Journal of Materials Processing Technology 127 (2002) 325±335

Surface integrity of hot work tool steel after high speed

milling-experimental data and empirical models
D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes*
Machining Research Group, School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
Received 9 August 2001; received in revised form 8 May 2002; accepted 8 May 2002

Abstract

High speed milling (HSM) using small diameter solid or indexable insert tungsten carbide end mills, with coatings such as TiAlN is now an
established technology for manufacturing moulds and dies in a range of hardened tool steels. The paper presents experimental results and
corresponding empirical models for workpiece surface integrity (SI) of hardened AISI H13 hot work tool steel, when HSM using solid carbide
ball nose end mills coated with TiAlN. The in¯uence of cutting speed, feed rate and workpiece angle on SI (workpiece surface roughness,
microstructure, microhardness and residual stress) was studied using a full factorial experimental design with two levels of each factor. Where
appropriate, empirical models were proposed in order to predict SI based on cutting parameter inputs. No signi®cant changes in
microstructure and microhardness below the machined surface were found. Within the range of cutting parameters tested, the operating
parameters that gave the lowest workpiece surface roughness did not result in the most compressive residual stress distribution below the
machined surface. A compromise in parameter selection is therefore necessary to achieve desired roughness and integrity.
# 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: High speed milling; Hot work tool steel; Workpiece surface integrity; Modelling

1. Introduction components directly in their hardened state. The cutting

1.1. High speed milling (HSM)
HSM is currently attracting considerable world-wide
interest from mould and die manufacturers, as a means to
directly machine components in a range of hardened tool
steels (hardness 35±62 HRC) [1]. The process has been used
for a number of decades in the aerospace industry for the
manufacture of aluminium alloy and composite structural
components such as wings [2±7]. The same industry has
more recently adopted the approach for the machining of
titanium alloy engine parts [8,9] and is considering the
technique for nickel-based superalloy components [9,10,11].
Traditionally, the production of moulds and dies generally
involves conventional machining (end milling, etc.) in the
annealed (soft) state, followed by heat treatment, electrode
manufacture, electro discharge machining (EDM) and
®nish grinding/hand polishing. On the other hand, HSM
of moulds/dies typically involves the use of ball nose
and radius end mills, 2±16 mm in diameter, to machine
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: r.c.dewes@bham.ac.uk (R.C. Dewes).
tools are generally manufactured from micrograin cemented
tungsten carbide, employing physical vapour deposited
(PVD) coatings such as TiAlN, TiCrN, TiAlCrN and super-
lattice products [12,13]. This is in contrast to tools for
milling at conventional speeds which generally use carbides
with standard grain size and more `standard' PVD coatings
such as TiN and TiCN. The HSM process results in reduced
production costs and lead times, by over 50% for certain
cavity shapes/sizes [14]. Machinability data for the HSM of
hardened steels is widely available as a result of published
information from academic and industrial sources [15±18].
This covers hot work tool steels e.g. AISI H13, mould steels
e.g. AISI P20 and cold work tool steels e.g. AISI D2. Data on
operating parameters, tool life, workpiece surface rough-
ness, dimensional accuracy, times and costs is readily
obtainable. Cutting speeds are generally in the range
200±400 m/min, feed rates 0.05±0.2 mm/tooth and axial/
radial depths of cut 0.2±2 mm. Resulting rotational speeds
and feed rates are commonly 20,000±40,000 rpm and 2000±
8000 mm/min, respectively. A fairly recent development is
the use of radius end mills at axial depths of cut up to 20 mm
for high speed roughing of materials such as AISI H13 at
50 HRC [19].

0924-0136/02/$ ± see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 2 8 2 - 0
326 D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 127 (2002) 325±335
1.2. Workpiece surface integrity (SI)
Engineered components must satisfy surface texture
requirements (roughness and waviness) and traditionally,
surface roughness (mainly arithmetic average, Ra), has been
used as one of the principal methods to assess quality.
Certain critical service conditions, however, require that
the SI of components is considered, as it will affect service
life, safety, reliability and life cycle costs. Manufacturing
processes, in particular machining, play a major role in
determining the level of SI that can be achieved [20].
Problems that have been identi®ed include overheating/
burning, microcracking, surface irregularities, metallurgical
alterations including microstructural distortion, tensile resi-
dual stresses and reduction in fatigue life. Such changes
occur due to thermal/mechanical cycling, microstructural
transformations and mechanical deformation during cutting.
Thermal effects tend to give tensile residual stresses while
mechanical in¯uences contribute to compressive residual
stresses. Another in¯uence on residual stresses is phase
transformations. Field et al. [21,22] proposed a `minimum'
SI data set, which involved surface ®nish (roughness),
macrostructure, microstructure and microhardness. They
added residual stress and minimal fatigue testing to give
a `standard' data set. In addition, their `extended' data set
incorporated in-depth fatigue testing, stress corrosion tests
and a host of mechanical tests (tensile, stress rupture, creep,
fracture toughness, etc.). Many destructive and non-destruc-
tive techniques are available to investigate the various SI
effects [22]. Despite publication of these data groups in the
early 1970s, they are still cited in current literature and
therefore appear to remain valid. In addition to safety critical
industries such as aerospace, workpiece SI is important for
components such as forging dies, plastic moulds and press
tools, as high thermal and mechanical loads occur during
their use and die/mould service life is critical to the econo-
mics of the processes [23].
1.3. Workpiece SI following HSM and hard turning
The number of published papers that deal with workpiece
SI following HSM of hardened steels appears to be relatively
low compared with information on the public domain on tool
life, workpiece surface roughness, etc. Elbestawi et al. [15]
detailed aspects of SI following HSM using 12.7 mm dia-
meter polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) single
tooth ball nose end mills for semi-®nishing and ®nishing
hardened AISI H13. The analysis focused on workpiece
surface roughness and on metallographic examination of the
workpiece below the machined surface. It was found that a
damaged layer (4±6 mm thick) appeared beneath the cut
surface. Dewes et al. [16] presented SI data when using a
32 mm diameter cutter equipped with one PCBN or whisker
reinforced alumina round insert for HSM the same work-
piece material. The resulting workpiece microstructure was
continuous from the machined surface into the body of the
material and no signi®cant white layers or plastic deforma-
tion were evident. Microhardness measurements showed a
softening effect up to a depth of approximately 10 mm
beneath the machined surface. Residual stresses were com-
pressive in most of the experiments with a tendency to reach
zero at about 60 mm below the machined surface. SI data
(microstructure, microhardness, residual stress and fatigue
life) when using carbide ball nose end mills to machine AISI
H13 have also been generated [24]. Microstructural altera-
tions when employing a worn cutter were more pronounced
with a higher cutting speed, a higher axial/radial depth of
cut and with a workpiece inclined at 608 to the tool axis
rather than normal to the cutter. A reduction in workpiece
microhardness at the machined surface occurred and
residual stresses were predominantly compressive, up to
600 MPa, particularly at 608. The fatigue performance
of HSM surfaces was superior to those produced using
EDM. ToÈnshoff et al. [25] analysed SI following high speed
¯ank milling of high alloyed martensitic stainless steel and
reported surface roughness (Ra) <4 mm and tensile residual
stress <‡500 MPa when using new and worn 10 mm dia-
meter carbide end mills, both dry and with ¯ood cutting ¯uid
application. The tensile residual stresses were probably due
to high temperatures which are likely to occur during ¯ank
milling.
The generally `good' SI results from HSM using ball nose
end mills at low depths of cut has been attributed to high
cutting forces of typically 200±1000 N and therefore a high
mechanical effect, particularly when cutting with the centre
of the ball nose end mill and with worn tools, together with
temperatures <400 8C and a corresponding low thermal
effect [24].
In contrast to the relatively sparse data on SI of hardened
steels following HSM, a large number of papers are available
on SI following hard turning of tool steels [26±30].
El-Wardany et al. [26,27] reported microstructural, micro-
hardness and residual stress analysis after high speed turning
of hardened AISI D2 tool steel with PCBN inserts. Micro-
structural analysis showed a very thin white layer (<5 mm)
and plastic deformation in the ®rst 10±15 mm from the
machined surface. No signi®cant microhardness variations
below the machined surface were found as a result of
cutting parameter variation, however the microhardness
was affected by tool wear. Residual stresses on the free
surface were generally tensile but become compressive
at depths of approximately 20 mm beneath the machined
surface. In research by AbraÄo and Aspinwall [30], axial
fatigue life tests on cylindrical AISI E52100 bearing steel
specimens at a hardness of 60 HRC indicated that fatigue
performance after turning with a low concentration PCBN
tool was superior to using mixed alumina tools. This was
explained by the higher thermal conductivity of PCBN
giving lower interface temperatures than when using mixed
alumina. This contributed to more highly compressive
surface residual stresses and therefore improved fatigue
life.
 D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 127 (2002) 325±335
The data given in published papers on HSM of hardened
steels [15±19] indicate that perhaps not surprisingly, opti-
mum workpiece surface roughness, microstructure, micro-
hardness and residual stress distribution are unlikely to be
achieved for the same combination of cutting parameters.
The in¯uence of each parameter needs to be known, together
with interactions, in order to allow at least, a `pseudo-
optimisation' of SI. If this is accomplished, models of SI
vs. cutting parameters could be used for prediction of output
measures for speci®c experimental setups. Computerised
models of HSM have been produced which predict outputs
such as forces and temperatures [31], together with work-
piece surface roughness [32] from operating parameters.
One area in which very little work has been reported,
however, is the correlation of HSM operating parameters
with subsequent workpiece SI, not least because of the lack
of systematic SI data. Despite carrying out an extensive
literature search, no published papers could be found on
statistical analysis/empirical modelling of SI after HSM of
hardened tool steels.
1.4. Scope of experimental work and empirical models
The present paper details results, statistical analysis and
empirical models of SI when HSM hardened AISI H13 hot
work tool steel using solid coated carbide ball nose end
mills. The in¯uence of cutting parameters on SI was studied
using a full factorial design. Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was performed to identify the in¯uence of cutting para-
meters on output measures and multiple regression was
utilised to obtain empirical models. Based on the models,
examples of response surfaces are presented to allow
prediction of output measures. In the range of parameters
tested no `multicriteria optimum' for SI was found therefore
`pseudo-optimum' solutions are proposed.
2. Experimental work
2.1. Machine tool, workpiece material, cutting tools,
cutting parameters and methodology
The research was carried out on a high speed vertical
machining centre with a retro®t high speed spindle
(45,000 rpm) equipped with an ISO 20 collet toolholder.
The workpiece material used was hardened hot work tool
steel AISI H13 (hardness 47±49 HRC) in the form of
50 mm  80 mm  150 mm blocks. The cutting tools were
6 mm diameter ball nose end mills with two teeth and the
following characteristicsÐmaterial: WC substrate with
TiAlN coating; helix angle: 308; primary clearance angle:
13±158; radial rake angle: 0±38; axial rake angle: 0±38; edge
preparation: sharp. Cutting parameters held constant were:
axial depth of cut, ap: 0.2 mm; radial depth of cut, ae:
0.2 mm; cutting method: down milling; cutting environment:
compressed air at 8 bar; cutting direction (when operating at
327
Table 1
Experimental matrix
a (8) fz (mm/tooth) v (m/min)
200 300
0 0.05 Test 1 Test 2
0.10 Test 3 Test 4
60 0.05 Test 5 Test 6
0.10 Test 7 Test 8
a ˆ 60 ): horizontal upwards (bfN), tool overhang: 30 mm
and tool runout <8 mm.
The experimental procedure employed a full factorial
design with cutting speed (v), feed per tooth (fz) and work-
piece angle (a) as factors, each at two levels. New tools were
used in accordance with the experimental matrix in Table 1
until maximum ¯ank wear (VBmax) reached 0.1 mm. This
was considered to be a realistic tool wear level for ®nishing
[15]. In addition, the main aim of the work was not to
measure tool wear/life, which can be extremely long for this
application (>4 h or >1000 m cut length). Even though tool
life was not an output measure, as far as possible, tests were
performed in accordance with ISO 8688-2 [33]. Taking into
account previous data, for inducing high compressive resi-
dual stresses on the workpiece surface [11], a horizontal
upwards (‡bfN) cutting direction was chosen when machin-
ing at a workpiece angle of 608.
Workpiece surface roughness was measured using a
portable roughness tester (contact stylus) across the feed
direction (®ve measurements) every 15 m cut length. When
maximum ¯ank wear reached VBmax ˆ 0:1 mm, samples
were cut out from the workpiece using electro discharge wire
machining for subsequent SI analysis (microstructure,
microhardness and residual stress). Taper sections at 308
from the workpiece surface were made across the feed
direction, in order to magnify the surface layer, resulting
in different magni®cations (scales) on the horizontal and
vertical axes of the photographs. The samples were ground/
polished and etched with 2% Nital (2% nitric acid ‡ 98%
ethanol, by volume) in order to analyse possible metallur-
gical changes below the machined surfaces using an optical
microscope equipped with a CCD camera. The same sam-
ples were used for assessing microhardness distribution
below the machined surface. Measurements were carried
out using a Knoop indenter (25 g load) with three measure-
ments taken at 10 mm intervals between successive readings
up to 100 mm below machined surface. Adjacent samples
were used for measuring residual stress distribution below
the machined surface. Measurements were performed
with an X-ray diffractometer equipped with Cr Ka target
and using the following parametersÐtube voltage/current:
30 kV/10 mA; measuring angle, c: 0, 15, 30 and 458;
aperture: 2 mm  4 mm; ISO-inclination method. Measure-
ments were taken along the tool feed direction on the
free surface and below the machined surface at 10 mm
intervals between successive readings. The residual stress
328 D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 127 (2002) 325±335
measurements were stopped when at least two consecutive
measurements were in the interval 0  25 MPa.
Data were subsequently analysed in order to ®nd the
in¯uence of cutting parameters on SI. ANOVA (signi®cant
at the 5% level, i.e. p coef®cient <0.05) was used to identify
the in¯uences of variable cutting parameters and cutting
length/depth below machined surface on the variation of
output measures. Main effects and interaction effects were
plotted. As the output tables from the ANOVA contained
extensive information these are summarised in this paper.
Factors and/or interactions which were found to be signi-
®cant on variation of the output measures, were used as
inputs for multiple polynomial regression in order to obtain
empirical models. These were also used for plotting surface
responses. Commercial statistical software (Minitab 13) was
utilised throughout the work.
2.2. Results, empirical modelling and discussion
2.2.1. Workpiece surface roughness
The workpiece surface roughness measurements (Ra
across the feed direction) are presented in Fig. 1a for test
numbers 1±4 (workpiece angle, a ˆ 0 ) and in Fig. 1b for
test numbers 5±8 (workpiece angle, a ˆ 60 ). Ra values
were in the range 0.36±2.18 mm which is within what is
generally required for components such as forging dies and
plastic/rubber moulds. The repeatability of the measure-
ments (standard deviation based on ®ve measurements
divided by the mean value) was found to be in the range
of 2±7%. This was considered satisfactory for generating
empirical models. It should be noted that the characteristic
variation in Ra with length cut (an increase at the beginning
of each test followed by a reduction and a tendency to level
out when the test reached a stable wear stage after approxi-
mately 100 m length cut) was the same throughout the
experimental programme.
In order to analyse the in¯uence of cutting parameters on
Ra variation, ANOVA was performed, see Table 2. Fig. 2
shows the corresponding main effects plots for Ra. In such
diagrams, the higher the gradient or length of each line, the
larger the effect of the parameter variation. It can be seen
that the mean value for Ra increased when cutting speed
increased. This is contrary to what would normally be
expected (higher cutting speeds generally give lower rough-
ness due to avoidance of built up edge effects) [20]. As no
built up edge was seen on the tools, the small increase was
thought to be due to increased unbalance of the tool at the
higher cutting speed, together with possibly higher cutting
forces leading to vibrational effects. The small decrease in
the mean value of Ra at the higher feed per tooth was thought
to be due to higher tool vibration caused by the low feed per
tooth. A much larger in¯uence on mean Ra was workpiece
angle. The low mean value at 608 was due to avoidance of
cutting in the tool centre and corresponding smearing of
workpiece material giving high Ra (which occurs at a ˆ 0 ).
The main effects plot indicates that mean Ra increased at the
beginning of tests followed by a sharp decrease and a
tendency to level out when the tool reached the stable wear
stage after approximately 100 m length cut.
Empirical modelling was carried out in two stages. Initi-
ally, statistical analysis of the variation of Ra with length cut
(L) was performed separately for each test. Simple regres-
sion analysis on the effect of Ra on L, using a range of
different functions gave a polynomial function as best ®t, see
Eq. (1) where j, k, m, n and p are coef®cients that depend on
the variable cutting parameters used.
Ra;Ti ˆ jL ‡ kL0:5 ‡ mL1:5 ‡ nL2 ‡ pL3 (1)
Ra;Ti represents the workpiece surface roughness evaluated
during a single test, denoted Ti, where i is the test number.
The model is valid for all sets of test conditions and the
coef®cients j, k, m, n and p have different values for each
test. The form of the polynomial formula (Eq. (1)) was used
as an input for the second stage. This involved statistical
analysis of all test results in order to obtain a general Ra
model in which all factors (cutting parameters) and length
cut are used as inputs. Since the ANOVA proved that all
factors and interactions (®rst, second and third level) were
signi®cant for Ra variation (5% level), the model should
ideally contain all factors and interactions. As the relation-
ship between Ra and length cut followed a polynomial
function (Eq. (1)), however, interactions between length
cut and cutting parameters would have been extremely
dif®cult to incorporate into the model. For this reason,
the model only takes into account interactions between
the cutting parameters. Multiple regression for Ra gave a
polynomial model as presented in Eq. (2) where workpiece
angle, a is expressed in radians.
Ra ˆ a1 ‡ b1 v ‡ c1 fz ‡ d1 a ‡ e1 vfz ‡ g1 va ‡ h1 fz a
‡ i1 vfz a ‡ j1 L ‡ k1 L0:5 ‡ m1 L1:5 ‡ n1 L2 ‡ p1 L3 (2)
For the coef®cients a1 ˆ 6:642, b1 ˆ 0:008263, c1 ˆ 12:042,
d1 ˆ 0:9257, e1 ˆ 0:06784, g1 ˆ 0:008679, h1 ˆ
7:297, i1 ˆ 0:06144, j1 ˆ 1:4216, k1 ˆ 5:239, m1 ˆ
0:16546, n1 ˆ 0:007462 and p1 ˆ 6:01  10 6 , a coef®-
cient of determination, r 2 ˆ 0:91 (corresponding coef®cient
of correlation r ˆ 0:95) and a standard error, S:E: ˆ
0:12 mm were obtained. All of these values were obtained
from the statistical analysis software using the least-squares
method. It should be noted that the model is only valid in the
range of cutting parameters tested and for lengths cut, L
between 0 and 200 m (for a ˆ 0 ) or 0±150 m (for a ˆ 60 ).
Eq. (2) allows the prediction of Ra, from the combination
of cutting parameters and length cut. Based on Eq. (2), an
example response surface for Ra using the empirical model
for a ˆ 0 and v ˆ 300 m/min is shown in Fig. 3.
2.2.2. Microstructure and microhardness
No white layers or other microstructural alterations were
observed on all samples even at high magni®cations
(1000). With higher values of cutting speed and/or feed
 D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 127 (2002) 325±335 329

Fig. 1. Workpiece surface roughness, Ra vs. length cut when workpiece angle: (a) a ˆ 0 ; (b) aˆ608. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals based on
five repeated measurements.

per tooth, it is expected that higher temperatures will be
generated and that a greater quantity of heat will be trans-
ferred into the workpiece, thus increasing the possibility of
heat affected zones such as white layers. Microstructural
photographs taken from samples obtained after tests 4 and 8
with worn tools (both under `worst case' conditions of
higher levels of cutting speed and feed per tooth) are shown
in Fig. 4a and b, respectively. In Fig. 4a, the feed marks due
to the rubbing effect of the centre of the tool with a 08
workpiece angle (cutting speed zero) can be seen. In Fig. 4b
the feed marks are a lot less pronounced.
Microhardness measurements were in the range 613±
667 HK0.025. In order to assess the in¯uence of variable
cutting parameters and depth below the machined surface (x)
on microhardness variation with worn tools, ANOVA was
performed and the results are summarised in Table 3. The
330 D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 127 (2002) 325±335

Table 2 data indicate no signi®cant changes in microhardness with

Outline of ANOVA for Ra depth below the machined surface or signi®cant differences
Inputs 2 levelsÐcutting speed, v; feed per tooth, between tests. These are in line with published results
fz; workpiece angle, a [16,25] which also show no substantial alterations in micro-
8 levelsÐlength cut, L (levels equivalent to 15 m structure or microhardness following HSM of hardened tool
length cut intervals)
steel.
Output Ra (five repeated measurements at each length
cut interval)
2.2.3. Residual stress
Results Based on cut-off p < 0:05 for input significance The experimental results for residual stress measured
output variationÐrejecting null hypothesis along the tool feed direction are presented in Fig. 5a for
Main effects v, fz, a, L were found to be significant
Interactions All interactions (first, second and third level)
test numbers 1±4 (workpiece angle, a ˆ 0 ) and in Fig. 5b
were found to be significant for test numbers 5±8 (workpiece angle, a ˆ 60 ). Stresses
were highly compressive, up to 760 MPa, which is in

Fig. 2. Main effects plot for workpiece surface roughness, Ra.

Fig. 3. Example 2D response surface for workpiece surface roughness, Ra, when cutting speed, v ˆ 300 m/min and workpiece angle, a ˆ 0 .
 D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 127 (2002) 325±335
Fig. 4. Microstructure of workpiece from: (a) test no. 4 (v ˆ 300 m/min; fz ˆ 0:1 mm/tooth; a ˆ 0 ); (b) test no. 8 (v ˆ 300 m/min; fz ˆ 0:1 mm/tooth;
a ˆ 608).
agreement with most other HSM data [16,24] and can be
explained by the likely overriding mechanical rather than
thermal effect. Both graphs follow the same tendency of
decreasing compressive stress with increasing depth beneath
the machined surface. In order to explain the in¯uence of
cutting parameters and depth below the machined surface (x)
on residual stress variation, ANOVA was performed, the
results of which are outlined in Table 4. Since the residual
stress recovered to 0  25 MPa at different depths for the
various tests, the number of levels of depth below the
machined surface used in the ANOVA was the minimum
Table 3
Outline of ANOVA for microhardness below the machined surface
Inputs 2 levelsÐcutting speed, v; feed per tooth, fz; workpiece angle, a
10 levelsÐdepth below machined surface, x (levels equivalent
to 10 mm intervals)
Output Microhardness (HK0.025) with three repeated measurements at
each depth below the machined surface interval
Results Based on cut-off p < 0:05 for input significance output
variationÐrejecting null hypothesis: none of the inputs (v, fz,
a or x) were found to be significant
331
i.e. 6, including x ˆ 0 mm as the ®rst level. Repeatability of
the measurements changed with depth below the machined
surface. On the free surface, variation between replicated
data was 15±20%, probably due to the relatively high surface
roughness which scattered the X-ray beam. Below the free
surface, where the roughness of the surface was lower due to
the electrochemical machining used to remove the surface
layer, the variation between replicated readings was in the
Table 4
Outline of ANOVA for residual stress below the machined surface
Inputs 2 levelsÐcutting speed, v; feed per tooth, fz; work-
piece angle, a
6 levelsÐdepth below machined surface, x (levels
equivalent to 10 mm increment)
Output Residual stress (s) with three repeated measurements
at each depth below the machined surface interval
Results Based on cut-off p < 0:05 for input significance
output variationÐrejecting null hypothesis
Main effects v, fz, a, x were found to be significant
Interactions First order: vx, fza, fzx; second order: fzax; third order:
vfz ax were found to be significant
332 D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 127 (2002) 325±335

Fig. 5. Residual stress vs. depth below surface when workpiece angle: (a) a ˆ 0 ; (b) a ˆ 60 . Error bars represent 1 standard deviation based on three
repeated measurements.

range of 6±15%. At depths where the residual stresses had
recovered to 0  25 MPa, high percentage variation was
found (>20%). Subsequent comments and analysis relate
only to mean values of residual stress.
Main effect plots for residual stress are presented in Fig. 6.
It can be seen that increasing cutting speed and feed per
tooth caused the mean level of compressive stress to
decrease, probably due to a higher thermal effect on the
workpiece surface. At the higher workpiece angle, the mean
compressive stress decreased slightly due to the absence of
the rubbing effect which occurs at the centre of the ball nose
end mill and tends to induce compressive residual stresses.
As they were probably relatively low (<400 8C), tempera-
tures are likely to have had only a small in¯uence on the
workpiece surface, a tendency which was also seen in the
microstructure and microhardness data analysis. The empiri-
cal modelling for residual stress was performed in two
stages, in a similar fashion to that for workpiece surface
roughness, with depth below the machined surface (x)
replacing length cut in the analysis. Simple regression
was performed on the residual stress vs. x data. It was found
that the best ®t was a square root function of x which was
used as the input into the second stage regression analysis.
Based on the ANOVA results, multiple regression was
 D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 127 (2002) 325±335 333

Fig. 6. Main effects plot for residual stress.

Fig. 7. Example 2D response surface for residual stress when cutting speed, v ˆ 200 m/min and workpiece angle, a ˆ 0 .

performed, see Eq. (3), where a ˆ 1175, b ˆ 1:2, c ˆ 5190,
d ˆ 165, e ˆ 115, f ˆ 0:0895, g ˆ 1518, h ˆ 403,
j ˆ 125 and k ˆ 0:732 are coef®cients and workpiece
angle, a is expressed in radians. For this case, a coef®cient
of determination, r2 ˆ 0:94 (corresponding coef®cient of
correlation, r ˆ 0:97) and a standard error, S:E: ˆ 29 MPa
were obtained. All of these values were obtained from the
statistical analysis software using the least-squares method.
The model is only valid for the range of cutting parameters
tested and for a depth below the machined surface, x of
between 0 and 50 mm
s ˆ a ‡ bv ‡ cfz ‡ da ‡ ex0:5 ‡ fvx0:5 ‡ gfz a ‡ hfz x0:5
‡ jfz ax0:5 ‡ kvfz ax0:5
Based on Eq. (3), an example residual stress response sur-
face for a ˆ 0 and v ˆ 200 m/min is shown in Fig. 7.
3. Conclusions
 Workpiece surface roughness (Ra) values obtained
throughout the tests were 0.36±2.18 mm. Ra values
increased when cutting speed increased and feed per tooth
decreased due to higher process instability. Ra values
decreased with the 608 workpiece angle due to the absence
of the rubbing effect caused by the centre of the tool at 08.
 No significant white layers or other heat affected zones
(3) were found below the machined surface in all the tests.
334 D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 127 (2002) 325±335
None of the variable parameters affected microhardness
significantly.
 Highly compressive surface residual stresses occurred up
to 760 MPa. Significant factors were cutting speed, feed
per tooth, workpiece angle, depth below the machined
surface and some of their interactions. Increasing cutting
speed and feed per tooth caused the compressive stress to
decrease due to a likely increase in thermal effect on the
machined surface. With the higher workpiece angle, the
compressive stress was lower due to the absence of the
rubbing (mechanical) effect caused by the centre of ball
nose end mill.
 `Best' values of workpiece surface roughness and residual
stress were not achieved with the same cutting conditions
therefore, a `pseudo-optimal' solution is proposed. `Best'
values of workpiece surface roughness and residual stress
were not achieved with the same cutting conditions there-
fore, a `pseudo-optimal' solution is proposed, whereby if
low workpiece surface roughness (Ra) is the main goal,
the cutting parameters of test numbers 3 or 7 should be
chosen, while if high compressive residual stress is the
main requirement, the parameters used in test numbers 1
or 5 should be selected. It should be underlined that both
solutions have the advantage of keeping the same cutting
parameters when the workpiece angle changes which is
what happens in reality when machining moulds and dies.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Prof. A.A. Ball, Head of the
School of Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering and
Prof. M.H. Loretto, Director of the IRC in Materials for High
Performance Applications for provision of facilities. We are
grateful to Mr. J. Wedderburn who performed much of the
experimental work. Thanks also goes to the Engineering and
Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), Mr. C.
Wheelhouse of United Engineering Forgings Ltd., Mr. R.
Hirons and Mr. A. Smith of Sandvik Coromant, UK, Mr. D.
Edwards of Matsuura Machinery plc and Mr. M. Fleming of
De Beers Industrial Diamonds Ltd.
References
[1] H. Schulz (Ed.), Hochgeschwindigkeitsbearbeitung (High-speed
Machining), Carl Hanser, Munich, 1996. ISBN 3446187960.
[2] F.J. McGee, High-speed machining-study: methods for aluminium
workpieces, Am. Mach. 123 (3) (1979) 121±126.
[3] J. Scherer, The technology of high-speed milling of various
aluminium alloys, in: Tagungshandbuch (Handbook) 4, Darmstadter
Fertigungstechniches Symposium (Manufacturing Engineering Sym-
posium), TH Darmstadt, Germany, 1989.
[4] F.J. McGee, High-speed machining of aluminium alloys, in: Proceed-
ings of the High Speed Machining, the Winter Annual Meeting of the
ASME, Vol. 12, New Orleans, LA, PED, 1984, pp. 205±216.
[5] I. Nieminen, J. Paro, V. Kauppinen, High-speed milling of advanced
materials, in: Proceedings of the International Conference on
Advances in Materials and Processing Technologies, Dublin, Ireland,
1993, pp. 21±32.
[6] B. Ashley, High speed machiningÐthe kindest cut of all, aluminium
industry, October/November 1992.
[7] P. Dennis, Machining fibre-reinforced plastics, Ind. Diam. Rev. 6
(1991) 288±291.
[8] K. Maekawa, I. Ohshima, Y. Nakano, High speed end milling of
Ti±6Al±6V±2Sn titanium alloy, advancement of intelligent production,
in: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Pro-
duction/Precision Engineering and Fourth International Conference
on High Technology, Chiba, Japan, 1994, pp. 431±436.
[9] S. Derrien, J. Vigneau, High speed milling of difficult to machine
alloys, in: Proceedings of the First French and German Conference
on High Speed Machining, Metz, France, 1997, pp. 284±294.
[10] E.O. Ezugwu, I.R. Pashby, High speed milling of nickel-based
superalloys, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 33 (4) (1992) 429±437.
[11] E.-G. Ng, D.W. Lee, A.R.C. Sharman, R.C. Dewes, D.K. Aspinwall,
J. Vigneau, High speed ball nose end milling of Inconel 718, Ann.
CIRP 41 (1) (2000) 41±47.
[12] Application GuideÐDie and Mould Making, Sandvik Coromant, 1999.
[13] W.-D. MuÈnz, I.J. Smith, L.A. Donohue, A.P. Deeming, P. Halstead,
PVD coated cemented carbide tools designed for dry high speed
cutting applications, in: Proceedings of the First French and German
Conference on High Speed Machining, Metz, France, 1997, pp. 173±
183.
[14] M. Page, A milling force to be reckoned with, Metalworking Prod.
138 (4) (1994) 23±36.
[15] M.A. Elbestawi, L. Chen, C.E. Becze, T.I. El-Wardany, High-speed
milling of dies and moulds in their hardened state, Ann. CIRP 46 (1)
(1997) 57±62.
[16] R.C. Dewes, D.K. Aspinwall, S.J. Dipple, S. Schoen, G. Thielemann,
Tool wear and surface integrity observations during the high speed
milling of hardened die steel, in: Proceedings of the International
Conference and Exhibition on Design and Production of Dies and
Molds, Istanbul, Turkey, 1997, pp. 131±138.
[17] P. FallboÈhmer, C.A. RodrõÂguez, T. O È zel, T. Altan, High-speed
machining of cast iron and alloy steels for die and mold
manufacturing, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 98 (2000) 104±115.
[18] R.C. Dewes, D.K. Aspinwall, A review of ultra high speed milling of
hardened steels, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 69 (1997) 1±17.
[19] N. Narutaki, Hard metal cutting technology, in: Proceedings of the
Sharing Tomorrow's Technology Today Conference, Machine Tool
Technologies Association (MTTA), London/Cambridge/Warwick,
UK, 1997.
[20] Machining Data Handbook, third ed., Vol. 2, Machinability Data
Center, Metcut Research Associates Inc., Cincinnati, OH, 1980.
ISBN 0936974001.
[21] M. Field, J.F. Kahles, J.T. Cammett, A review of measuring methods
for surface integrity, Ann. CIRP 21 (2) (1972) 219±238.
[22] M. Field, J.F. Kahles, Review of surface integrity of machined
components, Ann. CIRP 20 (2) (1971) 153±163.
[23] V. Vazquez, M. Knoerr, T. Altan, R. Shivpuri, Determination of
fatigue properties of die steels for hot forging, Trans. North Am.
Manuf. Res. Inst. SME, NAMRC XXIV (1996) 155±160.
[24] R.C. Dewes, High speed machining of hardened ferrous alloys, Ph.D.
Thesis (commercially confidential), University of Birmingham, UK,
1997.
[25] H.K. ToÈnshoff, C. Gey, H. Tùnnessen, K. Sùrby, High speed flank
milling of Greek Ascoloy, the effect of cooling lubrication on tool
wear, cutting forces and surface integrity, in: Proceedings of the Second
International Seminar on Improving Machine Tool Performance,
Nantes-La Baule, France, 2000.
[26] T.I. El-Wardany, H.A. Kishawy, M.A. Elbestawi, Surface integrity of
die material in high speed hard machining. Part 1: micrographical
analysis, Trans. ASME, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 122 (11) (2000) 620±631.
[27] T.I. El-Wardany, H.A. Kishawy, M.A. Elbestawi, Surface integrity of
die material in high speed hard machining. Part 2: microhardness
 D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 127 (2002) 325±335 335

variations and residual stresses, Trans. ASME, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
122 (11) (2000) 632±641.
[28] H.K. ToÈnshoff, C. Arendt, R. Ben Amor, Cutting hardened steel,
Ann. CIRP 49 (2) (2000) 547±566.
[29] A.S. Sadat, Effect of high cutting speed on surface integrity of AISI
4340 steel during turning, Mater. Sci. Technol. 6 (1990) 371±375.
[30] A.M. AbraÄo, D.K. Aspinwall, The surface integrity of turned and
ground hardened bearing steel, Wear 196 (1996) 279±284.
[31] I.F. Dagiloke, A. Kaldos, S. Douglas, B. Mills, High speed
machining: an approach to process analysis, J. Mater. Process.
Technol. 54 (1995) 82±87.
[32] Y.-H. Tsai, J.C. Chen, S.-J. Lou, An in-process surface recognition
system based on neural networks in end milling cutting operations,
Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 39 (4) (1999) 583±605.
[33] Tool life in millingÐPart 2: end milling, 1989. ISO 8688-2 (E).