant values.
So, it will take some time. So, in between if you want to see the results, you can see from
here. It is showing you, it cannot rely on these results, because it is showing you the results of
the middle stage. So, there are many conditions which it has not incorporated. So, now,
simulation is over.
Now, we will try to analyze the results. And we will see in what manner this particular
antenna is behaving. So, just go to 1D results and then go to S parameter. When you go to S
parameter, you will see this window just see here it is resonating at this frequency. Now, if
you want to locate this particular frequency right click show axis marker to minimum you see
this frequency is 2.456 GHz. So, we design what this antenna for 2.45 GHz. Now, it is
resonating at approximately at the same frequency. There is one more thing that I want to
show you there are too many options. So, you can select the option according to your
requirement. So, suppose if you want to see these S parameters in linear scale, you can select
this option. If you want to check the real part, you can select this option for imaginary and for
phase you can select the relevant option.
There is one more options Z Smith chart. So, I want to highlight here you can see this is
Smith chart. And this point corresponds to 50 , whereas this corresponds to open circuit and
this corresponds to short circuit. Now, if you want to match your antenna. So, your target is
to match with this particular point. Now, if you want to see the bandwidth, we know that in
general almost everywhere we consider VSWR <2 frequencies. So, to locate that frequency
right click, plot properties then reference circle you show circle, and go to VSWR and then
put 2. So, you see here corresponding to VSWR 2 the circle is created. So, these are the
frequency points, and we are getting the band width between these points. The same thing
you can see in S parameter plot in dB scale also.
Here, if you try to put the 10 dB markers use this option show measure line. And then try to
use this 10 dB point. So, this is bandwidth that you are getting between 2.4322 to 2.483. This
particular point will corresponds to VSWR = 2 circle. The next thing is how will it behave in
far field. So, how will be its radiation pattern. So, two see the radiation pattern go to far field.
Select this option, and try to see.

So, this is the radiation pattern you can see for the micro strip antenna. Now, if you see here
just enable this show structure then structure transparent and then far field transparent. So, if
you try to visualize here, you can see this here the structure is shown. So, this is radiating in
the broadside direction. So, in the plane perpendicular to this substrate. So, this radiates at it
is a broadside antenna. Here, you can also see that the directivity is 7.2. Now, if you want to
see the gain, you can right click far field properties go to plot mode select realized gain and
then apply. So, you see the gain is 6.95 dB. Now, if you want to check this radiation pattern
in 2D plot right click then go to general select polar plot.

You can see this radiates in broadside direction. So, the frequency is 2.45 GHz, because we
have put the monitor at 2.45 GHz, and the beam with corresponding to this is 85.1 degree.
And the side lob level is minus 17.4 dB. This is how we try to check the parameters of the
antenna. Now, suppose if you are interested to see its current behavior and other things, so to
see the current behavior go to 2D results go to this option and check here.
If you see here, and just try to see try to animate this. If you see in absolute scale, so this is
how it will look like. Now, if you animate this, this is how it will behave.

If you see in H field, you see here just try to see absolute scale. Along the length we know
that the middle them current is maximum, on the edges the current is minimum. So, it is
validating our concept of microstrip antenna. So, now, if you want to plot the gain, so to plot
the gain of this particular antenna, you can go to this particular option post processing, then
use result template then select far field and antenna properties.
Then select far field results, then select maximum gain over frequency and then evaluate.

Since, we put the monitor at only one point this is showing me the gain at particular one
point. Now, in simulation if you give the frequency range, then it will use those points, and it
will plot the gain. So, in this way you can plot the gain versus frequency plot, similarly
directivity versus frequency plot and other things. Now, just to show you the gain versus
frequency plot I will simulate it over the frequency range go to far field monitor. And then
use this step option step width.
And give the range we take the step size of 0.05 and then press ok. You can see it has created
number of monitors or you can also use the broadband monitor then you start the simulation.
Now, it will take some time, so wait for the simulation to be over.
Now, you try to see the gain. So, you can see here.
When we took the frequency point, this gain will look like this curve. So, it has calculated
with gain at all the frequencies. So, this is how we plot the gain versus frequency curve. Now,
we will try to make active circuits in CST. And we will see how we will design these active
circuits in CST.
Then we will to analyze the results of CST. So, to simulate CST go to file select new and
recent.
And use this circuit and system option.
When you see this, you will see window like this. Now, if you see here, there are various
options ok. Now, if you want to make normal RLC component, you can use these options.
Now, if you want to use some I C or other things, you can accordingly select the proper
options.
So, today we will try to design this MMG 3003NT1 amplifier. We will try to incorporate the
S2p file of this particular amplifier. And then we will try to observe the result. Now, if you
see here, so in general whenever we try to design any amplifier using the IC, most of the
manufacturers provide s2p file. If they do not provide, they provide you S parameters. So,
here if the s2p file is already available, we can directly use that particular file, but if the file is
not available, only S parameters are available. I will tell you how to make the s2p file. So, we
will just open the data sheet of this particular amplifier.

If you see here, this is the data sheet of this particular amplifier. If you see here, they have not
given the s2p file. If you try to Google it, you will not find the s2p file, but if you see in data
sheet they have provided you the S parameter file, you can see. All the biasing conditions
they have given, and the S parameters they have given. So, we will try to make the s2p file
using this option.
So, to make the s2p file, we need to just provide some basic information. I will tell you. Just
open the notepad and then just give this information.

So, the important information here if you see, these are the biasing conditions. So the V CC =
6.2 Vdc, ICC, and other things these are biasing conditions. You use this colon they are in
comment form. So, you need not to provide these things thing that is necessary for s2p file is
this. If you see here, the first part corresponds to the frequency. So, if you are using the
frequency in MHz range or Hz range or whatever type of data is given in data sheet, so
whatever type of data is given in data sheet, you can give the parameter accordingly. So, in
our data sheet the data is given in MHz Ohm. So, we have written here the MHz. Then the
next is corresponding to the parameter, which type of parameter you are trying to analyze.
So, in a data sheet the S parameters are given. So, the second variable will be S parameter.
And the next part is the corresponding to the magnitude. So, we are trying to check the
magnitude of S parameters so it is a corresponds to magnitude. And the next part is the
resistance the next is the value of that particular resistance. So, we are trying to normalize an
amplifier with 50  that is why these parameters are selected. So, you can skip all those lines,
because those are just comment to make the person familiar with what type of parameters are
given. So, like we will be giving a frequency and then magnitude and angle. So, just to make
it easy for other users we have written these comments, it is not mandatory. So, these are the
lines that you need to put. So, I will show you the s2p file of MMG just open notepad. And I
will just open the s2p file, yes.

If you see here, these are the comments. This is the parameters which I was talking about and
then these are again comments. And these are the values which I have taken from the data
sheet. So, all you need to do is you need to just put these values and then save this file is as
s2p file.
Now, you come to again CST simulator use this options data import. Then use this
touchstone block. When you drag this into the layout window, it will ask for the S parameter
file. So, we will select the element s parameter file.

So, in this particular block we have imported the s2p file of MMG. Now, we will try to make
the geometry that is given in the data sheet for this particular I C.
So, in general most of the IC provides you the supporting biasing circuits and the coupling
circuits. So, this is a geometry that we will try to make out. Now, you see here, this is a
geometry I have given here all the dimensions. So, this is our DUT, and it contains the S
parameter file then we need to make the transmission line. So, we will just make the
transmission line go to microstrip, and use this option microstrip and drag it here.
When you drag it, you see this option. Here you can see various parameters. And you can
select the parameters according to your requirement whatever is given in the data sheet. Here
in our datasheet is in the datasheet of MMG 3003. They have taken the epsilon as 4.1, and the
thickness we have taken 0.8 mm. So, we will change the thickness, and epsilon accordingly.
Then for the microstrip line we will just simply use the dimensions whatever I have given in
this particular datasheet.
So, you see this Z2 is 0.575 inches, and 0.058 inches. So, all the tracks they have the width
corresponding to 50 , so that is why you can see in all the tracks the width is 0.058 inch. If
you see here, just give these dimensions, and you select this you can see this length and width
options are enabled. I will just change here it to inch. If you have the information in mm you
can put it directly. And then I will edit it so, I will give the width as 0.058 and then sorry then
the length is 0.575.
Similarly, you have roughly 4 or 5 steps. I just simply copy paste and further I will change
you can see here 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6 microstrip lines you have. So, I will just simply copy paste
it here 1, 4, 5. And I will just try to locate it and then I will change the dimensions
accordingly. So, for first block this z. First block and the last block the length is 0.347 inches.
So, I will change it 0.347. Similarly, for last block it 0.347, for the second block if you see it
is 0.575, we have already given that. This was third block it is 0.172 inches. Just enter the
value whatever I have given.
And then for the next block it is 0.062. Then you see that they have use some decoupling
capacitors. So, I just want to tell you in the s2p file the incorporate the biasing condition. So,
it is not necessary for you to make this particular layout. So, in s2p file they use the biasing
circuits. So, they incorporate all the biasing rated criterias. So, you need not to use this
particular component, because these are the biasing components. So, the all information that
you need to use is this these microstrip line, and the decoupling capacitor.
So, we will just make these components and then we will use the s2p file in DUT. So, the
value of C1 and C2 is 47 pF. So, we will use this. to use this components, select this and just
bring it here, when is this again copy paste. So, before Z 6 you put another capacitor, and third
capacitor is placed between Z4 and Z5 and rotate this. Now, you try to make the connection
make this connection, connect it here. Similarly, use this connector connect it here. Again use
connector and make the connection between different components and then put ground here.
And change these values of these capacitors you can change the value here. So, the value of
decoupling capacitor was 47 pF. Similarly, for this capacitor 47 pF and for this value was 1.2
pF. So, put these values make all the connections and at this port, you use the external
connector. And then make the connection between these connector, and the first step,
similarly use this second connector at this end, and make the connection between these. So,
we have made all the connections you can see. Now, we need to set the task.
So, to set the task again go to this option, go to S parameter ok. Then you give here the
frequency range. So, if we give the frequency range, the data that was given S parameter file
s2p file was from 0.1 to 3.6 GHz, but these conditions we have taken for 800 to 1100 MHz.
So, we will select the frequency range accordingly. So, in this case we will take the frequency
range between 0.6 and 1.2 GHz and this ok. And then update, when you updated go to
navigation tree, and then see the parameters.

If you see here, just try to analyze these results so, you can see this is showing as the gain
above 20 dB. This is S22 and this one is S11. So, you can see it is well matched in this
frequency range. You can also set other parameters in the task window itself. I will just show
you here select this amplifier option select this option. And you can sweep the frequency
range of your interest. And you can analyze the results in this way ok. So, this is what you
need to do for active circuit simulation.
So, in this lecture, we tried to design microstrip antenna, then we tried to see the behavior of
microstrip antenna. We tried to see how does it behave in far field region, then we tried to see
the gain versus frequency plot, we also saw how to see the radiation pattern in 2D and 3D
plot, we also saw how we should analyze S parameter results in Smith chart and in dB plot.
After that we tried to design the amplifier, we use the MMG amplifier to simulate. In the
similar way you can use other amplifiers. So, in general most of the manufacturers provide
you s2p file. If they do not provide you s2p file, they provide you S parameters. So, you can
use those S parameters to make the s2p file. Then you can provide the supporting connections
and accordingly you can do the active circuit simulations. And you can analyze the results
accordingly. So, in the next lecture, my colleague will show you the simulation of mixers in a
different software that is AWR.
Thank you very much. We will see you in the next lecture.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module – 12
Lecture – 59
Mixer Design in NI AWR Software – I
Hello welcome to the last session in the series of Software Demonstrations. In this lecture we
are going to study how to use computer aided design tools for the design of solid state
microwave circuits. I will demonstrate this with the help of a mixer design example. Let us
begin.
So, the software platform or the CAD tool that we are going to use in this particular is
National Instruments AWR, design environment platform. This platform consists of 3
different tools, the first one is microwave office which is used for RF and microwave circuit
design The second one is visual system simulator which is mainly used for system level
simulation and third is analog office which is typically used for analog RFIC designs. All
these 3 tools have facility of linear and non-linear circuit simulations, EM simulations, and
circuit and system level co-simulations.
In this lecture we are going to focus on microwave office and we are going to use linear and
non-linear circuit simulators available in the microwave office.
So, let us revise for given specifications first we choose the mixing device that we are going
to use, after that we choose the type of the circuit that we are going to use, and then we
design the circuit which involves design in various components involved in the circuit, then
we have simulation and finally, we optimize a circuit to achieve the desired performance.
In this example we are going to use diode as the mixing device and the circuit we have
chosen is simple single diode mixer. The specifications are we have an RF frequency at 4.25
GHz we have the desired if at 500 MHz which is 0.5 GHz. And depending on this RF and IF
specifications the LO which is local oscillator frequency chosen is 3.75 GHz.
The circuit is as follows as we can see there is an RF LO isolator circuit to isolate the RF and
LO ports, then we have the matching circuit this is the mixing device and we have an IF
filter. The mixing device which is the diode is nothing, but a Schottky diode the part number
is BAT15-03 W. This is a Infineon diode of chip form which can be used in microstrip
design.
The steps or the sequence in the design that we are going to follow is this. So, first is this
diode we are going to model this diode in this platform, after that we see the input reflection
coefficient at the RF frequency, and based on that we will design the matching network, after
that we will design the RF and LO isolation circuit and finally, the result of this we will
simulate we will see the spectrum output at the output of the mixer. And then accordingly we
will design the IF filter to filter out the undesired frequency components and finally, we will
get the IF output.
Once all this is done we will simulate the entire circuit to get the conversion loss
performance, the isolation performance and noise figure performance of the mixer.
Let us move to the software part, whenever you open the NI AWR software the user interface
looks like this.
At the top you have the project name which is currently untitled project because we have not
saved the project yet, you have couple of toolbars and on the left you can see you have 3
browsers - one is the project browser, another one is a element browser and the third one is
the layout browser. So, the project browser consists of various things first you have design
notes, you can have project options, you have global definitions, data files, system circuit
diagrams, graphs and so on.
So, let us first start with the design notes, you can double click on it and you see that file will
be opened, you can type in whatever you want in this file. So, let us say we start with single
diode mixer design fRF is 4.25 GHz, fIF is 0.5 GHz, fLO is 3.75 GHz. Now, you can type in
whatever you want in the design notes and we will first save the project. We will give
appropriate name single diode mixer, I save this here. So, the project is now saved.
So, first thing we are going to build a diode model. So, go to circuit schematics right click
new schematic, name this as diode model.
In this we are going to import first an element, go to non-linear diode. If you drag this you
can read the description.
We are going to use s diode which is spice non geometric junction diode model, just drag this
into the circuit schematic window, click it, it will be placed.
Now, if you double click on this you will see the options related to this, right now you do not
see anything. You have to click on show secondary. And you will see all the diode
parameters which are basically diode junction parameters which are specific to a particular
diode.
Now, we will fill this parameters based on the device which we have chosen. The
manufacturer provides the data sheet of this diode or you have spice models of such devices
available on internet.
So, we have the spice model available with us we will choose that.
This is the spice model file and as you can see there are different specifications which are
mentioned over here. So, Is reverse saturation current is 74 nA, N is 1.07, Rs which is the
series resistance is 5 Ω and so on. We will fill the data using this file into our model.
Now, this diode is of chip form so it has a package associated with it and the package will
have some parasitic inductance and capacitance values. And the spice model also contains
these parasitic values and we will include these values in the diode model. So, SOD 323 is
the package.

And this file contains the parasitic. So, this is your chip which is diode and you see that the
inductance in series a capacitance in parallel and you have two lead inductances. So, we will
build this model in our file. We will go to elements, we will go to lumped, we will have
inductor, we will choose inductor closed form, drag, place it here, we will go to capacitor,
capacitor closed form, we will place it here, just zoom out a bit and we have two more
inductances at here and at the output port.
Now, the values of this inductors and capacitor have to be specified. So, instead of specifying
the values directly what I am going do is to create variables. So, for example, this inductance
has a name LAI. So, I will place this value you just have to double click on that particular L.
So, LAI, I specify it as LAI. Then this is LAO, this is LAO right and as you can see all these
things are in red because I have not specified the values to these variables. So, click on here,
click on equation, place it here and then specify LAO is equal to LAO is 0.65 nano, 0.65 no
need to specify nano as it is already specified here.
Now, I will connect this for connections just move your mouse to the unconnected part, a
symbol will appear just left click and go to the next part, click again a wire will automatically
be connected. So, I will do the connections like this. At the two ends of these inductors what I
am going to put are the ports. So, just go to port and place a port here take another port, right
click to rotate, place it here. So, you have port 1 at this end port 2 at this end. The reason for
putting the ports will be clear after sometime.
Now, this terminal is the anode of the diode, this is a cathode so the port 1 corresponds to
anode I will create a symbol saying A and for this I will say the pin ID as C. So, anode and
cathode, I save the project.
Now, next point is we want to test this model of the diode and we will see that with the help
of the IV curve of the diode it should match with the data sheet specifications. Go back to
project browser, circuit schematics, right click, new schematic, diode IV testbench is the
name that we will give to this file. And in this file now I want to include whatever circuit I
had in the diode model. What I will do, I will create a sub circuit diode model is already
there, normal selected hit, and you will see that now the entire circuit which has been
designed here is now taken as a black box.
Now, this symbol can be changed just double click on, it go to symbols and you can choose
any symbol that you want we will choose a diode IC symbol for this because it represents a
diode IC.
Now, this is anode and cathode of this diode.

Now, simple to measure the IV curve I will ground the cathode at the anode I want to provide
a voltage sweep. For that I will go to elements, I will go to measurement devices, I will go to
IV, and I will take a DC current slash voltage curve tracer, I will put it here, I will just drag
this here, I will connect this to anode. This is a sweep port the V sweep ranges from 0 to 4.
Now, it is worth looking at the data sheet of the diode to check what voltage range we should
have. So, let us have a look at that data sheet.

This is diode that we have selected and we see that in the curve the voltage variation is from
0 to 1 volt.
So, we will stick to that range so 0 to 1 with the step of 0.1 let us say and my circuit testbench
to measure the IV characteristic of this diode is complete.
Now, I will create a new graph. So, click on this add a new graph diode IV is a name I will
give to this graph and let it be of rectangular type create you will see a blank graph here.
Now, we have to add measurement to this graph, right click, add measurement, go to non-
linear current, select IV curve data source there are various options and we want to choose
diode IV testbench, and IV curve dot IV 1 sweep which is the variable that we are going to
use is used for the x axis and the step is being ignored.
So, we will just choose a simple 0 volt for the step and the simulator is APLAC DC and it
apply, ok. To simulate we use this button which is analyze and we see that the diode IV
curves appear. I will just drag this particular thing right and I check the values of diode
currents and voltages right click, add marker click on the graph and you see that 0.4031 is the
voltage across the diode and 13.92 is the current flowing through the diode. Now, to verify
that we are getting the correct results we will use the DC characteristic of the diode which is
specified over here.
So, for forward voltage VF with different IF which is the diode current. So, for 1 mA you
should get the forward voltage in the range of 0.16 to 0.32 volts, we will check that. So, to
move this marker to 1 mA, right click, marker search value of one find y value which is the
current and search towards the left search. So, for 1 mA the voltage is 0.2366 volt. In the data
sheet you have nearly the same value which is 0.23 volt. Similarly for value of 10 mA I will
search right, you see that the voltage is 0.3685 volt which is in the same range. So, this
confirms that whatever diode model that we have built is in sync with the diode data sheet
provided by the manufacturer, cancel this.
Now, we will move to diode biasing project, circuit schematics, new schematic name it as
diode bias, create. Again I will add the sub circuit. So, instead of going to the circuit again I
will just copy this, I will paste here, right click to rotate anode cathode, I will ground the
cathode, moving this a bit.
Now, for biasing I need a RF choke to avoid the RF currents to flow into the DC path, so first
I will take an inductor go to lumped inductor closed form. Then I will have to take a resistor
to limit the current that is flowing into the diode, I will place a resistor over here, then in
between this resistor and the supply voltage I have to put capacitors to remove the transients
and high frequency noise. So, I will go to capacitors, I will choose capacitor, I will place one
here copy paste, I will place the second here paste, third here.
And then I have to choose a DC voltage supply. So, I will go to sources which is this DC and
I will select a DC voltage source, drag it and you can right click rotate and place it in this
fashion. We are going to use supply voltage of 3.3 we will first complete the circuit we will
place a ground we will connect it. We will connect this again and based on the diode IV
curve what we are going to use is this particular biasing point, so current of 10 mAs and
voltage of 0.368 which is around 0.37 volt. The resistor which is closed by giving these
values is around 270 Ω based on the calculations. So, we will put the resistor of value of 270
Ω.
The inductance value for avoiding RF current is 68 nH, 68 nano and the capacitances to
bypass the noise and transience is this is 100 pF this is 1.2 nano and this is around 1 micro.
So, 1E6 pico right and the voltage is 3.3. Now, to see that appropriate voltages and currents
are set across the diode we are going to use this tool called annotate add new annotation to
the circuit.
So, we are going to use DCIA which is annotate DC input current for all elements the circuit
is diode bias current apply, and you have DCVA apply.
Then if you simulate you see that the current that is flowing into the diode is around 10.8
mAs and the voltage set across the diode is 0.38 volts which is quite close to the desired
biasing point. This confirms that our biasing is correct.
Now, to add circuit around this diode we need to avoid DC current flowing into the other
circuit elements. So, what we will do? We will add DC block capacitors at the input port and
as well as at the output side, we will connect it. The value of this capacitor is approximately
100 pF which will pass the RF current, but block the DC. Now, this is the input of the diode
this is the output I will place ports, port 1 at this end port 2 at this end. This is the input so I
will create an ID for it IN, this is the output. So, I will create an ID for that which is OUT and
we are all set to apply high frequency signals input to this diode, output will be taken at port
2. So, this is our complete diode bias circuit.
The next step what we are going to do we will see the RF input impedance of this diode and
accordingly we will design the RF matching network. For that again create a new schematic,
right click, new schematic I will name it as RF match, testbench create. And we are going to
use this diode bias circuit as a sub circuit, diode bias, as you can see this is the IN this is the
OUT.
Now, simply put ports at the IN and OUT ports of the diode, and we are interested in looking
at the S11 at port 1 provided at the RF frequency. To set the frequency go to the current
schematic which is RF match test bench, right click on it go to options uncheck use project
defaults, we want a single point operation because currently the RF frequency is 4.25 GHz
and hit apply. So, the circuit will be analyze only at 4.25 GHz.
We want to plot the S11 on the Smith chart. So, create a new graph, the type should be Smith
chart, name I will say S11 RF.
Create this is the Smith chart to add measurements right click, add new measurement, go to
linear port parameters, S-parameters, choose appropriate circuit which is RF match testbench
S11 we are going to see and here select use for x axis, ok. Now, you see that a marker is added
over here if you right click add marker click on it, you will see that the frequency is 4.25 GHz
the normalize r is 0.5 3 and normalize x is 0.41. So, the technique that we are going to use or
the circuit that we are going to use in this particular case is single stub matching technique.
For that you know the procedure.

So, first we have a series microstrip line in single stub matching. So, go to elements
microstrip lines, MLIN, drag and place it over here. Now, this microstrip line has to have
some substrate definition, and because a single substrate will be created for all the
components being used in the circuit will go to global definitions and we will add a
microstrip substrate definition at this particular point. So, for that go to elements, go to
substrates, which is here click on it and choose MSUB, drag it here, place it.
We are going to use an RT duroid substrate so 2.2, H is 0.787 mm, thickness of the conductor
will be 0.035 mm which is 35 micron, tan delta is going to be 0.0007 and this is 2.2 and the
name of the substrate is sub 1. Save it, we can close this, go back to our design, right click on
it, go to properties MSUB. You can set it to sub 1, ok.
Now, the width and the length of this line which is a part of the matching network. We all
know that the width should be corresponding to the characteristic impedance of 50 Ω.
So, I will set it to w 50 which is a variable and length I will set it to l_line. I will have these
two equations, so w 50 is the width corresponding to the substrate that we just defined and
the characteristic impedance of 50 Ω.
Now, to calculate this width we will use a tool go to tools TX line the substrate details you
can enter here 2.2, loss tangent 0.0007 and the copper should be selected as the conductor.
The substrate height is 0.787, thickness is 35 micron, the impedance required is 50 Ω, the
frequency is 4.25 GHz, and currently the length is not of a concern we are concerned about
the width. So, just click on this arrow and you will see that the width is 2.38 mm. So, I will
add w 50 equal to 2.38 l_line has been frozen to 16.85 mm.
Next, task I want to add a stub. So, I will again drag it, I will go to microstrip, I will go to
lines, this is the open circuited stub, we will drag it, rotate and we will place it here, and again
I will connect it like this. Again the stub has a width corresponding to a 50 Ω characteristic
impedance. So, I will set it to w 50 which is already defined to 2.8, 2.38 mm; l I will again
create a variable l_stub, the stub length is frozen to 19.5. So, a line length of 16.85 mm and
stub length open circuited stub length of 19.5 mm will give me desired matching which is at
the center of the Smith chart. So, this is my independent matching network. We will stop at
this point. We will study rest of the circuit in the next lecture.
Thank you.
Prof. Girish Kumar
Module - 12
Lecture – 60
Mixer Design in NI AWR Software – II
Hello and welcome to Mixer Design using CAD tool which is NI AWR, we will continue
with the design in this lecture.
Next part, we want to design the RF-LO isolation circuit. There are various options available;
you can use coupling structures or you can use power combiners. Remember that the 2 ports
of the power combiners are isolated from each other. Similarly, the 2 ports of coupling
structures can be isolated to each other depending on which coupling structure you are going
to use. In this particular case we will use a simple power combiner as a RF-LO isolator
circuit.
So, again schematics, right click, new schematic RF-LO isolator, create and go to elements
Microstrip power divider, you can see Wilkinson Equal Power Split chip resistor, you can
select this.
It will rotate remember that Wilkinson power divider, we have studied. So, these are the
properties which can be entered from here as well, but the meaning you have to see from this
window itself. So, W is the Feeding line width at ports 1 2 3 which should be 50 Ω
characteristic impedance lines.
So, I will set it 2 variables w 50 width of branch lines which is 50 √ 2so I will set to w b
length of the branch lines λ/4, I will set it to L quad and R is 100 Ω because the system
impedance is 50 Ω which will not change, the substrate is sub 1 ok.
Now, this variables we have to define. w 50 is equal to 2.38. Now, L quad should be equal to
λ/4 at the LO frequency. The RF value isolator has to be designed at a LO frequency because
LO power is quite high and which should be isolated from leaking into the RF and the IF
ports. So, we will make use of this tool again.
Remember the importance of the line is 70.7, the frequency is 3.75, electrical length is 90
degree; substrates details remain the same. Convert, you see that the width is 1.34 and the
length is 14.8.
So, L quad is 14.8 and w b is 1.34. 1.34 L quad ok. Now adding ports; port 1 here, port 2 here
and port 3 here ok. I will name ports as RF, this is a LO and this is RF+LO ok.
So, let us see the response of this particular circuit. I will create a new graph. I will say RF
SParam RF-LO isolator; type is rectangular, create, add new measurements, select the circuit
RF-LO isolator, linear S parameters; S11 in dB and S21 again in dB. So, applied S21 S11 apply.
Now, the sweep frequency, we have not specified; its only 1 and 2 GHz as you can see
default project options we will set it later.
Click go to options, Project Options or rather than that go to the schematic, right click options
and check it, uncheck the single point operation and we want to see the operation from 3 to
let us say 5.5 GHz the step frequency of 0.05 GHz. Apply, get 51 points and if I simulate I
get this response.
So, as you can see the notch are not at exactly 3.75 GHz’s which is around here. So, we need
to optimize the length. So, go to isolator, added tune tool, hit on L quad, go to the graph
again, enable the tuner and since you going to shift to a higher frequency; we will reduce the
length slowly till we get now before that let us analyze this.
So, this is port 1 port 2. So, S11 is return loss at port 1; S22 will be the return loss at port 2. S 22
will be the return loss at port 2 and S21 is the isolation between port 1 and port 2. So, that is
what we are looking at.
I will hit the marker, I will check the frequency which is 3.8 currently. I have to yeah this
looks pretty much good. I will freeze to this length. So, the isolation is around 48 dB and the
return loss is also good at the RF port. So, this completes the design of RF-LO isolator. Now,
let us add this things together to make the mixer. New schematic let us say mixer add sub
circuit, first we will have the RF-LO isolator.
Then, I will go for the matching network and then, I will use the diode which is diode bias ok.
Now, at the RF and LO, we are going to add harmonic ports because we want to simulate the
non-linear part of the device. So, go to ports select harmonic balance, port 1 to be the RF port
and port 2 should be the IF port. So, I will choose a normal port small signal port for IF and
then, I will choose harmonic port which is port 3 for LO. Now, for this particular project
mixer again I have to set frequencies go to options and check this part, say single point and
set the frequency to 4.5 GHz because that is the RF frequency. Double click on this, go to
port and say tone 2 to have the frequency setting. So, if you see now the frequencies applied
over here, you can enter 3.75 GHz. The power is going to be varied. So, I set it to P_LO
equation P_LO is equal to let us say 0 dBm initially and this is my mixer circuit. This is the
RF port RF LO IF. I want to simulate this and want to first check, how does the output
spectrum looks like?

So, I will add graph IF out add measurement, we have to go to non-linear power and we have
to click on harmonic domain frequency domain power Pharm. The circuit is mixer. We want
to see the output at port 2 and sweep frequency should be 4.25 GHz dB, apply, ok. If you
simulate, you see this. This is our output of the mixer right, click add marker; if you see this
is at 0.5 GHz which is our desired IF and these are various spurious signals, over these you
see these are the leaking RF and LO signals.
Now, the range is quite high. So, let me modify the axis limits minimum for the left axis. Let
us say I keep it to minus 100 and max as let us say 30 apply ok.

So, right now if you see the power is minus 45 dBm at IF which is quite low and we are
going to see the effect of LO power on the IF output. So, tune tool, tune the power go to the
graph, enable the tuner minimum value is 0 maximum is let us say 20 and now if you see if
you vary the LO power, the IF power increases which enables a higher conversion gain or
lower conversion loss. We will study this with a sweep on LO power, now we will the IF
filter to remove all the spurious signals over here.
For that we will make use of a tool RFSim 99.

So, go to tools, design filter.
We will choose the Chebyshev filter, we want a Band Pass filter. First element is series.
Centre frequency we require is 500 MHz. The bandwidth is 100 MHz; I will tell you how the
bandwidth is chosen. Number of poles 3, 0.1 dB ripple; calculate, you see that these are the
values.
Again, go to schematic, new schematic, IF filter, create, elements, lumped, Inductor closed
form; Capacitor, closed form.
Now, these values of inductors 82.1 nH; it is 82.1 nH. Now these values of inductors are 82.1
nH; its 82.1 nH; capacitor is 1.2 pF; 1.2 pF. Copy paste add the shunt arm, inductance value
is 2.8 nH.
Capacitor is 36.5 pico and these things have to repeat; add ports, add graph, SParam, filter,
add measurement, go to linear port parameters S parameters source IF filter and S 11 dB
apply and S21 apply ok.

Go to project, IF filter right click, right click options uncheck this; uncheck this; you want to
see the response from 0.1 to let us say 1.1 GHz. Step to be 0.01 apply 101 points, simulate
you see this is the filter response, add marker. This is add 0.5 GHz you get a insertion loss of
0.1 dB around and if you add another worker at 1 GHz which is approximately 48 dB of
attenuation is achieved at 1 GHz which is required because if you see at the output of IF this
is the signal which is closest to IF which is at 1 GHz ok. We have we want to remove this
signal substantially ok.
So, this is my IF filter I am going to add it to my mixer circuit. So, I will stretch it.
Add sub circuit IF filter ok, I will add it to here; save it. If I simulate again, I see the IF out.
Now, we see the IF signal is at 13.36 dBm minus 13.36 dBm and all the spurious signals have
been removed substantially, good.
Now, we will see the conversion performance for that let us go to the mixer. let us add a
sweep variable for the LO power starting from 0 stop to 20 step size 4 ok. Place it here and
let us keep the RF power at minus 10 dBm save it. Now, add new graph. Conversion Loss
create, add new measurement, go to non-linear, go to power LSS and small large signal S
parameter at harmonic, choose the circuit to be mixer to port is port 2 IF port, from port is
port 1. The harmonic is 0.5 at port 2 and harmonic is 4.25 at port 1. Sweep frequency 4.25
and variable used for x axis by apply ok.
And I simulate again, I see that this is my conversion loss performance. If I add marker and I
set it to maximum value. I see that the minimum conversion loss is obtained at a LO power of
8 dBm.
So, this is a convergent loss performance of the designed mixer so far. We observe that at
lower LO power levels, the conversion loss is very high. It decreases as the LO power is
increased and at an optimum LO power of 8 dBm, get conversion loss of around 12.77 dB. If
we further increase the LO power, the conversion loss degrades.
Next we will see the isolation performance. For that, we will create a new graph; we will use
the same mixer circuit. We will say isolation, rectangular, create add new measurement non-
linear power LSSnm and in this case, we want to see to is the RF port which is port 1; from is
the LO port which is port 3. At port 1, we want to see what is the LO power. So, the
harmonic that needs to be chosen is 0 1.
So, 3.75 GHz is LO power and at port 3, we should have the same harmonic which is 3.75
GHz and we sweep for different LO power levels. We apply we also want to see the isolation
between the IF port and the LO port apply ok.
If you simulate this, you see that the pink curve which is LO If isolation is quite good which
is greater than 90 dB; whereas, the isolation between LO and RF port is greater than 10 dB
and it attains its maximum value at let us have a look minimum again 8 dBm LO power. So,
again this is optimum LO power for maximum isolation between LO and RF port. Again,
these are large signal simulations it is important that we simulate it using large signal
analysis.
Next, we will move to noise figure; for that we have to create a noise figure test bench. So, go
to schematic, right click new schematic, noise figure test bench and in this case I will use the
entire mixer circuit as a sub circuit.
It is better that we name the ports so that we do not connect ports wrongly. So, port 1 is RF;
name this port as RF ok. Port 3 is LO; name this as LO and port 2 is IF; name this as IF ok.
So, in the NF test bench, now if you see RF LO and IF. For noise figure simulation, the RF
port is treated as a small signal port. So, you connect a simple small signal port to the RF LO
is considered as a large signal port. So, we use harmonic port for LO. So, I will use just
copied this port and paste here; IF is again small signal port ok.
Now, for noise figure analysis, we need to add a component. Go to elements, go to measuring
devices controls and so drag this, see the component NL noise. We have to add this noise
component for noise figure analysis. So, port to is port 2 which is the IF port; port from is
port 1 which is RF port. So, noise is being added from RF to IF which is correct. Now, we
have to set appropriate values of NF start and NF end and these values will correspond to the
RF bandwidth. Let us say the RF signal centre at 4.25 GHz as bandwidth of around 100 MHz.
So, the IF ranges from 0.45 GHz to 0.55 GHz. So, NF start, I will set it 2.45 and NF end, I
will set it 2.55 and steps I will use 10 steps. Once this is done we have to define the Plo. So,
add equation Plo equal to 0 and means at a sweep from 0 to 20 step of 4 for the LO power
level.
Now, to view noise figure we will create a new graph of rectangular type N F test bench, you
have to set this to tone 1 and in the project options, uncheck the default, set single point and
set the frequency as 3.75 it ok.
Now if you go here add new measurement, choose NF test bench Noise, Noise figure SSB
and you see that the source is NF test bench output large signal harmonic which is 0, input
large signal harmonic as 1; upper you have to uncheck this. Sweep frequency you have to set
to 3.75 GHz and use x axis as the sweeping LO power level. If you apply ok, and if you
simulate, you get this performance for noise figure.
So, this is a noise figure performance against various LO power levels. We will add marker
and we will check the minimum noise figure which is 5.9 dB and which happens to be at the
same LO power at which we get best isolation and best conversion loss. So, it is the LO
power if of 8 dBm that gives us minimum noise figure maximum isolation and minimum
conversion loss. So, this is our final mixer circuit.
We have a RF-LO isolator circuit where LO and RF are applied. We have RF input matching
network. This is are diode which is biased at appropriate biasing point and after that we have
an IF filter to reduce the spurious response and to filter only the IF frequency from port 1 to
port 2. At port 2, we observe the IF output ok.
So, we completed the mixture design and in the notes, we can add the performance. So,
conversion loss was around 12.7 dB. We had LO-RF isolation equal to around 20 dB. LO-IF
isolation of around 90 dB and we got a noise figure of around 6 dB and all these things are
obtained at LO power level of 8 dBm.
So, this completes our design of a single diode mixer using a CAD tool which is national
instruments NI AWR design platform. We studied how to model the diode; how to bias the
diode how to design different passive circuits like Wilkinson power divider or you can use
coupler as well.
We studied how to design a matching network using this tool. We studied how to design the
IF filter and how to combine all these components into the final circuit. And then, we also
studied how to use the simulation parameters to study various performances which is
conversion lost performance, noise figure performance or isolation performance. With this
we will stop here.
Thank you.

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INDEX

S.No. Topic Page No.

8 Waveguides - III: Parallel Plane Waveguides 122

Power Dividers – I: Two-way, Three-way and Four-

Microwave Filters – I: Filters and Low Pass

Microwave Diodes: PN Junction, Varactor, Schottky,

Microwave Transistors: BJT, HBT, JFET, MOSFET,

Low Noise Amplifiers – II: NF Circles and LNA

41 Microwave Oscillators – I 666

46 Fundamentals of Antennas 745

51 Yagi - Uda, Log-Periodic and Reflector Antennas 840

56 Power Divider and Combiner Design in CST 932

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Thank you very much, bye.

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However, there is another phenomenon which is power density varies by 1 by R square,

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So, thank you very much, bye.