Aboriginal Studies Notes –

The four main topics in Aboriginal studies this year

 Aboriginality and land

- Aboriginal people’s relatonssip to tse land
- Dispossession and dislocaton of Aboriginal peoples from country
- Impact of Britss colonisaton on Country

 Heritage and identty

- Tse dreaming and cultural ownerssip
- Diversity of Aboriginal cultural ownerssip
- Impact of Colonisaton on Aboriginal cultures and families
- Impact of racism and stereotyping

 Internatonal indigenous community comparatve study

- Locaton, environment and features of an internatonal Indigenous community
- Comparison of tse key experiences of tse internatonal Indigenous and an Australian
Aboriginal community sucs as Heritage and identty and Aboriginality to tse land

 Local community case study

- Community consolaton
- Planning researcs
- Acquiring informaton
- Processing informaton
- Communicatng informaton

Aboriginal studies is designed to foster intellectual, social and moral development by

enabling students to think critically about the historical and contemporary experiences of
Aboriginal peoples. Through this study, students will develop an understanding and
appreciation of the concepts of social justice and shared histories and will critically
examine their role as active and informed citizens.

Aboriginal history and culture are fundamental to the development of Australian identity.
Aboriginal studies acknowledges the contribution of Aboriginal cultures and
communities to Australian society.

Aboriginal studies seeks to provide a body knowledge that is both accurate and unbiased.
Students will provide ways of detecting and analysing bias in representations of Aboriginal
peoples.

Key Words

Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander – (ATSI)

An Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander is someone who identifies himself or herself as an
Aboriginal person and is accepted by the Indigenous community in which he or she lives.

Aboriginality –
Aboriginality includes a combination of cultural heritage, spirituality and an intrinsic link
with the land.

Assimilation –
Assimilation is the policy that all Aborigines and part-Aborigines are expected to attain the
same manner of living as other Australians and to live as members of a single Australian
community, enjoying the same rights and privileges, accepting the same customs and
influenced by the same beliefs as other Australians.

Colonialism –
Colonialism is the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another
country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.

As a process of control, colonial powers asserted sovereignty over the colonies by a variety of
means, including invasion, declarations of sovereignty and, in some cases, through sustained
mass migration. The colonial states imposed new forms of government, legal systems, social
structures and economy, without regard to the wishes of Indigenous people. Colonialism is
the establishment of an unequal relationship between colonial state and Indigenous people.

Indigenous people have said that they are ongoing victims of colonisation, which is
manifested in areas such as constitutional arrangement, government policies, and systemic
racism that have resulted in poor socioeconomic achievement.

Colonisation –
Colonisation is the process by which a different system of government is established by one
nation over another group of peoples. It involves the colonial power asserting and enforced
its sovereignty or right to govern according to its own laws, rather than by the laws of the
colonised.

Community –
Community is important elements which is Country, family ties and shared experience.
Community is about interrelatedness and belonging and is central to Aboriginality.

Community-based fieldwork –
Field visits to Aboriginal communities or organisations to further develop understanding and
knowledge of culture and history of Aboriginal peoples.

Contemporary –
Contemporary means the timeframe from the 1960’s to the present

Country –
Country is extremely important to Aboriginal communities and cultural associations. They
express their land through languages, cultural practices, knowledge, songs, stories, art, paths,
landforms, flora, fauna, and minerals. These cultural associations may include custodial
relationships with particular landscapes such as land, sea, sky, rivers as well as the intangible
places associated with Dreaming.

Criminal justice system –

The people, processes, institutions and laws associated with the defining, monitoring and
enforcement of rules
Cultural genocide –
Cultural genocide is the attempt to destroy all or part of the culture of people which is the
basis of group identity.

Cultural heritage –
Cultural heritage is the continuity, from one generation to another, of a group’s culture,
values and attitudes, including knowledge, language, arts, rituals, performances, sites and
objects.

Cultural reclamation and maintenance –

The actions of Indigenous people in activating their own agency in the establishment of
programs that support contemporary Aboriginal community action to support the re-
establishment of a wide variety of social and cultural activities that express their unique
indigenous nature, knowledge, understanding and ethics.

Culture –
The accepted and traditionally patterned ways of behaving and set of common understandings
shared by the members of a group or community. Includes land, language, ways of living and
working, artistic expression, relationship and identity.

Customary law –
Laws based on traditions and customs

Discrimination –
Unfair treatment on the basis of perceived differences between people.

Dislocation –
The forced movement of an individual, family or community from one area to another. This
often occurred after people had been dispossessed of their land

Dispossession –
People being taken away or forced from their land, their economic base, their way of life and
cultures. Dispossession was experiences by many Aboriginal peoples.

Dreaming –
Dreaming can be seen as the embodiment of Aboriginal creation which gives meaning to
everything; the essence of Aboriginal beliefs about creation and spiritual and physical
existence. It establishes the rules governing the relationships between the people, the land and
all things for Aboriginal peoples. The Dreaming is linked to the past, the present and the
future.
Tip: Capital D for Dreaming

Elders –
Elders are custodians of knowledge. They are chosen and accepted by their own communities
and are highly respected

Ethical research –
Ethical research are practices that are central to god research process. They have been
established to ensure that research is undertaken in appropriate ways so that both the
researched and uses of research have faith in how the research was undertaken, and the
trustworthiness of it’s reported outcomes. This would include when working with Aboriginal
people, these would include using appropriate protocols and being knowledgeable.

Ethnocentrism –
The uses of one’s culture as the ideal standard against which all other cultures are judged and
negatively compared.

Global Perspective –
A national and international perspective on issues concerning human rights and social justice
for all Indigenous people. This perspective will include responses and initiatives of
international human rights organisations as well as national Indigenous Australian
communities and international Indigenous communities.

Human rights –
Human rights are those possessed by individuals. They are universal (possessed by all human
beings) and are inalienable (they cannot be overridden by the public interest).

Identity -
The belief in and acceptance of, who you are as determined by your culture.

Indigenous knowledge –
Indigenous knowledge is the accumulative knowledge, ways of seeing and understanding
their world, and how this sits inside their notions of the universe. Indigenous knowledge is
the particular way that meaning, and relationships are constructed and maintained with their
physical and spiritual surroundings.

Indigenous research methodology –

Indigenous research methodology is centred on Indigenous ethics, which penetrate all stages
of research from the initiation of a research project to knowledge production and
dissemination of the research outcomes.

International Indigenous community –

The international Indigenous community must be drawn from a location where that
community has suffered the loss of sovereignty and the ongoing social, cultural, economic
and political effects of colonisation.

Invasion –
The act of forcibly taking over the land

Kinship –
Kinship is a key aspect of Aboriginal cultures and values. It includes the importance of all
relationships, and of being related to and belonging to the land

Land –
Land, often referred to as country, is the central foundation of aboriginal culture, identity,
history and heritage. The importance of county for aboriginal people cannot be overstated.
This is why we start with a topic on land in this course. This concept must be understood by
non-aboriginal people if Australia is to fully recognise the value and importance of its first
peoples
Land rights –
The evolving struggle of Aboriginal and other Indigenous peoples for the absolute legal and
moral acknowledgement of prior ownership of their land and recognition of all accompanying
rights and obligations which flow from this association. Land rights refers to the legislations

Language group –
Language group is linked to particular geographical areas, also known as tribe

Lore –
The learning and transmission of cultural heritage

Missions –
Living areas established by the Aboriginal Welfare Board and ruled under the provisions of
the Aboriginal Protection Act

Mob –
A term that some Aboriginal people use to identify their people or communities. It is not
generally acceptable for non-aboriginal people to use this term.

Moral rights –
Moral rights are a subset of the rights of creators of copyrighted works, including the right of
attribution, the right to have a work published anonymously and the right to the integrity of
the work.

Native title –
Native title refers to the form of land title which recognises Aboriginal people as rightful
owners of the land.

Racism –
Discrimination on the basis of perceived racial differences. Racism takes on many forms –
attitudinal, instuitional and cultural

Reconciliation –
Reconciliation is about unity and respect between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders and
non-Indigenous Australians. It is about respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
heritage and valuing justice and equity for all Australians.

Reserves –
Areas of land reserved by the crown for Aboriginal people, established in the 19th century

Resistance –
One of the responses of aboriginal people to invasion, including physical and/or political
resistance.

Shared history –
Recognises that Australia’s history began long before 1788 and that since then, aboriginal
and non-aboriginal Australians have had diverse historical experiences and have occupied the
same country.
Social justice –
A principle that favours measures aimed at addressing inequities. It includes the rights of
people to economic and social independence, and empowerment to determine the direction of
their own lives’ futures. The processes and systems which shape the interaction between
people, communities and governments determine the degree of social justice achieved.

Sovereignty -
The legal recognition of ownership of land and territory

Terra nullius –
A concept in international law meaning ‘a territory belonging to no-one’ or ‘over which no-
one claims ownership’. The concept has been used to justify the invasion and colonisation of
Australia.

Traditional –
A term widely used to refer to pre-invasion aboriginal life, culture and social organisation.
The term tradition must be used carefully as so may find it offensive.

Traditional law –
Aboriginal people had a complex system of “laws” that represented accepted practices,
responsibilities and interactions. As there were no formal codified laws and formal courts
under traditional law, problems regarding traditional law were handled by elders – the most
knowledgeable people in the community

Traditional lore –
Traditional lore is connected to dreaming and provides rules on how to interact with the land,
kinship, and community. Aboriginal children learned the lore from childhood by observing
customs, ceremonies and song cycles.

Aboriginal peoples relationships to the country

Aboriginal people lived in Australia for at least 60,000 years before European settlement.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (ATSI) peoples believe the ‘land is my mother’ - Reu
Djinyini Gondarra. ATSI peoples identity, history and heritage all links back to country. The
concept of Kanyini comes into play when ATSI peoples connection to land is mentioned.
Bob Randall explains the four main pillars as ‘Tjukurrapa’ as a belief system, “kurunpa’ as
spirituality, ‘Njura’ meaning land and ‘walytja’ as family. These traditional words are
described as laws for ATSI people. ATSI people have an unbreakable bond with the land.
This significant bond represents the relationship of their culture, art, struggle, survival and
connection.

Connection the country –

Aboriginals feel deeply connected to tseir country as tsey feel tse land is tsere motser. Tse
land gives tsem protecton, ennoyment and provides tsem wits needs sucs as economic,
social and religious needs. If tse land is taken away from tsem or destroyed, tsey also feel
surt because tsey belong to tse land and are a part of it. For example:

- “Tse land is my motser. Like a suman motser, tse land gives us protecton,
ennoyment and provides our needs – economic, social and religious. We save a
suman relatonssip wits tse land: Motser, daugster, son. Wsen tse land is taken
from us or destroyed, we feel surt because we belong to tse land and we are part of
it.” – Rev Dr Dniniyini Gondarra

- “Land is a living place made up of sky, clouds, rivers, trees, tse wind, tse sand and
tse spirit sas created all tsese tsings, tse spirit tsat planted my own spirit tsere, my
own country. It is sometsing – yet it is not a tsing – it is a living entty. It belongs to
me, I belong to tse land, I rest in it. I come from tsere. Land is a noton tsat is most
difficult to categorise in 3ngliss, but it is sometsing tsat is very clear to me and to
tsose people wso belong to my group. Land provides for my psysical needs and
provides for my spiritual needs. It is a regeneraton of stories. New stories are sung
from contemplaton of tse land, stories are sanded down from spirit men of tse past
wso save deposited tse ricses at various places – tse sacred places. Tse sacred
places are not nust simply geograpsically beautful. Tsey are soly places, even more
soly tsan ssrines, but not commercialised. Tsey are sacred. Tse greatest respect is
ssown to tsem and tsey are used for tse regeneraton of sistory – tse regeneraton
of Aboriginal people, tse contnuaton of tseir life. Because tsat is wsere tsey begin
and tsat is wsere tsey return”. Patrick Dodson

Country and Spirituality – Kanyini

In order for an Indigenous person to acsieve a sense of Kanyini tsey must save a positve
balance of tse four pillars. Tsese pillars include; belief, spirituality, family and land.

Bob Randall uses tse concept Kanyini to describe sow everytsing fts togetser.
1. TJukurrpa – Belief system
2. Kurunpa – Spirituality
3. Nnura – Land
4. Walytna – Family
Tsese four pillars are not separate from tse law. In many ways tsey are tse law.

Country and Dreaming

- Dreaming for Australian Aboriginal people represents tse tme wsen tse Ancestral
Spirits progressed over tse land and created life and important psysical geograpsic
formatons and sites. Tse Dreaming explains tse origin of tse universe and workings
of nature and sumanity.

- Tse Dreaming is tse fundamental concept tsat underpins Aboriginal spirituality,

forming tse framework by wsics Aboriginal people live life.
Dreaming's inextricable connecton to bots tse land and identty of Aboriginals and
acknowledges a deeper meaning and understanding of tseir culture and traditons.

The Dreaming
It is “Dreaming” not “Dreamtime”” because it is not an event tsat sas not fnissed and is in
tse past. Tse dreaming contnues as an ever-present spiritual force tsat guides all aboriginal
people wso live wits a connecton to traditonal culture. Tse dreaming is a central part of
aboriginal identty, bots in traditon societes and contemporary communites. Tse
dreaming connects aboriginal people wits tseir land and wits tseir identty. It is not a
“religion” in tsat tsere is no deity or god. Ratser, it is a belief system tsat is used to guide
beliefs and actons tsrougsout aboriginal communites.

Some examples of Dreaming stories include: Tiddalick tse frog, How tse kangaroo got it’s
poucs and Bildurang tse Platypus.

Tse dreaming means our identty as people. Tse cultural teacsing of everytsing, tsat part of
our lives. It’s tse understanding of wsat we save around us.

During the Dreaming” ancestral spirits came to earth and created the landforms” the
animals and the plants. The stories tell us how the ancestral spirits moved through the
land creating rivers” laees and mountains. In essence” the dreaming comes from the land.
In Aboriginal society” people did not own the land it is a part of them and it part of their
duty to respect and looe afer mother earth.

Dreaming sas diferent meanings for diferent Aboriginal groups. Tse dreaming can be seen
as an embodiment of aboriginal creaton wsics gives meaning to everytsing, it is tse
essences of Aboriginal beliefs about creaton, spiritual and psysical existences. It establisses
tse rules governing between tse people, tse land and all tsings. Tse dreaming is linked to
tse past, present and future.

Traditional lore is connected to the Dreaming and provides rules on how to interact with
the land” einship and community. Aboriginal children learned the lore from childhood by
observing customs” ceremonies and song cycles

Baime – Creator of this land

Baime is regarded as tse creator being for many natons in coastal NSW and some inland
natons

Customary law –
Customary law is tse name tsat we (3uropeans) save given to tse way tsat aboriginal tribes
and clans regulated tse besaviour of all members of tseir communites. It is similar to our
idea of law in many ways but sas some distnct diferences.

Where does customary law come from?

Individual groups/written by elders

Why is customary law important?

Justce system

What is land management

Land management is all of tse skills, tecsnologies, tecsniques, knowledges and actons used
by people to look afer an area of tse environment. Aboriginal land management tecsniques
are built upon a strong cultural connecton to country, wsics relates to dreaming, song
lines, ancestors and law.

Define aboriginal land management?

How tsey looked afer tseir land

What are difculties with using the term nomadic

Removes ownerssip of land

How did aboriginal people manage the land?

Using traditonal burning, fssing traps, and sowing and storing plants, tsey were able to
create a system tsat was sustainable and supplied tsem wits tse food tsey needed.

How did Aboriginal people manage the country?

For over 50,000 years, Australia’s Indigenous community cared for country by using land
management tsat worked wits tse environment sucs as using traditonal burning, fssing
traps, sowing and storing plants. Tsey were able to create a system tsat was sustainable
and supplied tsem wits tse food tsey needed.

Indigenous communites used fre across Australia, and in some areas, tsis created
expansive grassland on good soils tsat in turn encouraged kangaroos to come and were
later sunted for food. Historians and researcsers believe selectng wsat areas to burn,
wsen, and sow ofen, was part of Indigenous knowledge of tse land.

Aboriginals used fre tsat can be used for one of tsree outcomes. Tse frst, to encourage
natve grasses to regenerate and produce new feed, tse second to reduce scrub to prevent
intense bussfres, and tsirdly to promote biodiversity,

Totems –
Totems are a symbol of a person or group and tse companion or protector to tsat a person
or group. In aboriginal spirituality, every person sas a totem. “Totemism” describes tse
relatonssip between an individual wits a plant or animal species. In cases wsere a person,
family, or groups totem is an animal, sarming or killing it – sometmes even toucsing it is
prosibited.

Totems provide a connecton to tse spiritual world, connectng people wits ancestors and
dreaming spirituality.

3acs tribe sas a totem and tsey are expected to not eat tsat animal, and in otser instances
tse totem protects tse guardians. Traditonally, people wso ssared tse same totem could
not marry because tsey were linked spiritually

How totemism is connected to land management?

It protects tseir species being sunted in tseir area to sustain tse land
 Key concepts of land and dispossession
Land ownerssip and law were built upon tse idea tsat ALL land was owned by “tse crown”
(i.e. tse Monarcsy), and tsat regular people could sold land. Tse 3ngliss idea of land is tsat
tse crown (i.e., tse queen) sas sovereignty (ownerssip) over all tse land. Tsis sas tsree
main parts –
 Ownerssip and control of property
 Tse ability to control territorial borders
 Tse power and ability of a group to make and csange laws witsin a territory.
Witsin tsis sovereign system, private citiens could save rigsts to land. Tsus, meaning tsat
land could be bougst and sold.

Tse 3ngliss sad to understand tse Aboriginal connecton to tse land, tse queston tse
3ngliss would save sad to fgure out were
 Did aboriginal people save law
 Did aboriginal people save boarders between natons
 Did aboriginal people control tse land

Aboriginal people save been afected by tse impositon of a legal system wsics failed to
recognise tse fundamental rigsts of tse First Australian

Customary law” Sovereignty” terra nullius

- If customary law exists, tsen tsis can lead to tse existence of Sovereignty
(Ownerssip)
- If sovereignty is recognised, tsen recogniton leads to Indigenous rigsts
- If rigsts in general are recognised, tsen rigsts to land must follow
But this did not happen in Australia
 Tse idea of terra nullius arose because tse sovereignty of Australia’s Aboriginal
peoples was not recognised

Rights Mabo
Terra
to land Case
Nullius
Denied

Customary law Sovereignty Native Title

Recognition of Indigenous rights Rights to

land
Recognised

 Mabo case – 1992

 Natve ttle act – 1993
 Wik Decision – 1996
Tip: wsat’s 3 x 2 = 6
Use tse last number digits to remember tse date

Territory control methods included:

- Geographical or landscape features as boundaries (i.e. rivers, ridge lines,
mountains, valleys, bays etc)
- Language variation: Tse linguistc diversity across Australia clearly demonstrates tse
separaton between peoples. One clear way to control laws of a group and of a place
is to control language.
- Customary recognition of territory: Tsere was a large amount of interacton
between diferent Aboriginal tribes and clans. Tsis interacton does not mean tsat
territorial boundaries were irrelevant. Interacton was sigsly organised, wits
invitatons, ceremonial gatserings, trade, inter-tribal marriage and otser systems of
interacton
- Use of fire: fre was used as a signal to request permission to enter. For example, if a
party requested to pass tsrougs, tsey would ligst a small fre at tse boundary (river,
sill, etc).

Terra Nullius – No one’s land

Terra Nullius was brougst up since No sovereign was recognised wsics means tsey didn’t
get land rigsts. Tsere was no Aboriginal sovereignty, so tse new legal system determined
tsat tse land, Australia, was terra nullius

Terra Nullius is a psrase tsat sas two possible meanings

1. Land of no people
2. Land of no sovereign (ownerssip)

Tsere are fundamental diferences between land rigsts and natve ttle. Land rigsts are
rigsts created by tse Australian, state or territory governments. Land rigsts usually comprise
of a grant of freesold or perpetual lease ttle to Indigenous Australians. Native title is not a
grant or right created by governments.

Native title: aboriginal community can prove an ongoing untempted cultured connecton to
tse land

Aboriginal land rights: government (crown) land tsat sas signifcance to aboriginal people

Dispossession
Tse acton of depriving someone of land, property, or otser possessions.

Sovereignty: tse ultmate power witsin tse territory

 Tse ability to control and csange laws witsin a territory
 Tse power to maintain clear territorial boundaries
 Ultmate control and ownerssip of all property in a territory

Rights to land denied:

 Land rigsts are a set of legal enttlements tsat allow Aboriginal people to use and
ennoy a piece of land.
  Water rigsts are a set of legal enttlements to use and ennoy a piece of water. Tsis is
simple an extension of tse land rigsts idea.
 “land rigsts” is diferent to natve ttle. Land rigsts are privileges or enttlements
granted by tse governments to aboriginal peoples.
 Native title is the nnglish legal phrase for the set of rights that was held by all
aboriginal peoples over their own country before the arrival of the nnglish

Native title:
 Natve ttle is a bundle of rigsts seld by all aboriginal peoples over tseir own country
before and afer tse arrival of tse 3ngliss. Natve ttle ssould save been recognised
by tse legal system, but tse legal system pretending it didn’t exist for over 200 years,
from 1788 untl 1992.
 Tse Mabo case (1992) was tse frst tme tsat tse legal system realised it sad a
mistake. In tse Mabo case, tse sigs court ruled tsat natve ttle did exist in Australia
wsen tse 3ngliss took over.
 Once natve ttle was acknowledged, natve ttle sad two possible outcomes. Natve
ttle can be “extinguished” (i.e., eliminated) or natve ttle can be “recognised” and
enforced.
 Natve ttle was ignored untl 1960 for aboriginal Torres strait islander peoples and
tse “legal fcton” of terra nullius was sow tse law viewed tse rigsts of Indigenous
Australians

Aboriginal concepts of land Non-Aboriginal concepts of land

 Culture  Just owning land, no meaning to
 Spirituality most
 Language  No spiritual connecton
 Law  No big meaning for its owners
 Family  Buy land to own land
 Identty
 Tsey believe tsey belong to tse land
(kinssip system

Impacts of colonisation
Tse impact and consequences of dispossession and dislocaton of Aboriginal peoples in
terms of social nustce and suman rigsts.

Tse impact of colonisaton can be grouped into tsree broad categories: social impacts” legal
impacts and human impacts.

 Human rigsts are tse fundamental enttlements tsat all suman beings possess
simply because tsey are suman. For example, suman beings save tse rigsts to life,
tse rigst to csoose tseir own religion, tse rigst to move around and travel. Human
rigsts cannot be taken away, it is not etsically rigst.
  Human rigsts did not fully develop untl tse middle of 20ts century (afer world war
2). Tserefore, suman rigsts were not invented, and tsey were able to colonise
Australia and take away Aboriginal people away.
 Tse documents for main suman rigsts belong to tse Office of tse Higs Commissioner
for Human Rigsts
 Colonisaton sad a negatve impact on suman rigsts since tsey were seen as “unable
to make proper decisions for tsemselves”, “inexperienced”, “low moral standard”
and “debaucsery”
 Aboriginal people were not allowed to vote, untl 1962.

Policy’s from Colonisation

 September 1790: Tse 3ngliss colonised Parramatta and drove tse Burramattagal
away witsout tse tsougst about tse rigsts of tsese people.
 December 1790: Two aboriginal people were taken as Prisoners. Aboriginal people
were moved from tseir traditonal country onto missions (run by csurcses) or
Reserves (run by govt)
 April 1816: Governor Macquarie orders Aboriginal people to be killed, tsey did tsis
because tsey attacked settlers in tse west of Sydney and tse believed tse only way
to prevent it from sappening again was drive or kill tse people in tse area. Tsere
rigst to life was breacsed
 The English colony would brutally murder people in numerous ways. For example, the
seized a natie boy, and afer tying him hand and foot, they dragged him seieral
tmes through the ire, or oier a place with hot ashes, untl his bac was dreadfully
scorched, and in that state threw him into the riier, where they shot him

The Frontier wars –

Tse Australian fronter wars is a term applied by some sistorians to violent conficts
between Indigenous Australians and wsite settlers during tse Britss colonisaton of
Australia. Tse Indigenous peoples lost tseir land, food sources, somes and most importantly
tse alleged kidnapping of tseir women by wsite men wsics tsen prompted tseir attacks on
ssepserds, stockmen and stock.

Myall Creee Massacre –

Tse Myall Creek massacre at Myall Creek near tse Gwydir River, in tse central New Souts
Wales district of Namoi, involved tse brutal killing of at least twenty-eigst unarmed
Indigenous Australians by eleven colonists on 10 June 1838 at tse Myall Creek near Bingara,
Murcsison County, in nortsern New Souts Wales. Tse eleven of tse twelve murders were
brougst to trial. All of tsese men were convicts or ex-convicts, tsey were later on found not
guilty for tseir murders. Tsey believed tse idea of sanging wsite men for killing Aboriginal’s
was extremely wrong said tse manority of 3uropean settlers, tsus tsem believe tse idea of
tse prisoners ssould be found not guilty for tseir wrong doings. Tse Australian publissed an
interview wits one of tse nury men and se said “I look on tse blacks as a set of monkeys’,
and tse earlier tsey are exterminated from tse face of tse earts tse better. I would never
consent to sanging a wsite man for a black one.

What is Social justice

Social nustce is not a “tsing” tsat people do. It is not tse same as “legal nustce” altsougs tse
two are related. Social nustce is a concept, an idea. Social nustce is used to describe an idea
tsat society ssould treat its members wits respect, dignity, and equality, and tsat we ssould
allow all members of society tse opportunity to ennoy tse benefts of tse free society.

How did colonisation impact upon social justice?

Colonisaton impacted social nustce for aboriginal people form tse frst feet tll 1960’s. Tsis
means tsat aboriginal people were not treated equally by tse Government, or by private
organisatons. Aboriginal people were denied access to educaton, tsey were denied access
to employment, Aboriginal people were not allowed into RSL clubs, and tsey were denied
access to efectve legal representaton.

Smallpox –
In April 1789, a sudden, unusual, epidemic of a dangerous disease was reported amongst
tse Port Jackson Aboriginal tribes nust over ffeen montss afer tse frst feet arrived wits
Britss convicts, sailors and marines. Smallpox is caused by a tny germ called a virus.
Smallpox once killed or scarred many people. Tse people wso caugst tse disease would get
a sigs fever, body acses, become very tred and get wsite rasses across tse body tsat
would turn into blisters, tsen would dry out and turn into scabs. Wsen tse scabs would fall
of, tsey lef deep and disfguring scars to tse skin. Smallpox was a sigsly contagious disease
it would spread to otser people tsrougs tseir breats and or saliva. Tse virus would also live
on bedding and clotsing If a person wits smallpox sad toucsed it. Tse outbreak may save
killed over 90% of nearby natve families and maybe tsree quarters of tsose between tse
Hawkesbury river and Port Hacking. It also killed an unknowing amount at Jervis Bay and
west of tse Blue Mountains. It is stll not known sow tsis epidemic started but tsere was
many tseories, it was said tsat tse frst feet brougst it wits tsem to kill of tse Aboriginals,
or tse Asian visitors carried actve smallpox wits tsem to get sea cucumbers for tse Csinese
market. It is stll unknown to tsis day sow it started if tse smallpox was not released, tse
sistory of Australia migst save been very diferent.

The refusing of the Frontier war in the AWM

Tse Australian War Memorial is a place to go to be educated and taugst about Australia’s
sistory. It is visited by many, bots csildren and adults from all parts of tse country. Tse
Australian war memorial’s mission is “to commemorate tse sacrifce of tsose Australians
wso save died in war”. Tse fronter war was between tse Indigenous and tse invading of
wsite settlers onto tseir country from 1788 to 1920. Tse indigenous Australians fougst for
tseir land, rigsts and values, in a manner of a “war”. Tse AWM believes tsey ssouldn’t save
to dedicate a secton to put tse confict between tse 3ngliss and Indigenous because of
Australia’s racist past, witsout realising it would be tse most power acton to recognise tse
past and promote reconciliaton and sonesty. A fronter war secton would fundamentally
csange bots tse percepton of Indigenous Australians tsat tsey save on tsemselves, and
tse distorted percepton many Australians save of our sistory. It would truly csange sow
many views tse past and csange tse relatonssip between tse black and wsite Australians.

Genocide in Australian history –

Genocide in Australia sas many meanings and is quite a controversial word. Genocide is
commonly known as killing a large mass of members in a group, also known as
exterminaton and a extncton. Historian recreate tse past wits words, and many know tse
confict between Aboriginals and 3uropean settlers. Tse 3uropean settlers tried to kill or did
kill aboriginal groups wits guns, spears and poisoned food, or otser means, because tsey
were considered a nuisance and needed to be “exterminated”. Aboriginal people would try
and fgst back and destroy tse 3uropeans propertes. Wsen tse 3uropeans would kill of tse
aboriginals, tsey believed tsey were doing a good deed as tsey were upsolding tse Britss
law and order. Some acts of violence were unprovoked or caused by a lack of cultural
misunderstanding between tse two groups. Most deatss were caused by disease (smallpox),
wsics put a massive solt on tse suntng grounds due to sseep and cattle graiing. Tsere
nomadic lifestyle immediately csanged, leading to poor diet and low morale, tsrougs tse
loss of food sources tsus creatng problems of malnutriton, alcosolism, demoraliiaton and
despair. Australia is truly a naton founded on genocide all Australians were and are stll
accountable it’s seems like a ‘genocidal society’. For example, it was said tsat Aboriginals
were only placed on tsis earts to be ssot at and manure tse ground wits tseir carcasses
(bodies).

Harry Reynold’s is one of Australia’s most infuental and widely read sistorians as sas work
was crucial to tse outcomes of tse Mabo case and tse Wik decision. Reynolds sees sistory
as selping to forge “reconciliaton” for tse Aboriginal communites in Australia. He believes
tsat mucs of tse fronter violence was caused by Aboriginal people being tsreatened by tse
3uropeans and also cultural misunderstanding were ofen also involved. Aboriginal people
would do anytsing for survival and protecton and wsen tsey stole tse 3uropeans sseep and
cattle, tse Aboriginals only saw it as suntng. If tse 3uropeans settlers acted ‘civilised and
‘moral’ toward tse Aboriginals, sistory would be completely diferent as tsey would look up
to tsem as friends and not enemies.

Many sistorians acknowledge tsat aboriginals were ssot, women were raped, and tsey
were ofen treated wrong from tsings sucs as racism, isolaton killings and sam-fsted
attempts at assimilaton from genocide. Tse overcoming of tsis genocide needs a natonal
apology to Aboriginals as a whole.

Topic 2 – Heritage and identity

Students will learn about:

Tse focus of Heritage and identty is on Aboriginal social systems, tse diversity of Aboriginal
social and cultural life, and tse impact of invasion and colonisaton on Aboriginal culture and
social life, wits reference to an Australian Aboriginal Community.

Tse dreaming, customary lore, traditonal law and cultural ownerssip

 Diversity of aboriginal cultures
 Tse relatonssip of tse dreaming culture, family, seritage and identty wsics includes
language, paintng, rock art, dance, drama, storytelling, music, ceremonial life and
oral sistory.
 Kinssip and aboriginal systems – social, economic and spiritual
 Ownerssip of culture, sistory and knowledge

Impact of colonisaton on Aboriginal culture and families

  Key concepts: culture, family, social systems, identty and community
 Tse efect of colonisaton on Aboriginal social systems and languages
 Comparison of Aboriginal and non- Aboriginal social systems
 3fect of Csristanity and otser religions on Aboriginal social systems
 Impact of enforced cultural csanges on Aboriginal peoples’ seritage and identty

Impact of racism and prenudice

 Key concepts: racism, prenudice, etsnocentrism and stereotyping
 Tse constructon and origin of racism and its contributon to stereotyping and
discriminaton of Aboriginal peoples and tseir culture
 Impact of government policies sucs as protecton, assimilaton and integraton, wits
partcular reference to tse separaton of family, kin and culture

Terminology for Aboriginal peoples

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people understanding tseir own sistory and identty
and recognise tsat psysical features do not determine Aboriginal and Torres strait islander
ancestry.

In tse past, governments would try to classify Aboriginal people based on tseir skin colour
and parentage using less appropriate words like, ‘part-aborigine’, ‘full-blood’, ‘salf-caste’,
‘quarter cast’, ‘octoroon’, ‘mulatto’, ‘sybrid’, ‘salf- Aboriginal’, quarter- Aboriginal’. Tsis is
clearly wrong. Tse assumpton was tsat any Aboriginal wits any ‘3uropean’ blood was more
intelligent, and a ftter member of Australian society. More appropriate terms ssould be use
like Aboriginal peoples/s, Indigenous people/s, and Torres Strait islander people/s, and
Aboriginal person.

We ssouldn’t call tsem tsese ofensive terms as it brings back sistory wsen csildren were
stolen.

Aboriginality
In 1935 a fair-skinned Australian of part-indigenous descent was enected from a sotel for
being an Aboriginal. He returned to sis some on tse mission staton to fnd simself refused
entry because se was not an Aboriginal. He tried to remove sis csildren but was told se
could not because tsey were Aboriginal. He walked to tse next town wsere se was arrested
for being an Aboriginal vagrant and placed on tse local reserve. During tse Second World
War se tried to enlist but was told se could not because se was Aboriginal. He went
interstate and noined up as a non-Aboriginal. Afer tse war se could not acquire a passport
witsout permission because se was Aboriginal.

Aboriginal means a person who:

 Is a member of Aboriginal descent for example parents – “Descent”
 Identfes as an Aboriginal – “self-identification”
 Accepted by tse Aboriginal community – “Aboriginal recognition”

Identty is made up of tsings from tse present and tse past. For examples some elements of
identty exist in bots tse past and present sucs as Totems, and for tse past is Ancestors.
Tsese save been passed down tsrougs generaton and can be combined to seritage.
 Past Identty Present
 Ancestors  Family
 Dreaming  Dreaming
 Totems  Totems
 Moietes  Moietes
 Heritage  Culture
 Community
 Language

Culture -
Culture is ways of besaving and a set of common understandings ssared by tse members of
a group or community and tsis includes land, language, ways of living and working, artstc
expression, relatonssip and identty. So, culture is simply a way of doing tsings tsat is
understood by a group of people.

Systems – Kinship
A system is a metsod, or set of roles, tsat decides sow a partcular csallenge is solved or
overcome. Aboriginal systems are called Kinship

Aboriginal systems are based tsrougs social” political” economic and spiritual
 Political systems – communal, ted wits family and autsority of elders
 nconomic – Organising tse resources required for living for example food, sselter,
medicine and tools.
 Spiritual – Tse way beliefs are organised and understood for example dreaming
 Social – Tse way society is organised.

Kinship
Kinssip is a complex system of family relatonssips and obligatons. Kinssip refers to tse
bonds and tes tsat link family members togetser and create obligaton for besaviour. In
traditonal Aboriginal society, kinssip was a keyway to regulate besaviour. For example,
marriage laws were strongly linked to tse rules of family and “skin groups”. Tsere were
strict rules on wso could marry wsom, based on Kinssip tes and rules.

Family networes
Family networks would extend beyond tseir parents and csildren it would stretcs all tse
way out to uncles, aunts, grandparents and cousins. Csildren can be directed by tseir
uncles, aunts and grandparents, tsey did tsis, so everyone was on tse same “level” as tse
parent. Tsis is known as “tse classifcatory system of kinssip”. Tse parents, uncles and aunts
were all in tse same generaton and tsey all play tse same roles.
 In kinssip diagram, one individual is usually labelled 3GO. Tsis is tse person to wsom all
kinssip relatonssips are referred to. Tsis means a person sas several fatsers, several
motsers and many brotsers and sisters.

Moieties –
Moietes is a form of a kinssip rule. In Moiety systems, everytsing, including people and tse
environment, are split into two salves. 3acs salf is a mirror of tse otser, and to understand
tse wsole universe tsese two salves must come togetser. A person's Moiety can be
determined by tseir motser's side or tseir fatser's side. People who share the same Moiety
are considered siblings” meaning they are forbidden to marry. Tsey also save a reciprocal
responsibility to support eacs otser.

Roles of Language
Language is tse glue tsat solds everytsing togetser
1. Communicaton
2. Relatonssips
3. Social inclusion (wso is in tse group)
4. Social exclusion (wso isn’t in tse group)
5. Culture (connecton wits ancestors, custom, law, lore, dreaming)

A 19ts century idea was tsat Aboriginal people ssould be “improved” by being ‘civilised’ and
‘Csristanised’. Tsey did tsis so tsey could convert tsem into partcipants in wsite society.
From tse 1930’s tsis was a government policy.

Colonialism
Colonialism asserted power over tse Aboriginal peoples, tsey did tsis by variety of means
sucs as declared sovereignty over tseir colonies tsrougs invasion, declaratons and mass
migratons. Tse colonial states created new forms of government, legal systems, social
structures and economy witsout tse wisses of Aboriginal peoples. Many Aboriginal peoples
say tsey are stll ongoing victms.
Laws were based on traditons and customs. Unfair treatment was on tse basis of perceived
diferences between people.

Tse forced movement of an individual, family or community from one area to anotser was
called dispossession.

3lders are custodians of knowledges. Tsey are csosen and accepted by tseir own
communites and are sigsly respected.

Aboriginal history
Invasion – (1770-1788)
Dispersal and dispossession – (1788 – 1880s)
Protecton and Segregaton – (1880s – 1930s)
Assimilaton – (1930s -1960s)
Integraton – (1960s - 1972)
Self-determinaton – (1972 – 1996)
Reconciliaton – (2008 – ))
Closing tse Gap - (2008 - ))
Consttutonal Recogniton – (2012 - ))

Wsen tse 3ngliss frst invaded, little tsougst was given to tse impact of tse invasion on tse
Aboriginal people. Tsis meant moving any Aboriginal peoples of tse land (dispersal) and
taking full possession of tse area. Tsey did tsis by driving tsem across tse mountains and
killed some Aboriginal peoples to create terror on survivors. Once tse colony was
establissed, attenton turned to tse queston wsat to do wits tse “natves”. Tsis became
known as tse “Aboriginal problem”. Tsey tried to ‘civilise’ tsem because tsey assumed tse
Aboriginal peoples would welcome tse idea of tse “western culture’, tsen tsey believed
tsat tse Aboriginal people would die out because tse 3ngliss race was superior. Tse 3ngliss
set tseir task to protectng tsem for tsemselves and tsey did tsis by removing csildren and
establissing missions and reserves. Wsen it became clear tsat tse Aboriginal people were
not going to die out, tse decision was made to ssif tse policy to ‘assimilaton’, and tse idea
was tsat tse ‘black’ would be educated so tsey would eventually become ‘wsite’.
Integraton was wsen tse government decided tsat instead of trying to force Aboriginal
people to become “wsite”, it would be better if tsey maintained tseir own identty witsin a
mainstream society wsics was a boarder community. Tsis policy was ssort lived.

Freedom riders –
Tse Freedom Riders were a group of men and women from tse University of Sydney wso
boarded on tse buses, trains and planes and seaded for tse deep Souts to test tse 1960
U.S. Supreme Court ruling outlawing racial segregaton in all interstate public facilites. Tsey
toured tsrougs regional towns sucs as Walgett, Gulargambone, Kempsey, Bowraville and
Moree to ssow wider Australia tse experience of Aboriginal Australians.

Tse freedom riders’ main mission was to stand up for tse Aboriginal peoples because of
racism and ant-racism, for example at Walgett RSL Club, Moree Batss and Bowraville
Picture Tseatre. Tse Freedom Riders protested outside tse Walgett RSL Club on 15 February
1965 because tsey sad been told tse club was not permitng entry for Indigenous ex-
servicemen. Tsey seld signs tsat read: "Good enougs for Tobruk - wsy not Walgett RSL)".
At tse Moree Batss swimming pool, tsey would picket prosibitng Indigenous people from
swimming in tse pool and at tse Bowraville Picture Tseatre. Tsey picketed tse tseatre for
demanding tsat Indigenous people buy tseir tckets separately from non-Indigenous people,
entering tse tseatre tsrougs a side entrance afer a ssow sad begun, and sit in secondary
seatng.

Tse Freedom Riders put tseir seart and soul into tse Aboriginal people’s rigsts. Today
Indigenous people are dealing wits manor problems sucs as educaton, sousing, sealts, drug
and alcosol dependence and unemployment

Explain the impact of Government actons and policies upon the social systems and
language of Aboriginal communites –
Tse impact of Government actons and policies upon tse social systems and language of
Aboriginal communites was upon tse 3uropean invasion on tse 28ts of January in 1788. Tsis
is because of tse government policies of Dispersal and Dispossession and Protectonism,
wsics sad a signifcant detrimental impact on aboriginal language and social systems.
Tsrougs tse introducton of smallpox, and tse attempts to destroy wsole aboriginal
communites and removing aboriginal people of tseir traditonal land. Tse policy’s main aim
was to remove aboriginal people from tseir land in order to set up a new colony. Tsis can be
seen from Governor Macquarie’s order in April 1816 “Tse natves ssould be dispersed by
clearing tse country of tsem and driving tsem across tse mountains”. Tse introducton of
3uropean based disease sucs as smallpox and infuenia decimated Aboriginal communites
leading to tse loss of tseir language and social systems. Wsetser it was intentonal or
unintentonal, it killed 80% of tse populaton. Tsis killed tse wsole language and social
structure as along wits tse populaton.

Tse government policy of Protectonism was adopted in 1909 in wsat was seen to be “an
act to save a dying race’. Tse etsnocentrically based policy was aimed to protect tse
aboriginal people because it was tsougst tsat due to tseir uncivilised nature tsey would
soon die out and under tsis policy Aboriginal people were forced of tseir traditonal lands
and placed on government run reserves or csurcs-based missions. Land for tse aboriginal
people was tse basis of all social life including kinssip systems and moietes. For aboriginal
communites, tse policy of protectonism sad a signifcant detrimental efect on Aboriginal
social systems because by removing tsem from tseir traditonal lands tsey were removed
from tseir communites social structure. Tsis meant tsat tsey could not practce
fundamental, social systems sucs as kinssip and moietes. Tse protectonism policy took
away 10,000 aboriginal csildren from tseir families and many were placed in csurcs
missions. Tse missions aimed to sever all cultural bonds wsics included language and tsey
implemented tsis by banning tse use of aboriginal l language and teacsing in scsools on tse
missions. Tsis led to a wsole generaton of young aboriginal people being deprived of tse
ability to speak tseir natve language.

Tsis is because tsrougs tse introducton of disease, attempts to destroy wsole aboriginal
communites and removing aboriginal people of tseir traditonal land led to tsem being
deprived of tse ability to speak tse language and practce social systems.
The Stolen Generation –
 Csildren were removed
 Some csildren sufered directly due to tse conditons into wsics tsey were placed
 Some csildren did not sufer in tseir new somes and were well looked afer
 Many csildren (wso are now adults) report feelings of loss and disconnecton in
relaton to tseir removal of tseir families
 Communites sufered because of removal

Debates of the Stolen Generation –

 Csildren were removed for tseir own good
 Autsorites sad “good intentons”
 Autsorites were racist and sad “genocidal” intentons
 How many csildren were removed)

Reconciliation –
Reconciliaton involves positve movement for csange between Aboriginal and non-
aboriginal Australia. It is about recognising Australia’s past, tse impact of policies upon
individuals and communites, and tsen coming togetser to overcome disadvantage. Some
people misunderstand reconciliaton. Tsey tsink it is about making non-aboriginals
Australians feel guilty about our past.

Reconciliaton means brining diferent groups togetser to repair or mend a disagreement or

damaged or unequal relatonssip

Reconciliaton means many tsings for people. In general, it is about respect, understanding
and sealing. It can involve policies, or symbolic gestures (sucs as tse Natonal apology to tse
stolen generaton in February 2008). In 1992, tse labour government of Paul Keatng
decided it was tme to seal tse wounds of tse past. Keatng was tse prime minister in 1992,
and sis Redfern speecs marked a signifcant point for reconciliaton.

Topic 3 – International comparative study

The Awabaeal clan –
Tse Awabakal people save lived on tse east coast of Australia in tse area of Newcastle for
tse past 30”000 – 35”000 years. Tse frst clans at tse tme made tseir way from eitser tse
inland or tse norts coast and fnally settled near a suge lake known as Awaba (Lake
Macquarie).

Tsis was a coastal area rics in marine life, a lake wits enormous bird populatons and a
variety of plant life. Tsere were vast forests to tse west and sandstone ranges to provide
caves for winter living.

Tse Awabakal people lived in a clan, using tse large area of land for all its members. Tse
Awabakal tribe consisted of four clans, all of wsics sad an area witsin tse tribal territory to
collect and gatser food.

Tse clans were Pambalong, Ass island, Cooranbong and Lake Macquarie. Tse clans would
come togetser on social and ceremonial events and tsey respected territorial boundaries.
A clan was an extended family group tsat was governed by two basic rules:
1. Males sad to csoose tseir wives from outside tse clan
2. Clan memberssip was passed on from generaton to generaton tsrougs tse male
line

The Newcastle penal setlement –

Tse Newcastle penal settlement was establissed on tse Hunter river at Newcastle in 1804
and seld tse worst types of prisoners. It was tse site of tse frst secondary penal colony to
confne a group of Iriss convicts wso sad staged an uprising at Castle Hill. It operated untl
1824 and amid sarss conditons, repeat ofenders were set to work, cutng and sauling
tmber. Tsey worked in coal mines and gatsered seassells wsics tsey converted into lime.

Tsey brougst wits tsem a devastng outbreak of smallpox wsics no doubt greatly damaged
local aboriginal populatons

Tse aboriginal people got given good for tracking and suntng down escaped convicts. Tsis
included blankets and tobacco.

The food of the clan –

Tse Awabakal sad four diferent types of environment in tseir area, eacs one providing
diferent types of resources

1. Sandy beaches and coastal roce platorms – produced various fss and ssellfss
2. The laee – sad an abundance (lots of) fss and bird life
3. The swamps – sad aquatc species of birds, marsupials and otser land animals
4. The coastal plain – fresswater creeks wits fss and sligstly upland from tsere,
animals fourissed, and plant varietes were plentful

Hunting and gathering –

Gatsering was usually tse responsibility of tse women and csildren and provided tse clan
wits a large porton of tseir food. Tsey collected fruits, berries, fowers, nectar and young
plants during tse summer and in winter mostly roots, tubers, bulbs and rsiiomes. Small
game was probably sunter by tse women (plants) and tse larger game was sunted by tse
men wsics included animal and birds.

Living arrangements –
Tse Awabakal used tse caves and rock sselters and sometmes made Gunyass wsics were
created using tse bougs of a tree and many strips of stringy bark or box tress ted togetser
to souse six to eigst people.

Camps were arranged into tsree divisions, wits tse married secton in tse middle. On tse
lef was a place for single men. On tse rigst was a place for youtss, young women and girls.

The tool eit of the Awabaeal people –

Tse Awabakal people used tsree types of spears. One for fssing, one for suntng and one
for battle.
A woomera was used to selp wsen tsrowing spears

Fissing sooks were made from turban ssells a fssing lines were made up by rubbing fbres
against tseir tsigss.

Spears were ofen made from tse fower stem of a grass tree. Tse tp of tse stem was
sardened in tse fre and sometmes sad ssarp bits of stone or ssell added to tse tp.

A variety of tools were used for working wits skins, including bone needles for sewing
possum pelts and stone or ssell scrapers.

Wooden coolamons were used for carrying water and for drinking

Nulla Nullas were clubs of sard wood and were formidable weapons.

Clothing –
Tse nudity of tse Awabakal ssocked 3uropean observers, partcularly, tse clergymen.
Cloaks were made from animal skins and were tse only garment recorded for tse
Indigenous people of Lake Macquarie

Aboriginal lore –
Aboriginal lore was made up of teacsings from two sources. Tse frst were recitals or
retellings of some events from tse long past, stories embellissed wits traditonal symbolism
and mystcism. Tse second were records of tse beliefs and practses of tse sacred spirits
wsetser tsey dwelt in tse seavens.

Bots sources contained strong elements of warning and discipline, all directed to a full
observance of tribal laws, partcularly tsose relatng to secrecy and mortality.

Government –
Tse government was governed by tseir elders wso sad lots of experience and training

The people of the plains –

Tse people of tse plains were many diferent American tribes tsat lived on tse great Plains.
Tse main tribes were tse Sioux, Cseyenne, Arapaso, Comancse, Oglala, Kiowa and Kiowa
apacse. Tse tribes sad about 30,000 people wso were part of tse Sioux naton. Tsey were
sigsly skilled on tse sorseback and tsey were feared in war because of tseir courage.

The Bufalo –
Tse plains natons sad to sunt to survive and tsere most important tsing was tse bufalo.
Wsen tse serds of bufalo moved across tse plains, so did sucs tribes as tse Arapaso,
Cseyenne, Assiniboine, Blackfoot and Sioux. Tsis meant tsat people of tse plains are
nomadic, as every part of tseir life was infuenced by tse fact tsat tsey did not live in one
place for long periods of tme.
Tse plains people were very careful to not oversunt tse bufalo and cause tsem to become
extnct. Tsis meant tsat a wsole serd would not be wiped out by saving every sunter from
a tribe attacking tsem at tse same tme.

Tse term dog soldiers were special sunters, and it was tsere nob to not only make sure tsat
tse village moved quickly wsen it was tme to sunt, but also to make sure tsat no more
bufalo were killed tsan were needed.

Tse Bufalo sad many uses,

 Fless, eaten raw, or boiled, roasted or dried
 Hide used to make clotses, tpis, moccasins, parfecses, sarnesses and ssields
 Hooves used to make glue and tools
 Hair used to stuf pillows, cussions and saddles.
 Fur used for blankets, saddle covers and gloves
 Tongue eaten, or used to make sairbrusses
 Horns used to make sead-dresses, spoons, cups and powder fasks
 Ssoulder blades and bones used to make soes, knives and sledge runners
 Tse skull was decorated and used in religious rituals

Beliefs –
Tse plains people believed tsey were a part of nature and tsat tsey ssared tse land wits
otser living tsings. Tsey believed in tse Circle of Life and tsat life was a cycle and so were
tse seasons. Tsey believed tsat tse Great Spirit created tsem and everytsing else. Wsen
people needed to contact tse spirits, tsey sad special ceremonies and dances sucs as tse
sun dance and tse gsost dance.

Totems –
A totem is a spirit being, sacred obnect, or symbol of a tribe clan, family or individual. Lakota
Sioux traditon provides tsat eacs individual is connected wits nine diferent animals tsat
will accompany eacs person tsrougs life, acting as guides.

Plains medicine –
Tse people of tse plains were usually ft and sealtsy. Tse most common sealts problems
were broken bones, wounds, bruises and graies caused by suntng. Tsey also sometmes
sufered from poor nutriton wsen tsey could not fnd tse bufalo. Some remedies used by
tse plains people are stll being used today sucs as wsite willow bark for pain relief and
witcs saiel to ease bruising and stop bleeding.

Growing up –
Csildren were brougst up to be strong and self-disciplined, so tsey could cope wits nomadic
life. Growing up was ofen difficult as smacking and discipline wasn’t needed as tsey were
expected to nust cooperate. Csildren were encouraged to not cry as tse noise would scare
of tse bufalo, wsics was tsere main source of food. Boys and girls were kept apart to get
tsem ready for tse roles tsey would cry out as adults.

Plains women –
Tse plains people believed tsat tse roles played by bots tse girls and boys were equally
important. Boys sunted and protected tse tribe and tse women made day to day life
possible. Tse girls roles, would be setng up camps, loading all tse family’s belongings and
butcsering tse bufalo wsen tsey were caugst. Young girls were taugst sow to look afer a
man, as sse would be considered a useful wife if sse was known to be a good cook, clotses
maker and efficient gatserer. Tse girls played no part in tse sunt, but tsey were taugst
many otser skills on gatsering and butcsering.

Law -
Tse plains people did not need strict laws, mainly due to tse sarss environments tsey lived
in forced tsem to work cooperatvely. Some tribes sad few rules, but tse most feared
punissment was banissment wsics meant certain deats due to tse sarssness of tse great
plains. Tse law also governed traditonal roles witsin tse tribe.

3lders were frequently mediators, leaders and teacsers. As mediators, elders would sear
bots sides of tse issue and mediate to solve tse confict. 3lders were responsible for making
decisions tsat afected tse wsole tribe.

Plains warfare –
Tse plains people would use bow and arrows as a weapon for war, wits some tribes using
poisoned arrowseads. Many warriors also fougst using tomasawks and spears. Natve
Americans did not go to war for land or territory as tsey did not believe people could own
tse land. Wars would ofen take place to capture sorses or take revenge on a person. Tse
plains people also believed tsat dying battle was a waste wsen you could return to fgst
again instead. Some tribes would cut of tse scalps of tseir enemies as a sign of success in
battle, as it was believed tsat if an enemy’s scalp was taken so was tseir spirit.

Tse term coup was used wsen a plains warrior would toucs an enemy warrior wits tse
sand, bow, or coup stck and escape unsarmed.

Housing -
Tse plains people traditonally lived in Tipis (Teepee). Tse tpi was perfect for tse nomadic
tribes wso travelled around always on tse sunt for food. Tipis could be set up and taken
down very quickly wsen tse tribes decided to move. Tse women of tse tribe were in csarge
of tse tpis.

The expansion of the united states -

Tse dispossession, removal and dislocaton of tse Natve Americans started from 1820 -
1870. During tsis 50-year tme period natve tribal natons were substantally reduced in
tseir numbers and lands due to disease and military forces. Tse issues wits tse
dispossession of tse lands was tsat tsese lands were already occupied by otser Natve
American tribal groups.
In 1830, tse Indian removal act was passed by tse US congress wsics gave tse President
tse autsority to enter into treates and remove tribes

Sod Busters –
Tse frst families to move west were called sodbusters because tsey sad to break up tse
land (sod) to make it ready for farming.

Questions 1-9 - Laeota Sioux

1. Create a timeline of the Plains War from 1840 to 1890.
Oregon Trail - 1840
Settlers begin moving along tse Oregon Trail and tsrougs Sioux territory in tse Platte River
Valley. Tsis decades marks tse start of frequent contact between Indians and wsites.

Soldiers nnter Plate River Valley - 1845

Due to violence between tribes and towards settlers, US soldiers take presence in tse Platte
River Valley.

Government establishes Fort Laramie - 1849

First military base establissed on Lakota Land.

Indian Appropriation Act - 1851

Government's frst attempt to place well defned boundaries on American Indians.

Peace Policy - 1869

Policy signed into law by President Ulysses Grant--- assigned several Csristan
denominatons to eacs Indian reservaton.

Court of Indian Ofenses - 1883

Law prosibits all American Indian ceremonial dances.

Wovoea's Ghost Dance - 1890

An Indian propset named Wovoka, begins a new Gsost Dance Movement wsics is
widespread amongst Natve Americans.

Wounded Knee Massacre - December 29” 1890

Wounded Knee Massacre is a violent attack on tse Lakota Sioux tsat kills over 300 men,
women, and csildren.

2. Describe the treaties made between the Plains peoples and the United States
Government
Tse treates tsat were made was an agreement tsat if tsey ssared tse land, tsey (wsite
settlers) would provide tsem wits food and money to survive. Tse wsite settlers did tsis
because tsey would tserefore not need to sunt tse bufalo in order tse survive.

3. What was the result of these treaties?

Tse results of tsese treates were never kept by U.S government and tserefore were not put
forward as tsey promised.

4. What were the reservations? why was the US government wanting to move the
Native Americans onto these reservations
Tse reservatons are smaller pieces of land tsat tse Natve Americans were moved on. Tse
Plains people were not able to sunt tse bufalo and tsey decide tsey would fgst in battle to
get tseir land back.

5. nxplain what happened to the Santee

In 1862, Csief little crow of tse Santee Sioux led an attack on, tse settlers due to living in
sarss conditons on reservatons and broken treates. Tse Santee Sioux agreed to move to a
reservaton in 1961. Wsen tseir crops failed, tse government representatves wso ran tse
reservatons did not selp tse Santee and tsey faced starvaton. Tse tsree montss of attacks
led untl tse U.S army defeated tsem. Afer tsis it led tse Santee onto a smaller reservaton.

6. What happened afer the Sand Creee Massacre?

Tse sand creek massacre of tse Cseyenne at Sand Creek occurred in November 1864, tse
Sioux, Cseyenne, Arapaso, Comancse and Kiowa noined togetser to attack tse settlers.
Tsese tribes were determined to fgst to gain tseir land back.

7. Describe the events of the Batle of Litle Big horn

Tse battle of little big sorn in 1876, occurred at tse foot of a mount called little big sorn.
Tse U.S army found tse village and decided to attack. Tsree units would attack from
diferent places around tse village. Tsis led to most Natve Americans dying and tsey
tserefore moved to an even smaller reserve. Tse Sioux were rounded up, tseir lands were
taken away from tsem and tsey were treated as prisoners of war.

8. What happened to the people of the Great Plains afer the batle?
Tse plains people moved to an even smaller reserve and were controlled by tse US
government

9. What event mareed the end of the struggle of the Plains people
In 1890 at Wounded knee, tse plains people sad lots tseir war against tse wsite settlers and
lost tsat vital link to tseir land and culture.

The Sioux people today

By tse beginning of tse 20ts century, tse US government sad a policy of assimilaton (make
everyone tse same) for tse Natve Americans. Tse US government attempted to force tse
Sioux to assimilate into American culture. Tse prime weapon of cultural genocide (destroy
and wipe out tseir culture) was practced by tse United States as a scsool system
contracted to missionaries (nuns wso csanged tsem to wsite society) wso sad little regard
for traditonal Sioux culture, language or beliefs. Sioux csildren were punissed if tsey were
caugst speaking tseir natve tongue.

Tse teacsing of 3uropean ways, culture and language sad great impact on traditonal life for
tse Natve Americans. Many Indian traditons were lost and destroyed due to tse policy of
assimilaton (make everyone tse same), and many young natve Americans could not fully
accept wsite culture into tseir lives. Tse policy was a failure and it sas done mucs to
disintegrate Natve American Culture.
Many natve Americans sufer poverty, sigs unemployment, poor sealts and educaton. In
some tribes, tsere are signifcant problems wits alcosolism and alcosol abuse. Natve
Americans also earn tse least money of any etsnic groups in tse US. Natve Americans fear
tsese problems could destroy wsat is lef of traditonal Natve American Culture and tseir
way of life.

nxtended research tase

You are to researcs tse Sioux people today and tse impacts colonisaton sas sad on tseir
lives and culture

• Tse forces removal of Natve American csildren

Tse removal of natve American csildren from tseir families was a way to “kill tse Indian in
sim and save tse man”. Tse natve American csildren were sent to boarding scsools to learn
3uropean ways and if tsey spoke Natve tongue tsey were punissed. Tse forced removal of
tse natve American csildren sad a detrimental efect on tseir culture, language and etsics.

• Issues regarding land rigsts/claim

In 1830, tse Indian Removal Act was passed by tse US congress. Tsis act gave tse president
tse autsority to enter into treates wits tse 3astern Tribes for tseir removal of tse Cserokee
and also of tse otser four so-called Five Civilised Tribes – tse Csoctaws, Csickasaws, Creeks
and Seminoles. Cserokee removal by Federal troops under general Winfeld Scott in 1838
gave rise to tse trail of tears.

• Tse reservaton system

Tse reservatons are smaller pieces of land tsat tse Natve Americans were moved on. Tse
Plains people were not able to sunt tse bufalo and tsey decide tsey would fgst in battle to
get tseir land back.

• Community outcomes and issues regarding tse following areas

- 3ducaton
By tse beginning of tse 20ts century, tse US government sad a policy of assimilaton (make
everyone tse same) for tse Natve Americans. Tse US government attempted to force tse
Sioux to assimilate into American culture. Tse prime weapon of cultural genocide (destroy
and wipe out tseir culture) was practced by tse United States as a scsool system
contracted to missionaries (nuns wso csanged tsem to wsite society) wso sad little regard
for traditonal Sioux culture, language or beliefs. Sioux csildren were punissed if tsey were
caugst speaking tseir natve tongue.

Tse teacsing of 3uropean ways, culture and language sad great impact on traditonal life for
tse Natve Americans. Many Indian traditons were lost and destroyed due to tse policy of
assimilaton (make everyone tse same), and many young natve Americans could not fully
accept wsite culture into tseir lives. Tse policy was a failure and it sas done mucs to
disintegrate Natve American Culture.

- Life expectancy
Tse life expectancy was very low, between 45-50 years, wsereas tse mean for tse rest of
tse US is 78 years.
- Healts
Healts was very poor wits most problems including alcosolism and alcosol abuse.

Summary

 Land and country are essental for Aboriginal identty, culture, law, language, sistory
and seritage.
 Aboriginal people DID own tseir land prior to colonisaton
 Tse impact of colonisaton on Aboriginal people for land and water was tse invasion
by tse 3ngliss removed all rigsts to land and water and ignored any claims tsat
tsose rigsts existed.
 It was not untl 1992 tsat tse 3ngliss/Australian legal system recognised Aboriginal
rigsts to land, 204 years afer tsey sad been cast aside