5039B Applied Electronics Laboratory (S5ELCT)

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE –KALAMASSERY
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
LAB MANUAL
APPLIED ELECTRONICS LABORATORY
Course Code: 5039B
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

KALAMASSERY, ALUVA – 683104
Tel : 0484 2555356,
Fax : 0484 2540209
www.gptckalamassery.ac.in
gptckalamassery1951@gmail.com
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
LAB MANUAL
APPLIED ELECTRONICS LABORATORY
Course Code: 5039B
NAME : ……………………………………………………………………..
REG. NO:…………………………………………………………………….
ROLL NO;……………………………………………………………………
INSTITUTION VISION
To become a centre of excellence committed to moulding technologically
competent and ethically motivated learners capable of contributing constructively
to the sustainable development of the society.
MISSION
M1- To ensure a viable academic ambience conducive to intellectual growth and
skill acquisition.
M2 - To effect a symbiotic relationship with the industry and the institute.
M3 - To infuse a sense of personal integrity, self-reliance and civic responsibility.
M4 - To inculcate entrepreneurship skills and leadership qualities in the learners
through a culture of innovation and excellence.
DEPARTMENT VISION
‘To develop technologically competent Electrical and Electronics engineering
professionals having innovative skills and ethics conducive to the development of
society’.
MISSION
M1 - To provide an excellent academic ambience and training for moulding
competent professionals in Electrical and Electronics engineering.
M2 - To facilitate continuous learning environment for a culture innovation.
M3 - To promote collaborative activities to develop social & ethical values
COURSE INFORMATIVE SHEET
Program : Diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Course Code : 5039B Course Title: Applied Electronics Laboratory
Semester : 5 Credits: 1.5
Course Category: Program Elective
Periods per week: 3 (L:0 T:0 P:3) Periods per semester: 45
Course Objectives:
• To familiarize with various applications of Op-Amps

• To identify the power electronics devices and their circuits in electrical
engineering.
• To know about industrial applications of power electronics
Course Prerequisites:
Course
Topic Course Name Semester
Code
Basic semiconductor device Fundamentals of Electrical
2
operation & Electronics Lab
Analog & Digital
Transistors and OP-amps 3
Electronics circuits
Basics of electronic circuits Electronics Lab 3
Power semiconductor devices Power Electronics 4
Course Outcomes :
On completion of the course, the students will be able to:
Duration
COn Description Cognitive level
(Hours)
CO1 Develop various op - amp circuits using IC 741C 9 Applying
Identify various power semiconductor devices

CO2 6 Applying
and plot the V-I characteristics of SCR
Build controlled rectifier circuits using SCR
CO3 9 Applying
and set up a triac firing circuit.
Construct various industrial control circuits
CO4 15 Applying
using power semiconductor devices.
Lab Exam 6
CO-PO Mapping:
Course
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7
Outcomes
CO1 3
CO2 3
CO3 3
CO4 3
3-Strongly mapped, 2-Moderately mapped, 1-Weakly mapped
Course Outline
Module Duration Cognitive

Name of Experiment
Outcomes (Hours) Level
CO1 Develop various op - amp circuits using IC 741C
M1.01 Adder circuit 1.5 Applying
M1.02 Integrator 1.5 Applying
M1.03 Differentiator 1.5 Applying
M1.04 Comparator 1.5 Applying
M1.05 Zero Crossing Detector 1.5 Applying
M1.06 Schmitt trigger 1.5 Applying
Identify various power semiconductor devices and plot the V-I

CO2
characteristics of SCR
Identify various terminals and check the
M2.01 following power semiconductor devices Applying
1
(a)SCR (b) DIAC (c)TRIAC (d)UJT (c)IGBT (d)
MOSFET
Set up a UJT relaxation oscillator circuit and

M2.02 2 Applying
observe the waveform
M2.03 Plot the VI characteristics of SCR 3 Applying
Lab Exam 3
Build controlled rectifier circuits using SCR and set up a TRIAC firing
CO3
circuit.
Construct a single phase half wave controlled

M3.01 rectifier circuit using SCR for resistive load and 3 Applying
observe the waveforms across load and SCR.
Construct a single phase half controlled
M3.02 rectifier circuit using SCR with RL load and 3 Applying
observe the waveforms across load and SCR.
Set up a TRIAC Firing circuit Using DIAC and
M3.03 3 Applying
observe the waveforms across TRIAC and load
Construct various industrial control circuits using power

CO4:
semiconductor devices.
Set up a DC motor speed control circuit using

M 4.01 3 Applying
SCR and verify the output
M 4.02 Set up an emergency lamp circuit using SCR 3 Applying
Setup a of battery charger circuit using

M 4.03 3 Applying
thyristors.
M 4.04 Assemble a fan regulator using thyristors 3 Applying
Construct an automatic street lamp circuit using

M 4.05 3 Applying
LDR
Lab Exam 3
Text / Reference:
T/R Book Title/Author
K.A Navas , Electronics Lab Manual - Vol 1 PHI Learning,ISBN :

T1
9788120351424
K.A Navas , Electronics Lab Manual - Vol 2,PHI Learning, ISBN :
T2
9789388028080
Ramamoorty M., An Introduction to Thyristors and their applications, East-West Press
R1
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, ISBN: 8185336679
Sugandhi, Rajendra Kumar and Sugandhi, Krishna Kumar, Thyristors: Theory and
R2 Applications, New Age International (P) ltd. Publishers, New Delhi, ISBN: 978-0-85226-
852-0.
Bhattacharya, S.K., Fundamentals of Power Electronics, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
R3
Ltd. Noida. ISBN: 978-8125918530
Zbar, Paul B., Industrial Electronics: A Text –Lab Manual, McGraw Hill Publishing Co.
R4
Ltd., New Delhi, ISBN: 978-0070728226.
Singh, M. D. and Khanchandani, K.B., Power Electronics, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
R5
Co. Ltd, New Delhi, 2008 ISBN: 9780070583894.
R6 Grafham D.R., SCR Manual, General Electric Co., ISBN: 978-0137967711.
Jain & Alok , Power Electronics and its Applications, Penram International Publishing
R7
(India) Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai, ISBN: 978-8187972228.
Rashid , Muhammad, Power Electronics Circuits Devices and Applications, Pearson
R8
Education India, Noida, ISBN: 978-0133125900.
Online Resources:
Sl No Website Link
1 www.circuitstoday.com
2 wikipedia.org
3 NPTEL >> Courses >> Electrical Engineering
4 www.youtube.com
5 http://www.electronicsteacher.com
6 https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/experiments
Student Activity
Suggested Open-ended Experiments:

Students can do open ended experiments as a group of 3-5. There is no duplication in experiments
in between groups. This is mainly for the purpose of continuous internal evaluation Students should
prepare a separate report on open ended experiment of their choice.
Example : Design and develop power electronic circuits for various domestic applications.
Design a rectifier circuit using Op-Amps
GPCK Page 7
CO1 Develop various op - amp circuits using IC 741C
What is an Operational Amplifier?
An operational amplifier (op amp) is an analog circuit block that takes a differential voltage input and
produces a single-ended voltage output.
Op amps usually have three terminals: two high-impedance inputs and a low-impedance output port.
The inverting input is denoted with a minus (-) sign, and the non-inverting input uses a positive (+)
sign. Operational amplifiers work to amplify the voltage differential between the inputs, which is
useful for a variety of analog functions including signal chain, power, and control applications.
Operational Amplifier Classifications
There are four ways to classify operational amplifiers:
• Voltage amplifiers take voltage in and produce a voltage at the output.

• Current amplifiers receive a current input and produce a current output.
• Transconductance amplifiers convert a voltage input to a current output.
• Transresistance amplifiers convert a current input and produces a voltage output.
Because most op amps are used for voltage amplification, this article will focus on voltage amplifiers
Operational Amplifiers: Key Characteristics and Parameters
There are many different important characteristics and parameters related to op amps (see Figure 1).
These characteristics are described in greater detail below.
Figure -1
Open-loop gain
Open-loop gain: The open-loop gain (“A” in Figure 1) of an operational amplifier is the measure of the
gain achieved when there is no feedback implemented in the circuit. This means the feedback path, or
GPCK Page 8
loop, is open. An open-loop gain often must be exceedingly large (10,000+) to be useful in it, except
with voltage comparators.
Voltage comparators compare the input terminal voltages. Even with small voltage differentials,
voltage comparators can drive the output to either the positive or negative rails. High open-loop gains
are beneficial in closed-loop configurations, as they enable stable circuit behaviours across
temperature, process, and signal variations.
Input impedance
Another important characteristic of op amps is that they generally have high input impedance (“ZIN” in
Figure 1). Input impedance is measured between the negative and positive input terminals, and its ideal
value is infinity, which minimizes loading of the source. (In reality, there is a small current leakage.)
Arranging the circuitry around an operational amplifier may significantly alter the effective input
impedance for the source, so external components and feedback loops must be carefully configured. It
is important to note that input impedance is not solely determined by the input DC resistance. Input
capacitance can also influence circuit behavior, so that must be taken into consideration as well.
Output impedance
An operational amplifier ideally has zero output impedance (“ZOUT” in Figure 1). However, the output
impedance typically has a small value, which determines the amount of current it can drive, and how
well it can operate as a voltage buffer.
Frequency response and bandwidth (BW)
An ideal op amp would have an infinite bandwidth (BW), and would be able to maintain a high gain
regardless of signal frequency. However, all operational amplifiers have a finite bandwidth, generally
called the “-3dB point,” where the gain begins to roll as frequency increases. The gain of the amplifier
then decreases at a rate of -20dB/decade while the frequency increases. Op amps with a higher BW
have improved performance because they maintain higher gains at higher frequencies; however, this
higher gain results in larger power consumption or increased cost.
Gain bandwidth product (GBP)
As the name suggests, GBP is a product of the amplifier’s gain and bandwidth. GBP is a constant value
across the curve, and can be calculated with Equation :
GBP=Gain x Bandwidth=A x BW
GBP is measured at the frequency point at which the operational amplifier’s gain reaches unity. This is
useful because it allows the user to calculate the device’s open-loop gain at different frequencies. An
operational amplifier’s GBP is generally a measure of its usefulness and performance, as op amps with
a higher GBP can be used to achieve better performance at higher frequencies.
These are the major parameters to consider when selecting an operational amplifier in your design, but
there are many other considerations that may influence your design, depending on the application and
performance needs. Other common parameters include input offset voltage, noise, quiescent current,
and supply voltages.
GPCK Page 9
Negative Feedback and Closed-Loop Gain
In an operational amplifier, negative feedback is implemented by feeding a portion of the output signal
through an external feedback resistor and back to the inverting input (see Figure ).
Negative feedback is used to stabilize the gain. By using a negative feedback, the closed-loop gain can
be determined via external feedback components that can have higher accuracy compared to the
operational amplifier’s internal components. This is because the internal op amp components may vary
substantially due to process shifts, temperature changes, voltage changes, and other factors. The closed-
loop gain can be calculated with Equation:
VOUT / VIN = 1/ f
Operational Amplifiers: Advantages and Limitations
There are many advantages to using an operational amplifier. Operational amplifiers often come in the
form of an IC, and are widely available, with countless selectable performance levels to meet every
application’s needs. Op amps have a broad range of usages, and as such are a key building block in
many analog applications — including filter designs, voltage buffers, comparator circuits, and many
others. In addition, most companies provide simulation support, such as PSPICE models, for designers
to validate their operational amplifier designs before building real designs.
The limitations to using operational amplifiers include the fact they are analog circuits, and require a
designer that understands analog fundamentals such as loading, frequency response, and stability. It is
not uncommon to design a seemingly simple op amp circuit, only to turn it on and find that it is
oscillating. Due to some of the key parameters discussed earlier, the designer must understand how
those parameters play into their design, which typically means the designer must have a moderate to
high level of analog design experience.
Operational Amplifier Configuration Topologies
There are several different op amp circuits, each differing in function. The most common topologies
are described below.
Voltage follower
The most basic operational amplifier circuit is a voltage follower (see Figure). This circuit does not
generally require external components, and provides high input impedance and low output impedance,
which makes it a useful buffer. Because the voltage input and output are equal, changes to the input
produce equivalent changes to the output voltage.
VOUT = VIN
GPCK Page 10
The most common op amp used in electronic devices is voltage amplifiers, which increase the output
voltage magnitude. Inverting and non-inverting configurations are the two most common amplifier
configurations. Both of these topologies are closed-loop (meaning that there is feedback from the
output back to the input terminals), and thus voltage gain is set by a ratio of the two resistors.
Inverting operational amplifier
In inverting operational amplifiers, the op amp forces the negative terminal to equal the positive
terminal, which is commonly ground. Therefore, the input current is determined by the VIN / R1 ratio
(see Figure).
In this configuration, the same current flows through R2 to the output. Ideally, current does not flow
into the operational amplifier’s negative terminal due to its high ZIN. The current flowing from the
negative terminal through R2 creates an inverted voltage polarity with respect to V IN. This is why these
op amps are labeled with an inverting configuration. Note that the op amp’s output can only swing
between its positive and negative supplies, so creating a negative output voltage requires an op amp
with a negative supply rail. VOUT can be calculated with Equation:
VOUT = − (R2/ R1) x VIN
GPCK Page 11
Non-inverting operational amplifier
In a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the input signal from the source is connected to the non-inverting
(+) terminal (see Figure).
The operational amplifier forces the inverting (-) terminal voltage to equal the input voltage, which
creates a current flow through the feedback resistors. The output voltage is always in phase with the
input voltage, which is why this topology is known as non-inverting. Note that with a non-inverting
amplifier, the voltage gain is always greater than 1, which is not always the case with the inverting
configurations. VOUT can be calculated with Equation:
VOUT = (1 + R2 / R1) ×VIN
Voltage comparator
An operational amplifier voltage comparator compares voltage inputs, and drives the output to the
supply rail of whichever input is higher. This configuration is considered open-loop operation because
there is no feedback. Voltage comparators have the benefit of operating much faster than the closed-
loop topologies discussed above (see Figure).
GPCK Page 12
OP - AMP CIRCUITS USING IC 741C
To develop following circuits using IC 741C
1. Adder circuit
2. Integrator
3. Differentiator
4. Comparator
5. Zero Crossing Detector
6. Schmitt trigger
GPCK Page 13
EXERCISE NO : 1
DATE:
ADDER CIRCUIT
Aim: To design and setup an adder circuit with OP AMP 741C and verify the output.
Objectives: After completion of this experiment, student will be able to design and setup an adder
using OP AMP.
Equipments/Components:
Sl .No Name and Specification Quantity required
1 Dual power supply +/- 15V 1 no

2 DC power source 1.5V 2 nos
3 Function generator (0- 1MHz) 1 1 no
4 Oscilloscope 1 no
5 Bread board 1 no
6 IC 741C 1 no
7 Resistor 3 nos
8 Probes and connecting wires As required
Principle:
Op-amp can be used to design a circuit whose output is the sum of several input signals. Such a circuit
is called a summing amplifier or an adder. Summing amplifier can be classified as inverting & non-
inverting summer depending on the input applied to inverting & non-inverting terminals respectively.
Circuit Diagram shows an inverting summing amplifier with 2 inputs. Here the output will be amplified
version of the sum of the two input voltages with 1800 phase reversal.
Vo = - ( Rf/ Ri )(V1+V2)
Procedure
1. Check the components.
2. Setup the circuit on the breadboard and check the connections.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Give V1 =V2 = +1.5V DC with polarity as shown in fig.1.
5. Make sure that the CRO selector is in the D.C. coupling position.
6. Observe input and output on two channels of the oscilloscope simultaneously.
7. Note down and draw the input and output waveforms on the graph.
8. Verify that the output voltage is -6VDC.
9. Repeat the procedure with V1 =1Vpp / 1 KHz sine wave and V2 = +1.5Vdc as shown in fig2.
10. Verify the output..
Result:
Inference:
GPCK Page 14
Design:
The output voltage of an inverting summing amplifier is given by Vo = -( Rf / Ri )(V1+V2);
let take as gain = 2
Let Ri = 1.1KΩ
Then Rf = 2.2KΩ
Then Vo = -2(V1+V2)
Observations:
Part1:
V1= 1.5 DC
V2= 1.5 DC
Then Vo =?
Part 2:
V1= 1Vpp sine wave
V2= 1.5 DC
Then Vo =?
Graph:
GPCK Page 15
EXERCISE NO :2
DATE:
INTEGRATOR
Aim: To design and setup an integrator circuit using OP AMP 741C and plot its pulse response.
Objectives: After completion of this experiment, student will be able to design and setup an integrator
circuit using OP AMP.

3 Oscilloscope 1 no
4 Bread board 1 no
5 IC 741C 1 no
6 Resistor 1no
7 Capacitor 0.01µF 1 no
Principle:
It is a closed loop op-amp circuit which performs the mathematical operation of integration. That is the
output waveform is the integral of the input voltage and is given by Vo = ( -1/Rf C) ∫Vin dt. The
integrator circuit is constructed from basic inverting amplifier by replacing the feedback resistance R f
with capacitor C. This circuit also works as low pass filter.
Procedure:
4. Give Vi= 2Vpp, 1KHz square wave.
5. Keep the oscilloscope in AC coupling mode.
7. Draw the input and output waveforms on the graph.
Result:
Inference:
GPCK Page 16
Design:
Given f =1 KHz
So T = 1/f = 1ms
Design equation is T = 2πRiC
Let C = 0.01μF
Then Ri = 15KΩ
Take Rf = 10Ri = 150KΩ
Graph:
GPCK Page 17
EXERCISE NO :3
DATE:
DIFFERENTIATOR
Aim: To design and setup a Differentiator circuit using OP AMP 741C and plot their pulse
response.
Objectives: After completion of this experiment, student will be able to design and setup a
differentiator circuit using OP AMP.

3 Oscilloscope 1 no
4 Bread board 1 no
5 IC 741C 1 no
6 Resistor 1no
7 Capacitor 1 no
Principle:
It is an op amp circuit which performs the mathematical operation of differentiation. That is the
output waveform is the derivative or differentia l of the input voltage. That is Vo = - Rf Cd (Vin)/dt.
The differentiator circuit is constructed from basic inverting amplifier by replacing the input
resistance Ri with capacitor C. This circuit also works as high pass filter.
Procedure:
4. Keep the oscilloscope in AC coupling mode.
5. Give Vi = 2Vpp, 1KHz square wave.
Result:
Inference:
GPCK Page 18
Design:
Given f = 1 KHz
So T = 1/f = 1ms
Design equation is T = 2π Rf C
Let C = 0.01μF
Then Rf = 15KΩ
Let Ri = Rf/10 = 1.5KΩ
Graph:
GPCK Page 19
EXERCISE NO :4
DATE:
COMPARATOR
Aim: To design and setup a Comparator circuit using OP AMP 741C and plot their pulse response.
comparator circuit using OP AMP.

3 Oscilloscope 1 no
4 Bread board 1 no
5 IC 741C 1 no
6 Resistor 1no
Principle:
A Comparator is a non-linear signal processor. It is an open loop mode application of Op-amp

operated in saturation mode. Comparator compares a signal voltage at one input with a reference
voltage at the other input. Here the Op-amp is operated in open loop mode and hence the output is
±Vsat.
It is basically classified as inverting and non-inverting comparator. In a non-inverting comparator Vin is
given to +ve terminal and Vref to –ve terminal. When Vin < Vref, the output is –Vsat and when Vin >
Vref, the output is +Vsat (see expected waveforms). In an inverting comparator input is given to the
inverting terminal and reference voltage is given to the non inverting terminal. The output of the
inverting comparator is the inverse of the output of non-inverting comparator. The comparator can be
used as a zero crossing detector, window detector, time marker generator and phase meter.
Procedure:
1. Connect the components/equipment as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Apply 1 KHz sine wave with 5 Vpp at the non-inverting input terminal of IC741 using a function
generator.
4. Apply 1V dc voltage as reference voltage at the inverting terminal of IC741.
5. Connect the channel-1 of CRO at the input terminals and channel-2 of CRO at the output terminals.
6. Observe the input sinusoidal signal at channel-1 and the corresponding output square wave at
channel-2 of CRO. Note down their amplitude and time period.
7. Overlap both the input and output waves and note down voltages at positions on sine wave where the
output changes its state. These voltages denote the Reference voltage.
8. Plot the output square wave corresponding to the sine input with Vref = 1V.
GPCK Page 20
Result:
Inference:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Expected wave forms:
EXERCISE NO : 5
GPCK Page 21
DATE:
ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR

Aim: To design and setup a zero crossing detector circuit with OP AMP 741C and plot the
waveforms.
Objectives: After completion of this experiment, student will be able to design and setup a zero
crossing detector using OP AMP.

3 Oscilloscope 1 no
4 Bread board 1 no
5 IC 741C 1 no
Principle:
It is the open loop/ saturation mode operation of op-amp. Here the signal is given the non-inverting
terminal. So the output signal is in phase with the input signal. Such a circuit is called non-inverting
zero crossing detector. In open loop configuration, the gain of the op amp is very high, so when the
input voltage is above zero voltage, output of the circuit goes to + Vsat which is approximately
+13V. Similarly when the input voltage is below zero voltage, the output goes to - Vsat which is
approximately -13V
Procedure:
4. Give Vin= 2 Vpp / 1KHz sine wave.
5. Observe input and output on the oscilloscope simultaneously.
7. Verify the output.
Result:
Inference:
GPCK Page 22
Graph:
EXERCISE NO: 6
DATE:
GPCK Page 23
SCHMITT TRIGGER
Aim: To design and setup a Schmitt trigger, plot the input output waveforms and measure
VUT and VLT.
Schmitt trigger circuit using OP AMP.

3 Oscilloscope 1 no
4 Bread board 1 no
5 IC 741C 1 no
6 Resistor 3nos
Principle:
It is a regenerative comparator or it is a comparator with hysteresis. This circuit uses positive
feedback and the op-amp is operated in saturation. The output can take two values +Vsat and –Vsat.
When output = +Vsat, the voltage appearing at the non-inverting terminal is VUT or UTP = +Vsat(
R1/R1+R2) called the upper threshold point. Similarly When output = - Vsat, the voltage appearing
at the non-inverting terminal is VLT or LTP = -Vsat( R1/R1+R2) called the lower threshold point.
When Vin is greater than UTP, the output will switch from +Vsat to –Vsat. Similarly When Vin is
less than LTP; the output will switch from -Vsat to +Vsat which are shown in the graph. The
difference between UTP-LTP is called hysteresis. Hysteresis avoids false triggering of the circuit
by noise. Hysteresis curve is the plot of Vo versus Vin . Schmitt trigger circuit is used to convert
any irregular wave into square wave.
Procedure:
4. Give Vi = 10 Vpp / 1KHz sine wave.
5. Observe input and output on two channels of oscilloscope simultaneously.
Result:
Inference:
GPCK Page 24
Design:
UTP = +Vsat ( R1/R1+R2)

Let UTP = +3V and LTP = -3V, Vsat=+13V
UTP, +3 = +13( R1/R1+R2)
Let R1 = 1 KΩ
Then R2 = 3.3KΩ
Observations:
UTP =?
LTP =?
Graph:
GPCK Page 25
Identify various power semiconductor devices and plot the V-I
CO2
characteristics of SCR
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

A silicon controlled rectifier is a semiconductor device that acts as a true electronic switch. It can
change alternating current into direct current and at the same time can control the amount of power
fed to the load. Thus SCR combines the features of a rectifier and a transistor.
Constructional details.
When a PN junction is added to a junction transistor, the resulting three pn junction device is called
a silicon controlled rectifier. Fig. shows its construction. It is clear that it is essentially an ordinary
rectifier (pn) and a junction transistor (npn) combined in one unit to form pnpn device. Three
terminals are taken; one from the outer p-type material called anode A, second from the outer n-
type material called cathode K and the third from the base of transistor section and is called gate G.
In the normal operating conditions of SCR, anode is held at high positive potential w.r.t. cathode
and gate at small positive potential w.r.t. cathode. Fig. (ii) shows the symbol of SCR.
The silicon controlled rectifier is a solid state equivalent of thyratron. The gate, anode and cathode
of SCR correspond to the grid, plate and cathode of thyratron. For this reason, SCR is sometimes
called thyristor.
Working of SCR
In a silicon controlled rectifier, load is connected in series with anode. The anode is always kept at
positive potential w.r.t. cathode. The working of SCR can be studied under the following two heads:
(i) When gate is open. Fig. shows the SCR circuit with gate open i.e. no voltage applied to the
gate. Under this condition, junction J2 is reverse biased while junctions J1 and J3 are forward
biased. Hence, the situation in the junctions J1 and J3 is just as in a npn transistor with base open.
Consequently, no current flows through the load RL and the SCR is cut off. However, if the
applied voltage is gradually increased, a stage is reached when reverse biased junction J2 breaks
down. The SCR now conducts heavily and is said to be in the ON state. The applied voltage at
which SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is called Breakover voltage.
GPCK Page 26
(ii) When gate is positive w.r.t. cathode.
The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by applying a small positive
potential to the gate as shown in Fig. . Now junction J3 is forward biased and junction J2 is
reverse biased. The electrons from n-type material start mov-ing across junction J3 towards left
whereas holes from p-type towards the right. Consequently, the electrons from junction J3 are
attracted across junction J2 and gate current starts flowing. As soon as the gate current flows,
anode current increases. The increased anode current in turn makes more electrons available at
junction J2. This process continues and in an extremely small time, junction J2 breaks down and
the SCR starts conducting heavily. Once SCR starts conducting, the gate (the reason for this
name is obvious) loses all control. Even if gate voltage is removed, the anode current does not
decrease at all. The only way to stop conduction (i.e. bring SCR in off condition) is to reduce the
applied voltage to zero.
The whole applied voltage V appears as reverse bias across junction J2 as junctions J1 and J3 are
forward biased. Because J1 and J3 are forward biased and J2 has broken down
Conclusion. The following conclusions are drawn from the working of SCR :
(i) An SCR has two states i.e. either it does not conduct or it conducts heavily.
There is no state in between. Therefore, SCR behaves like a switch.
GPCK Page 27
(ii) There are two ways to turn on the SCR. The first method is to keep the gate open and make the
supply voltage equal to the breakover voltage. The second method is to operate SCR with supply
voltage less than breakover voltage and then turn it on by means of a small voltage ( typically 1.5
V, 30 mA) applied to the gate.
(iii) Applying small positive voltage to the gate is the normal way to close an SCR because the
breakover voltage is usually much greater than supply voltage.
(iv) To open the SCR (i.e. to make it non-conducting ), reduce the supply voltage to zero.
The V-I characteristics of the SCR reveal that the SCR can be operated in three modes There are
three modes of operation for an SCR depending upon the biasing given to it:
1. Forward blocking mode (off state)
2. Forward conduction mode (on state)
3. Reverse blocking mode (off state)
Forward blocking mode
In this mode of operation, the anode is given a positive potential while the cathode is given a
negative voltage, keeping the gate at zero potential i.e. disconnected. In this case junction J1 and J3
are forward biased while J2 is reversed biased due to which only a small leakage current exists
from the anode to the cathode
until the applied voltage reaches its breakover value, at which J2 undergoes avalanche
breakdown and at this breakover voltage it starts conducting, but below breakover voltage it
offers very high resistance to the current and is said to be in the off state.
Forward conduction mode

SCR can be brought from blocking mode to conduction mode in two ways: either by increasing the
voltage across anode to cathode beyond breakover voltage or by applying of positive pulse at gate.
Once it starts conducting, no more gate voltage is required to maintain it in the on state. There are
two ways to turn it off: 1. Reduce the current through it below a minimum value called the holding
current and 2. With the Gate turned off, short out the Anode and Cathode momentarily with a push-
button switch or transistor across the junction.
Reverse blocking mode
In this mode SCR is reversed biased , ie when anode is negative compared to cathode. the
characteristic of this region are similar to those of an ordinary PN junction diode. in this region
,junctionJ1and J3 are reversed biased whereas j2 is farward biased .the device behaves as if two
diodes are connected in series with a reverse voltage applied to them.a small leakage current of the
order of milliamperes or micro amperes flow in the device. this reverse blocking mode is called the
OFF state of the thyristor .when the reverse voltage of the SCR increases to a large extent
breakdown occurs and the current in the device increases rapidly. Thus when the SCR is biased in
this region the power dissipated is very high, if the power dissipated is more than the rated value of
the SCR , the SCR is permanently damaged .thus in the reverse bias condition the voltahe should
never cross the breakdown voltage
V-I Characteristics of SCR
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It is the curve between anode-cathode voltage (V) and anode current (I)of an SCR at constant gate
current. Fig. 4 shows the V-I characteristics of a typical SCR.
Forward characteristics.
When anode is positive w.r.t. cathode, the curve between V and I is called the forward
characteristic. In Fig. OABC is the forward characteristic of SCR at IG = 0.If the supply voltage is
increased from zero, a point is reached (point A) when the SCR starts conducting. Under this
condition, the voltage across SCR suddenly drops as shown by dotted curve AB and most of supply
voltage appears across the load resistance RL. If proper gate current is made to flow, SCR can close
at much smaller supply voltage.
Reverse characteristics.
When anode is negative w.r.t. cathode, the curve between V and I is known as reverse
characteristic. The reverse voltage does come across SCR when it is operated witha.c. supply. If the
reverse voltage is gradually increased, at first the anode current remains small (i.e.leakage current)
and at some reverse voltage, avalanche breakdown occurs and the SCR starts conducting heavily in
the reverse direction as shown by the curve DE. This maximum reverse voltage at which SCR starts
conducting heavily is known as reverse breakdown voltage.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF SCR
The working of SCR can be easily explained from its equivalent circuit. Fig. shows the equivalent
circuit of SCR with supply voltage V and load resistance RL. Assume the supply voltage V is less
than break over voltage as is usually the case.
With gate open (i.e. switch S open), there is no base current in transistor T2. Therefore, no current
flows in the collector of T2 and hence that of T1. Under such conditions, the SCR is open. However,
if switch S is closed, a small gate current will flow through the base of T2 which means its collector
current will increase.
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The collector current of T2 is the base current of T1.Therefore, collector current of T1 increases.
But collector current of T1 is the base current of T2. This action is accumulative since an increase
of current in one transistor causes an increase of current in the other transistor. As a result of this
action, both transistors are driven to saturation, and heavy current flows through the load RL. Under
such conditions, the SCR closes.
APPLICATIONS
silicon controleld rectifiers, SCRs are used in many areas of electronics where they find uses in a
variety of different applications. Some of the more common applications for them are outlined
below:
AC power control (including lights, motors, etc).
Over voltage protection crowbar for power supplies.
AC power switching.
Control elements in phase angle triggered controllers.
Within photographic flash lights where they act as the switch to discharge a stored voltage
through the flash lamp, and then cut it off at the required time.
Thyristors are able to switch high voltages and withstand reverse voltages making them ideal for
switching applications, especially within AC scenarios.
TRIAC
The major drawback of an SCR is that it can conduct current in one direction only. Therefore, an
SCR can only control d.c. power or forward biased half-cycles of a.c. in a load. However, in an a.c.
system, it is often desirable and necessary to exercise control over both positive and negative
halfcycles. For this purpose, a semiconductor device called triac is used
A triac is a three-terminal semiconductor switching device which can control alternating current in
a load. Triac is an abbreviation for triode a.c. switch. ‘Tri’– indicates that the device has three
terminals and ‘ac’ means that the device controls alternating current or can conduct current in either
direction.
The key function of a triac may be understood by referring to the simplified Fig.(i) . The control
circuit of triac can be adjusted to pass the desired portions of positive and negative half cycle of a.c.
supply through the load RL. Thus referring to Fig. (ii), the triac passes the positive half-cycle of the
supply from θ1 to 180° i.e. the shaded portion of positive half-cycle. Similarly, the shaded portion of
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negative half-cycle will pass through the load. In this way, the alternating current and hence a.c. power
flowing through the load can be controlled
Since a triac can control conduction of both positive and negative half-cycles of a.c. supply, it is
sometimes called a bidirectional semi-conductor triode switch. The above action of a triac is
certainly not a rectifying action (as in an *SCR ) so that the triac makes no mention of rectification
in its name.
Triac Construction
A triac is a three-terminal, five-layer semiconductor device whose forward and reverse
characteristics are indentical to the forward characteristics of the SCR. The three terminals are
designated as main terminal MT1, main terminal MT2 and gate G.
Fig. (i) shows the basic structure of a triac. A triac is equivalent to two separate SCRs connected in
inverse parallel (i.e. anode of each connected to the cathode of the other) with gates commoned as
shown in Fig. (ii).
Therefore, a triac acts like a bidirectional switch i.e. it can conduct current in either direction. This
is unlike an SCR which can conduct current only in one direction. Fig. 8 (iii) shows the schematic
symbol of a triac.
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The symbol consists of two parallel diodes connected in opposite directions with a single gate lead.
It can be seen that even the symbol of triac indicates that it can conduct current for either polarity of
the main terminals (MT1 and MT2) i.e. it can act as a bidirectional switch. The gate provides
control over conduction in either direction
Then a triac has four possible triggering modes of operation as follows.
Ι + Mode = MT2 current positive (+ve), Gate current positive (+ve)
Ι – Mode = MT2 current positive (+ve), Gate current negative (-ve)
ΙΙΙ + Mode = MT2 current negative (-ve), Gate current positive (+ve)
ΙΙΙ – Mode = MT2 current negative (-ve), Gate current negative (-ve)
In Quadrant Ι, the triac is usually triggered into conduction by a positive gate current, labelled
above as mode Ι+. But it can also be triggered by a negative gate current, mode Ι–. Similarly, in
Quadrant ΙΙΙ, triggering with a negative gate current, –ΙG is also common, mode ΙΙΙ– along with
mode ΙΙΙ+. Modes Ι– and ΙΙΙ+ are, however, less sensitive configurations requiring a greater gate
current to cause triggering than the more common triac triggering modes of Ι+ and ΙΙΙ–.
TRIAC OPERATION
Since a Triac is a bidirectional device and can have its terminals at various combinations of positive
and negative voltages, there are four possible electrode potential combinations as given below
The triggering sensitivity is highest with the combinations 1 and 3 and are generally used.
However, for bidirectional control and uniforms gate trigger mode sometimes trigger modes 2 and
3 are used. Trigger mode 4 is usually averted. Fig 10 (a) and (b) explain the conduction mechanism
of a triac in trigger modes 1 & 3 respectively.
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In trigger mode-1 the gate current flows mainly through the P2 N2 junction like an ,ordinary
thyristor. When the gate current has injected sufficient charge into P2 layer the triac starts
conducting through the P1 N1 P2 N2 layers like an ordinary thyristor.
In trigger mode-2 the junction P2-N3 is forward biased, thus the electron is injected from N3 into P2.
a current that flows in P2owards the N3 gate and thus P1N1P2N3 turns on as the gain of N3P2N1
transistor raises, this supplies current to N2 thus P1N1P2N2 conducts.
In trigger mode- 3 the gate current Ig forward biases the P 2 P3 junction and a large number of
electrons are introduced in the P2 region by N3. Finally the structure P2 N1 P1 N4 turns on
completely.
In trigger mode-4 junction P2N3 is forward biased and the electron are injected from N 3 TO P2 .the
potential in N1 decreases and holes are injected from p2 to n1 this turns on the SCR P 2N1P1N4
APPLICATIONS
The TRIAC as a bidirectional thyristor has various applications. Some of the popular applications
of the
(i) In speed control of single-phase ac series or universal motors.
(ii) In food mixers and portable drills.
(iii) In lamp dimming and heating control.
(iv) In zero-voltage switched ac relay
(v)Triacs are extensively used at power frequency ac load (eg heater, light, motors) control
applications.
DIAC (Diode for Alternating Current)
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A diac is a two-terminal, three layer bidirectional device which can be switched from its OFF state
to ON state for either polarity of applied voltage the diac can be constructed in either npn or pnp
form. the DIAC is a diode that conducts electrical current only after its breakover voltage, VBO,
The DIAC is a five layers and contains two terminal, anode A1 (or main terminal MT1) and anode
A2 (or main terminal MT2) like a TRIAC just without a gate terminal.
Fig. shows the basic structure of a diac in pnp form. The two leads are connected to p-regions of
silicon separated by an n-region. The structure of diac is very much similar to that of a transistor.
However, there are several imporant differences:
(i)There is no terminal attached to the base layer.
(ii) The three regions are nearly identical in size.
(iii) The doping concentrations are identical (unlike a bipolar transistor) to give the device
symmetrical properties. Fig. 11(ii) shows the symbol of a diac
OPERATION.
When a positive or negative voltage is applied across the terminals of a diac, only a small leakage
current IBO will flow through the device. As the applied voltage is increased, the leakage current
will continue to flow until the voltage reaches the breakover voltage VBO. At this point, avalanche
breakdown of the reverse-biased junction occurs and the device exhibits negative resistance i.e.
current through the device increases with the decreasing values of applied voltage. The voltage
across the device then drops to ‘breakback’ voltage VW.
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Fig. shows the V-I characteristics of a diac. For applied positive voltage less than + VBO and
negative voltage less than − VBO, a small leakage current (± IBO) flows through the device. Under
such conditions, the diac blocks the flow of current and effectively behaves as an open circuit. The
voltages + VBO and − VBO are the breakdown voltages and usually have a range of 30 to 50 volts.
When the positive or negative applied voltage is equal to or greater than the breakdown voltage,
diac begins to conduct and the voltage drop across it becomes a few volts. Conduction then
continues until the device current drops below its holding current. Note that the breakover voltage
and holding current values are identical for the forward and reverse regions of operation.
Diacs are used primarily for triggering of triacs in adjustable phase control of a.c. mains power.
Some of the circuit applications of diac are
(i) light dimming
(ii) heat control and
(iii) universal motor speed control.
UNI JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT)
A unijunction transistor (abbreviated as UJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor switching device.

This device has a unique characteristic that when it is triggered, the emitter current increases
regeneratively until it is limited by emitter power supply. Due to this characteristic, the unijunction
transistor can be employed in a variety of applications e.g., switching, pulse generator, saw-tooth
generator etc
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CONSTRUCTION.
Fig. (i) shows the basic *structure of a unijunction transistor. It consists of an n-type silicon bar
with an electrical connection on each end. The leads to these connections arecalled base leads base-
one B1 and base two B2. Part way along the bar between the two bases, nearer to B2 than B1, a pn
junction is formed between a p-type emitter and the bar. The lead to this junction is called the
emitter lead E.
Fig. (ii) shows the symbol of unijunction transistor. Note that emitter is shown closer to B2 than
B1.
(i)Since the device has one pn junction and three leads, it is commonly called a unijunction
transistor (uni means single).
(ii) With only one pn-junction, the device is really a form of diode. Because the two base terminals
are taken from one section of the diode, this device is also called double-based diode.
(iii) The emitter is heavily doped having many holes. The n region, however, is lightly doped. For
this reason, the resistance between the base terminals is very high ( 5 to 10 kΩ) when emitter lead is
open.
OPERATION.
The device has normally B2 positive w.r.t. B1.
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(i) If voltage VBB is applied between B2 and B1 with emitter open [See Fig. (i)], a voltage gradient
is established along the n-type bar. Since the emitter is located nearer to B2, more than **half of
VBB appears between the emitter and B1. The voltage V1 between emitter and B1 establishes a
everse bias on the pn junction and the emitter current is cut off. Of course, a small leakage current
flows from B2 to emitter due to minority carriers.
(ii) If a positive voltage is applied at the emitter [See Fig. (ii)], the pn junction will remain reverse
biased so long as the input voltage is less than V1. If the input voltage to the emitter exceeds V1,
the pn junction becomes *forward biased. Under these conditions, holes are injected from p-type
material into the n-type bar. These holes are repelled by positive B2 terminal and they are attracted
towards B1 terminal of the bar. This accumulation of holes in the emitter to B1 region results in the
decrease of resistance in this section of the bar. The result is that internal voltage drop from emitter
to B1 is decreased and hence the emitter current IE increases. As more holes are injected, a
condition of saturation will eventually be reached. At this point, the emitter current is limited by
emitter power supply only. The device is now in the ON state.
(iii) If a negative pulse is applied to the emitter, the pn junction is reverse biased and the emitter
current is cut off. The device is then said to be in the OFF state.
CHARACTERISTICS OF UJT
Fig. shows the curve between emitter voltage (VE) and emitter current (IE ) of a UJT at a given
voltage VBB between the bases. This is known as the emitter characteristic of UJT. The following
points may be noted from the characteristics :
(I)Initially, in the cut-off region, as VE increases from zero, slight leakage current flows from
terminal B2 to the emitter. This current is due to the minority carriers in the reverse biased diode.
(ii) Above a certain value of VE, forward IE begins to flow, increasing until the peak voltage VP
and current IP are reached at point P.
(iii) After the peak point P, an attempt to increase VE is followed by a sudden increase in emitter
current IE with a corresponding decrease in VE. This is a negative resistance portion of the curve
because with increase in IE, VE decreases. The device, therefore, has a negative resistance region
which is stable enough to be used with a great deal of reliability in many areas e.g., trigger circuits,
sawtooth generators, timing circuits
ADVANTAGES OF UJT
The UJT was introduced in 1948 but did not become commercially available until 1952. Since then,
the device has achieved great popularity due to the following reasons:
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(i) It is a low cost device.
(ii) It has excellent characteristics.

(iii) It is a low-power absorbing device under normal operating conditions.
APPLICATIONS OF UJT
Due to above reasons, this device is being used in a variety of applications. A few include
oscillators, trigger circuits, saw-tooth generators, bistable network etc.
The UJT is very popular today mainly due to its high switching speed.
A few select applications of the UJT are as follows:
(i) It is used to trigger SCRs and TRIACs
(ii) It is used in non-sinusoidal oscillators
(iii) It is used in phase control and timing circuits
(iv) It is used in saw tooth generators .
(v) It is used in oscillator circuit design
IGBT
The IGBT or Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is the combination of BJT and MOSFET. Its
name also implies the fusion between them. “Insulated Gate” refers to the input part of MOSFET
having very high input impedance. It does not draw any input current rather it operates on the
voltage at its gate terminal. “Bipolar” refers to the output part of the BJT having bipolar nature
where the current flow is due to both types of charge carriers. It allows it to handle very large
currents and voltages using small voltage signals. This hybrid combination makes the IGBT a
voltage-controlled device.
It is a four-layer PNPN device having three PN junctions. It has three terminals Gate (G),
Collector(C) and Emitter (E). The terminal’s name also implies being taken from both transistors.
Gate terminal as it is the input part, taken from MOSFET while the collector and emitter as they are
the output, taken from the BJT.
Construction of IGBT
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IGBT is made of four layers of semiconductor to form a PNPN structure. The collector (C)
electrode is attached to P layer while the emitter (E) is attached between the P and N layers. A P+
substrate is used for the construction of IGBT. An N- layer is placed on top of it to form PN
junction J1. Two P regions are fabricated on top of N- layer to form PN junction J2. The P region is
designed in such a way to leave a path in the middle for the gate (G) electrode. N+ regions are
diffused over the P region as shown in the figure.
The emitter and gate are metal electrodes. The emitter is directly attached to the N+ region while
the gate is insulated using a silicon dioxide layer. The base P+ layer inject holes into N- layer that is
why it is called injector layer. While the N- layer is called the drift region. Its thickness is
proportional to voltage blocking capacity. The P layer above is known as the body of IGBT.
The N- layer is designed to have a path for current flow between the emitter and collector through
the junction using the channel that is created under the influence of the voltage at the gate electrode.
Equivalent Structure of IGBT
As we know that IGBT is the combination of input of MOSFET and output of BJT, it has an
equivalent structure to N-channel MOSFET and a PNP BJT in Darlington configuration. The
resistance of the drift region can also be incorporated.
If we look at the structure of the IGBT above, there is more than one path for the current to flow.
The current path is directed from collector to emitter. The first path is “collector, P+ substrate, N-,
P, emitter”. This path is already mentioned using the PNP transistor in an equivalent structure. The
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2nd path is “collector, P+ substrate, N-, P, N+, emitter”. To include this path, another NPN transistor
must be included in the structure as shown in the figure below.
Working of IGBT
The two terminals of IGBT collector (C) and emitter (E) are used for the conduction of current
while the gate (G) is used for controlling the IGBT. Its working is based on the biasing between
Gate-Emitter terminals and Collector-Emitter terminals.
The collector-emitter is connected to Vcc such that the collector is kept at a positive voltage than
the emitter. The junction j1 becomes forward biased and j2 becomes reverse biased. At this point,
there is no voltage at the gate. Due to reverse j2, the IGBT remains switched off and no current will
flow between collector and emitter.
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Applying a gate voltage VG positive than the emitter, negative charges will accumulate right
beneath the SiO2 layer due to capacitance. Increasing the VG increases the number of charges which
eventually form a layer when the VG exceeds the threshold voltage, in the upper P-region. This
layer form N-channel that shorts N- drift region and N+ region.
The electrons from the emitter flow from N+ region into N- drift region. While the holes from the
collector are injected from the P+ region into the N- drift region. Due to the excess of both
electrons and holes in the drift region, its conductivity increase and starts the conduction of current.
Hence the IGBT switches ON
Types of IGBT
There are two types of IGBT based on the inclusion of N+ buffer layer. The inclusion of this extra
layer divides them into symmetrical and asymmetrical IGBT.
Punch through IGBT
The Punch through IGBT includes N+ buffer layer due to which it is also known as an
asymmetrical IGBT. They have asymmetric voltage blocking capabilities i.e. their forward and
reverse breakdown voltages are different. Their reverse breakdown voltage is less than its forward
breakdown voltage. It has faster switching speed.
Punch through IGBTs is unidirectional and cannot handle reverse voltages. Therefore, they are used
in DC circuits such as inverters and chopper circuits.
Non Punch through IGBT
They are also known as symmetrical IGBT due to the absence of extra N+ buffer layer. The
symmetry in structure provides symmetrical breakdown voltage characteristics i.e. the forward and
reverse breakdown voltages are equal. Due to this reason, they are used in AC circuits
V-I Characteristics of IGBT
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Unlike BJT, IGBT is a voltage-controlled device that requires only a small voltage at its gate to
control the collector current. However, the gate-emitter voltage VGE needs to be greater than the
threshold voltage.
Transfer characteristics of the IGBT show the relation of input voltage V GE to output collector
current IC. When the VGE is 0v, there is no IC and the device remains switched off. When the V GE is
slightly increased but remains below threshold voltage V GET, the device remains switched off but
there is a leakage current. When the VGE exceeds the threshold limit, the I C starts to increase and the
device switches ON. Since it is a unidirectional device, the current only flows in one direction.
The given graph shows the relation between the collector current I C and collector-emitter voltage
VCE at different levels of VGE. At VGE < VGET the IGBT is in cutoff mode and the IC = 0 at any VCE.
At VGE > VGET, the IGBT goes into active mode, where the IC increases with an increase in VCE.
Furthermore, for each VGE where VGE1 < VGE2 < VGE3, the IC is different.
The reverse voltage should not exceed the reverse breakdown limit. So does the forward voltage. If
they exceed their respective breakdown limit, uncontrolled current starts passing through it.
Applications of IGBT
IGBTs have numerous applications used in AC as well as DC circuits. Here are some of the
important applications of IGBT
• It is used in SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) to supply power to sensitive medical
equipment and computers.
• It is used in UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) system.
• It is used in AC and DC motor drives offering speed control.
• It is used in chopper and inverters.
• It is used in solar inverters
MOSFET
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MOSFET or Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor is a type of FET having four
terminals namely Drain, Gate, Source and Body/Substrate. The body terminal is shorted with the
source terminal leaving a total of three working terminals just like any other transistor.
The MOSFET conducts current between its source and drain through a path called a channel. The
width of this channel is controlled by the voltage at the gate terminal.
MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device whose output depends on the gate voltage. The metal oxide
gate is electrically isolated from the channel using a thin layer of silicon dioxide. It increases its
input impedance significantly in the range of Megaohms ” 10 6 = MΩ”. Therefore, MOSFET does
not have any input current.
Symbol
The MOSFET has mainly two types
• Depletion MOSFET or D-MOSFET

• Enhancement MOSFET or E-MOSFET
Both of these types can be divided based on N-channel and P-channel.
The D-MOSFET is also known as “normally ON” MOSFET because they have a built-in channel is
during manufacturing. Applying gate voltage reduces the channel width, switching the MOSFET
OFF. While the E-MOSFET is also known as “Normally OFF” MOSFET because there is no
channel during fabrication but it is induced by applying voltage.
Therefore the D-MOSFET symbol has a continuous line to represent a channel between the drain
and source that allows the current flow at zero gate-source voltage. While the broken line in E-
MOSFET represents a broken path or absence of channel for current flow at zero gate-source
voltage. The arrow pointing inward shows N-channel while the arrow pointing outward show P-
channel MOSFET.
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MOSFET Regions of Operation
Transistors act like an insulator or a conductor based on a very small signal. The MOSFET just like
any other transistor also operates in three regions.
Cutoff Region: In this region, the MOSFET remains turned off and there is no drain current I D.
When MOSFET is used as a switch, it utilizes this region as OFF-state or opened-state of a switch.
Saturation Region: In the saturation region, the MOSFET allows a constant current between
source and drain. It acts as the ON-state or closed-state of a switch. The MOSFET is fully on
allowing maximum drain current ID through it.
Linear or Ohmic Region: In this region, the MOSFET offers constant resistance that is controlled
by the voltage level VGS. The drain current ID increases with the level of the voltage VGS. Therefore,
this region is used for amplification.
Types of MOSFETs
The MOSFET is classified into two main types:
• Depletion type MOSFET or D-MOSFET – (D & N Channels)

• Enhancement type MOSFET or E-MOSFET – (D & N Channels)
Depletion MOSFET
The Depletion type MOSFET or D-MOSFET is a type of MOSFET that has a channel constructed
during the process of fabrication. In other words, it has a channel even when there is no voltage
applied to it. Therefore, it can conduct current between source and drain when the gate-source
voltage VGS = 0 volts. Due to this reason, it is also known as “Normally ON” MOSFET.
Connecting the gate-source terminal in reverse bias will deplete the channel of the charge carrier
thus the name depletion MOSFET. It reduces the width of the channel until it completely vanishes.
At this point, the D-MOSFET stops conduction and this VGS voltage is known as VTH threshold
voltage.
If Gate and source is connected in forward bias and the V GS is increased, more majority carriers will
get induced in the channel and its width will increase. It will result in increasing the current flow
between drain and source. This is why the D-MOSFET can work in both depletion and
enhancement mode.
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The D-MOSFET can be ‘N-channel D-MOSFET’ or ‘P-channel D-MOSFET’ depending on the
channel being used. The type of channel also affects its biasing as well as its speed and current
capacities.
Enhancement MOSFET
Enhancement MOSFET or E-MOSFET is a type of MOSFET that does not have a channel during
its fabrication. Instead, the channel is induced in the substrate by applying the voltage through its
gate electrode. The voltage enhances its conduction ability hence the name.
The E-MOSFET does not conduct and remains switched OFF when there is no voltage at its gate. It
is why it is also known as “Normally OFF” MOSFET. By applying a forward voltage between the
gate and source, charge carriers are induced in the substrate that produces a channel for the
conduction of current between the source and drain.
Applying voltage above threshold voltage enhances the width of the channel and increases the
current flow therefore it is named enhancement MOSFET.
The E-MOSFET is also divided into N-Channel and P-Channel E-MOSFET.
Working of MOSFET
MOSFET can operate like a switch or an amplifier. The operation of a MOSFET depends on its
type and its biasing. They can operate in depletion mode or enhancement mode.
MOSFETs have an insulating layer between the channel and the gate electrode. This insulating
layer increases its input impedance. Therefore, it does not allow any gate current. Instead, it
operates on the voltage applied to its gate terminal.
The insulating layer forms a flat capacitor that has advantages and disadvantages. It creates a very
high input impedance and therefore, has very low power consumption. But an electrostatic charge
can permanently damage this thin insulating layer.
In depletion mode, MOSFET has a built-in channel between the source and drain terminal.
Applying a voltage VDS between the source and drain causes the drain current ID to flow. To reduce
or stop the conduction of current ID, the reverse bias voltage VGS is applied to the gate. it depletes
the channel of charge carriers, reducing it width.
In Enhancement mode, a forward bias voltage V GS is applied to the gate which attracts the minority
charge carriers from the substrate. They accumulate beneath the gate electrode to increase or
enhance the width of the channel. This width depends on the amount of gate voltage. Higher the
voltage, higher the amount of charge accumulates and wider the channel. Therefore, the drain
current ID also increases.
Characteristics or V-I Curve of MOSFETs
Transfer Characteristics: The transfer characteristics curve shows the relationship between the
input gate voltage VGS and the output drain current I D.
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Drain Characteristics: The drain characteristics curve shows the relation between the drain-source
voltage VDS and drain current ID.
N-Channel D-MOSFET
The N-channel D-MOSFET transfer curve shows that the MOSFET conducts drain current ID -
when the VGS exceeds above the VTh threshold voltage. The threshold voltage is below 0v which
means that it can conduct at 0 VGS.
The drain characteristic shows the three operating regions of the MOSFET; cutoff, ohmic and
saturation region including both modes of operations i.e. depletion and enhancement mode. The
ohmic and saturation regions are separated by a boundary line called locus of pinch-off. The pinch-
off voltage is the minimum voltage at which saturation occurs.
In the ohmic region, the drain current ID increases with the VDS . In saturation region, the ID
becomes constant called saturation current and only varies with the level of the V GS. In cutoff
region, the ID remains zero but the VGS must be brought down below –VTh shown by the transfer
curve.
At VGS = 0V or below, the MOSFET operates in depletion mode where the channel width and
conductivity reduces with the drop in voltage. While above 0V, it starts to enhance and increase
conductivity.
P-Channel D-MOSFET
The negative curve of transfer characteristics shows that P-channel D-MOSFET switches on when
the VGS is below the +Vth limit. The drain characteristic curve shows the relation between V DS and
ID for different values of VGS. As the gate-source voltage VGS decreases, the current ID starts to
increase.
GPCK Page 46
There is not much of a difference between N-channel and p-channel MOSFET except the voltages
are reversed.
N-Channel E-MOSFET
E-MOSFET does not conduct at 0 VGS due to the absence of a channel as shown in the graph.
However, once the VGS exceeds threshold voltage Vth, it starts conduction. It has the same operation
as a D-MOSFET operating in Enhancement mode.
At VGS < VTh, the MOSFET operates in the cutoff region where there is no drain current ID. As the
VGS increase above VTh, the ID starts to increases with VDS in the ohmic region. When the VDS cross
pinch-off voltage VP, determined by the locus of pinch-off, the ID saturates and becomes constant.
P-Channel E-MOSFET
The P-channel E-MOSFET has the same characteristics curve as the N-channel E-MOSFET except
the voltages are reversed.
GPCK Page 47
Applications of MOSFETs
MOSFET are mainly used for switching and amplification in electronic circuits. Following are
some of the applications of MOSFETs.
• It is used for fast switching and amplification of very small signals such as in high
frequency amplifiers.
• Power MOSFETs are used for power regulation in DC motors.
• MOSFET are best for chopper circuits due to its high switching speed.
• Due to their high efficiency and low power consumption, they are used for their superior
switching speed in digital IC (integrated circuits) such as microcontroller and
microprocessors.
• They are used in SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply)
• They are used in CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) logic circuit where
the layers of P-MOS and N-MOS are combined together to reduce the space and power
consumption.
• They are used in H-bridge circuit.
• They are also used in buck converters and boost converters.
EXERCISE NO: 7
DATE:
AIM ;- Identify various terminals and check the following power semiconductor devices
(i)SCR (ii) DIAC (iii)TRIAC (iv)UJT (v)IGBT (vi) MOSFET
GPCK Page 48
COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
Sl. Name Specification Quantity

no.
1. SCR TYN
604/612 1 no.
2. DIAC 1 no.
3. UJT 2N2646 1 no.

4. TRIAC 1 no.
5. IGBT BC 20S 1 no.
MOSFET IRF 740 1 no
6. Multimeter 1 no.
7. Breadboard 1 no.
8. Connecting wires
EXERCISE NO: 8
DATE:
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR
AIM;- To construct a UJT relaxation oscillator and plot the wave forms at emitter, base1 and
base
GPCK Page 49
Sl. Name Specification Quantit

no. y
1. Resistors 100 Ω 2 nos.
10 KΩ 1 no.
2. Capacitor 0.1 µF 1 no.
3. UJT 2N2646 1 no.

4. Power supply 10 V DC 1 no.
5. Oscilloscope 0 to 20 MHz 1 no.
6. Multimeter 1 no.
7. Breadboard 1 no.
8. Connecting wires
THEORY:
UJT is a unipolar device. It is constructed using an N type silicon bar on which a P type silicon
material is doped. It has three terminals namely base1 (B1), base2 (B2) and emitter (E). The RC
circuit associated with UJT will function as a relaxation oscillator. The sharp pulse available
from the circuit can be used as trigger pulse for various applications.
Once the power supply is switched ON, Capacitor C charges through R towards V BB. Then the
voltage across the capacitor reaches Vp (= ηVBB+ Vd), where η = 0.63, Vd = 0.7V, UJT turns ON
and it enters a negative resistance region. The capacitor rapidly discharges through UJT, since
it then offers very low resistance. This sudden discharge develops a sharp pulse at B1. When
the capacitor voltage reaches valley voltage (V v) of UJT it turns OFF. This enables the
capacitor to charge again and repeat the cycle.
PROCEDURE:
1. Check the given components and assemble in a bread board as per circuit.
2. Connect the output of the circuit to an oscilloscope and Switch ON the power supply
3. Plot waveforms
GPCK Page 50
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
OBSERVATIONS
RESULT
Constructed an UJT relaxation oscillator and plot the wave forms at emitter, base1 and base.
EXERCISE NO: 8
DATE:
Plot the VI characteristics of SCR
AIM: 1) To plot the static characteristics of the given SCR.

2) To find Latching and Holding current of the given SCR.
GPCK Page 51
THEORY:
An SCR is a 4-layer, 3-junction, 3-terminal device. When anode is positive w.r.t cathode, the curve
between VAK and IA is called the forward characteristics. During forward bias condition, the
junction J2 is reverse biased and when across J2 above break over voltage (VBO), J2 breaks down
and heavy current will flow in the device. Hence a load resistance is always connected in series
with the SCR to limit the anode current to safe value.
Latching current is the minimum anode current required to turn ON SCR without gate current.
Holding current is the maximum anode current at which SCR turns OFF from ON condition, with
gate open.
GPCK Page 52
IL = …..mA
IH = ……mA
PROCEDURE:
A) To Plot V.I Characteristics:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch ON the regulated power supply. Apply some constant voltage say 30V by varying VAK source.
3. Gradually increase the gate current by varying VGK source till the SCR becomes ON. Note
down the corresponding value of IG from the milliammeter. Then decrease VAK and VGK to minimum.
4. Set gate current equal to noted value in step 3 by varying VGK source.
5. Gradually increase VAK in steps of 2V and for each step note down the value of VAK and IA , and then
reduce VAK to minimum.
6. Set gate current to some other value (preferably higher than that of the value set in step 3)
7. Repeat step 5.
8. Plot a graph of VAK versus IA for different values of IG.
B) To find Latching current (IL):
1. Keep proper VAK to trigger SCR by gate current. Then trigger SCR by applying gate current.
2. Gradually decrease VAK in steps and at each step switch-off the gate supply (i.e. VGK source) and observe
that, whether device remains in the ON state or not.
3. Repeat step 2 (by trial and error method) till the SCR jumps to blocking state, and then note down the
minimum value of IA which keeps device in the on state as Latching current.
C) To Find Holding current (IH):
1. Keep proper VAK to trigger SCR by gate current. Then trigger SCR by applying gate current.
2. Switch-Off VGK source permanently. Now gradually decrease VAK and note down the minimum value of IA
below which, the device suddenly falls from ON-state to OFF- state as Holding current.
GPCK Page 53
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF SCR CHARACTERISTICS
RESULT:
GPCK Page 54
Build controlled rectifier circuits using SCR and set up a TRIAC firing
CO3
circuit.
RECTIFIER
Rectifier are used to convert A.C to D.C supply.
Rectifiers can be classified as single phase rectifier and three phase rectifier. Single phase rectifiers
are classified as 1-Փ half wave and 1-Փ full wave rectifier. Three phase rectifier are classified as 3-Փ
half wave rectifier and 3-Փ full wave rectifier. 1-Փ Full wave rectifiers are classified as1-Փ mid point
type and 1-Փ bridge type rectifier. 1-Փ bridge type rectifiers are classified as 1-Փ half controlled and
1-Փ full controlled rectifier. 3-Փ full wave rectifiers are again classified as 3-Փ mid point type and 3-
Փ bridge type rectifier. 3-Փ bridge type rectifiers are again divided as 3-Փ half controlled rectifier
and 3-Փ full controlled rectifier.
Single Phase Controlled Half Wave Rectifier
Resistive Load
A way to control the output of a half- wave rectifier is to use an SCR1 instead of a diode.
Two conditions must be met before the SCR can conduct:
1. The SCR must be forward-biased (v SCR > 0).
2. A current must be applied to the gate of the SCR
The SCR will not begin to conduct as soon as the source becomes positive. Conduction is delayed
until a gate current is applied, which is the basis for using the SCR as a means of control. Once the
SCR is conducting, the gate current can be removed and the SCR remains on until the current goes to
zero.
GPCK Page 55
If a gate signal is applied to the SCR at 𝜔t=α, where α is the delay (firing or triggering) angle.
The average (dc) voltage across the load resistor and the average (dc) current are
Example: The single-phase half wave rectifier has a purely resistive load of R and the delay angle
is α=π/2, determine: 𝑉𝑑𝑐, 𝐼𝑑𝑐, 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠.
GPCK Page 56
RL Load
GPCK Page 57
Single Phase Controlled Full Wave Rectifier
The first figure shows a fully controlled bridge rectifier, which uses four thyristors to control the
average load voltage.
Thyristors T1 and T2 must be fired simultaneously during the positive half wave of the source
voltage vs to allow conduction of current. To ensure simultaneous firing, thyristors T1 and T2
use the same firing signal.
Alternatively, thyristors T3 and T4 must be fired simultaneously during the negative half
wave of the source voltage.
For the center-tapped transformer rectifier,T1 is forward-biased when vs is positive, and T2 is

forward-biased when vs is negative, but each will not conduct until it receives a gate signal.
The delay angle is the angle interval between the forward biasing of the SCR and the gate signal
application. If the delay angle is zero, the rectifiers behave exactly as uncontrolled rectifiers with
diodes
GPCK Page 58
GPCK Page 59
EXERCISE NO: 9
DATE:
SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
AIM: Construct a single phase half wave controlled rectifier circuit using SCR for R &
R L load and observe the waveforms across load and SCR.
THEORY:
Rectification is a process of converting an alternating current or voltage into a direct current or
voltage. Rectifier circuits are classified into three classes:
1. Uncontrolled
2. Fully Controlled
3. Half Controlled.
A half/semi controlled converter is given in Fig.3.1. It has two thyristors and two diodes.
Thyristors need to be triggered by firing circuits; diodes conduct depends on the polarity of the
input supply. Due to presence of diodes, freewheeling operation takes place without allowing the
bridge output voltage to become negative. In a semi-controlled rectifier, control is affected only for
positive output voltage, and no control is possible when its output voltage tends to become
negative. When source, Vin is positive, SCR T1 can be triggered at a firing angle called  and then
current flows out of the source through SCR T1 first, then through the load and returns via diode
D1. SCR T1 and diode D1 conduct during α<ωt<π. When π<ωt< 2π, Vin is negative and SCR T2 is
normally triggered at ωt = π + . During π<ωt< (π + ) , diode D2 tends to get forward-biased and
it starts conducting along with SCR T1 and hence the bridge output voltage is clamped at zero.
During (π + )<ωt< 2π, the devices in conduction are SCR T2 and diode D2. SCR T2 and diode D1
would conduct during 0 <ωt<.
GPCK Page 60
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
With R-load:
1. Connect t he circuit with R-load as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the main supply.
3. Vary the firing angle, observe the load voltage waveform on CRO and note down the firing angle
and sketch the output voltage.
With RL-load:
1. Connect the circuit with R-L load as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the main supply.
3. Vary the firing angle, observe the load voltage waveform on CRO and note down the firing angle
and sketch the output voltage.
GPCK Page 61
RESULT:
GPCK Page 62
Construct various industrial control circuits using power
CO4:
semiconductor devices.
EXERCISE NO: 10
DATE:
DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT USING SCR
AIM: Set up a DC motor speed control circuit using SCR and verify the output
Sl. no. Name Specification Quantity

1.
Resistors
2. IN 4007
Diode
3.
SCR
4. DC Motor
5. Power supply
y
6. Multimeter
7. Breadboard
8. Connecting wires
THEORY
Resistance trigger circuits are the simplest & most economical method and employed for speed
control of DC motor. During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, SCR become forward
biased but it will not conduct until its gate current exceeds Igmin. Diode D5 allows the flow of
current during positive half cycle only. When Ig increases and Ig= Ig min the SCR turns ON .The
firing angle can be varied from 0 — 90° by varying the resistance 1 M ohm. As the firing angle
control is from 0 to 900, the full wave power output can be controlled from 100 %( for α=00) down
to 50 %( for α=900).
𝑉𝑚
The average output voltage, Vdc= 𝜋 (1 + cos 𝛼). The diodes D1-D4 rectified the transformer
output .Rectified dc is applied to the dc motor through the SCR .The motor speed is varied by
changing the firing angle of SCR. That is the average power output is changed.
GPCK Page 63
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. By varying the variable resistor in step by step,
3. Observe the speed of the dc motor.
RESULT:
GPCK Page 64
EXERCISE NO: 11
DATE:
EMERGENCY LAMP CIRCUIT USING SCR
AIM: Set up an emergency lamp circuit using SCR

1.
Resistors
2. IN 4007
Diode
3.
SCR
4. Led lamp
5. Power supply
y
6. Battery
7. Multimeter
8. Breadboard
9. Connecting wires
THEORY
The circuit is ideal for use in elevator cars, corridors and similar places where loss of light due to
power failure would be undesirable. Completely static in operation, the circuit requires no
maintenance. With ac power ON, capacitor 100mfd charges through rectifier diode 1N 4007 and
resistor 220 ohm ½ W .and develop a negative voltage at the gate of the SCR. By this means, the
SCR is prevented from being triggered, and the emergency light stays off. At the same time, the
battery is kept fully charged by rectifier and resistor 100 ohm 2W.
Upon the ac power fail, 100mfd capacitor discharges and the SCR is triggered on by battery power
through resistor 1kilo ohm 1/2W. The SCR then energizes the emergency light. Reset is automatic
when ac is restored, because the peak ac line voltage biases the SCR and turns it off.
GPCK Page 65
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE

2. By changing the input supply by switch off/on.
3. Observe the operation of the lamp.
RESULT:
GPCK Page 66
EXERCISE NO: 12
DATE:
BATTERY CHARGER
AIM: Setup a of battery charger circuit using thyristors.

1.
Resistors
2. IN 4007
Diode
3.
SCR
4. Led lamp
5. Power supply
y
6. Battery
7. Multimeter
8. Breadboard
Connecting wires
THEORY
The basic components of the circuits are shown in figure. Diodes D 1 and D2are to establish a full
wave rectified signal across T1 and the 6 V battery to be charged. When the battery is in dis-
charged condition, T2 is in the off-state. When the full-wave rectified input is large enough to
give the required turn-on gate current (controlled by resistor 1K), SCR1 will turn on and the
charging of the battery will commence. At the commencement of charging of battery, voltage
is determined by the simple voltage-divider (4K7POT) circuit is too small to cause 5.6 V zener for
conduction. In the off-state Zener diode is effectively an open-circuit maintaining T2 in the off-
state because of zero gate current.. As charging continues, the battery voltage increases to a point
and it is large enough to both turn on the Zener diode and fire T2. Once T2 has fired, the short
circuit representation for T2 will result in a voltage-divider circuit determined by two 1 k
resistors, which will maintain gate voltage of T1 at a level too small to turn it on. When this
occurs, the battery is fully charged and the open-circuit state of T1 will cut off the charging
current. Thus the regulator charges the battery whenever the voltage drops and prevents
overcharging when fully charged.
GPCK Page 67
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE

2.
3.
RESULT:
GPCK Page 68
EXERCISE NO: 13
DATE:
FAN REGULATOR
AIM: To study the AC voltage control by using DIAC-TRIAC combination and assemble a fan
regulator.

1.
Resistors
2. IN 4007
Diode
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. Multimeter
8. Breadboard
Connecting wires
THEORY
The DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned on in both
forward and reverse polarities. The DIAC gains its name from the contraction of the words Diode-
Alternating Current. The DIAC is widely used to assist even triggering of a TRIAC when used in
AC switches. DIACs are mainly used in dimmer applications and also in starter circuits for
florescent lamps. The two terminals of the device are normally designated either Anode 1 and
Anode 2 or Main Terminals 1 and 2, i.e. MT1 and MT2. TRIACs are bidirectional and conduct
current in both directions. TRIAC has three terminals where T1 is Anode 1, T2 is Anode 2, and G is
Gate. Anode 1 and Anode 2 are normally termed Main Terminal 1 (MT1) and Main Terminal 2
(MT2) respectively. TRIACs can be triggered by either a positive or negative current at their gate.
Once triggered, SCRs and TRIACs continue to conduct, even if the gate current ceases, until the
main current drops below a certain level called the holding current.
GPCK Page 69
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE

2. By varying the variable resistor in step by step.
3. Observe the speed of a fan.
RESULT:
GPCK Page 70
EXERCISE NO: 14
DATE:
AUTOMATIC STREET LAMP CIRCUIT
AIM: Construct an automatic street lamp circuit using LDR

1. 220k 1/4 watts
Resistors THEORY
So in this
circuit uses
2. . LDR: Light dependent resistor
a LDR
3. 1. TRIAC: BT134/BT136/BT139 (Light
Dependent
4. Resistor) as
5. a sensor to
sense the
6.
light. In the
7. Multimeter day time
8. Breadboard due to light
the
resistance
Connecting wires of LDR
will be
very low. So the voltage drop is high. This keeps the TRIAC (BT136) on off-stage. BT136 is a
TRIAC that is used to control the main power 110/220V directly. The bulb will remain OFF.
As night falls the resistance of LDR increases and it turns on the TRIAC points M1 and M2. When
M1 and M2 of TRIAC joints the current the bulb Turns on. TRIAC is a component that is used to
control the light directly 110/220 volts AC main power.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
GPCK Page 71
PROCEDURE

2.
3.
RESULT:
WARNING:-
The light Sensor Switch works on 220v AC Directly and if you are not accustomed to working with mains
voltage or do not have experience in working with 220v AC Mains Voltage please stay away from this
project while it is connected with Main power.
NOTES
GPCK Page 72

5039B Applied Electronics Laboratory (S5ELCT)

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GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE –KALAMASSERY

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

Fax : 0484 2540209

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

APPLIED ELECTRONICS LABORATORY

Course Code: 5039B

Program : Diploma in Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Course Code : 5039B Course Title: Applied Electronics Laboratory

Semester : 5 Credits: 1.5

Course Category: Program Elective

Periods per week: 3 (L:0 T:0 P:3) Periods per semester: 45

• To familiarize with various applications of Op-Amps

Basics of electronic circuits Electronics Lab 3

Power semiconductor devices Power Electronics 4

On completion of the course, the students will be able to:

CO1 Develop various op - amp circuits using IC 741C 9 Applying

Identify various power semiconductor devices

3-Strongly mapped, 2-Moderately mapped, 1-Weakly mapped

Module Duration Cognitive

CO1 Develop various op - amp circuits using IC 741C

M1.01 Adder circuit 1.5 Applying

M1.02 Integrator 1.5 Applying

M1.03 Differentiator 1.5 Applying

M1.04 Comparator 1.5 Applying

M1.05 Zero Crossing Detector 1.5 Applying

M1.06 Schmitt trigger 1.5 Applying

Identify various power semiconductor devices and plot the V-I

Set up a UJT relaxation oscillator circuit and

Construct a single phase half wave controlled

Construct various industrial control circuits using power

Set up a DC motor speed control circuit using

M 4.02 Set up an emergency lamp circuit using SCR 3 Applying

Setup a of battery charger circuit using

M 4.04 Assemble a fan regulator using thyristors 3 Applying

Construct an automatic street lamp circuit using

T/R Book Title/Author

K.A Navas , Electronics Lab Manual - Vol 1 PHI Learning,ISBN :

Suggested Open-ended Experiments:

What is an Operational Amplifier?

Operational Amplifier Classifications

There are four ways to classify operational amplifiers:

• Voltage amplifiers take voltage in and produce a voltage at the output.

Operational Amplifiers: Key Characteristics and Parameters

Frequency response and bandwidth (BW)

Gain bandwidth product (GBP)

Operational Amplifiers: Advantages and Limitations

Operational Amplifier Configuration Topologies

Inverting operational amplifier

VOUT = − (R2/ R1) x VIN

VOUT = (1 + R2 / R1) ×VIN

To develop following circuits using IC 741C

Sl .No Name and Specification Quantity required

1 Dual power supply +/- 15V 1 no

Sl .No Name and Specification Quantity required

1 Dual power supply +/- 15V 1 no

Sl .No Name and Specification Quantity required

1 Dual power supply +/- 15V 1 no

Sl .No Name and Specification Quantity required

1 Dual power supply +/- 15V 1 no

A Comparator is a non-linear signal processor. It is an open loop mode application of Op-amp

Expected wave forms:

ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR