Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

A methodological approach for structural health monitoring of

mass-timber buildings under construction
Esther J. Baas a,b, Mariapaola Riggio a,⇑, André R. Barbosa b
a
Oregon State University, Department of Wood Science and Engineering, Corvallis, OR, United States
b
Oregon State University, School of Civil and Construction Engineering, Corvallis, OR, United States

h i g h l i g h t s

A methodological approach to managing monitoring data of mass timber buildings is proposed.

The approach is validated using ten months of hygrothermal and static monitoring data.

Data describe moisture performance of roof panels, and tension loss in post-tensioned shear walls.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Structural health monitoring (SHM) is a method used to evaluate the performance of new structural sys-
Received 5 May 2020 tems and critical infrastructure. With mass-timber building construction on the rise, SHM programs have
Received in revised form 18 September emerged to document hygrothermal, static, and dynamic behavior of these structures. To most efficiently
2020
document behavior and provide recommendations to industry, it is key that the research community
Accepted 28 September 2020
Available online xxxx
work collaboratively to create consistent data by using standardized approaches. This paper presents a
methodological approach for monitoring mass-timber buildings during construction to address this need.
The approach was validated over ten months with a mass-timber building under construction at Oregon
Keywords:
Big data
State University.
Cross-laminated timber Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Construction monitoring
Mass plywood panel
Mass-timber
Self-centering rocking wall
Structural health monitoring

1. Introduction correlate mechanical behavior with environmental factors, such as

Structural health monitoring (SHM) is defined as a process of
implementing a damage identification strategy for manufactured
products or civil structures [1]. Structural health monitoring incor-
porates three major components: (1) a sensor network installed on
a structure, (2) a data processing system including data acquisition,
transmission, and storage, and (3) an evaluation system such as
algorithms for damage detection [2]. Data generated from SHM
projects are often reused in a variety of ways, including design val-
idation of new systems [3], numerical model validation [4], or
service-life management [5]. Commonly used sensors for SHM
are accelerometers, fiber-optic sensors, as well as strain or dis-
placement sensors such as strain gauges or linear variable differen-
tial transformers (LVDTs) [6]. Often, additional sensors are used to
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mariapaola.riggio@oregonstate.edu (M. Riggio).
temperature (TMP) and relative humidity (RH) [6–13]. Despite
years of research in SHM, there are challenges in the design, imple-
mentation, and maintenance of monitoring programs. These
include, but are not limited to, the number, locations, and types
of sensors necessary to address phenomena of interest, reliability
of damage detection algorithms, ease of comparison among pro-
jects due to variabilities, limitations of signal processing, long-
term maintenance of sensor infrastructure, and data access and
efficient utilization of them [1,2,14]. In particular, the state-of-
the-art regarding monitoring timber structures remains ill-
defined considering no standard guidelines have been developed,
and many non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques used for eval-
uating timber structures cannot be applied to long-term monitor-
ing [6,15]. Nonetheless, SHM programs have recently emerged in
mass-timber buildings to begin to document their behavior
[5,16,17].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121153
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: E.J. Baas, M. Riggio and André R. Barbosa, A methodological approach for structural health monitoring of mass-timber buildings
under construction, Construction and Building Materials, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121153
E.J. Baas, M. Riggio and André R. Barbosa
Initial testing of some mass-timber products such as cross-
laminated timber (CLT) began just a quarter of a century ago. Being
this novel, SHM programs for mass-timber buildings have chal-
lenges related to lack of knowledge of long-term, material-
specific behavior resulting in unknowns associated with sampling
criteria. Furthermore, although in-service monitoring data are
often a focus, historical data, such as data collected during con-
struction, have been shown to be desired by building stakeholders
to gather information about previous loading and environmental
conditions [18]. However, monitoring during construction can
add additional challenges, as information is gathered in a dynamic
and ever-changing environment.
To address the desire for construction data while considering
associated uncertainties and challenges, this study proposes a
methodological approach for collection, management, and process-
ing of data from mass-timber buildings under construction. As a
step in the approach, the data processing, visualization, and analy-
sis were implemented into a data platform, defined as a user inter-
face to upload, manage, and view data. For this reason, this study is
structured in two contributions: (1) this paper, which focuses on
conveying the methodological approach based on a review of data
sensing and processing with validation in a mass-timber building
under construction, and (2) a data in brief including raw data sets
including all construction data used for validation, and the open
source codes used to build the data platform and perform data pro-
cessing, visualization, and preliminary analysis [19].
2. Background and related work
This section focuses on the state-of-the-art of SHM programs for
mass-timber buildings and data processing techniques, while
acknowledging known concerns with data that have been identi-
fied in past work. In addition to providing a literature review, this
section summarizes findings from interviews with four researchers
with expertise in timber construction and engineering, moisture
monitoring, post-tensioned (PT) timber systems monitoring, and
timber displacement monitoring [20–23]. These interviews
included questions related to data acquisition, analysis, and algo-
rithms for damage detection.
3. Considerations for mass-timber construction and post-
tensioned timber systems
When monitoring timber structures, it is critical to consider the
effects of moisture on different performance aspects of timber sys-
tems. Because wood is hygroscopic, it is constantly absorbing and
releasing moisture from or into the surrounding air, causing timber
to swell and shrink accordingly [24,25]. For this reason, environ-
mental parameters, such as RH, TMP, and moisture content (MC)
in wood, can have significant impacts on design of connections,
construction tolerances, checking due to drying, and moisture-
induced stresses in composite wood materials [5,25–29]. Addition-
ally, prolonged exposure to moisture can lead to decay, a reduction
in strength properties, and increased deformations [29,30]. Engi-
neered wood products (EWPs), such as CLT, vary from solid sawn
timber in how they are affected by moisture as members have
alternating laminations (cross-oriented in CLT and other products),
and adhesive layers altering moisture diffusion. Thus, moisture dif-
fusion models for many EWPs are a topic of research at the time of
writing [31]. Additionally, creep behavior in timber buildings,
which is amplified by cyclic environmental loading [32], is of inter-
est as excessive creep and vertical movements can affect service-
ability and structural integrity of a building [33]. To date, there is
limited research regarding short and long-term axial and bending
2
Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx
creep of CLT walls and CLT-concrete composites floors, particularly
in-situ performance [34].
Recent advancements in performance-based earthquake engi-
neering have led to construction of post-tensioned (PT) self-
centering shear walls using EWPs in New Zealand, the United
States, and Japan. The PT self-centering lateral-force resisting sys-
tem (LFRS) works by placing unbonded steel rods in parallel with
timber walls and applying a PT force to the steel. The PT timber
LFRS allows a structure to displace in a controlled way when sub-
jected to lateral loads, but will clamp the wall back into place after-
ward, resulting in negligible residual drift. Since these LFRS are just
15 years old [35], their long-term performance is of interest, partic-
ularly regarding tension loss in the steel, which may affect re-
centering capabilities [36]. Additionally, relationships with envi-
ronmental loads and creep behavior of the walls can be quantified
as these are known to contribute to PT loss and wall performance
[37]. Furthermore, the horizontal motions of the walls can be mon-
itored to detect residual drifts after a hazardous event, such as an
earthquake.
4. Structural health monitoring of mass-timber buildings
This section describes case studies of SHM of mass-timber
buildings. Table 1 summarizes key monitoring projects available
in literature used to assist in the development of the methodolog-
ical approach. The main goals and instrumentation equipment are
listed in the table and discussed in more detail in the following sec-
tions. For more information, the reader is referred to a comprehen-
sive literature review and survey of SHM in all timber structures
[18], a review of methods for SHM of timber structures [6], a
review of methods for moisture monitoring [38], and an overview
of long-term monitoring of timber structures [39].
To monitor in-situ moisture content in wood, resistance-type
moisture meters are commonly used [38]. Resistance-type mois-
ture meters work by installing two electrode pins or screws into
a timber element, sending an electrical current between them,
reading the resistance, and correlating it with the MC of timber
with corrections for wood species and TMP [40]. Based on litera-
ture reviewed [21,38,40–43], several factors affect the quality of
data collected when using these sensors, which should be consid-
ered during analysis. Factors affecting the quality of data include,
but may not be limited to:

Electrode pins hitting wood imperfections, interior joints, or
internal checks which may cause rapid fluctuations in measure-
ments as the pin goes in and out of contact with wood, or zero
resistance values when permanently out of contact;

Imperfect calibrations of moisture meters due to inherently
simplified TMP corrections, as well as inaccurate TMP readings
affecting MC corrections;

Direct contact of sensor head or pins with moisture (rain, con-
densation, snow, etc.) in addition to potential corrosion that
may occur due to prolonged contact with moisture;

Electrical interference (from lighting, temporary power sup-
plies, etc.) causing sharp jumps in data;

Improper installation of sensors, such as: (a) sensors spaced
<30 mm apart such that electrical resistance readings are
affected by another MC meter, or (b) angle to the grain in which
electrode pins penetrate into (which are ideally perfectly per-
pendicular to the grain but may vary depending on supplier-
specific calibrations and instructions).
Thermistors and RH gauges are employed in all known mass-
timber SHM programs to assess building microclimates. In some
cases, a weather station has been installed to provide macrocli-
E.J. Baas, M. Riggio and André R. Barbosa Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 1
A sample of mass-timber SHM programs available in literature.

Project Name Location Monitoring Program Project Goals Reference

(s)
Nelson Marlborough Institute of Nelson, New Triaxial accelerometers, LVDTs, load Evaluate long-term performance of PT timber shear [16,44,45]
Technology (NMIT) Arts and Zealand cells, TMP and RH gauges walls and proprietary timber floors; seismic
Media Building monitoring
Trimble New Zealand Christchurch, Triaxial accelerometers, strain gauges, Evaluate long-term performance of PT walls and [37,46,47]
New Zealand LVDTs, TMP and RH gauges frames; seismic monitoring and warning
House of Natural Resources Zürich, Triaxial and biaxial accelerometers, Evaluate long-term performance of PT frames and [48–50]
(HoNR) Switzerland load cells, wood moisture meters, TMP hardwood reinforcement; evaluate dynamic behavior
and RH gauges
University of British Columbia Vancouver, Accelerometers, string potentiometers, Evaluate the long-term shrinkage of timber; moisture [17,41,51]
(UBC) Tallhouse British Columbia, wood moisture meters, TMP and RH management; dynamic characterization of hybrid
Canada gauges timber buildings
Wood Innovation and Design Prince George, String potentiometers, wood moisture Evaluate the long-term roof moisture performance; [52]
Centre (WIDC) British Columbia, meters, TMP and RH gauges timber shrinkage
Canadas
Limnologen Block1 Växjö, Sweden Potentiometers, TMP and RH gauges Evaluate and compare shrinkage of CLT buildings [53,54]
1
These four buildings were the subject of a multitude of tests [54], however the focus here is on the long-term monitoring component.

mate data [55]. Although TMP and RH gauges are often viewed as
reliable, a few considerations should be accounted for in the anal-
ysis [24,42,43,56,57], including:

Weather exposure of gauges and if they reflect, and are corre-
lated to, change in the microclimate;

Reliability of interpolating internal wood TMP, when a reading
is taken at the surface;

Reaction time of wood shrinkage and swelling to changes in RH
when used to estimate MC through the use of sorption
isotherms.
String potentiometers (string pots or SPs) and LVDTs have been
used for creep, shrinkage, crack, and deflection monitoring of axial
and bending timber elements [16,41,47,52,53]. In general, a few
factors concerning measurements of displacement data have been
identified, including:

Construction scheduling and application of loads;

Natural frequencies of sensor components;

Effects of environmental conditions on instrumentation;

Resolution of data capture (spatial and temporal).
Load cells (LC) have been used to evaluate the performance of
PT mass-timber elements [16,37,47,50]. Factors affecting LC data
have been identified as:

Effects of environmental fluctuations;

Creep of axially loaded timber;

Bearing of, and load distribution on, LCs.
Global and local dynamic behavior of timber structures may be
monitored by measuring building accelerations [16,47,50,51].
Most commonly, either uniaxial or triaxial accelerometers have
been used to capture lateral and/or vertical vibrations of dia-
phragms and slabs, respectively, to evaluate modal features (fre-
quency, damping, and mode shapes) under seismic, wind, and
ambient vibration conditions [16,47,51]. In one of the cases
reviewed, biaxial accelerometers were used for the structural iden-
tification of the timber system [48–50].
5. Data pre-processing and cleaning
To date, the most common method for processing MC data from
resistance-type meters is by calculation of simple moving aver-
ages, although there are inconsistencies in the time period used
for calculation [56,58]. In some cases, statistical processing has
been implemented to remove unreliable data [59].
In terms of TMP and RH, data observed in literature generally
have minimal processing and are often assumed to be accurate
within sensor specifications [16,52,53]. When multiple TMP and
RH sensors are installed, the values may be compared by averaging
data in locations of interest or throughout the building [16,50].
Based on fundamental relationships between displacements
and environmental loading, processing of displacement data
should consider effects of timber hygroexpansion and movement
with temperature fluctuations, as well as effects of temperature
on sensor components.
To clean LC data, normalized losses to the initial tensioning
force are often reported [47,55], but moving averages of tension
have also been reported [16]. Furthermore, quantified contribu-
tions of TMP and RH on loss fluctuations in tension have also been
presented [16,50]. Regarding acceleration data, Fourier transforms
are often employed for data denoising [60], although wavelet
packet analysis is becoming widely used as well [61–63]. Although
wavelet packet analysis can be used as a standardized signal pro-
cessing technique for all sensor data, it has not yet been used for
other data generated from SHM of mass-timber buildings, such
as MC data, known to the authors.
6. Materials and methods
From knowledge of previous work, a methodological approach
for implementing an SHM program for mass-timber buildings dur-
ing construction was conceptualized, described in Fig. 1. The
approach is broad and may be generalized to other mass-timber
constructions, but care should be taken to add or remove steps
depending on the specific project needs through scrutinization
from the monitoring team. For example, if the mass-timber struc-
ture is exposed to outdoor weather conditions, an explicit addi-
tional step may be necessary to protect sensors from inevitable
moisture exposure during construction.
The first step in the approach, the design of the SHM infrastruc-
ture, was discussed in detail in [55]. In general, this step required:

A clear definition of project objectives;

An understanding of required measurands and sampling criteria
to meet objectives;

Scaling of the monitoring program based on budget, architec-
tural desires, and data management capabilities;

Creation of visuals and documentation communicating the
design to project stakeholders;

3
E.J. Baas, M. Riggio and André R. Barbosa
Fig. 1. Overview of methodology for structural health monitoring developed in this study.

Design and communication of phasing to install sensors within
the construction schedule to gather data of interest;

Selection of sensors based on state-of-the-art, availability, reli-
ability, and limitations;

The development of a long-term plan for SHM infrastructure,
data management, and data sharing.
The second step, sensor initiation, refers to the installation and
commissioning of sensors. The approach required:

Practice installations and controls of sensor equipment;

Training for installing personnel;

Inspection of installations by experienced users of the
technology;

Incorporation of mitigation strategies for known factors affect-
ing data;

Validation of sensor data to the extent reasonable, such as tak-
ing handheld moisture readings at MC monitoring locations.
The subsequent steps, data acquisition, data transmission to
supplier software, data storage, and data transmission to a virtual
central server, may depend on the sensor technology and scope of
the SHM project. The objective of these steps was to gather data in
one central location for ease of analysis and control by the moni-
toring team. This central storage area is required to be organized
in a logical and standardized manner, for example in groups of
monitoring locations of interest. Data cleaning, correlation investi-
gation, visualization, and analysis are the next steps, described in
the following sections.
4
Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx
Data processing: cleaning, correlation investigation, visualiza-
tion, and analysis
As a first step in data processing, raw measurements of either
resistance or voltage were converted to engineering units, if neces-
sary [56]. Afterwards, corrections were included in the algorithms
depending on the sensors. For example, wood MC data were cor-
rected for internal wood TMP and wood species [40].
Next, known erroneous data were removed from the data set,
namely data outside the sensor measuring ranges. However, pro-
viding the option to view these data may be useful to investigate
additional information, and thus was included in the data process-
ing and visualization. For example, it is generally accepted that
resistance-type meters become inaccurate above the fiber satura-
tion point (FSP) due to free water in the wood cell affecting resis-
tance readings [38,40]. Although data outside this range cannot be
assumed accurate, it may be important to know if the MC is above
the FSP (approximately 22–32% MC) due to risk of decay [30].
Furthermore, the removal of environmental effects on sensor
components was a key concern for construction monitoring, as
microclimates were changing rapidly with building exposure, com-
missioning of heating and air conditioning, and other factors. For
displacement monitoring, corrections for environmental effects
on steel components of the string potentiometer were calculated
assuming a linear relationship between change in temperature
and displacement of the string potentiometer wire:
Dl ¼ lo aT DT ð3-1Þ
where Dl is the estimated change in length of the steel wire, lo is the
initial length of the steel wire, aT is the thermal expansion coeffi-
E.J. Baas, M. Riggio and André R. Barbosa
cient of steel, assumed to be 12x106 =°C, and DT is the measured
change in temperature for the time period of interest.
After environmental corrections, statistical processing was used
for cleaning and denoising all data sets. Based on the state-of-the-
art processing methods for multiple data types, a simple moving
average was calculated as:
1Xn1
SMA ¼ xi ð3-2Þ
n i¼0
where n is the number of periods of interest, and x is a previous data
point ranging between 0 and n  1. The period in this study was
12 h (n ¼ 12Þ. All data were shifted to start at the same date and
time to account for the effect of daily climate fluctuations and allow
for ease of comparison between data sets. Sensitivity tests on peri-
ods were conducted and found to have minimal impact on results,
with a change in MC of <0.5% between windows of 2–100 h.
Denoising data using wavelet packet analysis was also
employed as an alternative method of analysis in attempt to stan-
dardize processing among sensors and apply statistics-based filter-
ing. To do so, the order of decomposition was first determined with
a standardized coding function. Next, the data signal was decom-
posed using the discrete wavelet transform for all orders of Daube-
chies and Symlet mother wavelets [63,64], and a multi-level
threshold to filter coefficients from decomposition was used [65].
P
The signal was then reconstructed, and the l -Norm cost function
was calculated to fit the data. The data platform looped through
all possibilities of applicable wavelets to select the optimal mother
wavelet automatically based on cost function results.
After denoising with statistical processing, data were prelimi-
narily analyzed to promote further investigation and isolate phe-
nomena of interest. For example, if the research objectives were
to gather data on total displacement over a time period, the total
displacement measurement was adjusted to account for free
hygro- and thermal-expansion to isolate the phenomena of inter-
est. This was achieved by estimating the magnitude of these sec-
ondary components based on the fundamental relationships
between structural mechanics and analysis of displacement with
environmental loading. Using the same linear relationship
between change in TMP and change in displacement described in
Eq. (3–1), the estimated contributions of TMP fluctuations on a
timber panel (and PT rods in self-centering shear walls, if applica-
ble) could be estimated. The longitudinal thermal expansion coef-
ficient of CLT was estimated to be 6  106 /°C, consistent with
values used in other studies [66]. For the measurement of horizon-
tal displacement of the panels, the tangential thermal expansion
coefficient was calculated per equation 4-20b in the Wood Hand-
book [24] and converted to °C by multiplying by 1.8, resulting in
the equation:
ah ¼ 1:8ð18Go þ 10:2Þ106 F 1 ð3-3Þ
where Go is the specific gravity of wood, assumed to be 0.50 for
Douglas-fir [29]. This estimated a tangential thermal expansion
coefficient, ah , to be approximately 34:6  106 =°C. Furthermore,
the same linear relationship was used to estimate the length change
attributed to MC fluctuations of the CLT panel:
DlMC ¼ au lo DMC ð3-4Þ
where au is the dilation coefficient with units per decimal change of
moisture content, and DMC is the change in MC. The parallel to
grain dilation coefficient of the panel, used to isolate the hygro-
expansion effects from the vertical displacement measurements,
was 0.00625 per decimal change of moisture content, assumed to
be a conservative estimate for CLT from values for laminated veneer
lumber (LVL) [37] as au for CLT was still under investigation at the
5
Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx
time of writing this document [67,68]. This was assumed to be con-
servative because the tangential expansion, the greatest direction of
expansion based on wood’s physical properties, of Douglas-fir is
2.4x less than this value [24]. When comparing the tangential dila-
tion coefficient to the one used in this study, the estimated error
was approximately 3.4–6.8% of tension fluctuation. The dilation
coefficient of the CLT panels for horizontal displacement measure-
ments was estimated to be 0.00165 per decimal moisture content,
the value for perpendicular to grain LVL [37].
Furthermore, in PT systems, the force in the PT steel changes
due to daily fluctuations, relaxation, and tension losses over time.
Therefore, if creep of a PT timber panel was a phenomenon of inter-
est, the influence on the measurement associated with this chang-
ing force in the PT rod was estimated using the relationship
between stress and strain:
DlPT ¼ ðlo DF Þ=AE ð3-5Þ
where DF is the change in force experienced in the steel rod, A is the
cross-sectional area of the timber panel, and E is the modulus of
elasticity of timber. Thus, the adjustment for displacement data of
a vertically oriented sensor on a PT shear wall aimed at investigat-
ing creep becomes:
Dl ¼ lmeasured þ DlTMP þ DlMC þ DlPT ð3-6Þ
where lmeasured is the measured relative displacement from the sen-
sor, DlTMP is the calculated change in length of timber due to
changes in TMP, DlMC is the calculated change in length of timber
due to changes in MC, and DlPT is the error estimation associated
with the changing PT force. If the creep or displacement of timber
slabs is of interest, these values may need to consider the thermal
and moisture expansion of wood in the radial direction, but this is
outside the scope of this study.
Similarly, adjustments for environmental effects on data from
LCs can be calculated with the stress–strain relationship. By sim-
plification, the change in force due to changes in TMP of PT steel
becomes:
DF TMP ¼ aT AEDT ð3-7Þ
where A is the cross-sectional area of the steel rod, and E is the
modulus of elasticity of the steel rod. Similarly, the force fluctuation
as a result of timber movement can be estimated with Equation (3–
7) using the thermal expansion, area, and modulus of elasticity of
timber rather than steel. Additionally, the force changes due to
moisture-induced movement in the wood can be calculated as:
DF MC ¼ au AEDMC ð3-8Þ
Therefore, to adjust the tension data, the final equation
becomes:
F ¼ F measured þ DF TMP wood þ DF TMP steel þ DF MC ð3-9Þ
where F measured refers to the raw data produced by the sensor,
DF TMP wood is the change in force attributed to TMP change of the
timber panel, and DF TMP steel is the change in force attributed to
TMP change of the steel PT rod. These methodologies may be sensi-
tive to area calculations, accurate TMP and MC readings, and mate-
rial properties. For this reason, the daily differences in the data sets
were calculated and compared with the corrected values to ensure
that magnitudes of adjustments reflected actual fluctuations in the
sensors.
Further analysis included correlation identification through dif-
ferencing, in which the differences between a period for various
sensors were calculated and compared to one another. In this
study, a 12-hour period between 08:00 and 20:00 was used. The
difference was calculated as:
Dx ¼ xnþ1  xn ð3-10Þ
E.J. Baas, M. Riggio and André R. Barbosa
where Dx is the difference between data point values, n is the period
of interest between data points, and x is a data point corresponding
to time periods n þ 1 and n per subscript. Once the differences were
determined, overlay plots were shown as visual results of positive
and negative correlations. Then, Pearson’s correlation coefficients
to estimate the quantitative linear correlation between data sets
were calculated for data sets with the following equation:
P P P
nð xyÞ  ð xÞð yÞ
r ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
h P
P ih P P i
n x 2  ð xÞ 2 n y 2  ð y Þ 2
where r is the correlation coefficient, n is the period of interest, x is a
data point in one data set of interest, and y is a data point in the
other data set of interest at the same time and date of data point x.
7. Results and discussion
This section discusses the implementation of the proposed
methodology and data platform into a mass-timber building under
construction and results that have been determined from the first
ten months of implementation.
8. The structure and sensor network of interest
In the Pacific Northwest, a mass-timber building under con-
struction on the Oregon State University (OSU) campus was instru-
mented with a network of sensors per the objective to provide a
comprehensive data set to document mass-timber building
hygrothermal and static performance both during construction
and in-service, as well as dynamic performance in-service. The
building, known as the George W. Peavy Forest Science Complex,
or ‘‘Peavy Hall”, showcases a wide range of novel mass-timber
products and construction techniques (Fig. 2). These include CLT-
concrete composite floors, a Mass Plywood Panel (MPP) roof sys-
tem, glulam beams and columns to resist gravity loads, and PT
CLT self-centering shear walls to resist lateral loads. All interior
Fig. 2. Photos of Peavy Hall during construction. Upper Left: North end facing east. Upper Right: West end facing northeast. Bottom Left: Southeast end facing north. Bottom
Right: 3D rendering of building, model courtesy of Structurlam (all other photos courtesy of Evan Schmidt).
Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx
structural elements are untreated Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga men-
ziesii) manufactured in Oregon, USA.
During construction, the building was monitored with a local
weather station capturing outdoor macroclimate, which included
TMP, RH, daily rain, as well as wind speeds and directions. The
indoor climate was monitored with readings from 23 TMP and
19 RH gauges either integrated in data acquisition units (DAQs)
or supplemental gauges embedded in the wood or on the wood
ð3-11Þ surface. The gauges were placed in areas where microclimates
changed dramatically within a small area (e.g. near a curtain wall
with plenty of sunlight), where structural behavior was of interest
for correlation, and where MC was monitored for use as a TMP cor-
rection. Wood moisture content was monitored with 111
resistance-type moisture meters in locations where wetting was
of concern or where structural behavior was monitored. It was a
goal to maintain redundancy in sampling criteria, for example
the MC sensors were placed in similar relative locations on each
monitored shear wall, for ease of comparison as well as reliability
if some sensors malfunctioned. Data for all environmental and
moisture sensors were collected once per hour during
construction.
Vertical and horizontal movements of an axially loaded PT CLT
self-centering shear wall were monitored with ten (10) SPs to
investigate deformations during construction. These data were col-
lected once per hour. Under building operation conditions, once
construction is complete, additional SPs will be installed (24 in
total), some of which are only intended to provide information
on post-event deformations following seismic activity or a large
wind storm.
Twenty-eight LCs were installed on seven PT shear walls (each
with four unbonded PT steel rods) scattered throughout the build-
ing to monitor tension loss starting from the time of tensioning.
Data were collected once per second for the first days following ini-
tial tensioning to capture immediate and short-term losses, but
were updated to collect ten data points per hour afterwards for
ease of management. For more information on all sensor locations
installed during construction, see Fig. 3. More sensors will be
6
E.J. Baas, M. Riggio and André R. Barbosa
installed in Peavy Hall for in-service monitoring including addi-
tional hygrothermal and indoor environmental sensors, 14 addi-
tional string potentiometers to monitor CLT shear wall and CLT-
concrete composite floor displacements, and 16 triaxial accelerom-
eters to characterize building dynamic behavior [55]. These are a
topic of future research.
9. Sensor initiation in George W. Peavy Forest Science Complex
Prior to sensor installation in the Peavy Hall, initial testing of
sensors was completed, including control and practice installations
of new sensor technologies [42]. Sensors were installed by trained
construction personnel with guidance and inspection from sensor
companies and the monitoring team to ensure proper installation.
As in the described methodology, factors affecting data were
accounted for in various ways [21,38,43]. For moisture monitoring,
these included:

Verifying MC sensor readings with a handheld moisture meter
at the time of installation;

Enclosing exterior-exposed sensors with a plastic box and plac-
ing a moisture-absorbing material inside such as a silicon pellet
packet;

Coating resistance-type sensors with silicon to avoid direct con-
tact with moisture;

Avoiding the placement of sensors near electrical equipment
where possible;

Correcting MC for TMP with reliable readings from internally
embedded TMP at the depth of interest where possible.
For displacement monitoring, the most appropriate TMP and RH
gauge locations were selected when correcting or isolating effects
on wood and steel displacement as well as sensor component
movements. Multiple gauges surrounding the area were averaged
where applicable. Furthermore, the construction schedule was
used and visually added to the data platform to understand if data
fluctuated and reacted based on changes to the building layout or
addition of loads, for example shoring removal. For LCs, care in
installation was taken to ensure sensors were bearing correctly
and evenly, although issues occurred due to space limitations hin-
dering the ability to add a plate atop the LC. The weather station
data were compared with a nearby station 12 km northeast of
the building, and these data were used if gaps in data of the local
station were experienced [69].
The aforementioned mitigation methods may assist in creating
reliable data, but the SHM design and commissioning needed to
account for the likelihood that all sensors may not perform as
Fig. 3. Location of measured parameters and observed phenomena in the George
W. Peavy Forest Science Complex.
7
Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx
intended or may malfunction over the lifetime of their intended
use. In particular, throughout construction monitoring in the Peavy
Hall, temporary power supplies, frequent changes in microcli-
mates, impacts on and constantly evolving construction schedul-
ing, among other factors created unreliable data or even loss of
data at times. Even for in-service monitoring, there are many
uncertainties that can limit the quality and continuity of data.
Therefore, it was important to create redundancy in sensors in
the case of malfunction, and identify known common issues as
well as methods and plans for mitigating these issues. Further-
more, improving data analysis methods that can accommodate
temporary missing data can assist with mitigation of issues.
10. Data acquisition, transmission, and storage in George W.
Peavy Forest Science Complex
The environmental, hygrothermal, and displacement data were
collected using eight-channel data acquisition units (DAQs) sup-
plied by the same sensor company. The DAQs read resistance mea-
surements for most sensors, and voltage for RH sensors. The DAQs
were selected because they wirelessly transmit data to hardware
and online software, allowing for independent monitoring prior
to permanent power commissioning in the building, including dur-
ing construction. The in-service transmission will use permanent
transmission devices near pockets of sensors to automatically
wirelessly transmit data to a virtual central server that will house
raw data, the supplier software and other custom analysis tools.
During construction, a temporary transmission device was
supplemented.
During construction, the LCs transmitted data through a wired
connection to a temporary single board computer, and a temporary
network was implemented to wirelessly transfer these data to the
virtual central server. For much of construction, the LCs relied on
temporary power supplies, which created gaps in data when
moved, unplugged, or due to other construction activities. In-
service monitoring will connect to permanent power and internet
for a more seamless and reliable data transmission to the same ser-
ver. The system architecture for both construction and in-service
were created by OSU as the LCs were donated and had no storage
capability prior to their use in the Peavy Hall.
The triaxial accelerometers, although not installed during con-
struction, were considered in the design of the system architecture
as part of the SHM program. Accelerometers will collect data
through a wired connection to a data recorder supplied by the sen-
sor company as these sensors have unique requirements to be
robust, reliable, and have two power sources (cable and backup
battery) in the case of strong ground motion shaking causing
power outages, for example. The data recorder reads voltage mea-
surements, and all raw data will be transmitted to the central ser-
ver for processing and analysis. The server will house supplier
software for viewing and analyzing data in addition to custom
analysis tools. For more information on sensor infrastructure, see
Fig. 4.
11. Data cleaning, correlation, and visualization in George W.
Peavy Forest Science Complex
Post-processing of the signals from the sensors in the Peavy Hall
was required to identify meaningful phenomena. In the Peavy Hall
data platform implementation, the data cleaning and analysis were
completed with the processing techniques described in Sec-
tion 3.1.1, as proposed in the methodological approach, using open
source programs that can be modified depending on current and
future user and project needs, as well as advancements in technol-
ogy. The open source programs serve as the basis of the data plat-
E.J. Baas, M. Riggio and André R. Barbosa
Fig. 4. Sensor architecture for data acquisition, transmission, and storage.
form, where users can access, visualize, process, and analyze data.
All data processing, viewing, and preliminary analysis methods
were implemented for semi-automated analysis in the Peavy Hall
case study.
Scaffolding and other analysis assistance were implemented
into the data platform to assist the expert and non-expert when
interpreting data. For example, the data platform plotted data with
condition warning limits, such as acknowledging the design ten-
sion force on plots of PT CLT shear wall tension data, or moisture
levels where they become a decay risk, and where the National
Design Specification (NDS) for Wood Construction considered a
wooden structural material to be wet [29,30]. The data platform
also incorporated various analytical equations to allow for data
comparison and validation, such as the calculated equilibrium
moisture content (EMC) plotted against MC data using the Hail-
wood and Horrobin equation if desired by the user [24]. Finally,
the data platform provided the option to overlay dates of mile-
stones from the construction schedule on plots to investigate
potential correlations. For further information, detailed description
of the data platform, and open source codes, refer to the supple-
mentary data in brief [70].
12. Service-life management outcomes
At two times during the ten months of monitoring, concerns
about the building were investigated based on sensor data from
the SHM program. The first concern was related to tension loss
in the steel rods of the PT CLT shear walls. Within 24-hours of ten-
sioning, the individual rods in the walls lost up to 14% of their ten-
sile forces, over four times more than expected for short-term
losses [71]. Since the walls may lose re-centering capabilities with
excessive loss [37], this information was shared with the building
stakeholders so a decision could be made on mitigation strategies.
Eventually, the walls were re-tensioned and monitored to ensure
losses were within more acceptable ranges. Data within the first
24-hours of re-tensioning are available in [55]. The most recent
available tension loss values and losses prior to re-tensioning are
presented in Table 2. In parenthesis is the time between re-
tensioning and days since the wall was re-tensioned as each wall
had a variable timeline.
8
Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx
Table 2
Tension loss percentage for first and second tensioning.
Load cell Wall tension loss prior to re-tension Wall tension loss since
number (Days between tension and re-tension) re-tension (Days since
re-tension)
1 9.64% (33) 7.92% (181)
2 11.38% (25) 5.53% (162)
3 5.33% (8) 10.89% (216)
4 7.06% (2) 7.88% (216)
5 7.38% (<1) 10.38% (288)
6 5.05% (<1) 6.72% (125)
7 3.10% (<1) 6.29% (125)
Another example of data use for service-life monitoring was the
identification of high moisture levels from multiple MC sensors at a
ceiling location. The data platform had compiled a specific group of
sensors in a relative location (‘‘Zone 2 - Lab Space Ceiling (Room
369)”), and multiple sensors showed data above a scaffolding line
where decay may occur if above this level for a prolonged period
[30]. This initiated a visual inspection of the ceiling where wet
spots and mold were discovered. A report of processed sensor data
and associated concerns were promptly provided to project part-
ners before installation of false ceilings and other components that
may have been damaged due to wetting. Follow-up inspection sug-
gested no concerns with roof assembly installation, but rather the
high MC was attributed to previous exposure, and mold issues
were mitigated. Since, moisture monitoring in this area has indi-
cated that the roof is drying even during rain events. Furthermore,
most sensors previously above scaffolding lines have dried below
concerning levels, with just one sensor showing MC above the
warning for decay risk, shown in Fig. 5. This figure shows MC val-
ues outside the sensor measuring range, the calculated EMC, and
scaffolding lines for conditional warnings to showcase the capabil-
ities of the data platform. Most moisture monitoring within the
building show similar trends to this location, experiencing drying
to near EMC over six to ten months of monitoring. Figures and data
for all monitoring are included in the data in brief [70].
The data platform was also used to initialize the investigation of
the correlation between structural behavior and environmental
loading conditions. During construction, the microclimates and
exposure levels were rapidly changing and correlations, if any,
were deemed unreliable until more data are obtained when the
microclimates stabilize. However, correlations between construc-
tion activities and tension loss in PT CLT shear walls were able to
be investigated. For example, the sequence of applying a PT load
to the steel rods in the PT CLT shear walls was correlated with ten-
sion loss in the PT rods by numbering the construction sequences
that were performed (1, Rod 2, Rod 3, Rod 4 corresponding to num-
ber one, etc.) and comparing them with loss. Based on the correla-
tion coefficients, a linear correlation (where coefficients are above
0.50 or below 0.50) exists between tensioning order of steel rods
and re-tension loss, as well as re-tension order and re-tension loss
(see Table 3). The clear correlations suggest that certain initial ten-
sioning sequences may contribute to less loss even after re-
tensioning, and certain re-tensioning sequences may contribute
to greater losses. Since the correlations are opposite, it suggests
that the tensioning and re-tensioning sequences are dependent
on one another, and therefore design of the sequencing should con-
sider both tension and re-tensioning to mitigate losses. From this,
it can also be understood that the optimal sequence may not be the
same for tensioning and re-tensioning.
In addition, the construction schedule was included in the plat-
form and plotted against various data sets to investigate potential
correlations of structural response to construction activities. With
this inclusion, it was possible to correlate the addition of large con-
struction loads with PT tension loss in the shear walls. Further val-
E.J. Baas, M. Riggio and André R. Barbosa Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 5. Moisture content from a ceiling location in the Peavy Hall where high moisture was detected and indicates drying over five to eight months.

Table 3
Pearson’s correlation coefficients for tension loss and rod tensioning order.

Tension order Retention order Loss in 24-hours (initial tension) Loss in 24-hours (re-tension)
Tension order 1.0 0.10 0.10 0.79
Re-tension order 0.10 1.0 0.27 0.60
Loss in 24-hours (initial tension) 0.10 0.27 1.0 0.12
Loss in 24-hours (re-tension) 0.79 0.60 0.12 1.0

idation can be performed at the time of the addition of live loads at to develop a more user-friendly application for viewing data that
the date of building move-in and when large gatherings are conceals the code-language yet still allows the user to make anal-
recorded in the building. ysis and visualization decisions while remaining open source and
allowing for changes to processing in the future.

13. Limitations of the methodology and data platform

A missing link between the use of the data platform and build-
ing management is intelligent notification of concerns or damage.
This can be initiated in the in-service monitoring data platform
with the open source program. It is important to notify of only reli-
able concerns, as visual inspections may be costly and timely if ele-
ments are not exposed. Thus, it is important to consider factors
affecting data and taking care in producing reliable data when
informing of damage.
Furthermore, it is possible the data platform may feel daunting
for those unfamiliar with the open source programs. It is desirable
9
14. Conclusions and future work
This study investigated the use of a methodological approach
and subsequent data platform for managing and analyzing data
generated from structural health monitoring (SHM) programs for
mass-timber buildings under construction. The approach was val-
idated with ten months of hygrothermal and static monitoring
data from a mass-timber building under construction at Oregon
State University. The methodology lays out the process including
SHM design, sensor installation and commissioning, transmission
and storage of data, data cleaning and processing, use of data for
E.J. Baas, M. Riggio and André R. Barbosa
damage detection, and data sharing with interested individuals.
The process focuses on creating high quality data through effective
design, considerations for factors known to affect data quality, and
validation of data. The method transmits data to an organized vir-
tual central location without compromising the capabilities of sup-
plier databases. Finally, data are transmitted to a data platform to
store, process, and analyze them with state-of-the-art methods.
The platform was used to identify tension loss and moisture con-
cerns that may have led to repairability or decay issues later. These
concerns were able to be captured quickly during construction
while remedies and inspections were less expensive than once
the building was in-service. Moreover, correlations were identified
between tensioning order of rods and re-tension loss as well as re-
tensioning order and tension loss of the post-tensioned self-
centering shear walls. The new observation of these correlations
between PT losses and load sequencing is well known in other
applications such as post-tensioning of segmented bridges, and
the results herein show that this information is extremely valuable
for comparing tension loss and rod tensioning sequence among
current and future projects, and may provide information related
to immediate losses due to sequential tensioning and short-term
tension losses with future research. Additionally, data collected
over the lifespan of the Peavy Hall will be compared to laboratory
test data investigating tension loss of PT timber shear walls for one
year to determine if it could be possible to optimize tensioning and
re-tensioning procedures to result in minimization of losses, and to
develop specific procedures and detailing related to the PT
sequencing and anchorage zone performance. Additional future
work will consist of generation of a data platform for management
during building service life, which will build on the construction
data platform and incorporate lessons learned. These updates will
consist of inclusion of accelerometer and heat flux data, incorpora-
tion of intelligent damage detection algorithms, and a more user-
friendly data platform for visualization.
Funding
This work is supported by the ‘‘Living Lab @ Peavy Hall” con-
ducted through the TallWood Design Institute with funding by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Agricultural Research Service
(USDA ARS) [Agreement No. 58–0202-5–001]; the ‘‘Design, con-
struction and maintenance of mass-timber PT shear walls: data,
models and recommendations” conducted through the TallWood
Design Institute with funding by the U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture’s Agricultural Research Service (USDA ARS) [Agreement No.
58–0204-9–165]; the National Institute of Food and Agriculture,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, McIntire Stennis project [grant
number 1009740].
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Esther J. Baas: Writing - original draft, Methodology, Data cura-
tion, Software. Mariapaola Riggio: Conceptualization, Methodol-
ogy, Project administration. André R. Barbosa:
Conceptualization, Methodology.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
10
Construction and Building Materials xxx (xxxx) xxx
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank those who helped with data
collection, hardware and software programming, and sensor verifi-
cation in the building including Brad Huffman, Sean SanRomani,
and Emily Davis. Thank you Vishay Precision Group (VPG), in par-
ticular Eric Thompson, for donating the load cells for this project.
Thank you to SMT Research Ltd. and Trimble Navigation for their
technical assistance and in-kind contributions to this project.
Thank you to Gabriele Granello, Philipp Dietsch, Thomas Tannert,
and Francesca Lanata for participating in interviews. Thank you
to Evan Schmidt, Gamal Mustapha, and Khaleed Khondoker for
valuable technical guidance. Thank you to Lech Muszynski for
feedback on writing style and methodology. The authors would
also like to thank Anderson Construction for providing access to
the building throughout sensor installation and data collection,
and the College of Forestry at Oregon State University for their con-
tinued support of this project. Thank you to the School of Civil and
Construction Engineering and the College of Forestry at Oregon
State University for supporting the graduate student on this pro-
ject. This work is supported by the ‘‘Living Lab @ Peavy Hall” con-
ducted through the TallWood Design Institute with funding by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Agricultural Research Service
(USDA ARS) [Agreement No. 58–0202-5–001]; the ‘‘Design, con-
struction and maintenance of mass-timber PT shear walls: data,
models and recommendations” conducted through the TallWood
Design Institute with funding by the U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture’s Agricultural Research Service (USDA ARS) [Agreement No.
58–0204-9–165]; the National Institute of Food and Agriculture,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, McIntire Stennis project [grant
number 1009740].
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121153.
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