Solar Energy. V ol. 12, pp. 313-331. PergamonPress.1969.

PrintedinGreatBritain

DIGITAL SIMULATION OF TRANSIENT SOLAR STILL

PROCESSES
P. I. COOPER*

( R e c e i v e d 30 A u g u s t 1967; in revised f o r m 14 A u g u s t 1968)

Abstract- A digital simulation method of analysing complicated solar still processes is outlined and used to
process a preliminary mathematical model describing the system. Some of the more common variables such
as water depth, wind velocity, still insulation, double glass covers, cover slope and daily variability are inves-
tigated. A finite difference approach is used to simulate heat flow to and from the soil. The results of the
simulation indicate that water depth has little effect on productivity; insulation will improve this at shallow
water depths; higher wind velocities and ambient temperatures increase output by a small amount: double
glass covers considerably reduce output and, 'from an economical point of view, both double glass covers
and high cover slopes are not justifiable; and that the effect on still performance of some changes can be
predicted by considering the effect on water temperature and water-glass temperature difference.

R~sum6-On d6crit une m6thode de simulation num6rique pour I'analyse des proc6d6s compliqu6s concern-
ant les ensembles de distillation solaire et on utilise cette m6thode pour traiter un mod61e math6matique
pr61iminaire d6crivant le syst6me. On 6tudie certains param/:tres communs, tels que la profondeur de I'eau.
la vitesse du vent, I'isolation de rappareil, les couvercles/l verre double, la pente du couvercle et la variation
journali6re. On fait emploi du principe de diff6rence finie afin de simuler d6bit de chaleur vers et h partir du
sol. Les r6sultats de cette simulation montrent que la profondeur de I'eau a peu d'effet sur la productivit6;
I'isolation am61iorera celle-ci h des profondeurs d'eau peu importantes: les vitesses de vent et temp6ratures
environnantes plus 61ev6es ont pour r6sultat une faible augmentation du rendement; les couvercles h verre
double r6duisent le rendement de mani/:re considdrable et du point de vue 6conomique. ni les couvercles en
verre double ni les pentes 61ev6es de couvertures no sont rentables: I'effet de certaines modifications sur la
performance de l'appareil peut &re anticip6 en consid6rant I'effet sur la temp6rature de I'eau ainsi que sur
la diff6rence entre la temp6rature de I'eau et du verre.

R e s u m e n - S e esboza un m6tode de simulaci6n num6rica para analizar los complicados procesos del destil-
ador solar, utilizfindose dicho m6tode para tratar de un modelo matematico preliminarque describe al sistema.
Se investigan algunas de las variables re:is communes, tales como profundidad del agua, velocidad del viento,
aislamiento del destilador, cubiertas dobles de vidrio, pendiente de cubierta y variabilidad diaria. Se emplea
un enfoque por diferencia finita para simular el paso de calor hacia y desde el suelo. Los resultados de la
simulaci6n indican que la profundidad del agua afecta muy poco a la productividad: 6sta mejorarfi por el
aislamiento con poca profundidad de agua: que las mayore~ velocidades de viento y temperaturas ambiente
aumentan el rendimiento en grado reducido; que Ins cubiertas dobles de vidrio reducen sensiblemente el
rendimiento y, desde el punto de vista econ6mico, no se justifican ni las cubiertas dobles de vidrio ni las
elevadas pendientes de cubierta, y que el efecto que algunos cambios ejercen en el rendimiento del destilador
se pueden pronosticar considerando el efecto originado por la diferencia entre temperatura de agua y
temperatura de vidrio soluble.

S I M U L A T I O N AS A T O O L
ONE WIDE definition of simulation is the act of representing some aspects of the real
world by numbers or symbols which may be easily manipulated to facilitate their study.
An initial step in system analysis is the establishment of a mathematical model and,
although many engineering problems must be described by partial differential equations,
the greater majority may be represented by ordinary differential equations. The transi-
ent nature of virtually all solar processes makes them ideally suited to this form of
analysis.

* Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia

6009.
313
314 P.I. COOPER

To date, electric analog simulation has been the most fruitful and widely used
approach to system analysis; however, some characteristics which may be regarded as
disadvantages are
(l) To attain the inherent accuracy, considerable time must be spent in calibration
and adjustment, detracting attention from the simulation at hand;
(2) The necessity to scale variables, which can be inconvenient, tedious and time
consuming;
(3) Some mathematical operations such as taking variables to odd powers presents
considerable difficulty, although fourth-power radiation has been used success-
fully;
(4) As simulation has gained acceptance as an engineering tool, analog computers
have proved too small for some desired applications.

Digital simulation
A digital simulation language can offer the user the more attractive characteristics
of the analog computer approach without the disadvantages. A set of basic predefined
operational blocks is made available from which a logically sequenced block diagram is
built to perform all the mathematical operations involved in the system model. The
digital simulation language used for this investigation has the acronym S I M P L E for
Simulation Problem-Oriented Language for Engineers, developed at the University of
Western Australia, for use with a D E C PDP6 time-sharing computer[l].

SYSTEM EQUATIONS
The analysis which follows represents initial attempts to determine the feasibility
of using digital simulation for problems as complex as solar stills and for that reason it is
only a first approximation, no allowances being made for such factors as variation in
water salinity, periodic flushing, ratio of direct to diffuse radiation, non-symmetrical
glass covers, use of brine overflow heat exchangers, etc.
The major energy transfer components are shown diagrammatically in Fig. I.* A
heat balance may be written for the water and cover of the still, the model being

0~o
/°,.

Fig. I. Major energy transfer componentsin a solar still.

idealised in that n o vapor leakage is present and no temperature gradients exist in the
g l a s s a n d w a t e r , viz.

*See the nomenclature at the end of the article, for explanaiion of this and other figures, the tables and the
equations.
 Digital simulation of transient solar still processes 3!5

Glass cover

Qr.A. + Q~,,A,,+ CoAo-d~t = (Q~w+ O~,~+ Q,w)A~+ aottsAg (I)

Basin water
dTw
( Qr,,,+ Qc~,.+ Q~w)A,~,+ QbA,~+ 2Q.As + C,.,Aw - ~ = a,~H~A,e. (2)

The interpretation of the radiative, convective and evaporative heat transfer is given in
the Appendix.

Base heat flow

In the treatment of heat flow t o a n d from the base of the still, a finite difference
method has been chosen whereby the ground beneath is divided into 24 e l e m e n t s - s e e
Fig. 2(a). A heat balance iS then written for each element, e.g. for element 8, Fig. 2(b),
the equation can be written:

2k~( TT-- Ts)Asv_~ 2k~(T~- Ts)A~ 2ke( T~- To)As~ + 2ke( Ts-- T,,)A~ . . . . dT8
(X,+X~) (Y~+ Y3) = (Xz + X3) (Y3 + Y4) -rP*Cevs "~
(3a)

where A ~ and A,u are the surface areas of element 8 in the X and Y planes and V, is the
volume. Rearrangement gives the following equation:

dT~ ,, l- (T~- Ts) (TT- Ts) ( T s - 7"9) (Ts- T.) ]

dt =z°~"[Y3-~qSY3) t-Xz(X,+X2) Xz(X2+X3) ~~4)]" (3b)

Zero heat flow planes can be considered at the outer edges and center of the still,

Xh:IOfft)
X~ 0-75
X¢0.34

Y~=O25
~- ®.- ® Y2:o.25
Y¢050
Y4=0-75
Ys: 1.0
t
L
t ConrCont re, np. element

(~ Zero heo! flow plones

L I
Fig. 2(a), G r o u n d element distribution beneath still.
316 P. I. COOPER

Zk, fr=- T,)A..

~'Y3

~r~VsdT8

,2k,(T~- Tg)t~,
XZ'I'X 3
of 21~T7- T,,),~,,
X~+X2

Zk~T,-'~,),,,.
v~,v.
Fig. 2(b). Heat flow in and out of element 8.

assuming that the ground is homogeneous and the section under study is a portion of a
large surrounding still. The deepest elements can be considered to be bordering either
a zero heat flow plane or, more realistically, a large element of constant temperature.
This element can then be used to simulate a heat source or sink by the appropriate
choice of a high or low temperature.
i f the first r o w o f elements is chosen to be some form of insulation, it is necessary to
define on equivalent conductance Uk for heat flow from an insulation to earth elements.
By making the height of adjacent elements equal and assuming that the instantaneous
heat flow from the center of an insulation element to the border is the same as from the
border to the earth element center, then U~. is

2 k~ki (4)
Uk = (k~ + k~)"

Some representative base heat flow equations are given in the Appendix for a 24-ele-
ment network and assuming a layer of insulation beneath the still.
In deciding at which depth the ground elements can be terminated, it is assumed (as
a first approximation) that the water temperature varies sinusoidally over 24 hr. Thus,
the depth Y at which the amplitude is damped to 1 per cent of that at the surface is given
by [21

Y = 2"6V'(aetc). (5)

Meteorological variables
The radiation H, received on a horizontal surface may be represented by [3]

H~ = ~-H-~sin rr0](l + cos VrrO) (6)

2ts \ ts / \ ts /"

The factor V causes the basic radiation sine function to oscillate at a frequency
 Digital simulation of transient solar still processes 3i7

dependent on the value of V, i.e. higher values give a greater frequency, in this manner,
the effect of individual small- and medium-sized clouds occluding the Sun for varying
periods is simulated. It is better thought of as a factor to represent departure from a
clear-day profile.
Ambient temperature and wind velocity may be simulated by sine functions, or
actual measured data may be introduced with function generators. The latter case was
chosen, the various distributions being shown in Fig. 3. Because of the rapid fluctuations
in wind velocity magnitude, the distributions were approximated by straight lines.

40

9O

.d

=,,

]t ,o~ " " ,,, -'",,~ ,

0 | I I i I ~'I , i i J ~ , S~ | "~
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 2~ 24

Time ftO~t ~P~'i~,e,hr

Fig. 3. Wind velocity and ambient temperature distributions.

Absorption of radiation
The absorption of solar radiation in the cover glass and water of the still is effected
by a multitude of factors, some of them being the day of the year, time of the day, glass
cover slopes, type of glass, still orientation, depth of the basin water and the reflectance
of the waterproof still liner. For this analysis, the latitude was taken as -32°S (Perth,
W. A.) and the day as the autumnal equinox in the Southern Hemisphere. The glass
was considered to be of low iron content with an extinction coei~icient of 0.2 in.-'.
a thickness of 0.125 in., a refractive index of ! .52 and having a thin, non-absorbing water
film on the underside. Thus, using Fresnel's equations, astronomical relations and con-
sidering multiple reflection and absorption, the glass and water absorptances were cal-
culated by an auxiliary program for an assumed liner reflectance of 5 per cent.
As the total system does not transmit any radiation beyond the base of the still, the
total solar reflection from the still (which includes reflections at both glass surfaces, the
water film surface, the basin water surfaces and the liner) is found by subtracting, from
1.0, both the water and glass absorptances given in Fig. 4. As the initial reflection at the
outer surface is the largest and because other internal reflections will suffer further
attenuation and reflection, the value ( 1 . 0 - (ot~,+ ct,)) will only be slightly larger than
this initial reflection.

SE Vol. 12 No. 3 - (
318 P. I. COOPER

I'0 0"20

0e '

043 046

0.6 O42

0,4

o
L~

I
I i i , i t [ 0
0 5 7 8 9 l0 II 12 AM.
7 6 5 4 3 2 I P.M

Time

Fig. 4. Absorptances for solar radiation of glass and water.

The absorptances for symmetrical cover slopes from 0 ° to 75° are given in Fig. 4.
As the input solar radiation function is for a horizontal surface, it is necessary to com-
pute the glass absorptance for the horizontal component by dividing by the sine of the
solar altitude.
It is interesting to note that the presence of a thin, non-absorbing water film on the
underside of the glass cover gives a higher transmittance than without the film.

ANALYSIS APPROACH
For this initial analysis it was decided to investigate and attempt to clarify some of
the more common variables in solar stills. These were: wind velocity, ambient tempera-
ture, water depth, double glass cover, cover slope, insulation beneath the still and day-
to-day variability.
The basin depth was varied between ½and 12 in. and the cover slope from 0 ° to 75°.
For a ground thermal diffusivity of 0.01, ke, pe and Ce were 0-2 B.t.u. ft-' hr-' °F-', 100
lb ft -a and 0.2 B.t.u. lb-' °F-', respectively, representing the approximate measured
values of the sandy soil around Perth. The insulation, where applicable, was taken as
having kt, pt and C~ equal to 0-02, 7 and 0-3, respectively; a 3-in. layer beneath the still
was used.
Altogether, 24 different combinations were simulated, a summary of the runs being
shown in Table I. The first run was taken as the 'standard day'. The geometrical still
parameters for this standard day are those applicable to the CSIRO still which finds
wide use in Australia[4]. Using Eq. (5), the depth at which the temperature variations
were damped by 99 per cent for the chosen soil conditions was 1.27 ft. A depth greater
than this was used, the actual element sizes indicated in Fig. 2 (a). in all cases except
two, where a 'Ix>or' day was considered to follow a 'good' day (runs 10, 17), the runs
were repeated until all the temperatures at the e n d o f the 24-hr period agreed to within
0.2°F of the initial temperature. For all simulations, the constant temperature of the
 Digital simulation of transient solar still processes 319

E~3
<

.o

O A

e~

5
320 P.I. COOPER

large terminal element (13) was assumed to be 10°F below the average initial tempera-
tures of elements l 0, I l and 12. This is to simulate a small heat sink beneath the still.
Due to the size of the elements in question, the relatively low thermal conductivity of
the soil and the fact that elements 10, ! 1 and 12 change little in temperature over
24 hr (less than 2°F), the subsequent heat loss is only about 55 B.t.u. ft -2 over the day.
For total insolations of 2250 and 1500 B.t.u. ft -2, this represents only 2.0 and 3-7 per
cent, respectively.
Using the time-sharing features of the PDP6, it was possible to do all simulations
consecutively by re-specifying initial conditions and constants via an on-line teletype.

RESULTS OF SIMULATION
For each run, the maximum water and glass temperatures and the integrated heat
transfer components for 24 hr are shown in Tables 2(a) and 2(b). The time after sunrise
(to the nearest hour) at which these maximum temperatures occurred is also indicated.
Standard day (run 1)
The hourly heat transfer modes are shown in Fig. 5, from which it is evident that
both the radiative and convective components are considerably less than the heat

Table 2(a)

Run tm Tw Tu Qra Qco Qr~ Qcw Q*m Qb Q~b

I 8 132-5 112.6 707-1 739.0 405.5 132.7 0.850 165.3 204.3
2 8 139.7 125-8 880.7 416-7 356.1 108-6 0-774 252.6 239.4
3 8 128.3 105-6 621.4 849.0 422-0 142.6 0-855 171-6 184.4
4 8 125.2 99.7 555-4 962.6 442-6 154.5 0.863 1 4 4 - 5 171-2
5 8 134,9 114.6 704-6 725.5 389-7 126.6 0,857 194-0 197-3
6 9 127.9 1 0 8 . 1 715.0 747-4 422-9 139.4 0,841 130-8 213.7
7 10 121-2 102.6 728.0 745-1 437-3 145-0 0,831 106.9 223-7
8 10 114-8 98-2 731 '2 715-5 437.7 145.0 0,803 109.7 225-9
9 8 145-2 123-7 725-8 831.2 375-5 122-4 1,008 70.28 193.6
10 8 114-2 92-7 594-9 520.3 382.2 129.5 0,563 --72.2 180-7
I1 7 150.1 128.0 743.9 834.8 336.1 109.2 1,087 67-8 181.8
12 9 135.6 i13.9 726.7 815-2 416-9 137.5 0.932 52-9 212.2
13 10 124.4 104.5 739.2 785.4 442.5 147.1 0.877 46.7 227.7
14 10 116-2 98.8 744.4 749-4 446. i 148-3 0.840 63.0 232. I
15 8 120.9 93.6 666.3 801-5 460,8 167-5 0-780 90,0 236-1
16 8 125-4 101.6 679.4 762.6 432.4 149.8 0.800 144.2 219.0
17 9 104.1 85-8 674-5 666.9 452-4 157.6 0.693 68.4 229-0
18 8 132-3 112-8 707-4 741.0 394-8 128.4 0.822 211.2 201.4
19 8 129.9 1 0 9 - 3 657.0 613.1 406.1 133.5 0.812 188-8 198.5
20 8 126-6 104-8 594.6 452.3 417.3 138.9 0.789 1 6 3 - 2 173.9
21 8 125.9 101.0 535.0 299-1 458.3 157.4 0.864 1 5 0 - 5 166.6
22 8 121.6 93-8 439 i 44-96 489-2 173.0 0.858 114.0 145-7

Table 2(b)

Run t= T,~ Tul T,n Qr,, Qc, Q,',,. Qew Q*m Qb Q.,n
23 9 165-2 104-9 154.5 568-8 410 289.2 49.4 0-554 334-3 305.8
24 9 171-1 106-8 160-9 591-9 474 295-9 51-5 0-636 200-0 328.5

*Qe= represents the total mass evaporated in Ibf1-2 (multiply by 1020B.t.u. Ib -~ to convert
approximately to heat units).
 Digital simulation of transient solar still processes 3 21

3OO

200

-IOO , i | I I I
o ~ 4 6 ~ ,o ~ 14 ,~ ,~ 2o ~2 ~4
Time from sunrise, hr

Fig. 5. H o u r l y heat transfer modes f o r standard day.

transfer by evaporative mass transport. Figure 6 is a dimensionless representation of

Eqs. (3), (5) and (6) in the Appendix, for ;afnite paJaile] planes. It indicates that the
fraction of the total energy transferred from water to glass, which is evaporative, is a
strong function of both water and glass temperatures and, to a lesser degree, water-
glass temperature difference. An interesting feature of these curves is that, at a given
water temperature and various water-glass temperatures differences, the change in
evaporative fraction is not large, the other two modes acting as buffers. For water
temperatures above 100°F, more than 50 per cent is evaporative.

I.O

60 80 I00 120 140 mO 180

Wqler t e m p ~ ? F

Fig. 6. Energy ,'faction for combined evaporative, radiative and convective heat transfer.
322 P.I. COOPER
Absolute values of energy transfer rates, found by the addition of Eqs. (3), (5) and
(6) in the Appendix for infinite parallel planes, are indicated in Fig. 7. For a given water
temperature and water-glass temperature difference, the evaporative transfer rate is
found by consulting Fig. 6 for the evaporative fraction, and multiplying this by the value
found from Fig. 7. These two graphs correspond closely to the productivity correlation
developed in [5], where

Qew = [9.33+2.32 × 10-'°(Tw) 5"2a](Tw-- Tg). hw. (7)

104

The curves in Fig. 5 indicate a characteristic of shallow basin stills in that they are
only comparatively active fromabout two hours after sunrise to two hours after sunset,
after which most of the modes remain relatively constant.

400

3OO

i 200
30
2O

~ ,bo Jho i
140 ,
160 I~10

Woler temperalure, *F

Fig. 7. Total energy transferred for varying water and glass temperatures based on infinite
parallel water and glass surfaces.

Change in water depth (runs 1,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 1 I, i 2, 13 and 14)

Depths of ½, 1½, 3, 6 and 12 in. were considered with and without insulation, the
effect being indicated in Fig. 8. it is obvious that without insulation the gains from de-
creasing the water depth are only marginal, but with insulation the difference is more
marked, especially at shallow water depths. The 30 per cent variation found between
water depths of ½and 12 in. agrees with that found by Bloemer et al. [6]. A characteristic
of deep basins is that the ground temperatures vary about a much higher mean than the
shallow ones, with a subsequent smoothing Of:base heat flow (Fig. 9} and a more even
output over 24 hr. The initial temperatures 0-75 ft below the surface for ½ and 12 in.
water depths were 91 ° and ! 00°F, respectively, for no insulation.
A mathematical model allows a quick determination of whether, given a range of
inputs, a certain depth of insulation is an economical proposition.
 Digital simulation of transient solar still processes 323

I-C

.o 0"8

~, o.6

L [ . - I l [ [ ~ i I A I i J l Ill I

i 2 3 4 5 S 7 8 $ ,0 it i;,
dWk.~

Fig. 8. Still production for varying water depths, with and without insulation.

tOO

~: -~0

-tO0 iI l
o 2 24
Timg from sur,r i s e , h r

Fig. 9. Base heat flow for varying water depths with no insulation.

Effect of wind(runs 1,2, 3 and4)

The output is seen to increase with increasing average wind velocity (Fig. 10) due to
the increased water-glass temperature difference more than compensating for the fall in
both temperatures. With runs 2, 3 and 4 the water temperatures and temperature
differences six hours after sunrise were 130.8.15-2; 122-7, 24-1; and 120.2, 27.3, which,
from Figs. 6 and 7, gave evaporative transfer rates of 56, 77 and 84.5 B.t.u. ft -~ hr -j,
i.e. increasing with increasing wind velocity. A similar result is found with the maximum
temperatures given in Table 2(a).
324 P. !. COOPER

I-0

.0@ f

-,,. 0~s
.o

i 0.4

02

' " i I ;
0 5 IO IS 20

Fig. I0. Still productionfor differentaverage wind velocities.

This temperature variation is in agreement with that found by Li~f et al. 17] for in-
creasing wind velocity. F r o m [7-Fig. 8], for a fall in water temperature from 140 ° to
130°F with increased wind velocity, the temperature difference rose from 8-3 to 12.1°F.
Substitution of these figures in Eq. (7) yields productivities of 0-04 and 0.0432 Ib ft-"
hr -~ at 140° and 130°F, respectively (similar results of 0.037 and 0-045 lb ft -2 hr -~ are
found from Figs. 6 and 7). A suggested fall in productivity in [7] is due to an incomplete
understanding of the heat and mass transfer modes.
F r o m Fig. 10, for average wind velocities from 0 to 4.8 m.p.h, the output increased
by 11.5 per cent, while from 4.8 to 19.7 m.p.h, the increase was only 1.5 per cent
indicating the decreasing effect of wind at higher velocities.

Effect o f ambient temperature (runs i, i 5 and 16)

Figure 1 ! illustrates that decreasing the average ambient temperature decreases the
output, in this case, even though both water and glass temperatures decrease and the
difference increases, it is not by a sufficient amount to compensate for the general fall in
the temperature of the system. With runs 1, 16 and 15 (in order of decreasing average
ambient temperature) the water temperature and temperature differences from Table
2 ( a ) - ( m a x i m u m values)-indicate an evaporative heat transfer rate of about 86.5 B.t.u.
ft -2 hr -1 for all three. The effect becomes evident at lower temperatures. Six hours after
sunrise the respective water and glass temperatures were 126.3,105.7; 120.1,96,7; and
116-4, 91-2 for runs !, 16 and 15. These lead to evaporative transfer rates of 75.9,
71.5 and 69.3 B.t.u. ft -2 hr -l, decreasing with decreased ambient temperature.
The general trend is in agreement with that found by Ltif et al. [7].

Effect o f double glass-covers (runs 23, 24)

To simulate the use of double glass covers on a still, two additional equations are
required for the radiative and convective transfer across the air gap separating the
 Digital simulationof transient solar still processes 325

t,O

0.8

0"6

,o

0.4

0.2

0 I
~o ~o , I
~o
Averoge ombient lemperoture,*F

Fig. I I. Still productionfor differentaverage ambient temperatures.

covers. By treating them approximately as infinite parallel planes separated by a

non-absorbing gas. then
.~- O'~y
Qr,2 ( 2 _ % ) [ ( T ~ + 460)'-- (T., + 460) a] (8)

and
Q,.12 = h l 2 ( T , n - T.I) (9)

where Tom and T,n are the temperatures of the outer and inner glass covers. The
convective heat transfer coefficient is a function of the temperature difference, spacing
and cover slope [8],
hi2 = c( T ~ - - T.l ) °'''. (%)

A value of c equal to 0-18 chosen for a cover slope of i 5 °.

For optically identical covers (and neglecting the thin water film) the absorptance of
each and the transmittance of the system is given by

Ot I = ot.[l -q- .t-.p. ]

I -- p."J ( i 0)

Ot 2 = a.[ 1 + ~1 --] p2j ( ! !)

_ 7"v 2
,1,2 ! --p. 2. 112)

For this reduced transmittance the absorptance of the basin water was evaluated.
326 P. I. C O O P E R

T h e result of the effective air space thermal barrier impeding the rejection of heat
through the condenser was to reduce the output by 25.2 per cent and 34.8 per cent, with
and without insulation. This is compared to an output of 0.85 Ib It-" (standard day) with
a single c o v e r glass and all other conditions the same. Even with the very high water
temperatures involved, the governing factor here is the low water-glass temperature
difference. A comparison of runs I and 23 is shown in Fig. 12. Though a high water
temperature leads to a high evaporative fraction, the low temperature difference results
in a considerably reduced total energy transfer (see Fig. 7). T h e increased temperatures
also lead to greater base and side losses. Increasing the value oft" will result in a slightly
improved performance, but the combined effects of radiative and convective transfer
across the air gap tends to lower the output, unless the base and sides are extremely well
insulated so there is virtually no heat loss from the still. This simulated result agrees
with that found experimentally [9].
F r o m an economical and constructional point of view, doubling the amount of glass,
which is a significant portion of the total capital investment, is not practicable.

180
T,,
160 , , " ~T67 ".% . . . . . Double gloss
//" . -~ 5~ngle Ooss

J
40

0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 t6 18 ~'0 22 24
1"one hem ~nise,hr

Fig. 12. Water and glass temperatures for single and double glass slills: runs I and 23.

Effect oft'over slope (runs I, ! 8, 19, 20, 21 and 22)

T h e variation of production with the six cover slopes is shown in Fig, 13. It was
thought that increasing the cover slope (and hence the condensing area) might result
in a greater productivity due to an increase in water-glass temperature difference off-
setting an expected decrease in both water and glass temperature, For the maximum
temperatures and using Figs. 6 and 7, it is found that the evaporation rate actually
decreases from 0 ° to 45 ° cover slope, rises at 60 ° and falls again at 75 °. The evaporation
rates for 0 °, 15°, 30 °, 45 °, 60 ° and 75 ° c o v e r slopes are 86.4, 86.3, 85.2, 82-8, 91.1 and
83-2 B.t.u. ft -2 hr -I, approximately. T h e decrease from 0 ° to 45 ° is enhanced by the
decreased water absorptance over this range for the day chosen. T h e above figures for
 Digital simulation of transient solar still processes 327

I'0

r
04

.D
O~

i O.4

J
0"2

0 !

cw l ~
Fig. 13. Still production for varying cover slopes.

the maximum temperatures result in a curve of similar form to that for the whole day,
e.g. Fig. ! 3.
It must be noted that in this analysis, no allowance has been made for ground re-
flected radiation and radiation reflected from adjacent bays, which will contribute to
heating the cover glass with little or no proportionate gain in the insolation productively
absorbed in the water.
As with double glass covers, from an economical point of view, the large increase in
glass quantity at high cover slopes precludes their use.

Effect of day-to-day variation (runs ! 0, 17)

To gain some idea of the effect of a 'poor' day following a 'good' day, depths of 1½
and 12 in. were chose~l with all initial conditions the same as for runs 1 and 7. The
intermittency factor V was assumed to be 31 and the total insolation ! 500 B.t.u. ft-".
The daily production dropped from 0.85 and 0.803 lb ft -2 to 0.563 and 0.693 ib ft -~,
respectively, representing a decrease of 33-8 and 13.7 per cent in each case. The
lower percentage reduction for the deep basin still is due to the larger thermal inertia of
the system. The higher side losses, in this case, are due to the assumed lower ambient
temperature distribution. The effect of the heat storage capacity of the ground is
illustrated with the shallow basin still where there is no net base heat loss, but a net
heat flow from the soil of 72.2 B.t.u. ft-" to reinforce the lower water temperatures.
A full analysis of the effect of day-to-day variability would involve simulating
various combinations for different times of the year, a task which was outside the scope
of this paper.

CONCLUSIONS
From these simulated runs the following facts have become apparent:
( I ) Changing the water depth from ½to 12 in. for no insulation beneath the still has little
328 P. I. C O O P E R

effect and the 30 per cent variation for the insulated case agrees with that previously
reported.
(2) Higher wind velocities give slightly greater outputs, although above 5 m.p.h, this
increase is very small. Lower ambient temperatures reduce output.
(3) Economical reasons will preclude the use of either double or high angle glass covers
but in addition, from a theoretical point of view, a double glass cover markedly
reduces output in practical installations.
(4) Insulation beneath a still will increase the productivity, especially at shallow water
depths. The economics of this method of improving the efficiency can be quickly
determined with a digital simulation program.
(5) The effect of some changes and their inter-relations on still performance can be
predicted by assessing the changes in water and cover temperatures. The output
improves with increasing water temperatures and water-glass temperature differ-
ences.
(6) Digital simulation can be a powerful tool in the analysis of solar processes, especially
for complex systems where available analog machines are too small.
This preliminary investigation has verified the validity of the mathematical model
by reference to various published data on shallow and deep basin stills [5-12], and in
particular to the CSI RO Australian still.
The continuing project will involve correlation of simulated and actual data from a
450 ft 2 still, now erected on the campus, after substitution of the geometrical inputs for
this still into the mathematical model. Some work has been done with a considerably
more complex model to deduce the effect of salinity variation, still flushing, diffuse
radiation, wind direction etc., the results of which will be subsequently reported.
It is hoped that after sufficient insight into still performance has been gained, some
form of factorial design can be used in a design approach. This will present some
difficulty since with a ten-variable, two-level linearized model, there are 1024 combina-
tions to consider.
Acknowledgements-This continuing project is supported by a C S I R O Research Grant and by the C S I R O
Division of Mechanical Engineering. The author also thanks J. A. Appleyard for his supervision o f the
project.
NOMENCLATURE
As a r e a o f c o v e r g l a s s , ft ~
,4, area o f still side, ft 2
A~ surface area o f water, ft =
Ass surface area o f element 8 in X plane, fff
A s~ surface area of element 8 in Y plane, ft 2
c constant u s e d i n equation 9(a)
Ce specific heat o f soil, B.t.u. Ib-J°F -I
CI specific heat of insulation, B.t.u. Ib-I°F -~
Co area specific heat of glass, B.t.u. ft-~°F -I
C=, area specific heat of water, B.t.u. ft-2°F -1
H~ insolation rate on a horizontal surface, B.t.u. ft-'-'hr-j
Ht daily total insolation, B.t.u. ft -2
h,,~ Convective heat transfer coefficient from glass, B.t.u. ft-~hr-*°F-I
h=. latent heat of vaporisation of water, B.t.u. lb -j
h~2 convective heat transfer coefficient between two glass covers, B.t.u. ft-~hr -~°F -~
k~ thermal conductivity of soil, B.t.u. ft-~hr-J°F
k~ thermal conductivity of insulation, B.t.u, f t - l h r - ' ° F '
Pg partial pressure of water vapour at glass temperature, Ib in. -~
Pw partial pressure of water vapour at water temperature, lb in.-2
Qb base heat flow, B.t.u. ft-2hr -~
 Digital simulation of transient solar still processes 329

Qea convective heat transfer from glass. B.t.u. fl-2 hr-i

Q~ convective heat transfer from water, B.t.u. ft-2hr-1
Q~ evaporative heat transfer from water, B.t.u. ft-~hr -~
Q e,n evaporative mass transfer from water, equal to Qer x h~, Ib ft-~hr -~
(2, side heat flow, B.tu. ft-2hr -*
Q~ side heat flow per square foot of still basK, B.t.u. ft-2hr- 1
Qr. radiative heat transfer from glass, B.t.u. ft-*hr -I
Qrw radiative heat transfer from water, B.t.u. fl-2hr-'
2r12 radiative heat transfer between two glass covers, B.t.u. ft-2hr -~
Q¢12 convective heat transfer between two glass covers, B.t.u. ft-2hr -~
T, glass temperature, °F
T,, water temperature, °F
outer glass temperature for two glass covers, °F
Tcz inner glass temperature for two glass covers, °F
T ! ...... 13 temperature of ground elements I -13, °F
t time, hr
tc sinusoidal base heat flow cycle time, hr
tn, time after sunrise at which maximum temperatures occur, hr
t, time from sunrise to sunset, hr
Uk equivalent thermal conductance, B.t.u. ft-'hr-~°F -'
V insolation intermittency factor
V8 volume of element 8, fP
W wind velocity, m.p.h.
X1.2.3 dimensions of ground elements in X direction, ft
g1.2.3.4.5 dimensions of ground elements in Y direction, ft
ot c thermal diffusivity of soil, ft ~ hr -~
oti thermal diffusivity of insulation, fl~ hr -~
ot u absorptance of glass for solar radiation
or! absorptance of outer glass for two glass covers
oL2 absorptance of inner glass for two glass covers
ot w absorptance of basin water for solar radiation
E, emmissivity of glass
emmissivity of water
radiant shape factor
P~ density of soil, Ib ft -a
Pi density of insulation, lb ft -:j
P, reflectivity of glass for solar radiation
or Stefan-Boltzmann constant
transmittance of glass for solar radiation
TI.2 transmittance of system for two glass covers
0 time after sunrise, hr

REFERENCES
[I] B. P. Molinari, A simulation problem-oriented language for engineers. Honours Thesis, University of
Western Australia (1965).
[2] M. Jakob, In Heat Transfer, Vol. I. Wiley, New York (1949).
[3] D.J. Close, A design approach for solar processes. Solar Energy 11, I 12 (1967).
[4] R. N, Morse and W. R. W. Read, A rational basis for the engineering development of a solar still.
Solar Energy 12, 5(1968).
[5] Final three years progress on study and field evaluation of solar sea water stills. O.S.W. Research and
Development Progress Rep. No. 190 (1966).
[6] J. W. Bloemer, J. R. Irwin, J. A. Eibling, and G. O. G. Lift, Paper presented at Solar Energy Society
Annual Meeting (1965).
[7] G. O. G. L6f, J. A. Eibling and J. W. BIoemer, Energy balances in solar distillers. A.I.Ch.E.J. 7, No. 4
(1961).
[8] H. C, Hottel and B. B. Woertz, The performance of flat plate collectors. Trans. Am. So¢. mech. Engrs.
(1942).
[9] Second two years progress on study and field evaluation of solar sea water stills. O.S.W. Research and
Development Progress, Rep. No. 147 (1965).-
[ I 0] J. W. BIoemer, R. A. Collins and J. A. Eibling, Study and field evaluation of solar sea-water stills O,S.W.
Research and Development Progress, Rep. No. 50 (1961).
[ 11 ] W. N. Grune, R. A. Collins, R. B. Hughes and T. L. Thompson, Development of an improved solar still.
O.S.W. Research and Development Progress, Rep. No. 60 (1962).
330 P.I. COOPER

[ 12] CS I RO Still, Unpublished field results over a three-year period. Muresk, Western Australia.
[13] R. V. Dunkle, Personal Communication. CSIRO Division of Mechanical Engineering, Highett.
Australia.
[14] G. U. Parmalee, and W. W. Aubele, Radiant energy emission of atmosphere and ground. Heating.
Piping and Air Conditioning ( 1951 ).
[ 15] W. H. McAdams, In Heal Transmission. McGraw-Hill, New York (1954).
[161 R. V. Dunkle, Solar water distillation, the roof type still and multiple effect diffusion still. Intl. Heat
Transfer Conf. Part V. International Developments in Heat Transfer, University of Colorado ( 1961 ).
1171 J. H. Keenan and F. G. Keyes, in Thermodynamic Properties of Steam. Wiley, New York (19361.

APPENDIX
Heat rejection to atmosphere

Q~, = e~o-[(T~+4601'- (T,~+ 440)']. (A-II

This approximation, according to Dunkle [ 13], assumes that a radiating surface sees the sky as a black-
body 20° below ambient temperature. It is considerably simpler (although perhaps not quite as accurate)
as the equation proposed by Parmalee and Aubele [14] which incorporates relative humidity as an additional
variable,

Qc, = h ~ ( Tu - T,~)
where ha,, = 0 . 9 9 + 0 . 3 0 8 W ; W < 11 m.p.h.
= 0 . 5 x (1-467 W)°'rs; I | ~< V ~< 69m.p.h.[151. (A-2)

This is the equation used to determine convective losses from solar water heaters and is probably not the
best representation for stills, which have much larger surface area (introducing a length parameter), are nol
fiat and are close to the ground.

Internal heat transfer

Qru, = o"/1,~[ ( T,,,+ 460) 4 - (T,+460)4]. ~A-31

The shape factor ),~,u for gray surfaces, connected by re-radiating walls and with the glass cover totally
enclosing the water surface, is

1
(A-4)
~u. A~

No allowance has been made for absorption of radiation by the humid atmosphere within Ih¢ ~till. Simula-
lions with a model incorporating this indicate that although the radiant transfer can be reduced by as much as
211 per cent, the convective transfer buffers this by increasing and there is little change in the evaporative
mode, viz.

Qew=O'I28[T~,-Tg+~x(Tw+460)]':~(T~-T,,) (A-5)

and from the mass-heat transfer analogy,

Q~ = O.O254 [ Tw- To~ ( P ' - Pg)~-~-x~) ( Tw + 460) ]*~:l{P,.- Pu) x h~. (A-6)

The partial pressure in lb in. -~ at any temperature from I 0 ° to 150"C is given [ 17] by

lx[a' +b'x +c'x:']/

P=3206-18x10-/r[ I+d'g l J (A-7)

where T is in °K. X = 6 4 7 - 2 7 - T , a ' = 3"2437814, h ' = 5.86826x 10-:~. c ' = 1-1702379x 10-s, and d ' =
2-1878462 × 10-a.
The latent heat of vaporisation is

he = 1359.2 -0.575( T,,.+ 460). (A-81

 Digital simulation of transient solar still processes 331

Side and base heat flows assuming insulation beneath the still are

Q,=h~(T~,-Ta) (A-9)
A, X - (A-IO)

2k~ (A-II)
Qt, y,(X--~Xz)[X,(T~-T,)+X,(T~-T2)].

Representative base heat flow equations

In addition to the instantaneous heat balance for element 8. Eq. (3b), the differential equations for ele-
ments 2.7.9 and I I are given below:

d T2 [ ( T=,-- T2) ( T , - Tz) ( T 2 - T:0 Uk (T2 - Ts) 1

L y,2 XdX,+X2) X=(X~+X~) k~ ~ -j (A-12}
dT, [. ( T, - T~_)) ' ( T , - Ts) !T~-T.,) ] (A-13)
d--t-= 2a~ LY3 ( Yz + Y3 ) X,(Xt+X2) Y3(Y3+Y4)J
dT9 [ (T~-T9) ( T s - T9) (T~--T,=) ]
d--t = 2a~ LY3(Y2+ Y3) + x:,ix:+x~) Y,,-T-~-~ +--V-~,) J ~A-141
dTtt [ ( T t o - Ttl) ( T s - TH) (Ttl - T,2) ( T . - T13) ]
v,(r:,+v,) x,(x~+x~) ~:V~-,)f IA-IS)