NEGOTIATING CULTURES: MODES OF MEMORY

IN NOVELS BY AFRICAN WOMEN

Catriona Cornelissen

A Thesis submitted in confomity with

the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
Graduate Department of English,
University of Toronto.

@ Catriona Cornelissen 1997,

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 NEGOTIATING CULTURES: MODES OF MEMORY LN NOVELS BY
AFRICAN WOMEN

by
Catriona Cornelissen
G r a d u a t e Deparunent o f English, U n i v e r s i t y o f T o r o n t o .
PhD, 1997.

ABSTRACT

The d i s s e r t a t i o n examines t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f c u l t u r a l

v a l u e s i n a s e l e c t i o n of A f r i c a n womenfs t e x t s , w r i t t e n i n
E n g l i s h a n d p u b l i s h e d between 1966 a n d 1 9 8 6 . F o c u s i n g on a r a n g e

of works by Kenyan, N i g e r i a n and South African women, t h e s t u d y

e x p l o r e s modes of memory and examines t h e way writers r e p r e s e n t ,

reaffirm and re-position c u l t u r a l a u t h o r i t y during post-

colonialism. The d i s s e r t a t i o n examines a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s ,

h i s t o r i e s a n d f i c t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e s , modes by which mernories o f

t h e p a s t a r e f o r m a l l y and c o n s c i o u s l y s t r u c t u r e d and r e c o r d e d ,

but t h e s t u d y a l s o examines t h e way i n which l a n g u a g e , customs

and t r a d i t i o n s convey c u l t u r a l v a l u e s a n d a t t i t u d e s , o f t e n beyond

the conscious c o n t r o l of t h e writer. The welter o f A f r i c a n and

Western c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s of both past and present provokes an

on-going i n t e r a c t i o n t h r o u g h which t h e w r i t e r s i n t h i s s t u d y

interrogate t h e contesting of c u l t u r a l a u t h o r i t i e s .

S i n c e women's r o l e s a r e l a r g e l y d i c t a t e d by c u l t u r a l

expectations, t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n includes examination of t h e

w r i t e r s ' a t t i t u d e s t o t h o s e customs r e l a t i n g t o marriage,

polygyny a n d c h i l d - r e a r i n g , and a n a l y z e s t h e i r s o l u t i o n s

regarding t h e s e i s s u e s .
 The works of Charity Waciuma, Grace Ogot, Flora Nwapa and
Rebeka Njau, discussed in Chapter One, depict the difficult

process of renegotiating the authority of cultural memories, an

on-going process in any society, but one intensified by the

imposition of Western colonial influences. Their works reflect

and question, to varying extents, the cultural expectations

imposed on wornen, w h i l e simultaneously advocating the b e n e f i t s of

readjusting and/or reaffirming established custorns. By contrast,

the selected works by Buchi Emecheta, examined in C h a p t e r Two,

depict abrupt confrontation cultural influences, and seject

es tablished traditional customs being stultifying women,

hindering sel:-development. Chapter Three examines the challenge

the works of Miriam Tlali and Bessie Head pose to the cultural

authority of the a p a r t h e i d system. While Tlali finds solutions

i n t h e public arena, and calls for collective, political action,

Head suggests that solutions may be found on the personal level,

through relationships, self-analysis and self-acceptance. The
study also examines how the works of Niriam Were, Tlali and Head

advocate the need for men to change their cultural attitudes

t o w a r d s women.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE CULTURAL MEMORY IN THE WORKS OF WACfUMA,

OGOT, NWAPA AND NJAU

C h a r i t y Waciuma

Grace Ogot

Flora Nwapa

Rebeka Njau

CHAPTER TWO CULTURAL BONDAGE: EMECHETA CHALLENGES

THE AUTHORITY OF MEMORY

B u c h i Emecheta

CHAPTER THREE WERE, TLALI AND HEAD RENEGOTIATE

CULTURAL LOCATIONS

Miriam Were

Miriam Tlali

Bessie Head

CONCLUS ION

BIBLIOGRRAPHY
 INTRODUCTION

S i n c e f 970, t h e p r o d u c t i o n of A f r i c a n womenr s l i t e r a t u r e

w r i t c e n i n E n g l i s h has grown r a p i d l y . However, b e f o r e 1970 few

A f r i c a n women had published.L F l o r a Nwapa' s Efuru ( 1 9 6 6 ) , Grace

Ogott s The Promised Land ( 1 9 6 6 ) , and Charity Waciuma' s Daughter

o f Mwnbi ( 1 9 6 9 ) were t h e f i r s t works w r i t t e n i n E n g l i s h by

A f r i c a n women t o g a i n w i d e s p r e a d r e c o g n i t i o n . These t h r e e e a r l y

texts e x p l o r e themes d e p i c t e d by t h e i r m a l e p r e d e c e s s o r s , themes

of c u l t u r a l c o n f l i c t and economic change, d u r i n g p o s t -

colonialism. However, Nwapa, Ogot and Waciuma e x t e n d t h e s e

themes i n t o new a r e a s of s o c i a l l i f e , e s p e c i a l l y g e n d e r r o l e s .

I n t h e 1970s, w r i t e r s s u c h a s Buchi Emecheta, Rebeka Njau a n d

Miriam Were e n l a r g e a3d d e v e l o p the themes o f t h e i r A f r i c a n women

p r e d e c e s s o r s y e t f u r t h e r , while S o u t h A f r i c a n w r i t e r s , such as

M i r i a m T l a l i a n d B e s s i e Head e x p l o r e t h e s e themes from t h e

p e r s p e c t i v e o f a p a r t h e i d . B y p l a c i n g women i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e i r

t e x t s , they are a b l e to c o n s t r u c t a l t e r n a t e v e r s i o n s o f h i s t o r y .

By r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r p a s t s , w h e t h e r i n f i c t i o n a l , h i s t o r i c a l o r

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e s , t h e s e writers c r e a t e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y

t o d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s from t h e i r own p o i n t s o f view. In this

work, 1 a n a l y z e how modes o f memory transmit c u l t u r a l v a l u e s a n d

a t t i t u d e s which i n e v i t a b l y r e f l e c t the on-going p r o c e s s o f s e l f -

definition.

Memory p l a y s a c r u c i a l r o l e i n the p r o c e s s o f s e l f -

definition. Without memory t h e world would be u n i n t e l l i g i b l e ,

f o r t o imbue a n y p e r c e p t i o n o r a n y e x p e r i e n c e with m e a n i n g , w e

have t o r e l a t e i t t o a p r i o r c o n t e x t . While a l 1 c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s

r n e d i a t e d t h r o u g h memory, most of what w e commit t o memory i s d o n e

so subconsciously. Language, b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n s and c u s t o m s a r e

l e a r n t and r e i t e r a t e d l a r g e l y s u b c o n s c i o u s l y , a n d s u c h l e a r n i n g

and r e i t e r a t i o n r e f l e c t s t h e p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e o f which w e a r e a

part. I n Rernembering: A S t u d y i n E x p e r i m e n t a l and S o c i a l

Psychology, P.C. B a r t l e t t a r g u e s t h a t w h i l e t h e r e is n o p r o o f

t h a t t h e s o c i a l g r o u p h a s a m e n t a l l i f e o v e r a n d above t h a t o f

i t s i n d i v i d u a l members, t h e r e i s n o d o u b t t h a t t h e g r o u p

f u n c t i o n s i n a p a r t i c u l a r way w h i c h d i r e c t s t h e m e n t a l l i v e s of

the i n d i v i d u a l members ( 2 9 8 , 3 0 0 ) . As a r e s u l t , the individual

may be s e e n a s t h e p r o d u c t o f h i s o r h e r c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y . Paul

C o n n e r t o n c o n c u r s w i t h Bartlett, s t a t i n g i n How S o c i e t i e s

Remember t h a t " t h e n a r r a t i v e of o u r life i s p a r t of a n

i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g s e t of n a r r a t i v e s ; i t i s embedded i n t h e s t o r y o f

those groups £rom which i n d i v i d u a l s d e r i v e t h e i r i d e n t i t y " (21) .

P e r s o n a l memory a n d c u l t u r a l memoxy a r e t h u s n o t c l e a r l y

separated. W e i n t e r n a l i z e t h e c u l t u r a l memories of which w e a r e

a product, a n d o u r p a s t s , both c u l t u r a l l y and i n d i v i d u a l l y ,

d e t e r m i n e who and what we a r e . Salman R u s h d i e e n d o r s e s t h i s

t h e o r y i n Midnight's C h i l d r e n . Events b e f o r e Saleem's b i r t h a r e

i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n d e p i c t i n g who and what h e is, a n d R u s h d i e

d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e i r n p o s s i b i l i t y of s e p a r a t i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l and

political h i s t o r i e s . P o l i t i c a l e v e n t s h a v e a n i n e s c a p a b l e impact

o n S a l e e m ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , and become p a r t o f h i s l i f e , j u s t a s h e ,

a s a n i n d i v i d u a l , h a s an impact o n p o l i t i c s .
 Any s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n i s d e p e n d e n t upon social o r c u l t u r a l

mernory. A memory c a n be c u l t u r a l o n l y i f i t i s c a p a b l e o f b e i n g

t r a n s m i t t e d , and t o be t r a n s m i t t e d a memory must f i r s t be

articulated. There are many modes of t r a n s m i t t i n g c u l t u r a l

memory, a n d i t s a r t i c u l a t i o n may n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be v e r b a l ;

g e s t u r e s , a t t i t u d e s a n d s t e r e o t y p e d images may t r a n s m i t c u l t u r a l

noms. Furthemore, B a r t l e t t 's experiments on t h e transmission

o f mernory w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l g r o u p s p r o v e t h a t n o t o n l y

must memory be c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e d t o be t r a n s m i t t e d , b u t that

d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l g r o u p s w i l l c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e i n d i f f e r i n g ways,

i n accordance with t h e conventions of t h e i r c u l t u r e s . "Mernories

of p e o p l e i n d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s w i l l Vary b e c a u s e their m e n t a l

maps a r e d i f f e r e n t " (125). A s Chandra T . Mohanty s t a t e s , any

"map" i s c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g "re-drawn a s Our a n a l y t i c and

c o n c e p t u a l s k i l l s a n d knowledge d e v e l o p and t r a n s f o r r n t h e way we

u n d e r s t a n d q u e s c i o n s o f h i s t o r y , c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d agency" (Third

World Women 3 ) . Thus the m e n t a l "maps" w e d r a w a r e n e c e s s a r i l y

c h a r t e d i n o u r own d i s c o n t i n u o u s l o c a t i o n s i n t i m e and s p a c e . At

t h e same t i m e , these l o c a t i o n s d e p e n d on what a n d how we

rernember. With new e x p e r i e n c e s and i n f l u e n c e s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s

c o n s t a n t l y r e - a s s e s s i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y and l o c a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l

rnernory, f o r t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and c o n f r o n t a t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t

c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s o f p a s t and present c r e a t e t e n s i o n , a n d e x e r t

p r e s s u r e upon t h e manner i n which w e i n t e r p r e t Our l i v e s . This

t e n s i o n i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b i n a r y o r even o p p o s i t i o n a l . I t may

be m u l t i f a c e t e d . However, r e - n e g o t i a t i o n i s a c o n s t a n t a s t h e

i n d i v i d u a l copes w i t h t h e s e c h a n g i n g i n f l u e n c e s .
 The c o n t r o l o f a s o c i e t y l s c u l t u r a l memory is a means o f

r e t a i n i n g power a n d a u t h o r i t y . Connerton, i n How S o c i e t i e s

Remernber c l a i m s :

The more t o t a l t h e a s p i r a t i o n s of [a] ...

r e g i m e , t h e more i m p e r i o u s l y w i l l it s e e k

t o i n t r o d u c e a n era o f f o r c e d f o r g e t t i n g

.... t h e mental enslavement of t h e s u b j e c t s

o f a t o t a l i t a r i a n r e g i m e b e g i n s when t h e i r

memories a r e t a k e n away. When a l a r g e

power w a n t s t o d e p r i v e a small c o u n t r y o f

its n a t i o n a l consciousness it u s e s t h e

method o f o r g a n i z e d f o r g e t t i n g . ( 1 2

We w i t n e s s e d a n e r a o f e n f o r c e d f o r g e t t i n g i n S o u t h A f r i c a , where

writers and historians were a l 1 b u t p r o s c r i b e d ; i f t h e i r works

o v e r s t e p p e d t h e l i m i t s of g o v e r m e n t a c c e p t a b i l i t y , t h e i r works

a n d / o r t h e y , t h e m s e l v e s , were b a n n e d o r q u i e t l y i m p r i s o n e d . In

many c a s e s , such p e o p l e were i n t i m e f o r g o t t e n . T h a t Miriam

Tlali's M u r i e l a t M e t r o p o l i t a n a n d Amandla were o r i g i n a l l y banned

i n South A f r i c a i s e v i d e n c e o f t h e South A f r i c a n g o v e r m e n t ' s

c o n s c i o u s a t t e m p t t o s u p p r e s s h e r r e c o r d e d p e r s p e c t i v e o f life i n

the country a t t h a t t i m e .

I f we have no memory o f o u r s e l v e s , w e are i n f e a r o f f a l l i n g

i n t o o b l i v i o n , o r h a v i n g Our i d e n t i t y p r e s c r i b e d b y o t h e r s .

F r a n t z Fanon, i n h i s B l a c k S k i n s White Masks, e x p r e s s e s t h e

d a n g e r o f c o l o n i z e d p e o p l e s l o s i n g t h e i r own s e n s e o f t h e m s e l v e s ,

due t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f W e s t e r n c u l t u r e . A l t h o u g h Fanon, as Gwen

Berger a r g u e s , " t a k e s t h e m a s c u l i n e for t h e n o m " , his theories

d e l i n e a t e t h e c o n t r o l a n d pcï:er e x e r t e d on al1 colonized peoples

by W e s t e r n hegemony, a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e o p p r e s s e d a r e

detrimentally affected (76). H e examines t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l

a f f e c t s o f t h e n e g a t i v e s e l f - i m a g e s t h e c o l o n i z e d d e v e l o p , by

i n t e r n a l i z i n g a t t i t u d e s embedded w i t h i n w h i t e , e u r o - c e n t r i c

c u l t u r e s , a t t i t u d e s t h a t inculcate within t h e colonized a sense

of i n f e r i o r i t y . H e e x a m i n e s how l a n g u a g e a n d s e x u a l i t y h e l p

c o n s t r u c t c a t e g o r i e s o f r a c e , a s w e l l a s how l a n g u a g e a n d

s e x u a l i t y a r e m o d i f i e d by r a c e , a n d he e x p l o r e s t h e ways i n which

t h e c o l o n i z e d s u b j e c t d i s c o v e r s t h a t he i s r e j e c t e d b y t h e v e r y

c u l t u r e which he h a s a s s i m i l a t e d . Fanon e x h o r t s t h e c o l o n i z e d t o

r e s i s t s u c h c o n d i t i o n i n g , c l a i m i n g , "1 d o n o t have t h e r i g h t t o

a l l o w m y s e l f t o be m i r e d i n what t h e p a s t has d e t e r m i n e d , " and

a r g u e s t h a t " t h e body o f h i s t o r y d o e s n o t n e e d t o d e c e m i n e a

s i n g l e o n e o f my a c t i o n s ... 1 am my own f o u n d a t i o n . " (230-231).

To e s c a p e t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g , he

p o s t u l a t e s t h a t t h e c o l o n i z e d man must go "beyond t h e h i s t o r i c a l ,

i n s t r u m e n t a l h y p o t h e s i s " t o i n i t i a t e h i s "freedom"; t h a t i s , he

s h o u l d go beyond t h e g r o u n d l e s s a s s u r n p t i o n o f t h e c o l o n i s t s f

assumed s u p e r i o r i t y a n d o p p r e s s i v e s t a t u s which b a s b e e n

escablished h i s t o r i c a l l y ( 2 3 1 ) . He e x h o r t s t h e c o l o n i z e d man t o

" d i s a l i e n a t e f ' h i m s e l f , a n d re ject t h e assumed, n e g a t i v e self-

image t h a t r e l e g a t e s h i m t o t h e m a r g i n s , e v e n w i t h i n h i s own

c o n s c i o u s n e s s (231). Homi Bhabha expounds f u r t h e r on F a n o n ' s

a s s e r t i e n e x p l a i n i n g t h a t t h e "beyond" i s n e i t h e r a new h o r i z o n ,

n o r a l e a v i n g behind of t h e p a s t . H e argues t h a t it is t h e s e

i n b e t w e e n s p a c e s t h a t p r o v i d e the " l o c a t i o n s " i n which new signs

of identity can by initiated. The individual hast therefore, to
proceed beyond the historical time into unknowable space. Only

£rom this transitional state is the individual able to re-situate

hirn/herself in a new location which may be "the borderline

engagements of cultural difference" (Bhabha 2). This

transitional state in the "beyond" induces a sense of

disorientation, a disturbance of direction. Liberation from the

authority of cultural memory may, then, bring with it an

insecurity and instability, for the individual is no longer

embraced or dominated by any prevailing n o m s .

I f colonized peoples, as Fanon a s s e r t s , must struggle with

the effort to disalienate themselves from colonial cultural

conditioning, colonized women must struggle on more than one

front for their liberation and self-identification. Molara

Oqundipe-Leslie claims that "centuries of interiorization of

ideologies of patriarchy and gender hierarchy" have led them to

nave a "negative self image" (Recreating 30). African women have

generally been irnrnersed in a traditionally male-dominated world,

which dictated the role of women, consciously or otherwise,

according to their s e x . - Furthermore, colonialism oppressed

women particularly. New socio-economic schemes subordinated

women, and colonialisrn not only calcified existing s e x i s t

tendencies of pre-capitalist Africa, but introduced others.

(Recreating 30). African women have tended to live in

environrnents whose public external power structures have been

under the control of men and they have thus, through diifering

customs and traditions, inherited and internalized, both

collectively and individually, the cultural memory of a male-

dominated society. ~ i k eother third world women, African women

have thus been doubly marginalized, and have the cornplex

difficulty of struggling against two forms of memory control.

Frigga Haug emphasizes the need for women to negotiate new

political identities, claiming that only through their own

hîstoricization can women retrieve £rom the dominant culture a

new image of themselves. As she explains, this is not easy.

Since we are accustomed to using rapid

repression, obliteration and f orgetfulness

to maintain Our equilibrium, this attempt

to step back into the past to make the

unconscious conscious, both calls into

question Our normal ways of working over

events in consciousness and threatens our

stability as people. (20)

While African women encode mernories in the same

physiological way as men or any other social group, their

experiences differ; their "mental maps" are different. However,

since women are, as Mohanty claims, "constructed, defined within

and by the group", they are produced through their social

relations "as well as being implicated in forming them" ("Under

Western Eyes" 61, 5 9 ) . Thus, while African men and women writers

create their own fictionalized African worlds, they do so from

different, but not necessarily oppositional, perspectives.

The texts exarnined in this work reflect shared

cornmonalities, such African women's struggles with post-

c o l o n i a l i s m and ~ e s t e r n / e u r o c e n t r i ci n f l u e n c e s , and s t r u g g l e s

w i t h pst-iarchy a n d women's s t a t u s a s s e c o n d - C ~ S Sc i t i z e n s .

However, w h i l e 1 r e f e r t o A f r i c a n women w r i t e r s , 1 d o n o t s u g g e s t

t h a t t h e y f o r m a hornogeneous, u n i t a r y group w i t h s h a r e d

monolithic h i s t o r i e s ; indeed, s h a r e d c o m m o n a l i t i e s o f t e n mask

important d i f f e r e n c e s . The d i f f e r e n t a n d i n d i v i d u a l c u l t u r e s a n d

h i s t o r i e s d e f i n e how A f r i c a n women r e l a t e t o t h e i r s t r u g g l e s , a n d

t h e i r c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c l o c a t i o n s a r e themselves d e f i n e d by

time, space, and c l a s s . African patriarchy, t o o , is no more

u n i t a r y o r u n i v e r s a l t h a n a r e A f r i c a n women t h e m s e l v e s . The

n o v e l i s t s t h u s e x p r e s s d i f f e r i n g tensions and r e a c t i o n s t o t h e i r

p a r t i c u l a r c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i t h p o s t c o l o n i a l i s m and p a t r i a r c h y .

A f r i c a n women w r i t e r s t e n d t o c o n f r o n t i s s u e s which r e l a t e

most c l o s e l y t o t h e m s e l v e s . Thus, m a r r i a g e , p o l y g y n y , c h i l d -

bearing a n d t h e woman's s u b s e r v i e n t s t a t u s a r e r e c u r r e n t themes

i n their w o r k s . While A f r i c a n male w r i t e r s may w e l l i n c o r p o r a t e

these same i s s u e s i n t o t h e i r t e x t s , seldom a r e t h e y t h e c e n t r a l

themes. F u r t h e m o r e , i n w r i t i n g by A f r i c a n men, s u c h g e n d e r

t r a d i t i o n s g e n e r a l l y remain unchallenged. Much of t h e e a r l y

l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n by A f r i c a n men d e a l s w i t h s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l

i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c o l o n i a l i s m a n d men's s t r u g g l e s w i t h i n and away

from i t s c o n f i n e s . Women a r e g e n e r a l l y d e p i c t e d a s p e r i p h e r a l t o

t h e s t r u g g l e s ; t h e y t e n d t o f u n c t i o n a s symbols o f t r a d i t i o n o r

i n s t r u m e n t s f o r t h e male h e r o ' s working o u t o f his p r o b l e m s .

When A f r i c a n men d o d e p i c t a c e n t r a l woman p r o t a g o n i s t , s h e i s

3
l i k e l y t o be mythologized o r romanticized. The d i f f e r e n t s e x e s

c r e a t e o r r e c o r d t h e r o l e s of t h e i r women p r o t a g o n i s t s t h r o u g h
their own eyes and thus, not surprisingly, depict different
perspectives, perspectives developed from their inherited and

personally experienced cultural and individual memories.

Many African women writers articulate their struggle for

equality. In this work, 1 use the word "feminist" to denote

women who strive for equality in political, economic and social

arenas, although 1 am cognizant of the multiple definitions of

the word, and in the understanding that women of varying cultures

have different approaches towards liberation. Many African women

consider the term, "feminist", as applicable to the struggles of

white, middle-class American women, and inappropriate for

depicting the broader liberation issues confronting African

women. Many view the feminist movement as hegemonic,

Western/euro-American and anti-male. African women have been

challenged by more than sexual inequality; many are disadvantaged

by oppression of poverty and lack of education. Some see their

struggles for sexual equality as only part of a larger, wider

struggle for liberation of women and of their people as a whole,

and do not necessarily see themselves in an oppositional stance

to their inherited culture or the men in their ethnic groups.

Nigerian feminist, Ogundipe-Leslie, advocates that tnere can be

no liberation of African society without the liberation of women,

arguing indeed that the two issues cannot be separated. However,

she acknowledges women's different attitudes to gender issues.

Some women reject the bride price (dowry) which values women as

comrnodities; others wish to retain it, valuing the respect if

affords women. Some reject the practice of polygyny; other

collude with or openly condone polygyny. These contradictory

attitudes are evident within the t e x t s 1 examine. Miriam Were's

The Eiqhth Wife presents a compromising stance towards polygyny;

she seems to advocate that in certain situations polygyny is

advantageous. Buchi Emecheta States, "In many cases polygamy can

be liberating to the woman, rather than inhibiting her,

especially if she is educated .... Polygamy encourages her to

value herself as a person and look outside her family for

friends" ("Ferninisrn" 179). Yet, Emecheta's The Joys of

Motherhood clearly depicts the negative aspect of polygyny.

Ogundipe-Leslie also advocates that African women were, in a

sense, the first feminists, for they have always been

independent, and have had their own forms of resistance

(Recreating 52). In keeping with her belief that sexual

liberation is but part of a larger liberation, she clairns she is

a Stiwanist, STIWA being an acronym for Social Transformation

Including Women in Africa (Recreatinq 229). African American

AlFce Walker also rejects the term "feminist", preferring to cal1

herself a "womanist", a term for which she gives various

definitions, one being a holistic "cornmitment to survival and

wholeness of entire people, male and fernale" (Alice Walker xi).4

The writers, whose work 1 examine, also express alternate

opinions. Flora Nwapa prefers Alice Walker's predilection for

the term "wornanist", and rejects the label "feminist" as Western

and anti-men (Perry 1262). Head argues that she is a writer, not

a woman writer, claiming that the world of intellect is

impersonal and sexless ( A Woman Alone 95). Emecheta has changed

h e r s t a n c e a s her circumstances have changed- I n 1975, t h e

~ n t e r n a t i o n a lWomen's Year, Emecheta claimed s h e "had n e v e r h e a r d

t h e word ' feminism' before". I n Head Above Water s h e writes, "1

was w r i t i n g m y books f r o m e x p e r i e n c e s of my own life and from

w a t c h i n g a n d s t u d y i n g t h e l i v e s of t h o s e a r o u n d me. 1 d i d not

know t h a t w r i t i n g the way I was, w a s p u t t i n g m e i n t o a s p e c i a l

category" (89) . D e s p i t e her c l a i m s , h e r words may a l s o r e f l e c t

h e r subconscious i n t e r n a l i z i n g of t h e c u r r e n t c u l t u r a l t r e n d s of

her B r i t i s h environment. In 1984, s h e clairns, "My n o v e l s a r e n o t

f e m i n i s t ; t h e y a r e a p a r t o f the c o r p u s of A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e "

(Ravell-Pinto 5 0 ) . However, i n 1 9 8 8 , s h e S t a t e s , "1 c h r o n i c l e

t h e l i t t l e h a p p e n i n g s i n t h e l i v e s of t h e A f r i c a n women 1 know.

I d i d n o t know t h a t b y d o i n g so 1 was g o i n g t o be c a l l e d a

feminist. But i f I a m now a f e m i n i s t t h e n 1 a m a f e m i n i s t w i t h a

srna11 ' f ' ! " ("Ferninism", 1 7 5 ) . T h e s e a u t h o r s may wish t o evacie

t h e f e m i n i s t l a b e l t o a v o i d a c c u s a t i o n s o f s e r v i n g neo-

coionialisrn. On t h e o t h e r hand, Ogundipe-Leslie maintains t h a t

t h e i r d e n i a l s may r e f l e c t p a t r i a r c h a l i n t i m i d a t i o n ( R e c r e a t i n g

6 4 . T h e d i f f e r i n g f o r m s of f e m i n i s m a r e a l w a y s f l u i d a n d

changing, e x a c e r b a t i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t y of g e n e r a l i z i n g . While

some o f t h e works exarnined v o i c e d e s i r e s f o r s e x u a l e q u a l i t y , a l 1

c o n f r o n t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Western c u l t u r e , a n d a l l , w i t h t h e

p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f Rebeka N j a u ' s R i p p l e s i n the Pool, a d v o c a t e

t h e need f o r women t o b e e d u c a t e d , a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e

l i b e r a t i o n o f A f r i c a n women. O f c o u r s e , male dominance and

e d u c a t i o n of women a r e not u n r e l a t e d i s s u e s .
 To examine how African women assert their own cultural

authority necessitates exploring how they exploit the different

modes or methods by which the cultural past is transmitted.

Therefore, 1 include a brief analysis of the various modes of

cultural memory used in the works examined. Language is perhaps

the most powerful mode of transmitting memory, for inherent in iï

are cultural and ideological values. Furthemore, the receiver

or transmitter of linguistic expression may not consciously

accept the attitudes and perceptions inherent in the language.

The power a n d authority of language is accentuated in a political

system where the language of dominance imposes law and order.

Like al1 modes of memory, language may be manipulated,

misinterpreted or rnisunderstood; it may be used as a means of

control. Nadine Gordimer, for example, explores the fickle

nature of language and its precarious power in her novels. In

The Conservationist she explores the lack of communication

b e t w e e n different races and generations by demonstrating that,

dependent upon individual perspectives, the signs signify

differently. In July's People, s h e examines what happens to the

words that gave power when that power is eroded. Maureen and

July h a v e to learn how to read new signs and new signifiers,

which may or may not be embedded in language. Gordimer

exemplifies the need to reinterpret constantly the validity of

the signs, and s h e depicts, through the character of Maureen, the

sense of individual instability that such reinterpretation

brings.
 Embedded i n l a n g u a g e are i d i o m s , c l i c h é s , t r u i s m s , and

p r o v e r b s , a l 1 f o m s o f verbalizing a c o n s e n s u s o f b e h a v i o u r .

They t e n d t o a c t as u n r e f l e c t e d d i c t a , condemning o r g u i d i n g o n e

t o walk t h e w e l l - t r o d d e n p a t h o f t h a t which should b e , a c c o r d i n g

t o the c u l t u r e of t h a t language. Haug g o e s as f a r as t c clairn

t h a t t h e c l i c h é acts a s " a n o b s t a c l e t o t h o u g h t a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g

. ., [ t h a t ] def i n e s l i k e a c o r s e t t h e contours o f a p p r o p r i a t e

fernale f e e l i n g s and d e s i r e s " ( 6 2 ) . A f r i c a n fernale w r i t e r s h a v e

i n h e r i t e d o r a l t r a d i t i o n s which r e l y heavily on proverbs, idioms,

and c l i c h é s . F i x e d f o r m u l a i c e x p r e s s i o n s a r e , of c o u r s e , f o u n d

i n a n y c u l t u r e , b u t a r e more p r o l i f i c i n o r a l c u l t u r e s ( 9 , 2 2 ,

24). W a l t e r Ong i n h i s O r a l i t y a n d L i t e r a c y o p i n e s t h a t i n o r a l

c u l t u r e s people l e a r n a g r e a t d e a l and p r a c t i s e g r e a t w i s d o m b y

r e p e a t i n g what t h e y h e a r ; knowledge o n c e acquired has t o be

c o n s t a n t l y r e i t e r a t e d o r i t w i l l be l o s t . Thus, t h e use o f

c l i c h é s and r e p e t i t i o n , w h i c h t h e l i t e r a t e p e r s o n is e d u c a t e d t o

a v o i d , a r e n e c e s s a r y mnemonic t o o l s i n t h e o r a l s o c i e t y . To the

A f r i c a n , p r o v e r b s a r e more t h a n s u c c i n c t m e t a p h o r i c a l s t a t e m e n t s

conveying b a s i c t r u t h s . Use of p r o v e r b s i m p l i e s a c c e s s t o

a n c e s t r a l wisdom a n d a u t h o r i t y , a t h e - t e s t e d , communally

a c c e p t e d way of t h i n k i n g . The p r o v e r b i s a l s o a r h e t o r i c a l t o o l

used i n d e b a t e s t o b o l s t e r a r g u m e n t s ; u t t e r a n c e o f one p r o v e r b o r

r i d d l e c h a l l e n g e s t h e h e a r e r s t o t o p it w i t h a more a p p o s i t e o r

contradictory one. F u r t h e r m o r e , law i n o r a l c u l t u r e s i s

e n s h r i n e d i n p r o v e r b s o r f o r m u l a i c s a y i n g s , which, in fact,

c o n s t i t u t e t h e l a w t h e m s e l v e s (Owomoyela 1 6 - 1 7 ) .
 I n h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e s , p e r h a p s t h e most o b v i o u s f o m o f

c o n s t r u c t i n g c u l t u r a l memory, i m p o r t a n t e v e n t s a r e d e l i b e r a c e l y

emphasized o r p o p u l a r i z e d and i n t h a t way t h e h i s t o r i c a l w r i t e r

consciously o r semi-consciously c r e a t e s a national p o l i t i c a l

i d e n t i t y , a g a i n g i v i n g s h a p e t o t h e memory o f a p a r t i c u l a r

c u l t u r e i n a p a r t i c u l a r t i m e and place. The p e r s p e c t i v e from

which t h e h i s t o r y i s w r i t t e n a f f o x d s a n a d v a n t a g e o u s power, and

a s a form o f memory may b e u n t r u s t w o r t h y , f o r h i s t o r y , as a l 1

f orms of n a r r a t i v e , r e c o r d s s u b j e c t i v e l y , u s i n g s e l e c t i o n and

distortion. W h i l e f i c t i o n makes no c l a i r n s t o f a c t u a l or

c n r o n o l o g i c a l a c c u r a c y , t h e t r u t h o f t h e writers' p e r c e p t i o n s

defy challenge. S o u t h A f r i c a n writers r e c o u n t mornentous e v e n t s

s u c h a s t h e S h a r p e v i l l e x i o t s , t h e Soweto r i o t s , a n d S t e v e B i k o ' s

death. N i g e r i a n writers u s e t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e B i a f r a n war t o

d e p i c t t h e emergence of a new, n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l N i g e r i a . Kenyan

w r i t e r s evoke memories o f t h e Mau Mau r e b e l l i o n a n d the S t a t e o f

Emergency. T h e s e h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s become i n d i s p u t a b l e

t o u c h s t o n e s , e v e n t s which a r e cornmemorated i n t h e r e - t e l l i n g a n d
i
w h i c h become i m p o r t a n t i n s h a p i n g t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e p e o p l e .

However, A f r i c a n fernale w r i t e r s r e l a t e t h e s e e v e n t s f r o m n o t a b l y

women's p e r s p e c t i v e s , a n d t h u s o f f e r d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n s o f t h e

e v e n t s , v e r s i o n s t o l d f r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of m o t h e r s , wives

and d a u g h t e r s .

Customs a n d traditions are a l s o modes o f c o n v e y i n g c u l t u r a l

mernory. Like h i s t o r i e s , t h e y a r e concerned w i t h t h e apparent

preservation of c e r t a i n t h i n g s through t i m e . They a r e means o f

c o n v e y i n g a n d s u s t a i n i n g i m a g e s a n d r e c o l l e c t e d knowledge of t h e
p a s t , t r a n s m i t t e d n o t o n l y from o n e g e n e r a t i o n t o a n o t h e r , b u t

from one c u l t u r e t o a n o t h e r . A s W a l t e r Lippmann e x p l a i n s ,

c u s t o m s "are t h e p u b l i c w o r l d t o w h i c h Our p r i v a t e w o r l d s a r e

joined ... t h e m y s t e r y b y which i n d i v i d u a l s a r e a d o p t e d and

i n i t i a t e d i n t o membership w i t h a cornmunity" (105). The a p p e a l o f

c u s t o m i s p o s s i b l y i t s a p p e a r a n c e o f f i x i t y , offering t h e

i n d i v i d u a l a s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g and m e a n i n g , a f o o t h o l d i n t h a t

which is timeless. Customs a p p e a r t o h a v e no c o n s c i o u s

beginnings o r ends. However, t h e i m a g e s o f u n b r o k e n , s e a m l e s s

c o n t i n u i t y a r e u s u a l l y i l l u s i o n s , for i n o r d e r t o s u r v i v e ,

c u s t o m s , a s a l 1 o t h e r modes of memory, a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e l a w s o f

change and subtle reinterpretation, reemphasis and r e f ocus,

w i t h every r e p e t i t i o n o r performance. These c h a n g e s may be

h i d d e n from t h e community, and i n a g r a r i a n s o c i e t i e s s u c h c h a n g e s

rnay be v e r y s l o w . The o r a l t r a d i t i o n a f f o r d s g r e a t e r f l e x i b i l i t y

for refocusing, r e o r d e r i n g , and r e e m p h a s i s , t o h e l p i n d i v i d u a l s

o r g r o u p s r e - s i t u a t e t h e m s e l v e s a n d cope w i t h t h e p x e s e n t

conditions. B y c o n t r a s t , w r i t i n g n o t o n l y f r e e z e s t h e memory,

b u t d o e s s o i n t e x t u a l f o r m s , which e v o l v e i n ways q u i t e u n l i k e

o r a l memory. However, d e s p i t e t h e s t a s i s o f a w r i t t e n

perspective, t h e reader response i s n o t only v a r i e d according t o

the readers' d i f f e r e n t perspectives, b u t is a l s o s u b j e c t t o

change, a s t h e c u l t u r a l l o c a t i o n of t h e r e a d e r changes. Thus t h e

same r e a d e r may i n t e r p r e t t h e w r i t t e n words d i f f e r e n t l y a t

different times.

For c u s t o m s and t r a d i t i o n s t o r e m a i n a l i v e t h e y have t o

r e t a i n meaning f o r t h e cornmunity. A changing s o c i a l p e r s p e c t i v e

may r e q u i r e r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d r e a r r a n g i n g o f t h e o r i g i n a l

custom. T h i s may t a k e t h e form o f r e - c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n into a

new g e n r e , a n d t h i s c a n i n i t i a t e c h a n g e s w i t h i n memory i t s e l f .

Oral communication i s i n i t s e l f s o c i a l , u n i t i n g p e o p l e i n groups;

oral c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l w a y s r e q u i r e s t h e " o t h e r " i n p e r s o n . Oral

rnemorization i s a l s o s u b j e c t t o d i r e c t s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s :

n a r r a t o r s n a r r a t e w h a t a u d i e n c e s cal1 f o r o r w i l l t o l e r a t e .

Because o f t h e s o c i a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f o r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n o r a l

s o c i e t y , Ong p o s t u l a t e s , values t h e g r o u p o v e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l

(67-69) . H e argues t h a t because w r i t i n g and r e a d i n g , by

c o n t r a s t , encourage s o l i t a r y e x p r e s s i o n and s o l i t a r y thought,

t h r o w i n g t h e p s y c h e b a c k upon i t s e l f , l i t e r a t e s l e a r n t o f o c u s o n

the individual.

However, o p p o s i t i o n a l p o s i t i o n i n g o f o r a l i t y a n d w r i t i n g

tends t o simplify t h e s i t u a t i o n . W r i t i n g is a means o f

communication and a n y w r i t t e n work r e q u i r e s t h e i m a g i n e d p r e s e n c e

of one o r more r e a d e r s i n t h e mind o f t h e w r i t e r . Furthermore,

t h e t e x c s examined i n t h i s work owe t h e i r e x i s t e n c e a t l e a s t i n

p a r t t o p u b l i c a t i o n demands, demands which rnay w e l l b e t h o s e o f a

Western m a r k e t . Economics and m a r k e t i n g p l a y a r o f e i n t h e r o u t e

t h e w r i t t e n work t a k e s £rom t h e mind o f its c r e a t o r t o t h e

p u b l i s h e d bock. A s C a r o l y n Steedman e x p l a i n s i n P a s t T e n s e ç :

E s s a y s o n W r i t i n g , A u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d H i s t o r y , the w r i t e r ' s

r e l i a n c e on r e a d e r s ' r e s p o n s e s may h e l p s h a p e t h e s t r u c t u r e of

t h e i r work. The w r i t e r , s h e e x p l a i n s , may d i s p e n s e w i t h a

s t r i c t l y chronological structure, r e l y i n g on t h e r e a d e r , who,

having a developed h i s t o r i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s , assumes and mentally

provides the historical linkages. Writing is not a totally

isolated activity.

Factors other than orality may also influence Africans to

value the group o v e r the individual. Gwendolyn Etter-Lewis

suggests that community identity allows the individual to reject

negative self-images, imposed by the internalization of hegemonic

cultures, and to embrace a more positive self created by the

community (53). Identification with that which is larger than

the individual self also offers a comforting security, a sense of

belonging and meaning.

Writing offers African women a means of self-preservation

and revolution, and a means of establishing their own cultural

authorities and projecting their futures. Mohanty States that

"the very practice of rewriting and remembering leads to the

formation of political consciousness and self-identity. Writing

often becomes the context through which new political identities

are forged" ( 3 4 ) . However, as Mohanty postulates, the

consciousness such as that which African women form through

writing is a consciousness "born of historical collusion of ...

cultures .... It is a plural consciousness in that it requires

understanding of multiple, at times often opposing ideas and

knowledge and negotiating these knowledges, not just taking a

counterstance" (Third World 36). Self-identification, both

persona1 and national, is thus a process requiring constant

reaching into the beyond in order to challenge the authority of

the present. Re-situating oneself is not a question of merely

reaching into the past to retain a lost culture. ~t is a

question of releasing oneself from the present, dominating

culture and relocating oneself with the experience and

perspective of past and present. This process of reviewing and

renewal is what keeps cultural values and traditions growing, for

change, as always, is the constant.

Because Our perception of the world is dependent upon what

we remember, al1 writing involves memory. Fiction relies on

memory to make itself intelligible- At the same time, memory is

always fictictious to a degree. Al1 truths are inherently

partial, committed and incomplete. In order to delude ourselves

tnat Our lives are seamless continuities of cause and effect we

create constructs and f o m linkages to explain and give meaning

and continuity to Our lives. We recall using selection,

distortion, bias, and, most importantly, we also forget.

Examining the role memory plays in narratives, affords the reader

the opportunity to examine the narrators' confrontation with the

tensions and contradictions of differing cultural experiences,

and their continual re-negotiating and re-positioning of the

centre of their present cultural authority.

The African wornen writers examined in this work write

autobiographies, histories and novels. An autobiography may be

defined as the first p e r s o n account of the narrator's life up

until a certain t h e , from a particuiar cultural location. Many

of the novels discussed are autobiographical in nature, although

not written in the first person. Emecheta's first two novels,

Second Class Citizen and In the Ditch, Tlali's Muriel at

Metropolitan, and Head's When Rain Clouds Gather, Maru, and -

A
Question of Power, al1 drav on persona1 histories, to varying

degrees, without being written in the first person. Carolyn

Steedman asserts it is "possible to tell lies in autobiography,

to bear false witness in a way that it is not possible to tell

lies in the writing of fiction" (125). She argues that in

autobiography it is the author's perception from a particular

time and place that is being conveyed; the veracity or chronology

of events is not important, but the truth of the writer's

perception remains unchallenged. Autobiography gives the

impression of being more authentic than the novel, because of the

writers' persona1 experiences; however, autobiographies and

histories, while recording actual happenings, are nevertheless

creative and inventive. Events and actions may be manipulated,

and time sequences confused, in the need to impose structure and

meaning, and provide explanations. And, this imposition of

structure and meaning is necessary, not only for the cohesion of

the woxk as a whole, but also for the writer's sense of

individual coherence. Likewise, in novels, the narrator

selects, orders and structures in order to convey her point of

view from a particular time and place. While the writers'

perception of that time and place is frozen in the text, her

perception might subsequently change as she re-locates her

cultural situation at a later date.

Lewis Nkosi maintains that African novelists work within a

structure that has not evolved £rom their own literature. He

postulates that the "novel form must distort the African past and

tradition in order to contain it within its framework" (5).

However, I would argue that the novel tradition, as with al1

other traditions, is subject to change and reassessment. Each

repetition of the novelistic form may subtly alter it, for the

novel tradition, to remain meaningful, must meet the demands of

its users. On the other hand, the psychological and individual

foci of traditional Western novels may lead the African writers

to question their inherited or assumed value of the group over

the individual. Such two-way adaptation shows how uroups corne to

terms with their traditions in changing circumstances, an3 how

the different cultures may overlap and impact, one upon the

other.
The works I examine are written by African women in English,

rather than in their mother tongues. Of interest is the extent

to which they integrate cultural mernories that may be sizil2r to

or different from their own, by writing in a second language. A

second language is possibly acquired in a more self-conscious

manner than is a mother tongue. Hence t h e s e writers'

reiterations of cultural perspectives embedded in the English

language rnay perhaps be less subconscious than with those for

whorn ~nglishis a mother tongue. On the other hand, the writers

rnay subconsciously transmit cultural values that they do not

consciously accept .

In this work, 1 propose to examine the modes of memory,

persona1 and social, as embedded in languages, traditions,

customs and histories, and evaluate to what extent such modes of

memory illuminate and inforrn their work. 1 shall examine how

some African women writers relocate themselves culturally, re-

living, re-interpreting and re-assessing their pasts within the

E n g l i s h linguistic medium and how they depict their growing

consciousness of their o w n ever evolving political identities.

The women protagonists, depicted in the texts 1 examine, are

invariably victims of double marginalization, that of

postcolonialism and their male-dominated societies, and what they

choose to remember or forget of their inheritance is of

importance in establishing their stance in relation to both male

and Western hegernony. Through their writing, through their

mernories, and through their use of their adopted linguistic

expression, African women writers are able to create their own

present and hopes of future to corne. Memory is their means of

going "beyond the historical", their means of constructing their

own identicies.
 Endno tes

L
The f i r s t A f r i c a n writers w e r e men. Initially

c o l o n i s t s s e l e c t e d males f o r f o r m a l W e s t e r n e d u c a t i o n .

F u r t h e m o r e , sex r o l e d i s t i n c t i o n s cornmon t o many A f r i c a n

s o c i e t i e s s u p p o r t e d t h e i d e a t h a t e d u c a t i o n f o r women w a s a

b a r r i e r t o a woman's r o l e as w i f e a n d m o t h e r a n d a n impedirnent t o

n e r s u c c e s s i n t r a d i t i o n a l modes o f a c q u i r i n g s t a t u s . By t h e

1960s, however, women were g e n e r a l l y b e t t e r e d u c a t e d ( D a v i e s 2 ) .

-+

Filornina Chioma S t e a d y p o i n t s o u t that even i n

m a t r i l i n e a l A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s , women a r e s t i l l s u b o r d i n a t e t o

men, t h e o n l y d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g t h a t i n h e r i t a n c e a 2 d a u t h o r l t y

p a s s t h r o u g h t h e women t o t h e male o f t h e l i n e ( 1 7 ) .
2

A s rny t h e s i s deals w i t h A f r i c a n women w r i t e r s , i t is

n o t w i t h i n i t s s c o p e t o examine t h e works o f A f r i c a n male w r i t e r s

and t h e i r p o r t r a y a l o f women. Florence S t r a t t o n provides in-

d e p t h a n a l y s i s and c o m p a r i s o n between male a n d fernale w r i t e r s a n d

t h e i r d e p i c t i o n o f women i n Contemporary A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e a n d

t h e P o l i t i c s o f Gender. A l s o , C a r o l e Boyce Davies and Anne Adams

Graves, eds, Ngambika: S t u d i e s o f Women i n A f r i c a n L i t e r a t u r e ,

and Molara O g u n d i p e - L e s l i e i n R e c r e a t i n g O u r s e l v e s , C h a p t e r s 2

and 5 , p r o v i d e f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s .
4
A l i c e Walker d e f i n e s h e r tenn "womanist" i n a v a r i e t y

o f ways. She S t a t e s t h a t t h e womanist is a " b l a c k f e m i n i s t o r

feminist of color", a "woman who l o v e s o t h e r women, s e x u a l l y

and/or nonsexually", someone who l o v e s m u s i c , d a n c e , the moon a n d

s p i r i t , " l o v e a n d f o o d and roundness"; a womanist "is t o f e m i n i s t

as purple t o lavender". F o r Walker's f u l l d e f i n i t i o n s , r e f e r t o

W a l k e r ' s I n S e a r c h o f Our M o t h e r s r G a r d e n s ( x i - x i i ) .
i
Miriam T l a l i , Buchi Emecheta, C h a r i t y Waciuma, Z e b e k a

Njau and Grace Ogot r e c o r d o r r e f e r t o t h e s e historical e v e n t s

b o t h i n t h e n o v e l s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s work a s w e l l as i n a number

of short s t o r i e s .

b e l 1 hooks s p e a k s o f t h e "envy b l a c k p e o p l e have a b o u t

t h e way t h e Jewish e x p e r i e n c e of t h e holocaust is i n c r e a s i n g l y

documented - t h e way f o l k s , e s p e c i a l i y i n f i l m s , a r e made m i n d f u l

a n d aware n o t o n l y o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , b u t t h e t e r r i b l e damage t o

t h e psyches o f survivors". hooks b e l i e v e s t h a t b l a c k women

writers t h r o u g h t h e i r f i c t i o n s a r e t r y i n g t o document t h e i r

undocuxe.ented p a s t t o make r e a d e r s aware of t h e damage done b y

v a z i o u s forms of o p p r e s s i o n , s u c h a s a p a r t h e i d a n d s l a v e r y ( 2 1 6 -

C o n n e r t o n stresses t h a t it is t h i s reenactment o f

custom a n d r i t u a l , r a t h e r t h a n t h e c o n t e n t t h a t i s t h e

f e a t u r e o f c a r d i n a l i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e s h a p i n g of t h e e v e r

evolving communal memory. T h e r e e n a c t m e n t and process o f

r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h e c o n s t a n t , and r e f l e c t s r e a l c h a n g e s

i n i n t e r n a 1 and e x t e r n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s (61).
 CHAPTER ONE

CULTURAL MEMORY IN THE WORKS OF

WACIUMA, OGOT, NWAPA AND NJAU

Charity Waciuma's Daughter of Mumbi (1969) is the first

autobiography written in English by an African woman. The work
is situated i n Waciuma's homeland, Kenya, when under the

oppressive white rule, and the state of emergency during the Mau

Mau uprisings. Waciuma draws on her persona1 past in order to

write her own historical account of her life as a Kenyan woman of

the Gikuyu community.'

However, as a young girl, she is so f i d y embedded within

her culture that the individual Waciuma is scarcely

distinguishable from her cultural community. Most Western

readers expect an autobiography to propose the individual as its

centre, and to offer the reader a way of getting inside a world
that is mentally different from their own. To be truly dynamic,

the autobiography generally depicts some c o n f l i c t between the

individual and society or the environment. To the Western

reader, some portions, particularly in the early part of

Waciuma's autobiography, may read like a sociological documentary
of the Gikuyu customs at t h a t tirne, rather than intimate

revelations of an individual's growth and maturity. Her work is

perhaps an example of work that leads Nkosi to question the

"appropriateness of the novel genre in recapturing the true

feeling of traditional African society" ( 5 ) . However, Jomo

Kenyatta claims that whereas "individuality is the ideal of life"

f o r Western and American readers .. . for A f r i c a n s , t h e " i d e a l is
t h e right r e l a t i o n s w i t h , a n d b e h a v i o u r t o , other people1' ( F a c i n g

Mt. Kenya 1 1 8 ) . A s e x a m i n a t i o n o f Waciuma's n o v e l w i l l

d e m o n s t r a t e , t h e Gikuyusl s e n s e o f self is e n t i r e l y p r e d i c a t e d on

t h e i r b e i n g p a r t o f t h e whole Gikuyu community, b o t h p a s t and

present, l i v i n g i n t h e land o f their ancestors. T o view h e r s e l f

i n c o n f l i c t w i t h h e r s o c i e t y o r her e n v i r o n m e n t , Waciuma would

have t o deny h e r Gikuyu i d e n t i t y . T h i s , no d o u b t , a c c o u n t s f o r

t h e t y p i c a l i t y o f t h e events t h a t Waciuma r e l a t e s i n t h e f i r s t

half of h e r novel. She d e f i n e s h e r s e l f i n terms o f o t h e r s , and

c a r e f u l l y e x p l a i n s t h a t t h i s i s part o f Gikuyu t r a d i t i o n .

T h e n o v e l details many l a n g u a g e r e l a t e d customs s u c h a s the

naming o f c h i l d r e n , t h e manner i n which t h e Gikuyu g r e e t one

a n o t h e r , and the methods of t e l l i n g t i m e . By d e s c r i b i n g t h e s e

customs, Waciuma d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e a u t h o r i t y c u l t u r a l memory

holds. She v a l u e s h e r custorns as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of h e r s e l f ,

a n d h e r i n c l u s i o n of t h e s e d e t a i l s t h u s w a r r a n t s f u r t h e r

examination.

Naming a child, g e n e r a l l y t h e i n i t i a l a c t of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ,

is, for t h e Gikuyu, l i n k e d w i t h o t h e r s , o t h e r s of t h e p a s t .

Waciuma e x p l a i n s :

I n Our c o u n t r y names are n o t c h o s e n

h a p h a z a r d l y ; t h e y are v i t a l l y bound up w i t h

being t h e s o r t of p e r s o n you are. Any name

i n c l u d e s many p e o p l e who a r e now dead,

o t h e r s who a r e l i v i n g , and those who a r e

s t i l l n o t born. I t b i n d s its owner deep

 i n t o Kikuyu h i s t o r y , beyond t h e o l d e s t man

w i t h t h e l o n g e s t memory. A l 1 our relatives

t o che f u r t h e s t e x t e n t o f t h e family, t h e i r

a c t i o n s , t h e i r l i v e s and t h e i r c h i l d r e n a r e

a n i n t r i n s i c part o f o u r b e i n g a l i v e , of

b e i n g human, o f b e i n g African, of b e i n g

Kikuyu. (8)

R a t h e r than b e i n g a n u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l i n h i s o r h e r own r i g h t ,

the c h i l d is a r e i n c a r n a t i o n o f whomever h e o r s h e is named

a f t e r , and t h e s p i r i t o f t h e p e r s o n after whom h e or s h e is named

i s g u a r a n t e e d i m r n o r t a l i t y t h a t way. Thus, t h r o u g h t h e i r naming

customs, t h e Gikuyu always know t h a t t h e y are c o n n e c t e d t o p e o p l e

t h e y have n e v e r s e e n , and t h e s e t i e s which w e r e once "irnagined

particularistically ... become i n d e f i n i t e l y s t r e t c h a b l e nets of

k i n s h i p " b i n d i n g t h e mernbers o f t h e g r o u p b y a strong s e n s e o f

comrnunity (Anderson 1 6 ) .

The Gikuyu method o f g r e e t i n g one a n o t h e r i s a l s o i n terms

of others.

I n g e n e r a l a p e r s o n is known by his o r h e r

basic r o l e i n l i f e . Thus a g i r l , b e i n g

above al1 somebody's d a u g h t e r , is known a s

" d a u g h t e r of" h e r f a t h e r , o r s o m e t i m e s h e r

m o t h e r ; when s h e m a r r i e s s h e i s r e f e r r e d t o

a s " w i f e o f " h e r husband; and when s h e h a s

a c h i l d she r e c e i v e s t h e r e s p e c t f u l t i t l e
"mother o f so-and-son . (8-9)
~t whatever a g e o r s t a g e , t h e r e f o r e , t h e woman is d e f i n e d i n

t e m s of relationships. While g i v i n g t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , ~ a c i u m a

o f f e r s no p e r s o n a l r e f l e c t i o n s . On t h e one hand, t h e r e a d e r may

deduce t h a t a woman h a s l i t t l e i n d i v i d u a l i t y i n the Western

s e n s e ; on the o t h e r hand, t h e r e a d e r may i n f e r t h a t t h e woman is

always i n a c o m f o r t i n g embrace o f b e l o n g i n g . The i n d i v i d u a l F s

s o f i r m l y s i t u a t e d i n t h e e n t i r e Gikuyu h i s t o r y , past, present

and f u t u r e , t h a t a n y i m p o r t a n c e g i v e n t o a n i n d i v i d u a l l i f e is i n

terms of t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e group a s a whole. To t e l l her story

n e c e s s i t a t e s t e l l i n g t h e s t o r y o f t h e Gikuyu p e o p l e .

Waciuma e x p l a i n s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between E n g l i s h and Gikuyu

rime t e l l i n g methods, and a g a i n h e r i n c l u s i o n o f s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n

r e f l e c t s h e r Gikuyu i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Time f o r t h e Gikuyu h a s no

o b j e c t i v e numerical system, but i s i n e x t r i c a b l y interwoven with

t h e c y c l i c a l p a t t e r n s o f t h e i r Lives, r o o t i n g t h e Gikuyu f i r m l y

i n t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f things. Waciuma l i s t s t h e v a r i o u s t i m e s of

d a y , w r i t t e n i n Gikuyu, with an accompanying l i t e r a l E n g l i s h

translation. For instance, "Ngware itanagambo", very e a r ly i n

the morning, l i t e r a l l y means " b e f o r e t h e p a r t r i d g e c a l l s " .

"Gwakia", meaning "when t h e f i r s t l i g h t a p p e a r s " , d e s c r i b e s day

break. "Mirugia a k a " is t h e evening h o u r when women a r e busy

g e t t i n g f i r e w o o d , d r a w i n g water and p r e p a r i n g f o o d (178). The

month i s d i v i d e d u p according t o t h e p h a s e s o f t h e moon, a n d t h e

decades a r e remernbered i n terms of a s m a l l b u s h t h a t f l o w e r s o n l y

e v e r y ten y e a r s , e a c h "blossoming ... named after a n i m p o r t a n t

e v e n t t h a t o c c u r r e d a b o u t t h e same t i m e " (79). Seasons a r e n o t e d

"according t o t h e amount of r a i n each one b r o u g h t and the c r o p s

... planted" ( 4 7 ) . Waciuma l i s t s t h e months, g i v i n g t h e
e q u i v a l e n t Gikuyu name and t h e l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n , s o that t h e

r e a d e r may l e a r n , for example, t h a t Muggaa ( J a n u a r y ) is "when t h e

b i r d s must be d r i v e n from t h e m i l l e t f i e l d s " , and s o f o r t h ( 4 7 ) .

I n t h i s manner, Waciuma i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e Gikuyu l a n g u a g e

into her text. Time is measured i n t e r m s o f what is o c c u r r i n g i n

t h e n a t u r a l world o f t h e Kikuyu r e g i o n , t h e p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e

Sun a n d moon, t h e s a n g s of t h e b i r d s , the a c t i v i t i e s of t h e

a n i m a l s , and o f what needs t o be done, m i l k i n g , h a r v e s t i n g , and

sowing. The c o n c e p t o f time t h u s r e a f f i r m s t h e same c y c l i c a l

h a b i t s and e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e Gikuyu a n c e s t r a l p a s t ; t i m e is

measured i n r e l a t i o n t o the environment, a n d what has a l w a y s

c u s t o m a r i l y happened a t any moment. Thus, a c c o r d i n g t o Gikuyu

methods, t h e c o n c e p t of time h a s l i t t l e s i g n i f i c a n c e o u t s i d e of

t h e ;;ikuyu t e r r i t o r y , for i t i s n o t e a s i l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o

different locations. T h e i r s e n s e of t i m e i s i n t e g r a t e d w i t h the

l i f e s t y l e of Gikuyu p e o p l e l i v i n g i n t h e Kikuyu a r e a , and, a s a

r e s u l t , i s l i n k e d t o who and what t h e y a r e . According t o

Waciuma, because t h e Gikuyu c u l t u r e p l a c e s t h e community b o t h

l i n g u i s t i c a l l y and p h y s i c a l l y i n a p a r t i c u l a r geographic region,

t h e Gikuyu "spends h i s l i f e w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s of h i s c l a n

land" ( 2 0 ) . Waciuma e x p l a i n s , "Although my p a r e n t s were

C h r i s t i a n s , t h e y c o u l d n o t r i s k moving o u t o f Our c l a n l a n d

b e c a u s e t h e y t h o u g h t w e would be p e r s e c u t e d by t h e spirits o f

t h e i r own p l a c e o r of t h e i r a n c e s t o r s " (20). The past i s thus

w i t h them always, embedded i n t h e i r c u l t u r e , l a n g u a g e , customs

and l o c a t i o n .
 Waciuma i n c o r p o r a t e s v a r i o u s Gikuyu terms and phrases i n t o

t h e t e x t , mostly with English t r a n s l a t i o n s . However, s h e makes

no a t t e m p t t o s y n c r e t i s e t h e Gikuyu a n d E n g l i s h idioms as d o e s

F l o r a Nwapa i n E f u r u , a n d a l t h o u g h s h e i n f o r m s t h e r e a d e r t h a t

" p r o v e r b s c o n t a i n e d much good s e n s e a n d t h e a c c u m u l a t e d knowledge

of my p e o p l e , s o t h a t t h e y became a v a s t s t o r e o f wisdom" she

d o e s n o t e x p o s e t h e r e a d e r t o many (21).3 When c o n c l u d i n g h e r

g r a n d f a t h e r ' s t a l e , s h e S t a t e s , "Teasingly, 1 f i n i s h e d t h e story

a c c o r d i n g t o G r a n d f a t h e s ' s custom w i t h o n e o f h i s t r a d i t i o n a l

proverbs: Njamba ya i t a i r u g a na itimu no r i ruhia - 'one g o e s

i n t o b a t t l e w i t h a s p e a r , n o t w i t h a h o r n o f b e e r f '' ( 2 5 ) . The

r e t e n t i o n of t h e Gikuyu words p e r p e t u a t e s what William A s h c r o f t ,

G a r e t h G r i f f i t h s and H e l e n T i f f i n d e s c r i b e a s t h e "metonymic

f u n c t i o n o f t h e c r o s s - c u l t u r a l t e x t b y a l l o w i n g t h e word co s t a n d

f o r tk,e latent p r e s e n c e " o f a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e (62). They

a r g u e t h a t w h i l e j u x t a p o s i n g t h e words i n t h i s way may s u g g e s t

t h a t t h e meaning of a word is i t s referent, t h e r e i s a n i m p l i c i t

"gap" between t h e p u t a t i v e r e f e r e n t i a l i t y o f t h e w o r d s . This

"gap" i s n o t n e g a t i v e b u t p o s i t i v e i n i t s e f f e c t , for it

" p r e s e n t s t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h r o u g h which a n i d e n t i t y ( c r e a t e d o r

r e c o v e r e d ) c a n b e e x p r e s s e d " (62). However, A s h c r o f t , G r i f f i t h s

a n d T i f f i n d o acknowledge t h a t c r o s s - c u l t u r a l t e x t u a l g l o s s i n g

"may l e a d t o a c o n s i d e r a b l y stilted movement o f p l o t a s t h e s t o r y

i s f o r c e d t o d r a g an e x p l a n a t o r y machinery behind it" ( 6 2 ) .

Waciuma's l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n o f h e r g r a n d f a t h e r ' s p r o v e r b i s n o t

f u l l y incorporated i n t o t h e t e x t , nor v a l i d a t e d by t h e s t o r y

itself. Furthermore, as w i t h t h e lists o f t i m e , t h e Gikuyu words

a r e l o s t on t h e non-Gikuyu r e a d e r , for w i t h o u t t h e a b i l i t y t o

pronounce t h e words, t h e y r e m a i n t o t a l l y f o r e i g n , and t h e r e a d e r

w i l l no d o u b t s k i p o v e r them. However, t h e i n c l u s i o n o f h e r own

language with a l 1 i t s c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h i n h e r

aucobiography r e f l e c t s t h e a u t h o r i t y it h o l d s o v e r h e r .

Waciuma's e x p l a n a t i o n s a n d t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e Gikuyu

l a n g u a g e e x e m p l i f y B a r t l e t t ' s claims that l a n g u a g e e x e r t s a

m e n t a l c o n t r o l of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ( 2 9 8 ) . As Moore c l a i m s i n his

" I n t r o d u c t i o n " t o S o c i a l Memory, memories which h e l p u s

c o n s t i t u t e o u r sense of i d e n t i t y a r e n o t o n l y our own. Such

memories a r e p a r t l y " l e a r n e d , borrowed a n d i n h e r i t e d " ,

t r a n s m i t t e d t o u s through t h e language o f t h e f a m i l i e s ,

comrnunities and c u l t u r e s t o which we b e l o n g ( F e n t r e s s v i i i } .

Waciuma's a u t o b i o g r a p h y v a l i d a t e s Moore's c l a i r n , r e c a l l i n g t h e

customs and t r a d i t i o n s u p h e l d by h e r g r a n d f a t h e r , t h e cuscoms

r h a t h e r f a t h e r r e j e c t e d , a n d h e r u n c l e r s t h o u g h t s and o p i n i o n s

on t h e influence of colonialism. She i n h e r i t s t h e i r v a l u e s ,

h i s t o r i e s and i d e a s , and, a s a young g i r l t a u g h t t o r e s p e c t t h e

authority o f h e r e l d e r s and r e v e r e t h e v a l u e of h e r p e o p l e , t o

q u e s t i o n t h e s e i s s u e s p o s s i b l y would be t o q u e s t i o n h e r v e r y

existence. Because o f h e r l o v e and a f f e c t i o n f o r h e r f a t h e r ,

g r a n d f a t h e r and u n c l e , and t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e p o s i t i o n t h e y hold

i n h e r l i f e , t h e i r o p i n i o n s become her own, and i n t h i s way,

Waciuma draws on her c u l t u r a l , s o c i a l p a s t a n d t h e l a n g u a g e

t h r o u g h which she views i t . However, i t is a c u l t u r a l p a s t

d i c t a t e d by men.
 I n w r i t i n g h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h y , Waciuma n a t u r a l l y rernernbers

selectively. She i n d i r e c t l y acknowledges her i n d e b t e d n e s s t o h e r

g r a n d f a t h e r f o r h i s s t o r i e s of t h e p a s t , d e v o t i n g a c h a p t e r t o

h i s legends (16) . When r e i t e r a t i n g h e r g r a n d f a t h e r ' s t a l e s , s h e

r e c a l l s n o t o n l y h e r own a n d h i s memories, b u t t h e medium o f

language as w e l l , and t h a t s h e c h o o s e s t o r e c o u n t t h e s e tales a s

p a r t o f h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h y r e f l e c t s t h e i m p a c t t h e y h a d upon h e r .

James O l n e y w r i t e s t h a t a l 1 Gikuyu a u t o b i o g r a p h e r s t e l l much t h e

same s t o r y as o n e a n o t h e r , a n d t h e same s t o r y as t o l d b y K e n y a t t a

(5). Waciuma i s no e x c e p t i o n , a n d i n r e c o u n t i n g t h e l e g e n d o f

Gikuyu a n d Mumbi as t o l d t o h e r by h e r g r a n d f a t h e r , Waciuma draws

on a d o u b l e rnemory, r e c a l l i n g what a l 1 G i k u y u e l d e r s t e l l t h e i r

Young p e o p l e . ' A l t h o u g h Waciurna is narned a f t e r h e r a u n t , and

g i v e n t h e name of W a n j i k u , s h e is a d d r e s s e d i n terms o f h e r

r e l a ~ i o n s h i p s . T h e r e f o r e , Waciuma, l i k e a l 1 Gikuyu women, i s t h e

d a u g h t e r o f Mumbi. T h i s e x p l a i n s both t h e t i t l e o f t h e novel and

why Waciuma's a u t o b i o g r a p h y , o n o n e l e v e l , t e l l s t h e s t o r y o f a l 1

Gikuyu women of her t i m e s . The Gikuyu s e n s e o f community i s t h u s

based o n r n y t h i c a l fiction, o n e that is p e r p e t u a t e d by means of

r e c a l i , r e i t e r a t i o n and language. Waciuma t h e r e b y i l l u s t r a t e s

A n d e r s o n ' s t h e o r y o f "irnagined communities", and t h e l o y a l t y such

c o m m u n i t i e s evoke f r o m t h e i r rnembers.

I n t e l l i n g h e r s t o r y , Waciuma r e l a t e s t h e d a i l y e v e n t s t h a t

cook p l a c e i n her community, some of which p e r t a i n p a r t i c u l a r l y

t o worneri,. However, Waciuma t e n d s t o o f f e r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t

t h e woman's r o l e i n s o c i e t y w i t h l i t t l e comment o r d e m o n s t r a t i o n .

S h e refers o n l y b r i e f l y t o t h e b r i d e - p r i c e p a i d t o t h e f a t h e r of
t h e b r i d e , and r e c o r d s w i t h o u t r e f l e c t i o n t h a t " g i r l s were n o t

allowed t o s i t n e a r when t h e e l d e r s were d i s c u s s i n g i m p o r t a n t

i s s u e s " (16). She p r o v i d e s o b j e c t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Gikuyu woman and h e r husband, e x p l a i n i n g a

t h a t Gikuyu women l a b o u r on t h e f a m s a n d i n t h e homes, a n d s e r v e

t h e i r husbands w i t h "obedience a n d l o y a l t y " ( II) . Furthemore,

she s t a t e s :
A woman, g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , d i d n o t own o r

dispose of property o u t s i d e h e r persona1

and h o u s e h o l d e f f e c t s . She d i d , however,

have c e r t a i n r i g h t s , s u c h a s c h o o s i n g h e r

woman f r i e n d s - While t h e husband, by

v i r t u e o f paying t h e b r i d e p r i c e ,

c o n t r o l l e d h e r and a n y t h i n g s h e p r o d u c e d , a

w i f e would e x p e c t h i s l o v e and r e s p e c t i n

return. (21)

T h e r e a d e r i s l e f t u n c e r t a i n a s t o Waciuma's p e r s o n a 1 o p i n i o n :

s h e sirnply s t a t e s t h e facts. However, s h e h i n t s d i s a p p r o v a l o f

t h e mannes i n which h e r g r a n d f a t h e r t r e a t e d h i s two wives; she

comments i n d i r e c t l y o n t h e s t a t u s o f women when s h e s t a t e s t h a t

Wangu w a Makeri was t h e o n l y woman t o have b e e n a c h i e f i n l i v i n g

memory; a n d h e r mother p r o v i d e s a somewhat i r o n i c s o l e mode1 when

she p r o v e s t h a t " t h o u g h e d u c a t e d s h e c o u l d b e a good ( s u b m i s s i v e )

wife" (79, 4 7 ) . While s h e r e j e c t s poiygamy, s h e cioes r , ~ t

i l l u s t r a t e , a s d o e s Emecheta, t h e p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i t

b r i n g s t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l wornan.' However s h e c l e a r l y s t a t e s ,

"For m y s e l f , 1 have decided a g a i n s t polygamy, b u t i t s r i g h t s and

wrongs a r e s t i l l b e i n g a r g u e d c o n t i n u a l l y and f u r i o u s l y i n o u r

s c h o o l s and c o l l e g e s and d e b a t i n g c l u b s " , a d d i n g , " ~ o l y g a m yi s

c l e a r l y second n a t u r e t o most Gikuyu men. 1 h a t e i t because it

h u r t s t h e p o s i t i o n and d i g n i t y of women and e x a g g e r a t e s t h e

s e l f i s h n e s s o f men" (11). Only w i t h t h i s i s o l a t e d o u t b u r s t does

Waciuma r e f e r d i r e c t l y t o t h e male dominance embedded i n h e r

culture. For the most p a r t , Waciuma's memories r e m a i n l o y a l t o

and a c c e p t i n g o f h e r Gikuyu customs a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s .

While s h e r e j e c t s c l i t o r i d e c t o m i e s , s h e g i v e s no r e a s o n s f o r

s o d o i n g ; n o r d o e s s h e g i v e t h e r e a d e r a f i r s t hand d e s c r i p t i o n

of i t s p r o c e s s a n d t h e e n s u i n g s u f f e r i n g , a s d o e s N w a p a , when

d e s c r i b i n g E f u r u ' s ceremonial b a t h / She m e r e l y S t a t e s t h a t most

were " l o a t h " t o g i v e up t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i t e s , e v e n i f t h e y were

Christians (63) . The reader, however, l e a r n s some o f t h e

p r e s s u r e s a n d d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c i n g b o t h t h e c i r c u r n c i s e d and

uncircumcised young g i r l s i n g e n e r a l , and t h e a m b i v a l e n t p o s i t i o n

o f t h e C h r i s t i a n church which e x a c e r b a t e d t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s by

r e j e c t i n g t h o s e who had undergone t h e c u s t o m . Her u n c l e

c r i t i c i z e s t h e c h u r c h ' s a t t i t u d e f o r he b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e

p r a c t i c e " i s s u c h a d e e p l y embedded t r i b a l custom .... it is

b e t t e r n o t t o make such a n i s s u e of it"; he i s s u r e "even the

w h i t e p e o p l e had customs which d i e d away as i d e a s changed" (89,

95). For Waciuma, b e i n g u n c i r c u m c i s e d m e a n t s h e was o s t r a c i z e d

and t a u n t e d i n t h e l o c a l v i l l a g e . Because s h e i s c o n s i d e r e d

"unclean", s h e must a c c e p t t h a t s h e c a n n o t m a r r y h e r f i r s t l o v e ,

Karanga, f o r h i s p a r e n t s "would never, n e v e r have a g r e e d t o h i s

marrying an uncircumcised g i r l " (142) . Cultural belief

rnaintained that an uncircumcised woman would be barren. However,

she had the comforting example of her mother, who was living
proof to the community that "an uncircumcised woman could have a

good-sized family (eleven children)" (46-7). Waciuma relates

these trials and obstacles quite dispassionately. She does no=

appear to challenge her parents' authority in this regard, but

indirectly offers the reader a profile of the traditional Gikuyu

customs, influenced to some extent by Western ways.

In the second half of the novel, Waciuma does situate

nerself, and the Gikuyu in general, in a more specific time frame

by recording the clash of Gikuyu culture with colonial

influences, and the impact the alarming events of the Mau Mau

emergency had on her people in the face of colonial oppression.

The Mau Mau uprising coincides with Waciuma's coming of age, and

with it Waciuma's individuality begins to emerge. The first half

of the novel moves at a calm, quiet pace, suggesting stabiiity

and hamony. The young Waciuma appears to embrace unquestionably

the security of her culture and the Waciuma family manages to

balance their Scottish Presbyterian faith with their support of

the Gikuyu customs. By contrast, the second half of the novel

reflects the unsettling, intrusive influence of colonial control

during the emergency. The old stability is rocked and confused

and the tone is more urgent. The state of emergency brings to a

head many srnouldering conflicts between the Gikuyu culture and

Western influences, in particular those of colonial oppression,

Western medical science, religion and education. Thus Waciuma

provides an historical account of the situation of the Gikuyu at

that time. However, s h e t e n d s t o e x p r e s s t h e o p i n i o n s o f h e r

family, r a t h e r than i n d i v i d u a l assessrnents: h e r l o y a l t y t o t h e

Gikuyu r e m a i n s i n c a c t . Only when s h e v o i c e s h e r a n t a g o n i s m

t o w a r d s t h e w h i t e man d o e s s h e become u n e q u i v o c a l l y p e r s o n a l and

self - a s s u r e d .

Waciuma's f a m i l y , w i t h t h e i r s t r o n g r e l i g i o u s f a i t h , axe

n a t u r a l l y opposed t o t h e v i o l e n t m e a s u r e s t a k e n by t h e Mau Mau.

However, t h e i r b e l i e f i n t h e Gikuyu t r i b e l e a d s them t o

s y m p a t h i z e w i t h t h e Mau Mau d e s i r e t o r e c l a i r n t h e l a n d t h a t i s

rightfully theirs. The e x t r e m e l y h a r s h emergency m e a s u r e s t a k e n

by t h e white government l e a d them t o r e a s s e s s t h e Mau Mau

aggression.' I n r e c a l l i n g h e r g r a n d f a t h e r ' s n o s t a l g i c memories,

Waciuma " r a p i d l y grew t o d i s l i k e t h e s e White men who made p e o p l e

work l i k e s l a v e s a n d p a i d them f i f t y c e n t s ( h a l f a s h i l l i n g ) a

d a y for i t " , who s o m e t i m e s s t r u c k t h e grown men "as i f they were

children" (52). Waciuma r e c o r d s t h e c o n f l i c t s between

t r a d i t i o n a l and W e s t e r n ways a s o p p o s i t i o n a l ; s h e d e t a i l s t h e

u n d e r m i n i n g of t h e Gikuyu laws c a u s e d b y f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e s a n d

e x p r e s s e s s l m p a t h y f o r al1 p e o p l e c a u g h t i n t h e c o n f u s i o n of the

period.

T h e i n f l u e n c e o f Western m e d i c i n e u n d e r m i n e s t h e a u t h o r i t y

o f t h e w i t c h d o c t o r s and t h e Gikuyu c h i e f s . Waciuma's f a t h e r , a

government-employed m e d i c a l d i s p e n s e r , a c c e p t s W e s t e r n m e d i c i n e

and c l a s h e s w i t h t h e w i t c h d o c t o r s . A l t h o u g h Waciuma f o l l o w s her

f a t h e r ' s l e a d , s h e s y m p a t h i z e s w i t h t h e w i t c h d o c t o r s , who

s t r u g g l e t o h o l d on t o t h e i r " a n c i e n t knowledge a n d power a g a i n s t

t h e o n s l a u g h t o f modern s c i e n t i f i c m e d i c i n e " ( 3 0 ) . The

w i t c h d o c t o r s a r g u e that t h e m e d i c i n e o f the w h i t e s c a u s e s " t h e

new g e n e r a t i o n s t o t u r n t h e i r b a c k s on t h e laws a n d c u s t o m s o f

t h e c h i l d r e n o f Gikuyu a n d Mumbi" ( 2 9 ) . The c h i e f a l s o c l a s h e s

w i t h the d i s p e n s e r s of modern m e d i c i n e when a d v i s i n g h i s p e o p l e

a g a i n s t i n o c u l a t i o n f o r a p l a q u e which s t r i k e s t h e l o c a t i o n , a n d

t a k e s many l i v e s .

W a c i v a r s a t t i t u d e t o w i t c h c r a f t i s similar t o h e r a t t i t u d e

t o modern m e d i c i n e . W h i l e s h e and h e r f a m i l y do not b e l i e v e i n

t h e power o f w i t c h c r a f t i n i t s e l f , t h e y d o a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e

f e a r i t can i n s t i l l w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s i s a p o w e r f u l way of

enforcing morals. She i n f o r m s t h e reader o f magy i n s t a n c e s o f

its use, thereby recording the past practices. She d e s c r i b e s t h e

" v e r y l o n g s t i c k s u r m o u n t e d by a l i t t l e bunch o f d r y banana

ieaves t i g h t l y t i e d t o t h e ground with a s t r i n g 1 ' . I t s power, it

is b e l i e v e d , p r e v e n t s " p e o p l e from g r a z i n g o v e r a n y p i e c e o f l a n a

o n w h i c h it [ i s ] p l a c e d " (20). A l t h o u g h her f a t h e r d o e s n o t

b e l i e v e i n w i t c h c r a f t h e i s n o t d e t e r r e d from p u t t i n g u p t h e

s t i c k s h i m s e l f t o k e e p away o t h e r herdsman ( 4 0 ) . He also

a r r a n g e s t o h a v e a w i t c h d o c t o r ' s s p e l l p l a c e d on a n y o n e who h a s

stolen p r o p e r t y , t h e t h r e a t o f t h e s p e l l b e i n g e n o u g h t o make

those g u i l t y c o n f e s s . O a t h s o f i n n o c e n c e , ""Muma w a k u r i n g a

thenge" - t o swear by k i l l i n g a g o a t " , a r e a c c e p t e d b y t h e courts

f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t " t h e one who has sworn

f a l s e l y d i e s , p e r h a p s a f t e r s e v e n days, p e r h a p s a f t e r n i n e

seasons" (39). However, Waciuma r e c o r d s c h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e s :

The youngex e d u c a t e d men d i d n o t b e l i e v e i n

t h e o a t h s a n d d i d n o t f e a r t h e i r power.
 Mostly t h e y u s e d t o t a k e t h e o a t h t o deny

t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the p r e g n a n c i e s o f

t h e g i r l s who came t o a c c u s e them i n t h e

court. Unless t h e y took i t t h e e l d e r s

n e a r l y a l w a y s d e c i d e d i n Eavour of t h e

girls. (40)

waciuma r e l a t e s t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y , and draws no

a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i r n p l i c i t b e t r a y a l o f young women, a n d t h e young

men's a b i l i t y t o use t o abuse t h e a l t e r n a t e c u l t u r a l b e l i e f s t o

their a d v a n t a g e .

R e l i g i o n a l s o t h r e a t e n s t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e o l d o r d e r . The

mushroorning o f many new r e l i g i o n s "was o n e symptom of t h e t u r m o i l

into w h i c h many p e o p l e were thrown by t h e i m p a c t o f W e s t e r n

knowledge and i d e a s " , and w h i l e t h e p e o p l e do n o t m e a n i n g f u l l y

f o l l o w C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e y t u r n t h e i r b a c k s on their own

traditional beliefs (50). "With n o t h i n g b e h i n d thern, t h e y a r e an

uneasy prsy t o corruption" ( 4 4 , sic).

P a r t o f t h e Gikuyu f a i t h i s t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y had been

g r a n t e d t h e b e s t l a n d b y Gikuyu, " n e a r N a i r o b i , a n d a l o n g t h e

r a i l w a y l i n e , w i t h a h e a l t h y c l i m a t e and r i c h s o i l " (101). To

t h e Gikuyu, t h e w h i t e man's g o d i s a " t h i e f " who s e n d s h i s

m i s s i o n a r i e s " t o s t e a l " t h e l a n d (93). As d e m o n s t r a t e d by

Waciuma's l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e d e c a d e s , seasons and t i m e s

of day, t h e Gikuyu bond t o t h e i r l a n d is d e e p l y embedded i n t h e i r

c u l t ~ r e . T~h e c o l o n i a l d i s i n h e r i t a n c e o f the Gikuyu t h u s c a u s e d

g r e a t c u l t u r a l upheaval. With t h e i r sense o f i d e n t i t y embedded

i n t h e f o o t h i l l s of M t . Kenya where their ancestors, Gikuyu a n d

~umbi, initiated the tribe, w i t h their s e n s e of p l a c e a n d s e n s e

o f r o u t i n e m e a s u r e d i n t e m s o f t h e natural w o r l d a n d t h e dernands

o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r e arcund thern, t h e loss of t h e i r l a n d t o t h e

u s u r p i n g w h i t e s e t t l e r s was t a n t a m o u n t t o g e n o c i d e .

R e c o g n i z i n g t h e power of e d u c a t i o n , Waciuma asserts t h a t

e d u c a t i o n i s t h e means by w h i c h s h e , a n d hence t h e Gikuyu p e o p l e ,

can p r e s c r i b e t h e i r own i d e n t i t y . F o r the Gikuyu, t h i s means

r e c l a i m i n g t h e i r " p l a c e " , t h e i r l a n d , w i t h which t h e i r s e n s e of

s e l f h o o d is i n s e p a r a b l y bound. "The white man t h i n k s h e is

s u p e r i o r , b u t h e is o n l y b e t t e r e d u c a t e d " , h e r u n c l e claims. He

a d v o c a t e s t h a t "young p e o p l e m u s t go t o s c h o o l s o t h a t t h e y c a n

t a k e over t h e j o b s o f E u r o p e a n s , become t e a c h e r s , d o c t o r s ,

fa-rmers. We must have s k i l l s t o r u n t h e c o u n t r y when w e

overthrow t h e goverment" ( 8 7 ) . Waciuma e c h o e s h e r u n c l e ' s

sentiments with a persona1 staternent- "1 was f i l l e d w i t h a

desire t o s t u d y a n d become e d u c a t e d i n t h e W h i t e Man's ways and

i n h i s knowledge s o t h a t 1 c o u l d h e l p i n t u r n i n g h i m o u t o f my

country" (59). Waciuma r e c a l l s t h e s p e c t a c u l a r growth o f

education as p q i l s flooded t o school i n thousands, claiming,

" t h e r e i s no g o i n g back . . .. we have r e a c h e d a c r i t i c a l a g e ,

w a i t i n g a n d h o p i n g f o r a full d e v e l o p m e n t t o t h e way of l i f e t h e

w h i t e man h a s t a u g h t u s t o w a n t . If he t r i e s to h o l d b a c k a t

t h i s p o i n t he w i l l l i v e to r e g r e t i t " (91-92). Ironically, the

v e r y s t r i v i n g for the w h i t e m a n ' s way of l i f e , t o an e x t e n t ,

d e n i e s t h e i r own. A n d , w h i l e Waciuma records a n o p p o s i t i o n a l

c l a s h between W e s t e r n and t r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c i n e a n d r e l i g i o n w i t h

a p p a r e n t d e t a c h e d o b j e c t i v i t y , she embraces W e s t e r n e a u c a t i o n a s
h e r means o f l i b e r a t i o n . However, i n k e e p i n g with h e r s t r o n g

sznse of c u l t u r a l belonging, the l i b e r a t i o n education can o f f e r

h e r r e l a t e s t o t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f t h e Gikuyu p e o p l e .

Her f a m i l y s u f f e r e d h a r d s h i p when t h e y had t o l e a v e t h e i r

cornfortable g o v e r m e n t home t o be under p r o t e c t i o n of t h e home

g u a r d during the Mau Mau u p r i s i n g . When h e r f a t h e r , t h e f a m i l y ' s

authority f i g u r e , i s removed and d e t a i n e d u n d e s t h e s u p e r v i s i o n

o f t h e Home Guard, t h e f a m i l y no l o n g e r r e t a i n s i t s compromise,

s u p p o r t i n g b o t h t h e C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e a n d Gikuyu v a l u e s . With

h e r C h r i s t i a n u p b r i n g i n g and advanced e d u c a t i o n , Waciuma s t i l l

remains v e r y mcch i n t u n e w i t h h e r Gikuyu c u l t u r a l t h i n k i n g . She

f o l l o w s h e r m o t h e r ' s a d v i c e t o go back t o s c h o o l , f o r t h e sake o f

her f a t h e r , and commits h e r s e l f t o the s t r u g g l e f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e

f o r Kenya. She c o n c l u d e s w i t h a n a f f i r m a t i o n o f h e r f a i t h i n the

p e r p e t u i t y and i m p o r t a n c e of t h e Gikuyu community. Thus, i n

r e c o r d i n g her p e r s o n a l and c u l t u r a l p a s t , Waciuma l o y a l l y

s u p p l i e s a s o c i o l o g i c a l r e c o r d o f t h e Gikuyu a t t h a t t i m e . While

she d e s c r i D e s a blend o f c e r t a i n c u l t u r e s a n d f a i t h s amongst h e r

own p e o p l e , s h e i n d i r e c t l y depicts t h e o v e r r i d i n g power o f t h e

Gikuyu l a n g u a g e which p e r p e t u a t e s t h e Gikuyu s e n s e o f community

and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n .

The s t r o n g c u l t u r a l tie t o t h e l a n d is a theme e x p l o r e d

f u r t h e r by Grace Ogot i n h e r novels, The Promised Land (1966) a n d

The Graduate ( 1 9 8 0 ) . The two main p r o t a g o n i s t s i n The Promised

-
Land, Ochola and h i s w i f e ~ y a p o l , are LUOS, a s is Ogot h e r s e l f .

Lue a n d Gikuyu Kenyans s h a r e s i m i l a r t r a d i t i o n a l r e g i o n a l

l o y a l t i e s , and Ogot s u g g e s t s t h a t w e a l t h l i e s i n t h e c u l t u r a l

tradition, t h e t i e s t o t h e families a n d l a n d o f t h e f o r e f a t h e r s .

Although The Promised Land i s w r i t t e n i n 1 9 6 6 , Oqot makes no

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e new i n d e p e n d e n c e of her c o u n t r y . She s i t u a t e s

h e r protagonists i n an a g r a r i a n s o c i e t y i n r u r a l Nyanza. When

Ochola t u r n s h i s back on h i s m o t h e r l a n d t o s e e k w e a l t h a n d

h a p p i n e s s i n n e i g h b o u r i n g T a n g a n y i k a , h e is doomed f o r d i s a s t e r ,

f o r he "was going a g a i n s t t h e t r a d i t i o n i n l e a v i n g h i s home", and

a n g e r i n g his a n c e s t o r s ( 3 8 ) . N e i t h e r Ochola n o r Nyapol c a n f r e e

t h e m s e l v e s o f t h e fear of o f f e n d i n g the a n c e s t o r s , and when

Ochola i s s m i t t e n w i t h the c u r s e o f a n e i g h b o u r i n g w i t c h d o c t o r ,

t h e y l e a v e a l 1 t h e i r new found w e a l t h a n d r e t u r n home penniless.

Ogot m a i n t a i n s a n ominous, foreboding t o n e throughouc,

keeping t h e r e a d e r i n s u s p e n s e u n t i l t h e climax a t t h e e n d of t h e

novel. The p l o t is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , and t h e s t o r y i s r e l a t e d i n

a c h r o n o l o g i c a l , s i m p l e manner . Ochola and Nyapol a r e r o u n d e d ,

\
i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r s , and i n c o n t r a s t t o Daughter o f Mumbi, the

reader i s privy t o h e r p r o t a g o n i s t s ' i n n e r t h o u g h t s and e m o t i o n s .

Ogot makes no attempt t o i n c o r p o r a t e h e r Luo l a n g u a g e i n t o h e r

text. N e v e r t h e l e s s , h e r p r o t a g o n i s t s u s e t h e c u s t o m a r y method o f

g r e e t i n g one another . Ogot a l s o s k i l f u l l y i n c o r p o r a t e s

t r a n s l a t e d proverbs i n t o t h e t e x t . I n keeping w i t h t h e Luo

proverb, "A man who does not love h i s p e o p l e is a n enemy o f t h e

tribe", Okech and h i s w i f e A t i g a open t h e i r home t o Ochola and
Nyapol. When Ochola v o i c e s the p r o v e r b , "a v i s i t o r is noble o n l y

when he s t a y s f o r two d a y s " , Okech r e p l i e s :

Our home i s o p e n t o you and y o u r w i f e , my

b r o t h e r , a n d you can stay as long as you

like. B u t 1 can read your mind. You d o n ' t

cook two c o c k s i n one p o t , a n d 1 c a n ' t

blame you f o r f e e l i n g t h a t t h e p o t i s t o o

small f o r both of us. (75-6)

I n t e c o r d i n g t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n , Ogot i l l u s t r a t e s t h e f u n c t i o n of

the p r o v e r b i n her m o t h e r l a n g u a g e . To be p o l i t e , d i r e c t n e s s i n

conversation is avoided. Proverbs a r e diplornatic because t h e y

remind t h e r e c i p i e n t o f what i s recommended i n t h e c o d e of

b e h a v i o u r c h a t i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y common knowledge. O' Ogot t h u s

i m p l i e s t h a t t h e two men, a l t h o u g h i n Tanganyika, may r e s p e c t o n e

another f o r t h e codes of c u l t u r a l behaviour they d i s p l a y through

t h e i r language; and s h e simultaneously r e t a i n s and i n t e g r a t e s t h e

Luo v e r b a l p a t t e r n s and s a y i n g s i n t o t h e E n g l i s h medium.

Ogot o n l y p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e Luo woman's s t a t u s a s

i s n e c e s s a r y t o h e r story. Because o f O c h o l a ' s b e l i e f i n t h e

power o f the a n c e s t o r s , h i s mother, a l t h o u g h l o n g d e p a s t e d ,

remains v e r y much a c o n t r o l l i n g f o r c e . Ogot refers b r i e f l y t o

t h e dowry Ochola p a y s when rnarrying Nyapol and, i n d e s c r i b i n g

Ochola a n d N y a p o l ' s m a r r i a g e a n d move t o T a n g a n y i k a , d e p i c t s t h e

woman's p e r s p e c t i v e as d i f f e r e n t from h e r husbandts. Although

Nyapol fills t h e r o l e of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l , d u t i f u l w i f e i n

accompanying a n d o b e y i n g h e r husband, she does so against her

will. In c o n t r a s t t o Waciuma, Nyapol voices strong opinions of

h e r own w i t h o u t h e s i t a t i o n ; s h e and O c h o l a d i s p l a y a r e a l i s t i c

m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , i n c l u d i n g the occasional marital s p a t .

When Ochola s p e n d s tirne d i s c u s s i n g ~ a n g a n y i k aw i t h fr i e n d s ,

Nyapol i s ' f u r i o u s t h a t [ h e ] c o u l d l e a v e h e r a l o n e f o r s u c h a

l o n g t i m e w h i l e s h e was s t i l l a mere b r i d e " (11). On h i s r e t u r n

she s e r v e s hirn f o o d , a s i s e x p e c t e d of b e r , b u t s h e d o e s s o w i t h

il1 g r a c e . S h e imagines h e h a s t i r e d o f h e r , and t h r e a t e n s t o

r e t u r n t o Aer own p e o p l e , " b u t s h e knew v e r y w e l l t h a t s h e c o u l d

not r e t u r n t o h e r people. Once a woman w a s r n a r r i e d s h e swore t o

s ï a y w i t h h e r I i ~ s b ~ ~ pde o
' sp l e f o r b e t t e r o r for w o r s e , and no

o n e would have n e r back a t t h e i r home" ( 2 0 ) . Thus t h e c u s t o m s o f

the cornmunity impose an a u t h o r i t a t i v e value upon t h e m a r i t a l

commitrnent. W h i l e Nyapol h a s l i t t l e a l t e r n a t i v e b u t t o conform

r o c u l t u r a l expectations, by demonstrating her i n n e r resentment,

Ogot c h a l l e n g e s t h e a c c e p t e d woman' s r o l e .

When O c h o l a admits t o Nyapol h i s p l a n s o f e m i g r a t i o n , s h e

r e a c t s s p o n t a n e o u s l y , c l a i m i n g , "1 a m not moving a n y w h e r e ! Do

you h e a r m e ? " (25). I n r e s p o n s e , Ochola v o i c e s a c h a u v i n i s t i c ,

attitude t o women. He r e m i n d s h e r t h a t when he r n a r r i e d h e r s h e

prornised t o o b e y him, a n d h e t e l l s h e r "1 h a t e b e i n g i n t e r r u p t e d

when I 1 m t a l k i n g . There cari o n l y be o n e husband i n t h e h o u s e "

(25, 26). W h i l e r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t Nyapol may be c o r r e c t i n

q u e s t i o n i n g t h e i r move, O c h o l a wonders "how l o n g i t w a s t a k i n g

h e r t o l e a r n t h a t i t was n o t c o r r e c t t o s p e a k t o a husband i n

t h a t way! " ( 4 6 ) . Although he c l e a r l y cares f o r N y a p o l , he a l s o

t r e a t s h e r a s a commodity and when c o n f i r m i n g t h a t h e w i l l t a k e

Nyapol w i t h hirn, states, "1 c a n n o t go t o T a n g a n y i k a empty handed"

(31). Nyapol realizes that "marriage was a form of imprisonmenc
in whicn the master could lead you where he wished" (45). Thus,
despite her correct intuition of impending doom, Nyapol remains

the traditional, supportive, good wife. Ogot demonstrates thzt

while on the one hand Nyapol is trapped by marriage into
following her husband's ill-fated steps to destruction, going
against the time honoured beliefs of her people, on the other
hand, her fears, borne out of her cultural past, help will their
destruction.
As in Daughter of Mumbi, The Promised Land depicts Western

education, medical science, and religion as the enemies of, and

in opposition to, the old tradition. Ogot also introduces
another undermining influence, that of capitalism.
Stories went around that those who went to

school grew cunning like the white man.

They were slack in daily community work and
liked things done for them .... But that

was many years ago. People who were

educated now were becoming richer and

richer. (84-85)
Education changed Abiero and turned him away from his community;
he became hostile to singing traditional songs and dancing to

African drums. In addition, he became a Christian, causing great

anguish to his father; for some time Ochola had to mediate
between his father and brother. Ochola, the more traditional of
the two sons, did not attend school. He "loved his father and
feared offending him" (84). However, Ochola marvels at the rnagic
of s e n d i n g messages on p i e c e s of paper, a n d he r e c o g n i z e s t h a t

" p e o p l e who had been e d u c a t e d were now becoming r i c h e r and

r i c h e r ; t h o s e who c o u l d read and write had a d v a n t a g e s o v e r t h e i r

f r i e n d s who were i l l i t e r a t e " ( 8 5 ) . H e f a l l s prey t o t h e l u r e of

c a p i t a l i s t i c w e a l t h , and h i s "ambition i n l i f e was t o b e r i c h .

R i c h e r t h a n t h o s e whom he had known i n his youth" (86). His

f a t h e r laments h i s decision, saying scornfully, "Riches! 1 d o n ' t

desire riches! I ' m r i c h a s 1 am! 1 l i v e cm o u r own land! But

what 1 need most is your Company. Don't d e p r i v e m e o f t h a t rny

s o n , d o n ' t d e p r i v e m e of t h a t ! lt (36) .

Nyapol c l e a r l y does n o t s h a r e O c h o l a ' s a s p i r a t i o n s f o r

c a p i t a l i s t i c materialism. O n t h e i r j o u r n e y t o Tanganyika s h e is

d i s t r e s s e d t o s e e t h e l a b o u r e r s a t t h e d o c k s , working l i k e

p a c k h o r s e s , a n d i s n o t cornforted b y O c h o l a ' s e x p l a i n i n g t h a t t h e y

"are n e i t h e r s l a v e s nor p r i s o n e r s : t h e y are j u s t normal men who

have corne t o town t o e a r n money t o buy t h i n g s f o r t h e i r wivest'

(52). L i k e h e r father-in-law, and a s t r a d i t i o n demanded o f a

woman, she s c o r n s t h e p u r s u i t o f wealth." However, A b i e r o j o i n s

Ochola i n h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f wealth, a r g u i n g , " O f c o u r s e , i t ts

i m p o r t a n t t o c a r e a b o u t home t i e s , t o want t o l i v e and t o d i e i n

the l a n d of your f o r e f a t h e r s , b u t a s t h e w o r l d i s c h a n g i n g s o

much, w e a l t h and cornfort i s becoming more and more desirable"

(117, s i c ) . Ogot t h u s p r e s e n t s both s i d e s o f t h e argument.

However, l i k e Rebeka Njau i n h e r R i p p l e s i n t h e Pool, Ogot

r e c a l l s t h e l i f e s t y l e of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l w o r l d as o n e t h a t o f f e r s

a sense of community and b e l o n g i n g : a w e a l t h incomparable t o

f i n a n c i a l gain." The merits o f t h e o l d rural l i f e s t y l e a r e
e x e m p l i f i e d i n O c h o l a ' s f a t h e r , O w i t i , who "knew t h e names o f a l 1

t h e c l a n h e r o e s , and t a u g h t Ochola to r e c i t e them'' (33) . N Y ~ P O ~

a l s o c h i d e s Ochola f o r r e j e c t i n g h i s p a s t , p r o p h e t i c a l l y

p r e d i c t i n g t h e r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e t h a t he w i l l e n c o u n t e r . "The

Umuri p e o p l e l e f t t h e i r l a n d and carne t o live i n y o u r l a n d and

now you won't e v e n r e c o g n i z e them. You cal1 them names and you

l o o k down on t h e m . Why? Because t h e y a r e f o r e i g n e r s who know

q u i t e w e l l t h a t t h e y have no r i g h t t o o u r l a n d " ( 4 6 ) . The e l d e r s

a l s o d i s a p p r o v e , t e l l i n g Ochola, "You a r e b r e a k i n g o u r h e a r t s , a

w e l l - l o v e d son l e a v i n g h i s home t o go a n d l i v e w i t h s t r a n g e r s "

(37). O c h o l a ' s d e c e a s e d mother h a s t o be appeased; he and Nyapol

v i s i t h e r grave t o g i v e h e r o f f e r i n g s , f o r if " h i s d e a d mother

was a s d i s p l e a s e d a s h i s r e l a t i v e s , God would not b l e s s them a t

ail" ( 3 8 ) . With t h e e n t i r e community a n t a g o n i s t i c t o w a r d s h i s

move, Ochola, n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , l e a v e s w i t h a s e n s e o f

f oreboding .

As Nyapol p r e d i c t e d , n o t everyone i n t h e new l a n d welcomes

Ochola. When Ochola f i r s t meets h i s u n f r i e n d l y n e i g h b o u r , he

r e f r a i n s from t e l l i n g Nyapol of t h e e n c o u n t e r , f o r f e a r of

a l a r m i n g h e r , w h i l e Ogot e x p r e s s e s O c h o l a ' s own s u b c o n s c i o u s

f e u s through his h a u n t i n g dreams. Their d e l a y i n g o f t h e

c l e a n s i n g ceremony a f t e r t h e b i r t h o f t h e i r t w i n s , and t h e f e a r

of t h e " f i e n d i s h - h e a r t e d o l d man" c a u s e Nyapol t o c l i n g w i t h

renewed s t r e n g t h t o h e r s u p e r s t i t i o u s anxiety a b o u t o f f e n d i n g t h e
a n c e s t o r s (115). OchoLa's f a m i l y and f r i e n d s a l 1 assume t h a t t h e

w i t c h d o c t o r ' s c u r s e i s t h e c a u s e o f h i s h o r r i f i c a f f l i c t i o n , and

t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e w h i t e d o c t o x t o c u r e him v e r i i i e s t h e
assumption that t h e a f f l i c t i o n is s p i r i t u a l . The h o s p i t a l s c e n e s

d e p i c t t h e c o n f l i c t and c o m p e t i t i o n f o r a u t h o r i t y between modern

and t r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c i n e s . The b l a c k n u r s e s show no s u r p r i s e

that Western m e d i c i n e f a i l s t o c u r e t h e d i s e a s e , and recomrnend

t h a t Ochola return t o a w i t c h d o c t o r . Ogot, a t r a i n e d n u r s e

h e r s e l f , States i n an interview:

Today t h e p r a c t i c e o f c o n s u l t i n g A f r i c a n

m e d i c i n e men i s n o t e n d o r s e d by t h e Kenya

government, b u t t h e c o n s u l t a t i o n c o n t i n u e s

a n d many people are c u r e d . I t may be t h a t

t h e y a r e cured t h r o u g h f a i t h b u t t h e y a r e

c u r e d a l 1 t h e same. ( L i n d f o r s , 6 1 )

She t h u s e n d o r s e s t h e s t r o n g h o l d t r a d i t i o n a l medicine m a i n t a i n s

on the p e o p l e .

Ogot u s e s O c h o l a ' s h o s p i t a l v i s i t t o comment on the

h y p o c r i s y and inadequacy o f t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h , a s p r a c t i s e d by

tne e a r l y missionaries. The doctor regrets h i s wife's i n i t i a l

r e f u s a l t o n u r s e Ochola, n o t s o much on a c c o u n t of O c h o l a ' s

health, b u t f o r e g o t i s t i c a l r e a s o n s . "What r e a l l y b o t h e r e d him

was that A n a b e l ' s q u i c k temper might one d a y s t o p h e r e n t e r i n g

t h e Kingdom of God. He would hate t o be t h e r e w i t h o u t h e r ! "

1 6 6 The n o v e l ' s t i t l e may a l s o r e f l e c t O g o t l s antagonism

towards t h e d e c e p t i o n o f t h e Western c h u r c h as i t a p p e a r s t o draw

on C h r i s t i a n c u l t u r e , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t Tanganyika i s the promised

land, t h e l a n d o f m i l k and honey; b u t , it may b e i n t e r p r e t e d as

i r o n i c , f o r Tanganyika i s i n c o n c l u s i o n no Canaan, a f t e r a11.14

 ogot does not offer a direct reason for Ochola's
"punishment", but because of the great fear of moving away from

his origins, a fear expressed by his family and friends before

leaving, and a fear kept alive in the minds of Nyapol and Ochola,
Ogot leads the reader to believe that Ochola is "punished" for
having angered the ancestral gods by leaving his homelana. The

reader may also infer that the disease, or the inability to

recover, is psychosomatic, and that Ochola, having internalized
bis cultural beliefs, is guilt ridden and anticipates some form

of retribution. Ogot, like Flora Nwapa in Efuru and Idu, may

posiï faith as a large part of any cure, but she also appears to
be issuing a warning to her fellow patriots that there is wealth
and happiness in adhering to the lifestyle set up by the past,
and danger in penetrating alien lands with alien customs and

neliefs. "

However, Ogot offers alternative and conflicting points of

view. When Ochola struggles with his desire to move away,
leavinq his aging father, his familial inheritance, and his own
people, Ogot shows tradition as so deeply embedded that it traps
and imprisons individuals in their own land. The reader may

sympathize with Ochola's adventurous individualism, for he has

many good reasons for leaving the homeland. He was tired of
living in Nyanza with "its unscrupulous t a x collectors, its petty
tyrants and its feuds" (14). The chiefs at times recruited

forced labour and the soi1 in Nyanza was exhausted, for the land
had been overworked, producing the same crops of maize and millet

since time immemorial. Ochola hungers after better pastures,

where h i s h a r d l a b o u r rnight b e b e t t e r rewarded. While he worries

a b o u t h i s f a t h e r ' s w e l l b e i n g , h e a r g u e s t h a t he w i l l be a b l e t o

make more money t o send home for h i s w e l f a r e . A g a i n , Ogot o f f e r s

both s i d e s o f t h e debate. 16

Once i n T a n g a n y i k a , Ochola does n o t f o r e g o bis Luo c u s t o m s .

When h e l a y s clairn t o a p i e c e of "no man's l a n d " , he f o l l o w s t h e

Luo t r a d i t i o n o f marking t h e l a n d a s h i s b y p l a c i n g a S t o n e in

the c e n t r e of a r i n g o f g r a s s . When he b u i l d s a s m a l l s t r u c t u r e

on t h e l a n d , he a g a i n f o l l o w s Luo customs b y sleeping t h e r e a l o n e

the f i r s t night. Nyapol questions h i s a c t i o n s . "Now w e ' r e n o t

in o u r own c o u n t r y , 1 t h o u g h t t h a t t h e c u s t o m s c o u l d be waived"

she s a y s , b u t Ochola a s k s :

What makes you t h i n k t h a t people must

abandon t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s when t h e y go t o a

foreign land? Don't you know t h a t o u r

a n c e s t o r s ' e y e s f o l l o w us e v e r y w h e r e ? You

b r e a k a law today, o r tomorrow, t h e i r e y e s

c a n s e e you. A month rnay p a s s , e v e n a full

y e a r , b u t i n t h e end you're punished

b e c a u s e y o u ' v e gone against t h e t a b o o s o f

t h e tribe. (81)

O c h o l a ' s p r o p h e t i c words i n d i c a t e t h a t he h a s n o t d i s c a r d e d t h e

f e a r of r e t r i b u t i o n frorn t h e a n c e s t r a l gods as t a u g h t b y h i s

t r a d i t i o n a l faith,

Significantly, it i s Nyapol who f i r s t s u g g e s t s t o t h e

w i t c h d o c t o r t h a t they s h o u l d leave T a n g a n y i k a . The w i t c h d o c t o r s ,

a l t h o u g h p a r t of t h e o l d o r d e r , i r o n i c a l l y capitalize on t h e
situation; although it is not categorically stated, Magungu's

insistence that Ochola take nothing with him plants a suggestion

that Magungu subsequently assumes Ochola's wealth. Thus, Ochola

and Nyapol's inherited traditional beliefs may be judged the

source of their downfall- Ogot also depicts Luo marriage customs

as chauvinistic, irnprisoning Nyapol in marriage. Yet Nyapol,

although very much an individual, clearly adheres to traditionai

expectations. Thus, by drawing from her own cultural and

persona1 rnemory, and recording the problems that Nyapol and

Ochola encounter, both in their marriage and in their emigration,

Ogoï seems to advocate the need to reassess and reinterpret the

customs of the people.

In The Graduate (1980), Ogot further develops the themes of

The Promised Land and skilfully reinfoxces and xefocuses her past
cultural beliefs. In this much later novel, Ogot recalls more

recent Kenyan history from a more distinctly feminist point of

view. Seventeen years after Kenya's independence, Ogot's

perspective has of necessity subtly changed: the tribal loyalties

Decome national loyalties. She explores Kenya's struggles te

overcome a sharn form of independence, in which the whites still

nold power, and she examines the problems of recruiting

indigenous manpower, in the face of the foreign conspiracy to

retain control. However, most forcibly, she examines the role of

women in an independent Kenya. Ogot, therefore, replaces the

ambivalent depiction of Nyapol, the free thinking, independent,

yet traditional woman, with an unequivocal, strong support for

the empowerment of women. Her main protagonist, the Hon. Mrs

J u a n i n a Karungaru, t h e f i r s t f e m a l e c a b i n e t m i n i s t e r i n the

i n d e p e n d e n t Kenyan governmenc, draws from h e r memory the part

women played i n t h e Freedom f i g h t :

She v i v i d l y remembered t h e r o l e women i n

Kenya played t o help t h o s e trapped b y t h e

Emergency. Countrywide t h e Women's Wing of

t h e N a t i o n a l A l l i e d . T r a d e Unions,

c o n s t a n t l y and c e a s e l e s s l y , s u p p l i e d food

and ammunition t h a t were s e c r e t l y p a s s e d on

t o t h e freedorn f i g h t e r s . (11)

Ogot u s e s K a r u n g a r u ' s memory t o g i v e h e r t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to

r e c o r d t h e fernale c o n t r i b u t i o n t o Kenyan h i s t o r y . Karungaru

draws s t r e n g t h £rom t h e courage o f t h e s e women o f t h e p a s t t o

h e l p h e r i n t h e p r e s e n t t o do what she b e l i e v e s s h e m u s t , even

w h i l e c o g n i z a n t o f t h e stress and s t r a i n it places on h e r

m a r r i a g e and h e r c h i l d r e n .

A s Kenya ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o v e r s e a s , Karungaru is d e p i c t e d a s

tne A f r i c a n m o t h e r f i g u r e . However, u n l i k e Ngu Ego o f E m e c h e t a ' s

The Joys of Motherhood, Karungaru i s a l i b e r a t e d , p o w e r f u l "woman

o f h e r own minde' (59-60). 1 7 She t r a v e l s a b r o a d t o s p e a k t o Kenyan

s t u d e n t s , and r e p r e s e n t s t h e rnother c o u n t r y , e n t i c i n g them back

t o t h e l a n d of t h e i r b i r t h w i t h a f i g u r a t i v e l y m o t h e r l y errtbrace.

W i t h i n t h e n o v e l s h e f u n c t i o n s a s a c a l l t o a c t i o n f o r al1 women,

t o t a k e up t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s as did t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s i n
t h e Freedom Fights. Furthemore, s h e f u n c t i o n s as a call to a l 1

men a b r o a d , t o r e c o g n i z e t h e i r o r i g i n s i n A f r i c a n womanhood and

motherland.
 I n The G r a d u a t e , Ogot i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e A£ r i c a n v e r n a c u l a r

into her t e x t . Karungaru t r a n s l a t e s t h e i n s c r i p t i o n i n h e r b i b l e

f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f h e r d a u g h t e r a n d t h u s t h e reader. As i n

Daughter o f M u m b i , t h e u s e o f g l o s s i n g e m p h a s i z e s t h e a b s e n c e and

d i f f e r e n c e of the a l t e r n a t e c u l t u r e . A t times she u s e s words and

phrases of h e r n a t i v e tongue without t r a n s l a t i o n . Again, t h e

"use of u n t r a n s l a t e d words helps convey t h e s e n s e o f c u l t u r a l

distinctiveness" ( A s h c r o f t , G r i f f i t h s a n d Tiff i n 6 4 ) . The r e a d e r

g e t s some i d e a a b o u t the meaning o f t h e s e words f r o m t h e c o n t e x t ,

but a f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g r e q u i r e s t h e r e a d e r ' s own e x p a n s i o n o f

t h e c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n beyond t h e t e x t . Ogot a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e s

a p p r o p r i a t e Kenyan p r o v e r b s and idioms--most of which r e l a t e t o

womenfs i s s u e s . When a p p e a l i n g t o t h e s t u d e n t s abroad, Karungaru

d e p i c t s Kenya as "Mother A f r i c a " r e c a l l i n g t h e s a y i n g , "Your

mother i s y o u r m o t h e r e v e n if h e r r o o f i s l e a k i n g " , and t h e

s t u d e n t s r e c o g n i z e Karungaru a s one who "had s e e n t h e eye of t h e

Sun w e l l b e f o r e t h e y h a d " ( 2 9 , 161. Karungaru r e p e a t e d l y r e f e r s

t o t h e m i s l e a d i n g myth c i r c u l a t i n g that t h e woman's place i s i n

t h e home a n d i n t h e k i t c h e n ( 8 , 1 5 , 1 7 ) .

However, n o t o n l y d o e s Ogot i n c o r p o r a t e Kenyan words a n d

p h r a s e s i n t o h e r t e x t , b u t a l s o E n g l i s h and b i b l i c a l idioms a n d

references. I n e x p r e s s i n g h i s t r u e f e e l i n g s t o Karungaru,
Ambassador S i m i y u l e t s t h e " c a t o u t of t h e bag", and having d o n e

s o he " s t i c k s t o h i s guts" ( 2 0 , sic). B i b l i c a l a n a l o g i e s and

speech patterns o c c u r t h r o u g h o u t t h e work. The novel opens w i t h

K a r u n g a r u ' s d a u g h t e r i n s p e c t i n g her m o t h e r ' s b i b l e , w h i l e

Karungaru c o n s i d e r s a woman s u c c e e d i n g i n p o l i t i c s as d i f f i c u l t
a s a came1 p a s s i n g t h r o u g h " t h e e y e o f a n e e d l e " (9). She c i t e s

£rom Matthew 21:1-10 t h e p a r a b l e o f t h e l a b o u r e r s i n t h e

v i n e y a r d , who a r e p a i d e q u a l l y r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e h o u r s o f work

p e r f o r m e d , t o e x p l a i n why women i n Kenya have w o r k e d h a r d a l 1

t h e i r l i v e s w i t h l i t t l e reward. When a d d r e s s i n g t h e s t u d e n t s s h e

awakens i n them " a n i d e n t i t y , a k i n t o t h a t o f t h e p r o d i g a l s o n " ,

a n d s h e l a t e r r e f e r s t o J a k o y a a f t e r r e t u r n i n g t o b i s welcoming

family a s " t h e prodigal f a t h e r i ' (24, 43) . Her o f f e r s o f j o b s a n d

o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n t h e homeland a l s o e c h o t h e r e c e p t i o n g i v e n t o

the prodigal son. S p e a k i n g w i t h b i b l i c a l e c h o e s , s h e t e l l s them,

"1 have come, t h a t 1 may l i g h t e n y o u r b u r d e n a n d r e t u r n you t o

the fold" (25). K a r u n g a r u ' s s p e e c h t h u s s y m b o l i z e s a c e r t a i n

syncretism of cultures. H e r advocacy o f a s t r o n g n a t i o n a l p r i d e

is b l e n d e d w i t h a r e v i s e d r o l e of women w i t h i n t h e Kenyan

culture, t o g e t h e r with a s t r o n g C h r i s t i a n f a i t h . Ogot t h u s

r e a f f i r m s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e of a d h e r i n g t o t h e l a n d of t h e

f o r e f a t h e r s , while she challenges t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s

towards t h e woman's p l a c e i n s c c i e t y .

A s i n The Promised Land (1966), Ogot a g a i n e x a m i n e s t h e

e x p a t r i a t e , h e who h a s f o r s a k e n h i s r o o t s . The modern day O c h o l a

i s now t h e young man who s e e k s e d u c a t i o n a b r o a d . O c h o l a , s e e k i n g

t h e l u x u r y o f v e r d a n t s o i 1 and r i c h h a r v e s t s i n Tanganyika,

becomes t h e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s e e k i n g e d u c a t i o n a l rewards i n t h e

United S t a t e s . Nyapol's i n t u i t i v e and t e n t a t i v e f e m i n i s t

murmurings become c o n f i d e n t s t a t e m e n t s i n t h e p e r s o n o f

Karungaru. I n h e r powerful mother r o l e , Karungaru becomes a

l e a d e r o f men. The n o v e l depicts two different expatriot

s t u d e n t s , Ngure a n d Jakoyo. Ngure, m a r r i e d t o a white American

woman, l o n g s t o r e t u r n t o h i s m o t h e r / m o t h e r l a n d t o f i n d out where

h i s mother i s b u r i e d . I n r e c o u n t i n g N g u r e ' s h i s t o r y , Ogot

recalls t h e problems o f t h e Mau Mau emergency, f o c u s i n g on t h e

r o l e p l a y e d by N g u r e t s mother, the w i f e o f a Freedom F i g h t e r .

N g u r e t s mother g a v e him a new name and a d m o n i s h e s him t o f o r g e t

t h e past. "You h a v e a new home, remember that Ngure. Forget

t h a t you ever h a d a home e l s e w h e r e , f o r g e t t h e p a s t c o m p l e t e l y ,

and l o o k o n l y t o t h e f u t u r e " s h e i n s t r u c t s h i m ( 3 7 ) . Of h i s

f a t h e r , s h e s a y s , " L e t Muthoma's memory d i e away from y o u r heart,

and f o r g e t t h a t he w a s once y o u r f a t h e r " (38). Subsequently h i s

m o t h e r , e v e r l o y a l t o h i s father, i s k i l l e d . Ngure's p a s t

p e r h a p s e x p l a i n s his m a r r i a g e t o S e d i e from whom he wanted

"nothing ... but c a s u a l friendship" ( 2 3 ) . By r e l a t i n g Ngure's

p a s t h i s t o r y , Ogot r e c o r d s t h e s u f f e r i n g o f t h e p e o p l e u n d e r

c o l o n i a l i s m and t h e price p a i d f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e as e x e m p l i f i e d by

b o t h Ngure and h i s s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n q mother.

However, i n d e p i c t i n g t h e m e e t i n g of Ngure a n d Karungaru,

s h e c o u r t s criticisrn from Kenyan c r i t i c s . The n o v e l d e p i c t s

N g u r e t s f a t h e r a n d K a r u n g a r u ' s f a t h e r as b e l o n g i n g t o o p p o s i n g

p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s d u r i n g t h e emergency. Ngure's f a t h e r is

d e p i c t e d a s a Freedom F i g h t e r w i t h t h e Mau Mau, w h i l e K a r u n g a r u ' s

f a t h e r i s d e p i c t e d a s a n o p p o n e n t o f t h e Freedom Fighters,

supporting the c o l o n i s t s . Karungaru's f a t h e r i s s u b s e q u e n t l y

k i l l e d by N g u r e ' s father's P a r t y . I f y Achufusi, i n h i s essay,

"The Problerns of Nationhood i n Grace Ogot's F i c t i o n " q u e s t i o n s

o g o t 8 s wisdom i n c h o o s i n g a "traitor's daughter" as t h e main

protagoni~t- He writes:

There i s ... a cruel irony a t the eloquent

m i n i s t e r ' s expense, i n t h e r e v e l a t i o n t h a t

s h e cornes from a f a m i l y of t r a i t o r s who had

actively collaborated with the colonial

f o r c e s , a n d g a i n e d immense w e a l t h from t h i s

collaboration .... There is f u r t h e r i r o n y

t h a t among t h e m i n i s t e r ' s a u d i e n c e is t h e

s o n of one o f t h e freedom f i g h t e r s who h a s

k i l l e d t h e Honourable M i n i s t e r ' s t r a i t o r -

Eather. (182)

Many c r i t i c s o f t h e newly i n d e p e n d e n t Kenya, i n c l u d i n g Ngugi w a

T h i o n g ' o , c h a r g e t h a t t h e f r u i t s o f t h e s t r u g g l e a r e enjoyed by

t h o s e who e i t h e r p l a y e d no p o s i t i v e r o l e o r had e v e n s u p p o r t e d

the c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s d u r i n g t h e d e c o l o n i z a t i o n s t r u g g l e

(Achufusi, 1 8 3 ) . O g o t ' s a t t r i b u t i n g s u c h background t o h e r main

p r o t a g o n i s t may be c o n f u s i n g , b u t c l e a r l y s h e a t t e m p t s t o

encornpass a l 1 c o n f l i c t i n g f a c t i o n s of t h e p a s t i n h e r q u e s t f o r a

z e l o c a t i o n o f remembered a u t h o r i t y and a u t h e n t i c i t y . Ngure

r e c o g n i z e s t h a t i n t h e S t a t e s no o n e t h i n k s a b o u t t r i b a l i s r n for

t h e r e " a l 1 were Kenyan, u n d e r one Embassy and f l a g " (34) .

Furthermore, Ogot a l l o w s Ngure t o f e e l a n a f f i n i t y w i t h Karungaru

b e c a u s e she a n d he are both Gikuyu. The recording o f N g u r e ' s

i n n e r thoughts possibly r e f l e c t s Ogot's atternpts t o r e l o c a t e t h e

c u l t u r a l memory i n a s p a c e beyond t h e f r a c t i o u s rnemory of t h e

past, in her hopes of a reconciliation, necessary to build the

future Kenya.
Jakoyo, in contrast with Ngure, is rnarried to a Kenyan woman

by whom he has three children. Karungaru's address to the

st;udents sparks his memory of his wife, and this draws him to
accept her offer of ernployment and return home. The t w o young

men, Ngure and Jakoyo, are both governed by their memories of the
pst. Ngure, whose memories are suppressed, remains in the

United States; Jakoyo, significantly married to the Kenyan woman,

returns with nationalist pride to help h i s country rather t h a n

excel in an alien land.

When Jakoyo's ambitions are thwarted by Karungaru's white

s e c r e t a r y , Jakoya s u f f e r s a Kafkaesque type of experience

battling bureaucracy. While Ogot's nationalistic sense of the

value of home and hearth encompasses without criticism al1
factions, ber attitude to the colonial whites is unequivocally

scathing. She blames the white colonial system for perpetuating

and accentuating the difference between men and women. She

States:
When the coloniser came, he recruited men
to help him build his towns and cities.

Contrary to Africa customs he built tiny

tin huts which adult men shared, and women
were forbidden [sic]. When he needed extra
hands to help him impose his rule upon the

sons of t h e soil, he b u i l t schools for men

away from women, creating a big rift

 between brother and sister, husband and

wife, girl and lover. (16)

Men were uprooted for forced labour, the oniy means for paying

their taxes, leaving the women to serve as "custodians of the

land and home" ( 1 7 ) - Through her protagonists, Ogot comments on

nhites sitting illegally in job positions that indigenous Kenyans

should hold, and condemns those who side with the white man as

the "root cause of bloodshed in the land" (26, 36).

Recalling Waciuma, Karungaru cites education as the means of

rectifying these wrongs, telling the students, "With al1 your

academic qualifications, experience and technical know hou, w e

can tell the white man to go now" (26).l8 However, Jane Brown,
Karungaru's immoral white secretary, thwarts Jakoyo's attempts to

meet with Karungaru. Ogot's sentiments are clear; she depicts the

colonial white as manipulative and self-serving, protecting their

positions of power at the indigenous Kenyan's expense. AnabelL,

the young black assistant to Jane Brown, succeeds in using her

initiative and ensuring Jakoyo's interview and position, and when

promoted, imagines herself showered with the "blessings of her

ancestors" (71). Although recording contemporary issues, ~ g o t

implies that the ancestral traditions still hold significance and

authority and have a positive effect on the actions of the

people. The novel ends with Ogot crediting Anabell, a woman, for

helping her own people "remove away the yoke of colonial

domination from Our shoulders" suggesting that the role women

played in the past liberation movement must and does still

continue (26).
 The novel places Ogot in a contemporary light, for she draws

on more recent Kenyan memories and on feminist ideals as well as

eurochristian culture. She does not condemn the students for

studying abroad, but she clearly believes that they should return

home and apply their learning in their own country, for whose

independence the people fought and paid so dearly. Thus, Ogot

s u b t l y renegotiates the p a s t remembered traditions as explored in

The Promised Land. While The Promised Land advocates the

adherence to tribe and place, The Graduate promotes a broader

nationalism and sense of responsibility, to the country at large

rather than to the more imrnediate ethnic group or family. The

role o f the dutiful woman as expressed through Nyapol is expanded

in The Graduate to encompass the nurture of a l 1 Kenyans; the

traditional mother figure becomes the symbolic mother figure

equated with the l a n d itself, nourishing its people and embracing

t h e m with a greater sense of responsibility. Her works also

exemplify Anderson's theories that w i t h increased education, and

lessening of traditional spiritual authority, changes take place

in modes of comprehending the world, changes which make it

possible to think in terms of nation and nationality. I n this

way, Ogot skilfully and loyally reaffirms and reinterprets her

inherited cultural and social memory, advocating adherence to

l a n d and people. The development of her attitudes in her own

work exemplifies the African's woman's ability to reinterpret and

re-state the remembered valued beliefs of the past, infusing them

with new perspective and new meaning to help women meet the

challenges of the present .

 F l o r a Nwapa h o l d s t h e honour of being t h e f i r s t b l a c k

A f r i c a n woman t o p u b l i s h a n o v e l i n E n g l i s h . Like Waciuma, s h e

p r o v i d e s a s o c i o l o g i c a l r e c o r d of h e r culture, w h i l e s h e

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , l i k e Ogot, r e c a l l s some n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s of h e r

i n h e r i t e d customs, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h o s e r e l a t i n g t o f e m i n i n e

issues. Like f e l l o w N i g e r i a n , Chinua Achebe, Nwapa s i t u a t e s h e r

e a r l y works i n r u r a l Igbo communities a n d p r o v i d e s a w e a l t h o f

s o c i o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l i n f o r m a t i o n . Thus s h e draws on h e r

Igbo p a s t . Her f i r s t t w o n o v e l s , Efuru ( 1 9 6 6 ) and -

Idu (1970) a r e

set in h e r home town i n t h e l a t e 1940s a n d e a r l y 1950s (James, -

In

T h e i r Own Voices 115). T r a d i t i o n a l l i f e and i t s s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s

p l a y a major r o l e i n both A c h e b e ' s and Nwapa's works and b o t h

w r i t e r s weave i n t o t h e i r w r i t i n g t h e l o c a l p r o v e r b s , i d i o m s ,

myths and c l i c h é s . They t h e r e b y i n t r o d u c e t o t h e E n g l i s h

language t h e b e l i e f s , d i c t a and e x p e c t e d n o m s o f t h e i r n a t i v e

societies. They also b o t h d e p i c t t h e c o n f u s i o n of c u l t u r e s which

o c c u r r e d a s Western i m p e r i a l i s m h e l p e d i n t x o d u c e Western r e l i g i o n

and t e c h n o l o g y t o t h e i n d i g e n o u s , a g r a r i a n s o c i e t i e s . Because of

these s i r n i l a r i t i e s , Nwapa i s o f t e n compared w i t h Achebe.

However, w h i l e c r i t i c s acknowledge the b r o a d s i m i l a r i t i e s

between t h e t w o N i g e r i a n w r i t e r s , many a r e s h a r p l y h o s t i l e

towards Nwapa, and more o f t e n compare h e r with Achebe t o c l a i m

h e r shortcomings, rather than b e r remarkable and unique

achievement.lg E u s t a c e Palmer a c c u s e s h e r o f giving t o o much

sociological information which he finds irrelevant and boring
("Elechi Amadif' 57) . He finds Efuru lacking theme, and wonders

w h a t it is al1 intendeci to mean. In Gordimer's assessment, the

" r d l i n g details of daily life [are] mildly interesting but

largely irrelevantff(Black Interpeters 20). Adewale Maja-Pearce,

however, defends Efuru as an "indisputable masterpiece" which has

been badly neglected by critics (10). Lloyd Brown claims Nwapa's

work as "typical of the kind of African novel that resists purely

Western-orientated approaches to the genre" (135). He argues

that the issues of social realism and individualism, so long &
rigueur in the study of the Western novel, may take on different

perspectives or levels of importance in African writing. Nwapa

rnay weLl reflect the oral cultural background of the Igbo

culture. A climactic linear plot, Ong claims, is a Western

structure, whereas the oral narrative is traditionally more
episodic ( 1 4 1 ). If Nwapa, the first African woman to publish, is
to establish her identity as an African writer, or initiate an

uniquely African form within the g m r e , her work should not be

assessed only by established noms.
Nwapa's adopted use of the novel genre may also reflect her

ability to draw on the memory modes embedded in the past

established techniques of the genre, itself. Brown points out

that Nwapa's two major novels, Idu and Efuru, bear superficial

similarities to those of nineteenth century women novelists such

as Jane Austen and the Bronte sisters (136). Her novels use as

their titles the protagonists' names. She posits ber title

characters in the confines of a limited society, and s h e focuses
on t h e i r m a r r i a g e s , t h e i r e d u c a t i o n , t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d

hopes, e n t r a p p e d as t h e y a r e within t h e i r e n c l o s e d s o c i e t i e s .

She a l s o u s e s p a r a l l e l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s a n d p l o t s ; E f u r u i s

n e i t h e r a s l o n g s u f f e r i n g and s e l f - d e n i g r a t i n g as O s s a i , n o r a s

s t r o n g - w i l l e d a n d s e l f - a s s e r t i n g as Anajupu. I d u and A d i e w e r e ' s

i n i t i a l l y c h i l d l e s s m a r r i a g e i s p a r a l l e l e d b y O j i u g o and

Amarajeme's. However, Nwapals n o v e l s s h a r e l i t t l e e l s e w i r h

t h o s e o f h e r English p r e d e c e s s o r s , f o r d e s p i t e h e r imported

medium and g e n r e , s h e manages t o i n f u s e h e r work w i t h a

d i s t i n c t l y N i g e r i a n , o r t a be more s p e c i f i c , I g b o f l a v o u r .

Nwapa s u c c e e d s i n p r e s e n t i n g t h e o r a l a s p e c t of h e r s o c i e t y

i n her writing. Her q u i e t , slow a n d s i m p l e s t y l e r e f l e c t s t h e

l i f e she describes. She u s e s v e r y l i t t l e i n d i r e c t r s l a y i n g o f

i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d minimal o m n i s c i e n t , a u t h o r i a l comment, b u t

r a t h e r p r e s e n t s t h e r e a d e r with a c o n s t a n t flow o f i n c e s s a n t

dialogue. T h i s d i a l o g u e f u l f i l s many f u n c t i o n s . I t provides

commentary and judgement on p a s s i n g e v e n t s , p e o p l e a n d t h e i r

a c t i o n s ; it r e i n f o r c e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n o m s o f a c c e p t e d and

e x p e c t e d p a t t e r n s of b e h a v i o u r ; a n d it p o s i t s t h e c e a s e l e s s

c h a t t e r o f t h e women as t h e means of p e r p e t u a t i n g a n d s u s t a i n i n g

t h e e s t a b l i s h e d v a l u e s o f t h e comrnunity. In -
Idu, t h e r e a d e r i s

toldr "women's c o n v e r s a t i o n n e v e r e n d s " ( 1 9 7 ) . L i k e a Greek

chorus, t h e g o s s i p c i r c u l a t e s e n d l e s s l y , c o n s t a n t l y i n f l u e n c i n g

and moulding t h e community, s u g g e s t i n g a c y c l i c a l way o f l i f e ,

kept i n check by s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s and c o n s t r a i n t s . T h e community

s e t s t h e s t a g e , a n d Nwapa, w h i l e a v o i d i n g a u t h o r i a l i n t e r f e r e n c e

o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , achieves g r e a t pathos and i r o n y a s t h e

backdrop o f commentary h e l p s h i g h l i g h t b o t h t h e p o s i t i v e and
2O
n e g a t i v e v a l u e s o f Igbo c u l t u r a l n o m s .

While Nwapa r e c r e a t e s a n o r a l s o c i e t y t h r o u g h t h e i n c e s s a n t

women's commentary, s h e a l s o manages t o i n t r o d u c e the patterns

and i n t o n a t i o n s o f h e r own Igbo l a n g u a g e i n t o t h e E n g l i s h

medium." She r e t a i n s t h e c y c l i c a l r h y t h m i c q u a l i t i e s of Igbo

speech, p e r h a p s most c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d by the customary modes

of g r e e t i n g , i n which t h e r e p e t i t i v e n e s s o f t h e q u e s t i o n and

answer p r o v i d e s an e c h o i n g q u a l i t y .

'fou have corne t o s e e u s t o d a y .

Yes, 1 have c0n.e t o s e e you t o d a y .

1s i t w e l l ?

It i s v e r y w e l l .. . . it is v e r y well. (E 1 7 3 )
Nwapa's t r a n s f e r e n c e o f t h i s s p e e c h p a t t e r n i n t o E n g l i s h i s

r e m i n i s c e n t o f Alan P a t o n ' s echoing o f t h e Zulu i n t o n a t i o n a n d

rhythm i n h i s d i a l o g u e s i n Cry the Beloved C o u n t r y . In this

rnanner, Nwapa d e p i c t ç a calrn, u n h u r r i e d Pace o f l i f e . Frequently

she i n c l u d e s i n such r h y t h m i c and e c h o i n g q u e s t i o n - a n s w e r

g r e e t i n g s an Igbo i d i o m a t i c s a y i n g . "Are you w e l l ? " E f u r u ' s

mother-in-law asks. " W e are well" E f u r u r e p l i e s , " I t i s o n l y t h e

hunger" ( 4 2 ) . We l e a r n from the r e p e t i t i v e n e s s of t h e p h r a s e ' l i t

i s o n l y t h e hunger" t h a t this s t a t e m e n t i s a f o r m a 1 c o n v e n t i o n ;

t h e p h r a s e does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e t o inadequate food.

However, t h e p h r a s e s t i l l i n c o r p o r a t e s a s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e o f

t h e Igbo c u l t u r a l background. As Ong p o i n t s out, t h e o r a l

u t t e r a n c e v a n i s h e s a s soon as it is u t t e r e d . "Redundancy a n d

r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e just-said keeps both speaker a n d h e a r e r s u r e l y

on t h e t r a c k " ( 3 9 - 4 0 ) . F u r t h e m o r e , redundancy and r e p e t i t i o n

a r e more n a t u r a l t o t h o u g h t and speech t h a n s p a r s e l i n e a r i t y , and

by t h e i r u s e , Nwapa is a b l e t o r e c r e a t e t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e o r a l

comrnunity .

Nwapa a l s o t e n d s t o i n c l u d e d i r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n s o f v a r i o u s

Igbo p r o v e r b s and sayings. At rimes t h e s e may j a r on t h e Western

e a r , and h a l t cornprehension momentarily, b u t i n g e n e r a l , t h e y

s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t r o d u c e t h e I g b o idiom and I g b o r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s

t o ber E n g l i s h e x p r e s s i o n , t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e r e a d e r i n t o a non-

English culture."
7 - S i n c e p r o v e r b s g r a n t access t o a n c e s t r a l

wisdom, p a s s e d down t h r o u g h t h e g e n e r a t i o n s , b y i n c o r p o r a t i n g

them i n t o h e r w r i t i n g , Nwapa r e i t e r a t e s t h e c u l t u r a l rnernory of

t h e Igbo. Many I g b o idioms use words i n c o n t e x t s u n f a m i l i a r t o

English. I n t h e words o f Chinua Achebe, Nwapa i s " a b l e t o expand

t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e t o b r i n g o u t h e r message, without a l t e r i n g

i t t o t h e e x t e n t that i t s v a l u e as a medium o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l

exchange is l o s t " (Emenyonu 31). Nwapa u s e s t h e s t a t e m e n t , "1

was l u c k y i t happened i n my f a c e " , meaning, "1 was l u c k y i t

happened b e f o r e my e y e s ( E 1 3 ) . When t h e women t e l l O s s a i , "Your

d a u g h t e r ' s face is good", t h e y mean s h e i s p o p u l a r , a n d when t h e y

t e l l E f u r u , " W e a r e s o r r y t h a t your husband h a s rubbed c h a r c o a l

i n your f a c e " t h e y e x p r e s s sympathy a t h e r embarrassrnent ( 1 7 ,

110). Adiewere t e l l s Idu s h e i s " p l e a s i n g " t o h i s e y e s ,

referring n o t o n l y t o h e r p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e , b u t t o her person

a s a whole ( 2 0 ) . The s t a t e m e n t , "1 don't want l a z i n e s s t o e n t e r

my e y e s " is a d i r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e Igbo e x p r e s s i o n (1 2 3 ) .

The word "deep" a l s o h o l d s many meanings. "[Tjhe n i g h t i s very

d e e p " means " i t i s late", y e t when the women comment, "The w o r l d

i s deep", t h e y mean "cornplex" (1 1 9 1 , 2 1 3 ) . The reader assumes

t h a t i n t h e I g b o l a n g u a g e t h e same word would be used t o express

d e g r e e o f c o m p l e x i t y o r l a t e n e s s o f the n i g h t . The c o n n o t a t i o n s

o f t h e s e t r a n s l a t e d words a r e a l w a y s i n h e r e n t i n the t e x t , y e t

imbue t h e n o v e l w i t h a n I g b o f l a v o u r . I n t h i s way, Nwapa

a c t u a l l y t r a n s l i t e r a t e s Igbo speech.

Nwapa a l s o t a k e s c e r t a i n a r t i s t i c l i c e n s e . When s h e writes,

"Then he b r o k e i t [ t h e kola n u t ] and g a v e t h e ment', her use o f

t h e d i r e c t i n s t e a d of i n d i r e c t object allows her t o r e t a i n the

i n t o n a t i o n a n d p a t t e r n of t h e I g b o l a n g u a g e ( E 4 ) . When the

women tell o f I d u ' s m i s c a r r i a g e , w i t h a d i r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e

fgbo e x p r e s s i o n , "Pregnancy is l e a v i n g h e r " , t h e y r e t a i n t h e

m u s i c o f t h e I g b o l a n g u a g e a n d t h e p h r a s e reads h a r m o n i o u s l y

(18). Nwapa does n o t , however, a l w a y s t r a n s l a t e p r e c i s e l y , b u t

makes s u b t l e c h a n g e s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s l a t i o n . These s m a l l

a l t e r a t i o n s a r e n o t e d by C h i d i Ikonne i n h i s e s s a y o n "The F o l k

Roots o f F l o r a Nwapa's E a r l y N o v e l s " . Ikonne States:

The r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e a p p a r e n t failure t o

a d h e r e t o t h e n o m d o e s n o t i n a n y way

c o n s t i t u t e a condemnation o f Nwapa's

portrayal. I t is p o s s i b l e that s h e

a p p r o a c h e s t h e p r a c t i c e , a s she d o e s , i n

t h e i n t e r e s t of her a r t . After a l l , hers

i s a novel and n o t a socio-anthropological

study. ( 9 9 - 1 0 1 )
In this way, Nwapa manages to fuse the two languages languages

syntactically, which helps her establish a cultural

distinctiveness. 23 She is, in this respect, in sharp contrast

with her fellow compatriot, Buchi Emecheta, who adopts so fully

the British idiom in her writing.

Nwapa also employs folk tales and songs, modes of

reiterating established myths and legends, in a traditionally

oral manner. In -
Idu, she inserts the tale of the king with ten

wives, highlighting the Igbo attitude towards adultery and

paternity. The tale hast of course, direct bearing on the story

of the impotent Amarajeme and his wife Ojiugo. When Ojiugo

becomes pregnant, the "custom of the land" dictates that the

impotent husband, Amarajeme, is the nominal father (67). In

Zfuru the tale of the sisters, Eke, Orie, Afo and Nkwo,

demonstrates the need for sisters to help one another r ~ d

themselves of the evil spirit. Their names are the names for

days of the week, and consequently they can be interpreted as

related in time, rather than by blood. Nwapa thus touches on the

bonding of the traditional tribal age-groups, but her lack of

further exploration perhaps evokes the criticism she receives as

supplying folk lore and sociological information out of context

with her story (Palmer, "Elechi Amadi" 57). Brown points out

that the stories and songs relayed by the children in -

Idu during

th2 harvest festival, reiterate the statement-response quafity of

the Igbo language, while also reflecting the birth-life-death

cycle that the novel presents (141). Such modes of societal

memory help link past with present, and establish an indigenous

element by introducing a performative r i t u a l . Palmer, claims

t h a t t h e s e t a l e s do n o t "always emerge n a t u r a l l y a n d

u n o b t r u s i v e l y o u t o f t h e l i v i n g s i t u a t i o n " ( " E l e c h i " 58).

Perhaps Nwapa would h a v e a v o i d e d criticism had s h e i n t e g r a t e d t h e

s t o r i e s i n t o t h e p l o t s of t h e n o v e l s ; however, P a l m e r ' s c r i t i c i s m

assumes a s e n s e of s e a m l e s s n e s s a s t h e c r i t e r i o n of l i t e r a r y

noms.

By d r a w i n g on p a s t customs, Nwapa, l i k e Waciuma, e m p h a s i z e s

the r i g h t r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e , r a t h e r than i n d i v i d u a l

growth a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , I n t h i s way, she r e t a i n s t h e A f r i c a n

t r a d i t i o n a l p r i m a r y f o c u s on s o c i e t y , r a t h e r t h a n t h e i n d i v i d u a l .

However, E f u r u and -
I d u b o t h d e p i c t t h e problerns c o n f r o n t i n g t h e

non-conforming i n d i v i d u a l . The two n o v e l s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y a b o u t

two e x c e p t i o n a l women w i t h i n t r a d i t i o n a l c o m m u n i t i e s of t h e t i m e s

o f which s h e writes. Nwapa examines how t h e s e women retain t h e i r

i n d i v i d u a l i t y w h i l e r e m a i n i n g w i t h i n and b e i n g embraced by t h e i r

communities. Her novels are t h u s n o t p s y c h o l o g i c a l b u t

s o c i o l o g i c a l , and by a l l o w i n g h e r c h a r a c t e r s t o r e - e n a c t the

mundane c u l t u r a l life p a t t e r n s , t o r e - e n a c t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s

w i t h i n t h e community, s h e s k i l f u l l y re-tells h e r c u l t u r a l past.

D e s p i t e G o r d i m e r ' s d a i m t h a t Nwapa "is n o t c a p a b l e of d e a l i n g

w i t h theme", t h e d i s t i n c t l y female themes o f c h i l d b s â r i ï i g and

b a r r e n n e s s p r e d o m i n a t e i n b o t h n o v e l s ( B l a c k I n t e r p r e t e r s 2 1 ) .2 4

Both E f u r u a n d Idu a r e near p e r f e c t women: t h e y both p o s s e s s

r e m a r k a b l e b e a u t y , gentle and kind p e r s o n a l i t i e s , and both a r e

good, h a r d working traders; however, b o t h have a p r o b l e m w i t h

childbearing. Most o f t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a y e d
through E f u r u and -
I d u relates t o customs c o n c e r n i n g m a r r i a g e ,

c h i l d b i r t h and t h e s t a t u s o f women. The r e a d e r l e a r n s t h a t tne

purpose o f m a r r i a g e i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Igbo s o c i e t y is t o produce

children. "What we a r e a l 1 p r a y i n g f o r i s c h i l d r e n . What e l s e

do we want i f we have c h i l d r e n ? " a s k s Nwasobi, one of t h e main

commentators i n Idu (150). " M a r r i a g e must be f r u i t f u l " , t h e

womer. i n f o m i n Efuru, "Of what use i s it i f i t i s n o t f r u i t f u l ? "

(171). The wornan's r a i s o n d ' e t r e i s t o g i v e b i r t h , and h e r

status i n t h e community i s p r e d i c a t e d on h e r a b i l i t y f i r s t l y t o

c o n c e i v e , and s e c o n d l y t o p r o d u c e sons. The i n a b i l i t y t o produce

c h i l d r e n i s always blamed on t h e w i f e ; a woman w i t h o u t a c h i l d i s

n o t c o n s i d e r e d a p r o p e r woman. When E f u r u g i v e s b i r t h s h e

e x p r e s s e s r e l i e f s a y i n g , "1 have had a baby ... 1 am a woman

after a l l " (33). A wornan's b a r r e n n e s s is t h e b u s i n e s s of t h e

entire community, spoken of and a n a l y z e d by all, and t h e

c h i l d l e s s w i f e must f i n d a s e c o n d , s u i t a b l e woman f o r h e r

husband. Nwapa emphasizes t h a t s o c i a l p r e s s u r e prompts both

Ffuru and Idu t o condone polygyny. The women r e p e a t e d l y i n f o r m

t h e r e a d e r t h a t " o n l y a bad woman ... wants a husband a l 1 t o

h e x s e l f " (E 62, 6 7 , 7 5 ) . Idu t e l l s Adiewere, "1 want you t o

marry a n o t h e r w i f e . 1 d o n ' t want t o be c a l l e d a bad woman any

more" (90-91). L i f e f o r t h e s e c o n d w i f e is n o t always e a s y

e i t h e r : A d i e w e r e f s second w i f e "had come t o f u l f i l a f u n c t i o n " ,

"was t r e a t e d a l m o s t l i k e a m a i d , " and h e r i n a b i l i t y t o c o n c e i v e

causes her t o l e a v e shame-faced (1 6 6 ) . Extramarital a f f a i r s are

a c c e p t a b l e f o r t h e man only; Efuru demonstrates s u c h a double

s t a n d a r d , f o r G i l b e r t ' s illegitimate son is a c c e p t e d , y e t G i l b e r t

r e a c t s b a d l y t o rumours o f E f u r u ' s i n f i d e l i t y . With m a r r i a g e ,

t h e w i f e becomes t h e h u s b a n d ' s p r o p e r t y , and i f a husband d i e s ,

h i s s p o u s e a u t o m a t i c a l l y becomes t h e w i f e o f h i s c l o s e s t m a l e

r e l a t i v e , a s i t u a t i o n Idu a v o i d s by h e r s e l f - w i l l e d d e a t h .
Not o n l y a r e women p a i d f o r i n m a r r i a g e , b u t young g i r l s ,

s u c h as Ogea, a r e s o l d by t h e i r p a r e n t s because o f f i n a n c i a l

need.15 Male b a b i e s a r e v a l u e d ' f o r t h e s t a t u s t h e y b r i n g t h e

m o t h e r , and are f a v o u r a b l y t r e a t e d . Female b a b i e s a r e v a l u e d f o r

t h e b r i d e p r i c e t h e y b r i n g w i t h m a r r i a g e , and when f i r s t b o r n

c o n s i d e r e d l u c k y f o r t h e p a r e n t s , for a g i r l c o u l d h e l p w i t h

housework and b a b y s i t h e r younger s i b l i n g s (1 7 9 ) . G i r l s were

n o t educated a s were t h e boys f o r it was "a waste of sime s e n d i n g

them t o s c h o o l " , and N k o y e n i l s one d i s a d v a n t a g e a s a p r o s p e c t i v e

s e c o n d wife f o r G i l b e r t i s t h a t " s h e l o o k s l i k e s h e i s g o i n g t o

s c h o o l " ( E 242, 2 2 7 ) . The husband i s always " l o r d and master",

Eree t o do a s h e p l e a s e s , and Adiewere t e l l s I d u t h a t if t h e y

disagree, even if he is wrong, s h e s h o u l d a p o l o g i z e to him ( E 65,

1 175).

I r o n i c a l l y , i t i s t h e wornen who a r e h a r s h l y judgemental o f

any o f t h e i r own s e x who s t r a y beyond t h e l a w s o f c o n f o r m i t y .

They r e i n f o r c e t h e s u p e r s t i t i o u s beliefs s u p p o r t i n g t h e s e

t r a d i t i o n a l , male-chauvinistic customs. If a woman l o s e s h e r

c h i l d r e n , h e r v i r t u e is q u e s t i o n e d . When Efuru's c h i l d d i e s , s h e

i s a s k e d , " I n what ways have you o f f e n d e d Our a n c e s t o r s ? " ( 8 7 ) .

Of I d u , t h e women comment: " A good woman l i k e t h a t s h o u l d h a v e a

c h i l d " f o r t h e y b e l i e v e t h a t "when a woman i s good, God, [the]

a n c e s t o r s , and t h e Woman o f t h e Lake a l 1 l o o k a t h e r stomach, not

h e r head, b u t a t h e r stomach" ( 2 8 , 4 2 ) . Onyemuru, whose many

c h i l d r e n a l 1 d i e d , is j u d g e d " n o t a good woman" ( 1 3 0 ) . The

women assume t h a t h e r i r r i t a b l e , u n p l e a s a n t n a t u r e is t h e c a u s e

r a t h e r than t h e e f f e c t of her c h i l d r e n ' s deaths. Even a woman

who has a boy a f t e r s e v e n g i r l s is s u s p e c t e d o f committing

adulrery. P r o s t i t u t i o n a n d a d u l t e r y are condemned a s f o r e i g n a n d

t h e women r e p e a t p h r a s e s s u c h a s " t h a t ' s n o t how o u r p e o p l e

behave", and it "is t h e custorn of t h e p e o p l e " , i n b o t h n o v e l s ( 1

105, 2 1 5 , 1 2 7 ) . Anajupu a d v i s e s E f u r u , "Don? b e h a v e i n a way

t h a t w i l l g i v e people cause t o gossip", a n d Idu cornplains rio her

husband t h a t , i f s h e d o e s n o t " a c t as everybody e l s e does" and

conform t o t h e custom o f t o u c h i n g a p e r s o n t o show sympathy, s h e

is a c c u s e d o f b e i n g u n s y m p a t h e t i c ( E 198, 1 101) . The c o n s t a n t

assessrnent a n d c r i t i c i s m £rom t h e wornen's community s u g g e s t s that

judgement t h a t b e a r s i n o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l from t h e o u t s i d e h a s

much t o do w i t h t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of c u l t u r a l n o m s (Ong 4 6 ) .

D e s p i t e t h e i r r e a d y condemnations, t h e women a l s o p r e s e n t

solidarity. Womenfs b o n d i n g and m u t u a l s u p p o r t a r e s t r o n g

feattires i n both novels. Anajupu becomes a p i l l a r of s t r e n g t h

for Efuru; i n E f u r u ' s m o s t a c u t e moment o f a n g u i s h , when G i l b e r t

q u e s t i o n s h e r r e p o r t e d a d u l t e r y , E f u r u a p p e a l s t o Anajupu f o r

help. Women h e l p one a n o t h e r i n c h i f d b i r t h and t a k e c o n s t a n t

i n t e r e s t i n one a n o t h e r ' s l i v e s . A t t h e same time, by means of

t h e c o n s t a n t d i a l o g u e , Nwapa i s a b l e t o d e p i c t t h e p e t t y

j e a l o u s i e s , m a l i c e and i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t h e women, as t h e y make

e v e r y o n e e l s e r s b u s i n e s s their own. I n p r o v i d i n g s o much

s o c i o l o g i c a l , background i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t wornen's r o l e s , Nwapa

c l e a r l y f o c u s e s on women p r o t a g o n i s t s w i t h i n a world o f wornenfs
d i a l o g u e and women's c o n c e r n s , a world s h a r e d by women ana f o r

t h e most p a r t w i t h o u t men. She t h u s e x p r e s s e s a d i s t i n c t l y

woman's p e r s p e c t i v e on h e r s o c i o l o g i c a l background.

Nwapa o f t e n a p p e a r s t o p r e s e n t c o n t r a d i c t o r y p o i n t s o f view.

~y a l l o w i n g a n oral m i r r o r i n g o f h e r p a s t s o c i e t y t o r e f l e c t

itself w i t h o u t a u t h o r i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s h e i s a b l e t o p o r t r a y

t h e very c o n f u s i o n of t h e s o c i e t y as it c o p e s w i t h constant

reassessment of c u l t u r a l values. I n c o n s i s t e n c y and

c o n t r a d i c t i o n s are, p e r h a p s , t h e r e a l i t y . Her p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e

i n c o n s i s t e n t i n t h e i r adherence t o o r r e b u t t a l of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

noms. The Western r e a d e r may be f r u s t r a t e d and confused by

t h e i r a p p a r e n t l a c k of r a t i o n a l i t y , e v i d e n t i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o

modern m e d i c i n e , e d u c a t i o n , a n d Western r e l i g i o n . I n t h i s woy,

Nwapa p e r h a p s d o e s conform t o t h e g e n r e ' s demands of s o c i a l

realism. S h e d o e s n o t always make h e r own p e r s p e c t i v e c l e a r : she

simply records. For example, t h e r e a d e r l e a r n s t h a t t h e

o r i d e g r o o m must pay a price f o r h i s b r i d e , a s f o r a piece of

merchandise. While Efuru i s happy t o f l o u t t h e b r i d e p r i c e

c o n v e n t i o n by moving i n w i t h Adizua, t h e community d i s a p p r ~ v e s . ' ~

However, E f u r u i s n o t t o t a l l y f r e e o f t h e s u p e r s t i t i o u s t h r e a t

t h e custom h o l d s o v e r h e r . She t e l l s A d i z u a , " [ y o u ] must do

s o m e t h i n g a b o u t o u r custom; if n o t , o u r a n c e s t o r s would be angry

w i t h u s and c a u s e il1 t o b e f a l l us" ( 2 1 ) . When s h e , i n e f f e c t ,

p a y s h e r own b r i d e price, t h e r e a d e r i s l e f t wondering whether t o

a d m i r e Efuru f o r i n i t i a l l y r e f u s i n g t o b e t r e a t e d l i k e c h a t t e l ,

o r t o condemn h e r f o r n o t v a l u i n g h e r s e l f more h i g h l y . When t h e

r n a r r i a g e f a i l s , t h e reader may wonder whether Nwapa e n d o r s e s t h e

v a l u e o f the t r a d i t i o n o r n o t , w h e t h e r s h e b e l i e v e s t h e a n c e s t o r s
have t a k e n t h e i r r e v e n g e f o r E f u r u ' s f l o u t i n g o f t h e t i m e

honoured t r a d i t i o n , b u t s h e makes n o a u t h o r i a l comment, leaving

t h e r e a d e r f r e e t o make h i s o r h e r own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

Zfuru h a s t o u n d e r g o t h e p a i n f u l p r o c e d u r e o f " h e r b a t h " o r

c l i t o r i d e c t o m y , f o r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c u s t o m , a "young woman musî

have h e r b a t h b e f o r e s h e h a s a baby" ( 6 ) . The d i b i a ( o r

witchdoctor) t h r e a t e n s t h a t should s h e n o t have h e r b a t h , any

baby CO which she g i v e s b i r t h m i g h t d i e ( 6 , IO). Nwapa makes no

a u t n o r i a l comment w h i l e g i v i n g d e t a i l s o f t h e a g o n i z i n g

p r o c e d u r e , a n d E f u r u ' s compliance i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h her

i n d e p e n d e n t non-conforming a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e b r i d e p r i c e .

Following h e r "bath", Efuru is s u b j e c t e d t o the customary

" f a t t e n i n g up" p r o c e s s ( 1 2 ) . However, one month i s enough f o r

E f u r u , a n d s h e f o r e g o e s t h e r e q u i r e d two month p e r i o d . Clearly,

E f u r u conforms some of t h e t i m e , but n o t a l 1 of t h e time, and

when h e r baby d i e s , t h e r e a d e r i s a g a i n l e f t wondering w h e t h e r

Nwapa i s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t Efuru i s p u n i s h e d f o r n o t f u l f i l l i n g t h e

customary procedure p r o p e r l y . Efuru's l a c k o f conformity

a p p a r e n t l y i s not b a s e d on l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g , b u t r a t h e r o n whim.

Towards t h e n o v e l ' s c l o s e t h e n a r r a t o r S t a t e s , " E f u r u was growing

l o g i c a l i n h e r reasoning. She t h o u g h t i t u n u s u a l f o r women t o be

logical. U s u a l l y i n t u i t i o n d i d t h e i r r e a s o n i n g f o r them" (208).

The s t a t e m e n t i s i n i t s e l f c o n f u s i n g , p e r h a p s even c o n t r a d i c t o r y ,

f o r it i s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r o r n o t Nwapa c o n s i d e r s i n t u i t i o n t o

have a n u n d e r l y i n g o r s u b c o n s c i o u s l o g i c .
 In both Efuru and Idu, as in Daughter of Mumbi and The

Promised Land, Western medicine conflicts with traditional

medicine. Initially, Efuru is compliant in consulting a dibia

about her barrenness. Yet, when her only child ails, she is
sceptical of approaching a dibia, knowing many to be "quacks", so
she resorts unsuccessfully to the old wives' remedies as directed

by Anajupu (80). Knowing that Efuru had grown up as sister to a

doctor and was familiar with Western medicine, the reader may

wonder why she did not take her daughter to the hospital. And
although she uses time-honoured, home-brewed remedies on her only
daughter, she does not hesitate to arrange for Nwosu and Nnona to

visit her doctor friend. Idu is similarly inconsistent.

Adiewere suffers £rom what is presumably tuberculosis, and "Idu
27
thought of M & B and decided against giving it to Adiewere" (4).

No reason is given why, but she resorts unsuccessfully to home-

made purgatives. Yet so desperate is she to have a baby, she
plans to go to the hospital for its delivery. (However, the

superstitious belief that the hospital produces more male babies

enhances the attractiveness of a hospital delivery). The local

people acknowledge the marvels of modern medicine. "These white
people are great, they are deep", Nwabata raves after the success
of her husband's operation. At the same tirne, Anajupu is a
source of confort with her old w i v e s ' remedies. Efuru places
faith in the dibia's assessrnent of her and in Anajupu's remedies,

and carries out both their instructions carefully. To critic

Eustace Palmer, such details may be irrelevant and boring, but
Nwapa thus demonstrates that faith in and acceptance of the
traditional ways are comforting and cannot be abruptly dismissed

("Elechi", 57) .

The new methods, not always fully comprehended, are

disturbing. When Ornirima's daughter-in-law understands yaws CO

be contagious, Omirimi laughs at "her ignorance". "What a fool

she was 1 told her. This is the time for her children to suffer

£rom yaws . . .. Our fathers suffered £ r o m it, so did Our father's

fathers" ( E 246). While ironically the reader may laugh

Omirima s ignorance, her confusion reflects her insecurity, as

her sense of identity and her status of authority, based on her

knowledge of the past, is eroded. By giving the details and

procedures of home-brewed remedies, Nwapa, in her understated

way, also advocates the importance of faith in the cure. Efuru's

faith in the dibia helps her accept her role in life as

worshipper of the Lady of the Lake: her faith in him helps her

accept her barren situation in a society iocused on child-

bearing.

Religion presents further confusion. Anyone who went to a

mission school, as did Gilbert, is a Christian, in name.

However, Gilbert does not renounce his African gods. When giving

thanks for not being robbed, he covers both his bases by

contributing to the church and sacrificing to local gods. And,

despite being a nominal Christian, he is quite happy to have more

than one wife. The past, Nwapa i n f e r s , is not that easily

dismissed; Gilbert may have learnt about Western faith, may be a

nominal Christian, but to what extent he is able to live the

Christian faith is another matter. Because his new-found

knowledge i s n o t imbedded i n h i s c u l t u r e , i t i s n o t p a r t o f h i s

communal i d e n t i t y .

The e l d e r s i n s t r u c t t h e young and d i r e c t , even i n d o c t r i n a t e ,

through p r e s s u r e s t o conform, t h e e x p e c t e d ways o f b e h a v i o u r .

Efuru's motivation i n paying t h e b r i d e p r i c e i s f e a r of t h e

a n c e s t o r s f anger. With t h e t h r e a t o f power f r o m t h e s u p e r n a r u r a l

mst, t h e p r e s s u r e t o conform is a l 1 t h e g r e a t e r . However, t h e

challenge from s c h o o l s and c h u r c h e s t o l o c a l theories a n d beliefs

t h r e a t e n s t h e o l d way of l i f e . I n a s o c i e t y where t h e p r i m e

value i s t h e communal i d e n t i t y , s u c h changes i n t h o u g h t a r e

indeed s e v e r e : t h e e n t i r e community is t h r e a t e n e d . New r e l i g i o n

and e d u c a t i o n a r e , t h e r e f o r e , r e g a r d e d w i t h m i s t r u s t , f o r t h e y

undermine and t h r e a t e n t h e a u t h o r i t y and s t a t u s o f t h e e l d e r s ,

who pass on t h e customs and v a l u e s o f t h e i r p a s t .

Throughout E f u r u , t h e women r e p e a t e d l y comment on t h e

i n a b i l i t y of t h e young t o absorb t h e customs of t h e i r e l d e r s , and

t h e damaging e f f e c t of e d u c a t i o n . "What is wrong w i t h t h e s e

c h i l d r e n nowadays" t h e women a s k of one a n o t h e r ( E 63-64) . They

cornplain that "young p e o p l e of t h i s g e n e r a t i o n a r e d i f f e r e n t " ,

and " d i f f i c u l t " , t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n " t h i n k t h e y know b e t t e r than

their p a r e n t s " , and a r e simply "no good" (1 2 0 0 , E 200, 174,

229). T h i s n e g a t i v e change i n y o u t h is l a r g e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e

white man. "The w o r l d i s changing", O m i r i m a s t a t e s . "It is now

t h e world o f t h e w h i t e p e o p l e . We and o u r g r a n d f a t h e r s d o n ' t

seem t o c o u n t t h e s e days" (E 2 4 6 ) .
In t h e p a s t , t h e e l d e r s claim, t h e r e was l i t t l e crime. As

i n Waciuma's Daughter of Mumbi, t h e t h r e a t of r e v e n g e t a k e n by

t-aditional g o d s , o r t h e simple r e t a l i a t i o n of t h e community, was

enough t o keep t h e i n h a b i t a n t s on t h e s t r a i g h t a n d n a r r o w .

However, w i t h t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h e c h u r c h , which f o r b i d s t a k i n g
t h e law i n t o t h e i r own h a n d s , and t h e t e a c h i n g i n t h e s c h o o l s ,

which p r o p o s e s r a t i o n a l argument a s o p p o s e d t o s u p e r s t i t i o n a n a

s u p e r n a t u r a l b e l i e f , t h e p e o p l e l o s e t h e c o n s t r a i n t s which h e l p e d

keep them m o r a l . One o f t h e women S t a t e s :

I n my y o u t h , t h e r e was n o t s t e a l i n g . If

you s t o l e you were s o l d a s a s l a v e . If

your p r o p e r t y was s t o l e n , you s i m p l y went

t o o n e o f t h e i d o l s and p r a y e d him t o v i s i t

t h e t h i e f [sic]. Before two o r three days,

you r e c o v e r e d y o u r p r o p e r t y . But, these

Church-goers have s p o i l t e v e r y t h i n g . They

t e l l u s o u r g o d s have no power, s o o u r

people continue t o s t e a l . (E 223)

N w a s h i k e , E f u r u ' s f a t h e r , i s c r i t i c i z e d f o r n o t b e i n g t o u g h e r on

Adizua. " I n h i s y o u t h f u l d a y s , Nwashike would h a v e t a u g h t t h a t

£001 a l e s s o n . Things a r e changing f a s t t h e s e days. These w h i t e

p e o p l e have imposed s o much s t r a i n on our p e o p l e . The l e a s t

t h i n g you do nowadays you a r e p u t i n t o p r i s o n " ( E 7 ) .

O f c o u r s e , many s u c h c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n

r i n g f a m i l i a r f o r a l 1 tirnes a n d a l 1 s o c i e t i e s , t h e elders p e r h a p s

f o r g e t t i n g and i d e a l i z i n g t h e r e a l i t i e s o f t h e i r own p a s t .

However, w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c o l o n i a l a n d m i s s i o n a r y

e d u c a t i o n , which f o c u s on young p e o p l e , i n p a r t i c u l a r young

males, t h e c o n f l i c t between g e n e r a t i o n s becomes a c u t e , a theme

which Miriam Tlali explores more fully in Amandla. The rnemories

of the older generation also serve as a reminder of the constancy

of change which is both healthy and necessary in any comunity in

order for it to temain alive. Yet, Nwapa does not show the rate

of change as particularly rapid in the relatively remote Igbo

village. With no formal education, Efuru and Idu exhibit non-

conforming tendencies. Experience and observation draw

individuals to question and reassess past customs and beliefs.

In -
Idu, the reader learns of the change in attitude regarding

birth of twins, traditionally considered unlucky for the

community. Idu gives birth to a healthy son during an eclipse,

an event considered very unlucky; the consequent health of the

boy surprises the community, and challenges their belief in ill-

omens. Undoubtedly, changes do occur naturally, with or without

outside intrusion. Yet, the sense of belonging to sornething

l a r g e s than the self, so paramount in communal living, is

weakened by the intervention of individualism, and the imposition

of Western culture certainly accelerates the rate of change.

This conflict between the past and present creates a tension

responsible for much of the apparently conflicting behaviour and

confusing perspectives. And it is possible that such confusion

reflects not only the protagonists' situation, but also that of

the author.

By examining her protagonists' difficulties in conceiving,

Nwapa posits the individual situation against the dictates and

expectations of the societal n o m s of that t h e . In this way,

Nwapa challenges the customs of the past that specifically relate
t o women. E f u r u i s s t r o n g enough t o d e m o n s t r a t e a q u i e t
rebellion against established noms. S h e d e f i e s h e r f a t h e r by

going out i n t h e moonlight; s h e d e f i e s t h e bride-price

c o n v e n t i o n ; s h e c u r t a i l s h e r " f a t t e n i n g " p r o c e s s ; s h e r e f u s e s to

accompany Adizua up t h e r i v e r t o t h e farm, p r e f e r r i n g h e r own

c h o i c e of work a s a triider; a n d h e r p a t i e n c e w i t h A d i z u a ' s

a b s e n c e a n d i n f i d e l i t y is not i n e x h a u s t i b l e . Idu, t o o , a s s e r t s

a s u b t l e , quiet s t r e n g t h a n d s e n s e o f s e l f h o o d . She r e f u s e s to

s c r a p e h e r h a i r when A d i e w e r e d i e s , a n d i n h e r a p p a r e n t l y s e l f -

w i l l e d d e a t h r e j e c t s t h e i d e a t h a t c h i l d r e n a r e a l 1 a woman w a n t s

i n l i f e , e s p e c i a l l y a s s h e is p r e g n a n t a t t h e t i m e . Efuru's r o l e

o f w o r s h i p p e r o f t h e Lake a n d a s u c c e s s f u l t r a d e r s u g g e s t s t h a t

E f u r u does h a v e a f u l f i l l i n g r o l e i n s o c i e t y w i t h o u t a husband o r

a child. I d u ' s l o v e f o r A d i e w e r e seems t o c h a l l e n g e t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r i n a s o c i e t y where m a r r i a g e s a r e p r a c t i c a l

institutions f o r child-rearing. With h e r d e a t h s h e e v a d e s t h e

t r a d i t i o n a l custom of marrying her deceased husband's e l d e s t

S r o t h e r . I n t h e s e r e s p e c t s , Nwapa's works a r e p o t e n t i a l l y

f e m i n i s t , a l t h o u g h s h e r e j e c t s such a l a b e l ( F e r r y , 1 2 6 2 ) .

Nwapa's p r o t a g o n i s t s seem unaware o f t h e i r f e m i n i s t s t a n d .

Anajupu's s y m b o l i c f e m i n i s t r e v o l t when g i v i n g G i l b e r t a blow t o

t h e head, i s a n e x c e p t i o n , and a l t h o u g h t h e men a r e d e p i c t e d as

g e n e r a l l y weak, l a z y a n d u n r e l i a b l e , f o r t h e most p a r t , Nwapa

d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e impact of p a t r i a r c h a l norms on h e r f e m a l e

p r o t a g o n i s t s , a n d d o e s n o t e x p l o r e t h e psychological e f f e c t s any

further. A t t h e c l o s e of b o t h n o v e l s , male supremacy remains

u n a l t e r e d , a n d t h e m a j o r i t y o f women still conform. E f u r u and

Idu, being exceptional women are, to a certain extent,
marginalized by their individuality. The traditional status quo

remains the same, while only the non-conforming individuais

suffer .

In Ripples in the Pool (1975), Rebeka Njau draws on her

cultural memory in an indirect manner. She does not provide a

record of the past by giving sociologicai information, as does
Nwapa. Nor does she depict near perfect women; in tact, her

women protagonists display decidedly negative qualities.

However, in common with her compatriots, Waciuma and Ogot, Njau

places value in adhering to the spirit of the ancestors. In

Ripples in the Pool, Njau depicts a newly independent Kenya
dominated by avarice. She uses the pool, the novel's central
symbol, to epitomize the value of the past. The o l d world as
symbolized by the p e a c e f u l pool with its mysterious significance
is, for the most part, ignored by the local inhabitants, who,

corrupted by modern ways, seek power, money and status. Njau

depicts the negative qualities of city life in opposition to

rural life, modern and Western customs as opposed to the old

traditions. Power struggles dominate the plot, as the

characters, mindless of their inherent place in the old order of

things, strive for persona1 control .

The pool demands humble respect, for its deep waters contain

the mystery of life. The value of past traditions is not, and

cannot be, f u l l y a r t i c u l a t e d , b u t through t h e p o o l symbolism,

Njau e v o k e s t h e a t m o s p h e r e and f a i t h m a i n t a i n e d i n the o l d o r d e r .

Muthee, t h e o l d man, a l s o s y m b o l i z e s the o f d t r a d i t i o n a l w o r l d ,

and i s c l o s e s t t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m y s t e x y of t h e p o o l . As a

r e s u l t , h e p r o v i d e s a t o u c h s t o n e for m o r a l i t y a n d wisdorn. He

g r i e v e s " t o s e e t h e p e o p l e s c r a t c h t h e s u r f a c e hurriedly a n d

t h i n k t h e y have marked the d e e p e s t core o f t h e e a r t h " (84) . He

is c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e "Lack of f a i t h i n t h e p o o l t h a t he h i m s e l f

s t i l l believed in", f o r t h e " s p i r i t s of t h e pool c r y o u t f o r

vengeance" ( 8 4 , 91). H e tells Karuga, "Look a t t h e p o o l . That

i s where t h e m y s t e r y o f l i f e i s . You a r e a t t h e bottom of t h e

ladder. Dig d e e p e r and d e e p e r a t t h e b o t t o m o f it. Then one d a y

you w i l l d i s c o v e r t h e m y s t e r i e s 1 h a v e b e e n t a l k i n g t o you a b o u t f f

(85). However, Karuga claims that he does n o t u n d e r s t a n d the

pool. When he l o o k s a t i t "no new f e e l i n g s e n t e r e d him, no

transformation. No new s t r e n g t h t o b e l i e v e i n t h e power o f t h e

unseen" (90).

T h e n o v e l ' s p l o t i s cornplex, r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d t h e mismatched

marriage b e t w e e n S e l i n a , a prostitute, and G i k e r e , a h o s p i t a l

a t t e n d a n t , a n d t h e w o r l d i n which t h e a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e i s o n e

of t o r r i d c r i m e a n d c o r r u p t i o n . By c o n t r a s t , t h e l i f e s t y l e of

Muthee a n d Karuga, near t h e p o o l and i n a r u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , i s

calm a n d h a r m o n i o u s . When Karuga t r a v e l s t o t h e city on t h e bus,

t h e v i c e s of t h e c i t y were discussed until

t h e whole bus teemed w i t h stories of

r o b b e r i e s , bag s n a t c h i n g s , d r i n k i n g , a n d

p r o s t i t u t i o n i n t h e d a r k l a n e s and l o d g e s
 of t h e c i t y . Men a n d women g o s s i p e d a b o u t

young g i r l s who had r u n away from t h e cow

dung and smoke and were now roaming t h e

streets of the city. (94)

N j a u d e p i c t s power, money and r n i s t r u s t as d o m i n a n t e v i l s . As

Gikere comments: "Too many p e o p l e want power and t h e y w i l l pay

and do a n y t h i n g t o r e m a i n i n power. Money means power' (99).

Almost a l 1 c h a r a c t e r s s h a r e t h e l u s t f o r power: a need t o

control. S e l i n a "feared no man" (1). A s long a s she is i n

c o n t r o l , w i t h men f e e d i n g h e r n a r c i s s i s t i c a n d m a t e r i a l n e e d s ,

s h e is c o n t e n t . She S t a t e s of h e r s e l f , "1 l o v e b e a u t i f u l t h i n g s

.... 1 like t o p o s s e s s them, t o make them my own. I t ' s a disease

with m e . But 1 make men pay f o r them. I f t h e y want m e , they

musc spend t h e i r money" ( 2 ) . "Men a r e b e a s t s " s h e t e l l s G a c i r u ,

Gikere's sister. " A l 1 t h e y want i s t o r u i n you, e s p e c i a l l y if

t h e y d i s c o v e r you h a v e a b r a i n . They want t o show t h e i r power"

(111). However, s h e b o a s t s : "1 have power w i t h i n me, a magnetic

k i n d o f power t h a t no o t h e r woman h a s " ( 1 1 2 ) . When s h e f a i l s t o

c o n t r o l G i k e r e , s h e exerts c o n t r o l o v e r G a c i r u , b u t when Gaciru

f a l l s i n l o v e w i t h Karuga, S e l i n a e x e r c i s e s e x t r e m e d o m i n a t i o n by

k i l l i n g them b o t h . G i k e r e ' s m o t h e r , a s t h e s t e r e o t y p i c a l mother-

in-law, i s also a c o n t r o l l e r . She i n t e r f e r e s w i t h his m a r r i a g e ,

even c h o o s i n g a n o t h e x p r o s p e c t i v e w i f e f o r him. Gikere tries t o

control S e l i n a with b r u t e f o r c e - " H e had p r o m i s e d h i m s e l f l o n g

b e f o r e h i s m a r r i a g e t h a t i f he e v e r m a r r i e d h e would n e v e r b e a t a

woman he l o v e d " , b u t h e " f e l t good b e a t i n g h e r . H e was p r o u d of

h i m s e l f t o see h e r c u r l e d up on t h e f l o o r u n d e r h i s f e e t l i k e a
f r i g h t e n e d dog with a l 1 h e r c o n c e i t f a l l e n t o t h e ground" (50).

H e a l s o w a n t s t h e u s e o f h e r money and h e r labour t o h e l p him

e s t a b l i s h a c l i n i c i n his home v i l l a g e . The m a r r i a g e i s doomea

t o f a i l f o r b o t h want t o u s e t h e o t h e r a s a means t o a n e n d .

When Kimani, G i k e r e ' s f r i e n d , s w i t c h e s h i s l o y a l t i e s t o Kefa

Munene, who w a n t s t o b u i l d a h o s p i t a l i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h

G i k e r e ' s c l i n i c , he j u s t i f i e s h i s a c t i o n s s a y i n g , "Money i s a

drug .... 1 know Kefa Munene i s w i c k e d . 1 know h e has d r u g g e d m e

with money a n d p l a y e d t r i c k s on me b u t 1 n e e d money b a d l y " ( 7 6 ) .

H e asks G i k e r e , "Who l i s t e n s t o t h e t r u t h t h e s e d a y s ? " a d d i n g

ironically, "1 a m n o t l i k e you. You have y o u r p r i n c i p l e s . 1

s h a l l t a k e money no m a t t e r where it cornes from" ( 8 2 ) . Kefa

Munene u s e s money t o buy h i s c o n t r o l . Everything he does is t o

g a i n i n f l u e n c e , and h e e v e n s e d u c e s M a r i a f o r h i s own m a t e r i a l

advantage. Karuga, M u t h e e ' s a s s i s t a n t , a p p e a r s t o o f f e r hope f o r

t h e f u t u r e , l i v i n g t h e r u r a l life he d o e s , w i t h Muthee a s a

parernal guide. However, e v e n he s t r u g g l e s w i t h c o n t r o l , c o n t r o l

o f t h e goat, N j e r u . T h e t r o u b l e t h e g o a t c a u s e s l e a d s Karuga t o

h a t e it, a n d , a s w i t h S e l i n a , what h e c a n n o t c o n t r o l he w a n t s to

destroy. Muthee, w i t h t h e wisdorn o f h i s y e a r s and h i s knowledge

o f t h e past, a d v i s e s , " L i f e t h a t is smooth is n o t liie a t a l 1

.... Where i s o u r s t r e n g t h i f we fail t o c o n t r o l o n e h e l p l e s s

l i t t l e creature? I f w e d e s t r o y Njeru, i s t h a t t h e end of pain?

What s h a l l w e do w i t h a l 1 t h e o t h e r N j e r u s among u s ? " (68). The

goat, Njeru, s y m b o l i z e s t h e p e o p l e a t l a r g e , wayward, g r e e d y and

o u t of c o n t r o l . The o l d man hoped t h a t "Karuga's h a t r e d for

N j e r u would d i m i n i s h and he would accept h i m , j u s t a s h e had

taken f o r granted t h o s e thorny shrubs on h i s path i n t h e

wilderness" ( 7 2 ) .

Because o f t h e p e o p l e ' s needs to m a n i p u l a t e o t h e r s , be i t

with money o r t o g e t money, m i s t r u s t is rampant, and no one i s

cornfortable. S e l i n a t e l l s Karuga t h a t G i k e r e d o e s n o t t r u s t him;

Gikere t e l l s Karuga t h a t he d o e s not t r u s t h i s s i s t e r , Gaciru;

Kefa Munere i r o n i c a l l y d a i m s t h a t he t r u s t e d Mugwe, a man he

knew t o be a d i s h o n e s t , b e c a u s e "he knew he was r u t h l e s s and

wouid n e v e r be kind t o anybody who t r i e d t o oppose [him] " ( 98,

105) . T h e p e o p l e a r e q u i t e f i c k l e : Kefa Munene, t h e "man t h e y

s p a t upon a few months ago is now a man o f t h e p e o p l e " ( 1 0 0 ) .

Power a n d g r e e d have t h u s d e s t r o y e d any c o h e s i v e communal

q u a l i t i e s o r v a l u e s : e v e r y o n e i s o u t f o r h i s o r h e r own

individual g a i n . G i k e r e e x p r e s s e s t h e s e n s e of m i s t r u s t when h e

S t a t e s , "1 f e e l p u r s u e d b y some unknown d a n g e r . Therets

sornething g o i n g on b e h i n d my back" (97) . Thus, l i k e h e r

c o m p a t r i o t , Ogot, i n The Promised Land, Njau f e a r s t h e p u r s u i t of

m a t e r i a l w e a l t h and s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d i s r e g a r d o f t h e o l d ways

and t h e communal b e l i e f s , and t h e l o s s o f f e a r a n d r e s p e c t o f t h e

unknown, l e a d t o d e s t r u c t i o n .

However, although d e p i c t i n g a w o r l d o f m a n i p u l a t i o n , g r e e d

and power, Njau a l s o a p p e a r s sympathetic towards h e r characters,

p l a c i n g t h e b l a n e for t h e l o s s of their s t a b i l i z i n g c u l t u r e on

t h e s h o u l d e r s of the white c o l o n i s t . Karuga's mother, who saw no

mystery i n t h e p o o l , is e x o n e r a t e d b y Muthee f o r she was

i n f l u e n c e d by Western religion. "Tt was not h e r f a u f t . White

m i s s i o n a r i e s carne. They won her heart. She gave u p a l l . Hex

f a t h e r ' s land, everything" (58). K a r u g a ' s mother, i n l o s i n g h e r

land, l o s t h e r c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y . She was no l o n g e r r o o t e d i n

t h e s o i 1 o f h e r a n c e s t o r s , and s u b s e q u e n t l y d e n i e d a p r o p e r

burial. G i k e r e , t o o , w a s i n f l u e n c e d n e g a t i v e l y b y t h e white man.

Maria t e l l s more o f h i s p a s t :

W e have n e v e r f o r g o t t e n how you r e f u s e d t o

h e l p a wounded man who was b l e e d i n g t o

d e a t h b e c a u s e Doctor S c o t t had s a i d h e w a s

a Mau Mau. You r e f u s e d t o help one o f t h e

p e o p l e who w e r e f i g n t i n g f o r o u r

independence! You followed t h e w h i t e man

and l i s t e n e d t o h i s advice. That i s why

you l o s t a l 1 your f r i e n d s . (134-5)

However, G i k e r e has some redeeming q u a l i t i e s , which Maria

a c knowledges :

You d i d n o t know t h a t you c o u l d never

a c h i e v e w o r l d l y success l i k e Kefa Munene

had done b e c a u s e your innermost t h o u g h t s

and f e e l i n g s k e p t t e l l i n g you t h a t you had

t a k e n t h e wrong p a t h , and t h e c o n f l i c t

i n s i d e you was s o i n t e n s e t h a t i t p u t you

o f f balance. (135)

S e l i n a fs p a s t , t o o , a l t h o u g h perhaps n o t exonerating her a c t i o n s ,

helps c a s t h e r as a s u f f e r i n g victim. She is j u s t a " c i t y woman"

whose mother d i e d when s h e was s i x , and whose f a t h e r claimed s h e

was i l l e g i t i m a t e and beat h e r r e p e a t e d l y . She l o s e s h e r s e n s e o f

d i r e c t i o n amongst t h e l u e s o f a m a t e r i a l i s t i c c i t y l i f e . Kefa
Munene, a p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t , l e a r n t t h e W e s t e r n method cf

p o l i t i c s , "[allways t a l k i n g , e n d l e s s t a l k and never doing

anything f o r t h e people !" (30) . H e learns t o use "people t o g e t

what he wants ... h e i s now o u t f o r h i m s e l f a n d a n y t h i n g h e d o e s

is calculated" (47) .
Muthee r e a l i z e d t h a t

men a n d women wanted t o a n a e s t h e t i z e t h e i r

f e e l i n g s and harden themselves a g a i n s t t h e

c a r e s and worries o f t h e i r l i v e s . They

were n o t r e a d y t o d i g d e e p i n t o t h e s o i 1

and remove t h e worm that d e s t r o y e d t h e s e e d

p l a n t e d l o n g a g o by t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s . (83)

T h e i m a g e r y o f t h e d e s t r u c t i v e w o m e a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e g o o d of

t h e Land i s r e i t e r a t e d when Karuga examines t h e c a t e r p i l l a r s

D u s i l y d e s t r o y i n g t h e p l a n t outside M u t h e e ' s h o u s e . Muthee,

a w a r e o f t h e c o r r u p t i o n al1 a r o u n d him, t e l l s t h e p e o p l e :

t h e i r cornplaints of bones p i e r c i n g r i b s , of

d a r k spots on t h e i r t o n g u e s and o f t h e i r

a c h e s a n d p a i n s i n t h e h e a d , came f r o m

t h e i r own meanness, t h e i r j e a l o u s y , their

l u s t , t h e i r g r e e d a n d t h e i r l a c k of f a i t h

i n t h e m y s t e r i e s a r o u n d them. But t h e y d i d

n o t l i s t e n t o him. (83-4)

And h e took t h e m t o t h e river, t o l o o k i n t o i t s d e p t h s , t o look,

s y m b o l i c a l l y , i n t o t h e i r past, H e asked them "to watch and s e e

how t h e r i v e r w e n t o n f l o w i n g f r e e l y , e t e r n a l l y w i t h o u t grudge o r

b i t t e r n e s s a g a i n s t t h o s e it served. When i t s way was b l o c k e d by

rocks and boulders, i t wound i t s way p a t i e n t l y round t i l l a patn

was c l e a r " ( 8 3 ) . Muthee' s words suggest t h a t t h e p e o p l e s h o u l d

look t o t h e p a s t t o r e t r i e v e t h e i r l o s t c u l t u r e , a c u l t u r e l o s t

temporarily with the intrusion of colonialism. He s u g g e s t s t h a t

colonialism is l i k e t h e blockage i n the r i v e r , a period tne

p e o p l e must c i r c r i m n a v i g a t e , i n o r d e r t o resume t h e i r o l d

direcrion. But t h e r i v e r a n d t h e p o o l mean n o t h i n g t o t h e p e o p i e

who a r e t o o f i r m l y d i s t r a c t e d b y t h e l u r e of c a p i t a l i s t i c w e a l t h

and power. Maina v o i c e s t h e t h o u g h t s of t h e p e o p l e when h e a s k s

Muthee :

What d o e s t h i s p o o l you p l a c e so much f a i t h

i n mean t o t h e e x e c u t i v e , t o t h e b u s i n e s s

man, t o the o f f i c e - g i r l , t o t h e cook, t o

t h e poor man i n t h e v i l l a g e ? ... There is

no more f e a r of t h e power of t h e u n s e e n .

The p a s t i s gone a n d f o r g o t t e n . S o do n o t

t a l k o f t h e spirits o f t h e p o o l . (71)

With i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e p e o p l e n a v e l o s t s o m e t h i n g of t h e m s e l v e s ,

f o r a s Maina t e l l s Muthee, "We f o u g h t . W e won t h e war. W e have

Our f r e e d o m now. But where a r e t h e w a r r i o r s o n g s ? Where a r e t h e

w a r r i o r dances?" (71). The novel s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e p e o p l e , by

forgoing the traditional past, have l o s t t h e i r way, and l o o k f o r

power, c o n t r o l a n d d i r e c t i o n w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s . With such

n a r c i s s i s t i c b e h a v i o u r , s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n is i n e v i t a b l e . The

w h i t e i m p e r i a l i s t government may have d e p a r t e d , b u t i t s

remembered power p o l i t i c s and dominance r e m a i n : t h e present and

t h e p a s t i n f o r m one a n o t h e r c o n t i n u a l l y . Njau t h u s s u g g e s t s t h a t
the people have absorbed the social, cultural past of the

colonial powers, and perpetuate and continue the inherited

practice of materialistic acquisition. As Maria informs Gikere,

he is yet the "shadow of the white man" (135).

What the people have forgotten cannot be explained. Njau

does not seem to advocate the need for warrior songs and dances,
for bride dowry, and so forth. But she demonstrates the
destruction resulting from the people losing a sense of their
roots, their unfathomable depths, the truth of their very
existence, that like the mystery of the pool cannat be explained.
"It has to be felt and lived . . . . But you need to have the
srrength in you that enables you to feel and believe the power of
the Unseen .... You musc discover something bigger than yourself
inside you" ( 1 4 8 1 . The memory on which Njau draws is that of the
sense of belonging to something bigger and beyond any individual,
where the individual puts his/her faith in the unknown rather in
him/herself. Only with that humble faith can the corrupt worm be

eradicated, and goodness, selflessness, and integrity reassert

themselves.
With her use of symbolism and imagery to evoke the spirit of
the ancestors and the demoralization of the present, Njau avoids
detailing sociological information to depict the inexplicable

value of adhering to one's own past traditions. The pool stands

as an eternal touchstone against which everybody is judged.

Nobody can defy its laws with impunity, and whether for persona1

or public reasons, people suffer on account of modern, Western

corruption. The symbol of the pool also stands for Njau's memory
of the past, when the Kenyan peoples were humble and in awe of

t h e i r ancestry, while at the same time were guided by it.

 Endno tes

L 1 have s p e l l e d Gikuyu/Kikuyu a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

s t a t e m e n t i n t h e h e a d n o t e t o Ngugi Wa T h i o n g ' o ' s T h e ~ i v e r

Between t h a t c l a i m s t h a t " t h e form of Gikuyu is u s e d c o r r e c t l y

f o r t h e people and l a n g u a g e of t h e Kikuyu a r e a " .

.
I

O g u n d i p e - L e s l i e writes "the woman as d a u g h t e r o r

s i s t e r h a s g r e a t e r s t a t u s and more r i g h t s i n her l i n e a g e .

Married, s h e becomes a p o s s e s s i o n , v o i c e l e s s and o f t e n r i g h t l e s s

i n h e r h u s b a n d f s f a r n i l y , e x c e p t for what a c c r u e s t o h e r t h r o u g h

h e r c h i l d ~ e n " (''Nat S p i n n i n g on t h e A x i s of M a l e n e s s " 500-501).

3 Nwapa's use o f Igbo p r o v e r b s is d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s work

(62).
4
The Gikuyu a n d M u m b i s t o r y relates t h a t Gikuyu i s t h e

f i r s t man, his w i f e M u r n b i t h e f i r s t woman: n e i t h e r were o f human

parents. Both were t h e c r e a t i o n o f Mwene-Nyaga, t h e Creator, who

a l s o c r e a t e d K i r i n y a g a (Mount K e n y a ) . Gikuyu a n d Mumbi p r o d u c e d

nine d a u g h t e r s , Mwene-Nyaga p r o v i d e d husbands f o r t h e s e women,

and a l t h o u g h a n c e s t r y i s t r a c e d t h r o u g h t h e f a t h e r ' s l i n e , t h e

women formed t h e f u t u r e clans o f t h e Gikuyu tribe. Waciuma,

while r e i t e r a t i n g t h i s t a l e a s t o l d by h e r g r a n d f a t h e r , e x p l a i n s

t h a t t h e r e were a c t u a l l y more t h a n n i n e d a u g h t e r s , b u t that the

Gikuyu l a n g u a g e d o e s n o t count f u r t h e r t h a n n i n e . "We c a l 1 a n y

number beyond n i n e 'Kenda muiyuru, ' - the n i n e t h a t fills

( c o m p l e t e s ) " , she e x p l a i n s . "(It is unlucky t o c o u n t p e o p l e

accurately ... since t h i s may cause one o f them t o d i e ) "

(Daughter of Mumbi 1 2 ) .
 5 Emecheta's d e p i c t i o n o f t h e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s o f

polygyny i n The Joys o f Motherhood i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s work

(117).
6
Nwapa's d e s c r i p t i o n o f E f u r u ' s c l i t o r i d e c t o m y i s

d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s work ( 7 0 ) .

Tom Mboya, Member o f P a r l i a m e n t and M i n i s t e r o f

Labour, w r i t e s t h a t "when t h e Mau Mau emergency began, most o f

t h e c h u r c h e s a t f i r s t s i d e d w i t h t h e c o l o n i a l power a n d condemned

t h e African outright. They c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t h e a t r o c i t i e s

committed and the t e r r o r i s m and o v e r l o o k e d t h e background t o

these problems and t h e reason f o r t h e e r u p t i o n " . However, around

1 9 5 4 , "one began t o see a change i n t h e c h u r c h e s " . They became

more concerned w i t h s o c i a l and economic p r o b l e m s , and t h e World

C o u n c i l o f Churches became involved. Waciuma's f a m i l y ' s

l o y a l t i e s seem t o f o l l o w t h o s e o f t h e c h u r c h (11).
a Olney w r i t e s "no A f r i c a n p e o p l e i d e n t i f i e s i t s e l f more

c l o s e l y w i t h i t s a n c e s t r a l l a n d t h a n t h e Gikuyu ... It is in

Gikuyu l a n d t h a t t h e a n c e s t o r s a r e l o c a t e d , b o t h l i t e r a l l y and

s y m b o l i c a l l y ; hence i t i s through t h e e a r t h that t h e p r e s e n t

g e n e r a t i o n c o n t a c t s p a s t g e n e r a t i o n s , communicates w i t h them, and

s o c o n t i n u e s t h e i r e x i s t e n c e in p r e s e n t t i m e " (111) . Abdul R .

JanMohamed r e a f f i r m s O l n e y ' s c l a i m w i t h h i s comment that " l a n d i s

t h e most i m p o r t a n t factor i n t h e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s and

economic l i f e of t h e t r i b e " ( 1 1 8 ) . Ngotho, i n Weep not C h i l d

c l a i m s t h a t t h e man who i s deprived o f his piece of e a r t h , h i s

shamba, s u f f e r s "a s p i r i t u a l loss" (Ngugi Wa Thiong'o 110).

 9
Ochola i s r e f e r r e d t o as "son o f K i s e r o " o r "son o f

Seme". Nyapol even a d d r e s s e s him as "son of my mother-in-law"

( 1 2 4 , 185, 191) -
1C Oyekan Owomoyela writes, " I n p r a c t i c a l l y a l 1 A f r i c a n

communities, t o be able t o employ p r o v e r b s a p t l y i s t o b e w i d e l y

r e s p e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e a b i l i t y i s i n t e r p r e t e d as a s i g n t h a t t h e

s p e a k e r h a s r e a d y access t o t h e communally s a n c t i o n e d code o f

b e h a v i o u r and c a n be r e l i e d upon t o g i v e t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n t o

others" (17).
---
7

O g u n d i p e - L e s l i e ~ r i t e s ,"The r u r a l woman i s supposed

t o b e s a t i s f i e d w i t h what men b r i n g h e r m a t e r i a l l y .... she is

n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n money which i s of t h e d e v i l and t h e w h i t e man"

(51). She a l s o p o s t u l a t e s t h a t t h e myth of t h e unchanging, naive

r u r a l woman seems t o c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e a c t u a l s o c i a l p r a c t i c e a n d

t e n d e n c y o f men t o d i s c o u r a g e c h a n g e and i n n o v a t i o n i n women's

l i v e s (60).
.-.
N j a u ' s v a l u i n g of t r a d i t i o n o v e r m a t e r i a l i s t i c w e a l t h

i n d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s work ( 7 7 ) .
13
The p o r t r a y a l of D r . Thomson's wife i s similar tu t h a t

of Matron J a c k i n Ogot's s h o r t s t o r y , " T h e Old White Witch",

(Land W i t h o u t Thunder 1 - 2 5 ) .
14
Ogot makes a n o t h e r brief r e f e r e n c e t o t h e h y p o c r i s y of

t h e c h u r c h i n recording t h e i n c i d e n t of N y a p o l ' s sister and

Father E l l i s . When F a t h e r E l l i s s q u e e z e s A p i y o ' s b r e a s t s , Nyapol,

a d v i s e s b e r t o keep t h e m a t t e r a s e c r e t , f o r "what man would

marry a g i r l who had been t o u c h e d by a white man?" ( 4 9 ) . "You811

never g e t m a r r i e d i f t h e b o y s know t h a t t h e w h i t e man h a s t o u c h e d

you" Nyapol t e l l s h e r ( 4 9 ) .
L5 Nwapa's E f u r u d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f faith i n

t h e cure, as d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s work ( 7 2 ) .
?a Tom Mboya w r i t e s , "The man who t r i e s t o live

c o m p i e t e l y w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of h i s t r i b e , n o t s o much rovering

its customs a s d i s c r i m i n a t i n g a g a i n s t o t h e r t r i b e s , represents

t h e k i n d o f t r i b a l i s m of which A f r i c a must beware. The Luo who

t h i n k s n o t h i n g good can corne from o t h e r t r i b e s o r c o n t i n u o u s l y

p r o t e c t s a p e r s o n m e r e l y b e c a u s e he is a f e l l o w Luo; t h e Kikuyu

who t h i n k s i t s u i t a b l e t o m e e t o n l y o t h e r Kikuyu a n d d i s r e g a r d s

m e r i t and a b i l i t y i n o t h e r p e o p l e o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y d o not b e l o n g

LO h i s t r i b e - t h i s i s n e g a t i v e t r i b a l i s m which c a n n o t a l l o w for

unity" ( 6 5 ) .
.-, For d i s c u s s i o n o f Nnu Ego of The J o y s o f Motherhood,

r e f e r t o t h i s work ( 1 1 9 )
13 Waciurna's advocacy o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e d u c a t i o n i s

à i s c u s s e d i n t h i s work ( 3 8 ) .
?0
E u s t a c e Palmer compares Nwapa u n f a v o u r a b l y w i t h b o t h

Achebe and E l e c h i Amadi. H e c l a i m s s h e " h a s not y e t m a s t e r e d h e r

c r a f t " , t h a t h e r n o v e l s l a c k p l o t , and t h a t E f u r u i s made up o f

"a s t r i n g o f e p i s o d e s some o f which c o u l d have been u s e f u l l y

o m i t t e d " ( " E l e c h i Amadi" 57-58, and An I n t r o d u c t i o n 6 1 ) . Nadine

Gordimer f i n d s t h e n o v e l l a c k i n g i n p l o t a n d S t a t e s t h a t Efuru i s

a "woman whose b e w i l d e r m e n t and f r u s t r a t i o n a r e s t a t e d a n d left

unexplored" (The Black I n t e r p r e t e r s 2 0 ) . Adeola A . James

cornments t h a t Nwapa's " n o v e l s would be more s u c c e s s f u l i f s h e

c o u l d i n v o l v e t h e r e a d e r by f i r s t i n v o l v i n g h e r s e l f i n t h e deep

moral problems which s h e m e n t i o n s but l e a v e s u n q u e s t i o n e d "

(Review o f I d u 151). Solomon Ogbede I y a s e r e e x p r e s s e s a s i m i l a r

assessment when he l i s t s E f u r u w i t h novels ' i n which s o c i a l and

p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s a r e discursively p r e s e n t e d and o b t u s e l y

e l a b o r a t e d by t h e a u t h o r " (26).
--
in
C a r o l Boyce Davies c l a i m s t h a t Nwapa's i n c l u s i o n

w i t h i n t h e n a r r a t i v e of small talk, o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d a weakness

i n a woman w r i t e r who has n o t mastered form, i s , however, a means

o f p r o v i d i n g a c o n t i n u i t y between women's o r a l and w r i t t e n

l i t e r a t u r e (Ngambika 16) .
--
'13

E r n e s t N. Emenyonu, i n "Who Does F l o r a N w a p a Write

F o r ? " comrnents on t h e way i n which Nwapa manages t o i n c l u d e t h e

Igbo world view i n h e r l a n g u a g e - He c l a i m s Nwapa h a s keen e a r s

f o r v i l l a g e v o i c e s and knows how t o t r a n s m i t them ( 3 1 ) .

--
7-
The Nigerian proverbs, t h e "son o f a g o r i l l a must

dance l i k e t h e f a t h e r g o r i l l a " , " [ a ] p e r s o n who has p e o p l e i s

better off t h a n a p e r s o n who h a s money" and i f "you see an in-law

t o o often you r o a s t a r o t t e n yam f o r him" a r e easily u n d e r s t o o d

( E 59, 1 6 4 , 1 59).

Nwapa's two volumes of s h o r t s t o r i e s , Women a t War a n d

T h i s i s Lagos, a r e marred by many grammatical and t y p o g r a p h i c a l

e r r o r s , and t h e s y n c r e t i s m of t h e two l a n g u a g e s i s n o t always

successful. T h a t t h e s e volumes were published a f t e r -

Idu and

E f u r u suggests that t h e s e are editing problems.

" Many w r i t e r s disagree with Gordimer. Ikonne, claims

h e r theme to be childlessness ("The S o c i e t y " 9 6 ) . Emenyonu

c l a i m s h e r theme t o be b a r r e n n e s s i n marriage ("Who does Floxa

Nwapa w r i t e f o r ? " 29), w h i l e Maja-Pearce claims t h e theme t o be

f a t e (12).
2S
Nwapa c l a i m s i n an i n t e r v i e w w i t h Adeola James, t h a t

the " o p p r e s s i o n o f g i r l s s t a r t s i n t h e home ... we treat girls

d i f f e r e n t l y " ( I n T h e i r Own V o i c e s 1 1 3 ) .
26
Nwapa cornments i n h e r i n t e r v i e w w i t h James t h a t i n t h e

1930s and 1940s i t was "very common f o r a young g i r l t o e l o p e "

( I n T h e i r Own Voices 116).

-... M & B was t h e t r a d e name o f a p h a r m a c e u t i c a l Company

t h a t produced a n a l l - p u r p o s e s u l p h u r drug u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y p r i o r

to penicillin. T h e drug was commonly r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e t r a d e

narne.
 CHAPTER TWO

CULTURAL BONDAGE: EMECHETA CHALLENGES THE

AUTHORITY OF MEMORY

Like Nwapa, Buchi Emecheta is an Igbo Nigerian. She focuses

on the themes of marriage, childbearing and childlessness in the

Igbo culture, and, like Nwapa, Emecheta situates her protagonists

in an environment of change and cultural conflict. However, the
rate of the change she depicts is far more rapid than that

depicted by Nwapa, and consequently she demonstrates a more

abrupt, extreme clash of cultures.
Emecheta is an expatriot, living in London, having left

Lagos at the age of twenty-two. This possibly accounts for a

most notable difference from Nwapa: her linguistic expression.
Emecheta does not use the cultural memory submerged in her native
language, for she makes no attempt to syncretise the rhythm,
music or idiom of her native tongue with her ~nglishmedium.

Rather she uses the English idiom so successfully it is

difficuft, if not impossible, to detect her Igbo origins from her

linguistic expression. English idioms, clichés and phrases flow
naturally from the mouths of her characters, in particular in her
first two novels which are set in London. She reproduces the
cockney slang of the London slums with convincing accuracy.

Emecheta boasts that Collins, her paperback publisher, "has now

stopped putting [her] books in the African section" (James, In

Their Own Voices 39). She acknowledges that by using English
every day and living in the English culture her "Africanness is
in a way b e i n g d i l u t e d " (James 3 9 ) . Rather t h a n u s i n g m u l t i p l e

background v o i c e s a s d o e s Nwapa, Emecheta u s e s an o m n i s c i e n t

a u t h o r i a l v o i c e , and a s a r e s u l t d i s p l a y s none o f Nwapa's

ambivalence: h e r p o i n t o f view and perspective a r e u s u a l l y

c l e a r l y and f o r c i b l y t r a n s r n i t t e d .

Ernechetar s f i r s t two n o v e l s , I n t h e Ditch ( 1 9 7 2 ) and Second

C l a s s C i t i z e n (1974), are l a r g e l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l , and h e r t o n e

i s b i t t e r a n d a c r i m o n i o u s a s s h e denounces almost e v e r y t h i n g

about her c u l t u r a l p a s t . Adah, t h e h e r o i n e of b o t h n o v e l s ,

l a m b a s t e s t h e unequal p r i v i l e g i n g o f t h e male s e x , a n d d e n o u n c e s

t h e c u l t u r a l t h i n k i n g that p e r p e t u a t e s s u c h i n e q u a l i t y .

Emecheta's p e r s o n a 1 e x p e r i e n c e no d o u b t p r o v i d e s much of the

m a t e r i a l f o r t h e s e works, f o r Emecheta w a s abandoned by h e r

husband w h i l e l i v i n g i n B r i t a i n ; s h e r a i s e d £ i v e c h i l d r e n on h e r

own w i t h i n t h e slums o f London. Adah s t r u g g l e s a s a s i n g l e

mother of £ i v e , and manages t o r e t a i n h e r d i g n i t y and s e n s e o f

s e l f through h e r e d u c a t i o n . She o b t a i n s a d e g r e e i n s o c i o l o g y

( a s d i d E m e c h e t a ) , a n d w h i l e working s t a r t s t o w r i t e .

S i t u a t i n g t h e p r o t a g o n i s t of h e r f i r s t t w o n o v e l s i n a

f o r e i g n c u l t u r e a f f o r d s Emecheta t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o examine t h e

c l a s h o f c u l t u r e s from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f an A f r i c a n immigrant i n

a Western c u l t u r e . She s u p p l i e s t h e r e a d e x w i t h background

s o c i o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e Igbo c u l t u r e o n l y a s i t i s

p a r t of A d a h ' s c u l t u r a l memory. The i n f o r m a t i o n h e l p s t h e r e a d e r

a p p r e c i a t e A d a h ' s p o i n t o f view and h e r a b i l i t y t o a d j u s t t o h e r

new environment. Because of t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e s e

f i r s t two n o v e l s , Emecheta presumably examines h e r own remernbered

cultural past and works through her difficulties in the story of

Adah. The novels are painfully honest examinations of the

problems confronting the Nigerian immigrant woman. Adah appears

to be the author's spokesperson, for at times Adah's opinions and

Ernecheta's seem to merge. Through Adah, Emecheta is able to

write her own story, one in which she is no longer marginalized

but clearly in the centre.

Ostensibly, Adah is portrayed as a survivor who manages to

escape the "ditch" through striving to becorne better educated.

Her musings selectively relate many Igbo customs that endorse the

second class status afforded women, echoing much of what Nwapa

relates in Efuru, and she becomes increasingly negative as her

Igbo culture places her at a disadvantageous position in her

foreign environment and in relation to her husband. The reader
learns of the Igbo preference for male children, the reluctance

CO educate girls, and the bride price required with marriage.

The narrator scathingly records the accepted double standards for

men and women as regards marital fidelity. Adah inherits the

belief that "it was ber duty to work, not her husband's" (SCC 64,

95). "[Mlen never do wrong, only the women; they have to beg

forgiveness, because they are bought, paid for and must remain

like that, silent, obedient slaves" (SCC 156, emphasis added).

Adah cornplains, "The only thing 1 get £rom this slavish marriage

is the children" (SSC 64, emphasis added) . Her negative commefits

about marriage mark the beginnings of a therne recurrent in her

later works: the analogy of slavery and marriage.'

 By r e a s s e s s i n g h e r p a s t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , Adah gains

understanding of t h e f a i l u r e of her marriage. She l a m e n t s t h a t

s h e had r u s h e d i n t o a n e a r l y m a r r i a g e t o g a i n r e s p e c t a b i l i t y .

" I f o n l y h e r p e o p l e i n Lagos had been c i v i l i z e d enough t o know

t h a t a g i r l who d e c i d e d t o l i v e by h e r s e l f a n d s t u d y f o r h e r

d e g r e e was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a p r o s t i t u t e " (SCC 1 2 2 , e m p h a s i s

added). Her c r i t i c i s m of h e r own p e o p l e s u g g e s t s h e r s e n s e of

i n s e c u r i t y i n h e r new e n v i r o n m e n t , and p o s s i b l y e x p l a i n s h e r

r e j e c t i o n o f h e r p a s t t h a t i l l - e q u i p s h e r f o r h e r present

circumstances. She may a l s o s c o r n h e r own p e o p l e b e c a u s e o f h e r

newly d i s c o v e r e d s e n s e of r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , f o r i n London

she l e a r n s " t h a t h e r c o l o u r was sornething s h e was supposed t o be

ashamed o f . She was n e v e r a w a r e of t h i s a t home i n N i g e r i a , even

when i n t h e m i d s t o f w h i t e s " (SCC 7 0 ) . Whiie h e r t z a d i t i o n z l

ways c o n t r i b u t e t o h e r m a r r i a g e f a i l u r e , l i v i n g i n London

e x a c e r b a t e s h e r problerns. P a u l Connerton c l a i m s :

We w i l l e x p e r i e n c e o u r p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t l y

i n accordance with t h e d i f f e r e n t past t o

w h i c h w e a r e a b l e t o connect t h a t p r e s e n t .

Hence t h e d i f f i c u l t y of e x t r a c t i n g o u r p a s t

from Our p r e s e n t , n o t s i m p l y b e c a u s e

present factors tend t o influence - some

m i g h t want t o Say d i s t o r t - Our

r e c o l l e c t i o n s of t h e p a s t , b u t also b e c a u s e

p a s t factors t e n d t o i n f l u e n c e , o r d i s t o r t ,

o u r e x p e r i e n c e of t h e p r e s e n t . (2)
As C o n n e r t o n ' s words s u g g e s t , A d a h ' s b e i n g immersed i n a Western

c u l t u r e may d i s t o r t h e r a s s e s s m e n t of h e r own t r a d i t i o n s which

s h e r e a s s e s s e s a s t h e y c l a s h w i t h B r i t i s h ways a n d mannerisms.

Unlike Ochola i n T h e Promised Land, Adah does n o t b e l i e v e

t r a d i t i o n s a r e t r a n s p o r t a b l e t o a new l o c a t i o n . While j u j u had

m a t t e r e d t o her a t home i n Nigeria, i n England, "she f e l t s a f e t o

i g n o r e t h e j u j u man a n d h i s p r a n k s .... i n England, i t was out of

p l a c e , on a l i e n g r o u n d " (ITD 9 ) . The same a p p l i e s t o o t h e r

t r a d i t i o n s and b e l i e f s when assessed £rom t h e B r i t i s h p o i n t o f

view, and she f e e l s s a f e from t h e g o d d e s s of t h e r i v e r a t t r i b u t e d

w i t h t h e power of i n f l i c t i n g l e p r o s y on anyone who d a r e d f l o u t

However, w h i l e vehemently r e j e c t i n g ber own i n h e r i t e d

b e l i e f s , s h e is s c a t h i n g about W e s t e r n r e l i g i o n , and e x p r e s s e s

scepticism a s t o how p e o p l e t w i s t t h e words o f J e s u s t o s u i t

t h e i r own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . She s c o r n s F r a n c i s f o r a d o p t i n g f a i t h s

t o s u i t h i s l i f e s t y l e , and q u e s t i o n s why J e s u s is c a l l e d t h e "son

of god" s i m p l y b e c a u s e of h i s unusual b i r t h . On C h r i s t m a s e v e

s h e f i n d s England t h e epitome of t h e " s i l e n t n i g h t , h o l y n i g h t " ,

in c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e f i r e w o r k s a n d r e j o i c i n g o f N i g e r i a , where

palm-wine d r i n k i n g i n t h e s t r e e t s marked t h e o c c a s i o n i n a n

a u d i b l e , v i b r a n t manner (SCC 1 3 4 ) . C l e a r l y homesick and l o n e l y ,

s h e r e m a r k s : " I n England she c o u l d n ' t go t o h e r n e i g h b o u r and

Babble o u t t r o u b l e s as s h e would have done i n Lagos ... t h i s was

a s o c i e t y where nobody was i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p r o b l e m s o f o t h e r s "

(SCC 6 6 ) . Adah p o s s i b l y expresses Emechetaf s own need f o r

s o c i e t a l s u p p o r t , a n d h e r s e l f e x p r e s s i o n i n h e r novel w r i t i n g
may, in a sense, supply an alternate avenue through which to

~ o i c eher troubles. Her past memories actually alienate her from

her present in two ways: the customs lodged in her social mernory
fail to be meaningful or supportive to her when in a different

culture, yet her personal memories of the warmth and camaraderie

she enjoyed in Nigeria m a k e ber feel alien in her new

environment. While she r e j e c t s the traditions, customs, and

beliefs of her culture as inappropriate and meaningless in

Britain, she has nothing with which to replace them. She is thus

isolated and alienated. Katherine Frank explains this historical

catalepsy suffered by colonized wornen. She writes:

In order to be free and fulfilled as a

woman she must renounce her African

identity because of the inherent sexism of

traditional Afxican culture. Or, if she

wishes to cherish and affirm her

"Africanness" she must renomce her claims

to ferninine independence and self-

determination. Either way she stands to

lose: either way she will find herself

diminished, impoverished. (478)

The Igbo culture has not equipped Adah or Francis with the means

of coping with the present or the future, which is less

foreseeable in London than in the Nigerian cornmunity. In fact,

their cultural and social memories impede their ability to

succeed in the new environment. Francis believes in the value of

procreating, for birth control is unacceptable in the Igbo

culture, but the burden falls mainly to Adah, as she battles to

raise children without the support of an extended family, and

while holding down a job. However, although the reader learns

that "Francis was not a bad man, j u s t a nan who could no longer
cope with the overdemanding saciety he found himself in", the

narrator gives only A d a h t s perspective (SCC 101). Clearly, Adah

is more capable than Francis, able to change largely by rejecting

her cultural past, and adapting to the culture in which she is

immersed. In this way, she demonstrates the assertions Edward

Shils writes of in his Traditions.

Traditions, to survive, must be fitting to

the circumstances in which they operate and

to which they are directed .... Traditions

may be adapted or discarded when their

possessors move £rom countryside to town
and, instead of living among plants, trees,
birds and animals, live in paved spaces

where none of these are present as

significant factors. (258)

While Shils' words clinically describe why traditions might

change, Emecheta remembers and records the confusion and

suffering that the process of change brings to the individual.

The confusion of cultures and the inability of Adah's husband,

Francis, to adapt to the change cause the marriage break-up and

Adah's resultant uncompromising situation. Francis is depicted

âs indigent and irresponsible. Without the flexibility and hard-

working attributes of Adah, he remains content and "warm in the

d i t c h " , u n a b l e a n d unrnotivated t o improve h i s l o t (ITD 61). T h e

c o n d e m a t i o n of t h e m a l e - c h a u v i n i s t i c Igbo t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h t r e a t

women as s e c o n d - c l a s s , and c o n d e m a t i o n o f men i n g e n e r a l , o f t e n

seem t o merge. The t o n e is s o p e r s o n a 1 i t is d i f f i c u l t t o

d i v o r c e t h e a u t h o r i a l comment £rom Adah's t h o u g h t s , a n d t h e works

i n g e n e r a l s u g g e s t t h a t E m e c h e t a l s p e r s o n a 1 memories c a n n o t b u t

i n t r u d e w i t h a l 1 t h e acrimony a n d b i t t e r n e s s h e r remembered

h a r d s h i p and s u f f e r i n g c a u s e d . The s t a t e r n e n t , "Al1 F r a n c i s

needed t o be t a k e n f o r a g o r i l l a was s i m p l y t o bend h i s k n e e s "

seems u n n e c e s s a r i l y b i g o t e d ( S S C 8 6 ) . Adah c o r n p l a i n s t h a t "Men

a r e s o b l i n d " and a s k s "Why w a s it t h a t men t o o k s u c h a l o n g tirne

t o c h a n g e , t o a d a p t , t o r e c o n c i l e t h e m s e l v e s t o new s i t u a t i o n s ? "

( S S C 125, 116) . Emecheta may i m p l y t h a t i n g e n e r a l men a r e

s i m p l y n o t a d e p t a t change, o r s h e rnay w e l l s u g g e s t t h a t N i g e r i a n

men have more t o l o s e b y c h a n g i n g , f o r b y r e j e c t i n g t h e i r

cultural p a s t they would l o s e t h e p r i v i l e g e d s t a t u s d i c t a t e d by

t h e i r sex.

However, the r e a d e r may a l s o i n f e r t h a t t h e I g b o c u l t u r a l

t r a d i t i o n s , t h a t p r i v i l e g e a n d pamper men a n d s u b j u g a t e women,

i r o n i c a l l y b e t t e r p r e p a r e t h e women f o r c h a n g e a n d a d a p t a b i l i t y . '

C e r t a i n l y , as Emecheta d e p i c t s t h e I g b o m a l e / f e m a l e t r a d i t i o n s 1

r e l a t i o n s h i p , women have much t o g a i n by a d o p t i n g w e s t e r n ways:

Adah is a b l e t o l i v e i n London w i t h o u t a man a n d n o t b e

considered a p r o s t i t u t e . The reader rnay a s k why Francis s h o u l d

n o t be a f f o r d e d e q u a l sympathy a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g , for h e t o o

s u f f e r s from h i s i n h e r i t e d c u l t u r a l memory, t r a p p e d as he i s by

his inflexible beliefs.' Adah i s q u i c k t o condemn t h e

i n s t i t u t i o n o f m a r r i a g e i n g e n e r a l , when her own proves

unsuccessful. She comrnents t h a t , "matrimony, a p a r t f r o m b e i n g a

way o f g e t t i n g f r e e s e x when men f e l t l i k e i t , w a s a l s o a

l e g a l i z e d way o f c o m m i t t i n g assault and g e t t i n g away w i t h i t " ,

f o r " m a r r i a g e was n o t a bed o f r o s e s but a t u n n e l o f t h o r n s , £ i r e

and hot n a i l s " (ITD 57, S C C 4 4 ) .

Adah, however, l i k e Nwapa's E f u r u a n d I d u , i s n o t t h e

a v e r a g e I g b o woman. From e a r l y c h i l d h o o d , Adah i n d i c a t e s a

s t r e n g t h o f w i l l and a somewhat r e b e l l i o u s n a t u r e . She

d e t e r m i n e s t o go t o s c h o o l , and l i e s h e r way i n t o b e i n g e d u c a t e d .

She r e s o l v e d s h e would " n e v e r , n e v e r ... g e t married to any man,

rich o r p o o r , t o whom s h e would h a v e t o s e r v e h i s f o o d on bended

knee" (SCC 19). She h a t e s b e i n g t r e a t e d l i k e a " n a t i v e woman,

who was n o t s u p p o s e d t o know t h e i m p o r t a n t h a p p e n i n g s i n h e r

f a r n i l y u n t i l t h e y had b e e n w e l l d i s c u s s e d and a n a l y z e d by t h e

m e n f o l k " , s h e c h a l l e n g e s t h e rinht of h e r i l l i t e r a t e i n - l a w s t o

q u e s t i o n h e r a m b i t i o n s t o f o l l o w h e r husband t o London, and s h e

r e s e n t s t h e i r e x p e c t i n g h e r t o "bow down" t o t h e e l d e r s ( S C C 6 9 ,

27). Thus, e v e n while i n N i g e r i a , Adah r e j e c t s aspects of t h e

Igbo c u l t u r e which do n o t s u i t h e r i n d i v i d u a l l y ,

I n t h e D i t c h describes A d a h ' s l i f e o f p o v e r t y i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s

i n London a n d Second C l a s s C i t i z e n i n i t i a l l y r e t u r n s t o N i g e r i a ,

a n d d e s c r i b e s Adah's a d o l e s c e n c e a n d m a r r i a g e i n L a g o s , and h e r

move t o London. Emechetar s f o l l o w i n g n o v e l s , The B r i d e P r i c e

( 1 9 7 6 ) and T h e S l a v e G i r l (1977) a r e s e t t o t a l l y i n N i g e r i a , The

B r i d e Price d e p i c t i n g a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m u r b a n t o r u r a l s o c i e t y ,

The S l a v e G i r l t h e t r a n s i t i o n from r u r a l t o u r b a n s o c i e t y . In
both works, the rural society is Ehecheta's home village of

Ibuza. Her next novel, The Joys of Motherhood (1979), opens -

in

medias res in the year 1934 in Lagos and r e c a l l s , by means of

flashbacks, events more than twenty years e a r l i e r , While moving

progressively backwards in time, drawing more and more on her

personal and historical mernories, Emecheta progressively develops

her strongest metaphor, the slave analogy.

Her theme of slavery relates to the indigenous slavery in

Africa, the European slave trade and slavery as an allegory of

the women's traditional status in society, irrespective of

whether the wornan i s technically "slave" or "free". She

underscores the basic analogous similarities between al1 forms of

slavery (Brown 56). Thus for her, slavery is a brutal continuity

in hurnan history and persists in the subordination and

powerlessness of women. In her works she demonstrates how the
emotional and psychological effects impress upon these "slaves"

their essentiai worthlessness and passivity, and how this sense

of inferiority is unconsciously transmitted from one generation

to another. At times she is somewhat equivocal, indicating that

the degree to which the slaves allow themselves to accept their

role contributes to their own victimization. Thus, in her use of

the slave analogy, Emecheta draws on memory as recorded in

history and practice, and she employs literary parallelism to

underscore her theme, Slave masters rnay be slave traders,

fathers, brothers, guardians, even children and traditions.

Emecheta demonstrates in The Joys of Motherhood that the love

that binds a mother to her child is a form of bondage from which

she cannot escape, and which can keep her in a situation which
precludes any freedom or self-development. Slave masters may

also take the form of customs or traditions, binding the

individual to conformity and repetition, and thus restricting his

or her freedom and growth.

Akunna, the main protagonist of The Bride Price, is a tragic
victim of the enslavement of women by traditional society, its

rules and taboos. Brought up in urban Lagos, Akunna is exposed

to a blend of cultures, but the traditional ways still hold

authority. Ezekiel's death affords Emecheta the opportunity to

depict his semi-westernized funeral in Lagos, juxtaposed with the
custornary mourning Akunna and her family experience on their
return to Ibuza. However, for Akunna, a young Lagos girl, ner
fatherts death means more than the loss of a father. She also

loses her mother, her way of "life", and her "shelter", for, in
keeping with Igbo culture, h e r widowed mother and her father's

wealth are inherited by her father's elder brother ( 2 8 , 82) . The

family thus have to move back to Ibuza, the father's rural home,

where her mother is confined to one hut for nine months of

mourning .' Because A£ rican customs were regarded as old-

fashioned in Lagos, the move is, in a sense, backwaxds in tirne,

although Emecheta demonstrates that whether in town or country,

the force of tradition still prevails. Again, Emecheta shows

that the Igbo culture privileges the male, treating her mother as

her brother-in-lawtspossession, and Akunna as a potential

commodity for the bride price she would fetch. She is allowed to
c o n t i n u e h e r s c h o o l i n g , however, f o r h e r u n c l e i s p e r s u a d e d t h a t

" e d u c a t e d g i r l s f e t c h more money" (75) .

Emecheta, however, d o e s n o t d e p i c t s l a v e r y as a n e x c l u s i v e l y

female bondage. E z e k i e l , Akunna's f a t h e r , d i e d d u e t o d i s e a s e he

c o n t r a c t e d w h i l e s e r v i n g i n t h e B r i t i s h army i n Burma. He

r e t u r n e d t o Lagos weakened b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e . Emecheta

i n d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t e s Akunna's m o t h e r ' s f a i l u r e t o conceive a f t e r

her husband's r e t u r n t o h i s p h y s i c a l s u f f e r i n g . I n t h i s way, s h e

draws on t h e r e c o r d e d p a s t h i s t o r y of t h e N i g e r i a n p e o p l e , w h i l e

dominated a n d "enslavedn--in a s e n s e " i n f e c t e d t ' - - b y the British,

and d e m o n s t r a t e s how t h e b r u t a l i t y o f s l a v e r y p e r p e t u a t e s i t s e l f

through t i m e . A s a r e s u l t of t h e B r i t i s h "enslaving" Ezekiel, he

dies prematurely, forcing h i s wife and h i s daughter t o r u r a l

subjugation. While t h e a c t i v e b r u t a l i t y of s l a v e r y i s

p e r p e t u a t e d t h r o u g h s u b c o n s c i o u s memory, s o is t h e p a s s i v i t y a n d

s u b o r d i n a t i o n t h a t i s u n c o n s c i o u s l y p a s s e d on f r o m one g e n e r a t i o n

t o another. Akunna's m o t h e r d i s p l a y s a n i n g r a i n e d h a b i t of

dependency, a c c e p t i n g a s u b o r d i n a t e d s t a t u s as s h e conforms t o

t h e d i c t a t e d e x p e c t a t i o n s of h e r community. And Akunna, a l t h o u g h

h a v i n g t h e courage t o m a r r y t h e man o f h e r c h o i c e , s y m b o l i c a l l y

s u b m i t s i n d e a t h t o the pressures o f t r a d i t i o n .

The theme of s l a v e r y i s f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h t h e

t e a c h e r Chike who "was an o s u , t h e s o n o f a common s l a v e " ( 9 1 ) .

H i s and A k u n n a ' s l o v e f o r one a n o t h e r is t h e s o u r c e o f d i s t r e s s

f o r b o t h t h e i r f a m i l i e s , for a n c i e n t t a b o o f o r b i d s s u c h a u n i o n ,

Akunna is t o l d , "No g i r l from a f a m i l y a s good a s y o u r s would

dream of m a r r y i n g a s l a v e " , a n d t h a t a f a t h e r "would r a t h e r s e e

h i s d a u g h t e r d e a d t h a n a l l o w such a f r i e n d s h i p " ( 1 3 4 , 70).

Emecheta, i n r e l a t i r i g C h i k e ' s h i s t o r y , a g a i n draws on memory a s

embodied i n N i g e r i a n h i s t o r y t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e i l l - f o u n d e d n a t u r e

of t h e p r e j u d i c e . H i s mother w a s a c a p t u r e d p r i n c e s s who was

b u r i e d a l i v e when h e r m a s t e r d i e d , b u t n o t b e f o r e s h e h a d b o r n e

four s o n s a n d a d a u g h t e r . When i t became i l l e g a l t o s e l 1 s l a v e s ,

many m a s t e r s s e n t t h e i r s l a v e s t o t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , who i n t u r n

e d u c a t e d them. Such was C h i k e l s fate. However, a l t h o u g h now a

" f r e e d s l a v e " , C h i k e ' s f a t h e r , s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n d i t i o n e d by

s u b s e r v i e n c e , t e l l s C h i k e , " 1 w o u l d n o t want a s o n o f mine t o

b r i n g shame on h i s [ E z e k i e l ' s ] o n l y d a u g h t e r ( 8 5 ) . Emecheta t h u s

a g a i n e x e m p l i f i e s how t h e remembered s u b m i s s i o n and s e n s e o f

i n f e r i o r i t y is p a s s e d £rom one g e n e r a t i o n t o t h e n e x t .

C h i k e a n d Akunna a r e drawn t o o n e a n o t h e r p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f

their s c h o o l i n g a n d e x p o s u r e t o W e s t e r n ways: b o t h a r e c a u g h t i n

c o n f l i c t i n g worlds. I n s c h o o l , Akunna l e a r n s t h e European ways

o f l i v i n g a n d a t home s h e l e a r n s o f h e r I g b o c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s

through t h e e x p e r i e n c e of her f a t h e r ' s death, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

mourning, h e r m o t h e r ' s r e r n a r r i a g e a n d h e r own emergence i n t o

a d u l t h o o d , marked by t r a d i t i o n a l f e r t i l i t y d a n c e s and t h e

r e s t r i c t i v e taboos a s s o c i a t e d w i t h rnenstrual c y c l e s and marriage

customs. Caught b e t w e e n two w o r l d s , Akunna can n e i t h e r

r e l i n q u i s h h e r p a s t a n c e s t r y , nox d i s c a r d h e r European e d u c a t i o n .

I n Lagos, t h e m i x t u r e of European a n d A f r i c a n c u l t u r e s was " s u c h

a n u n f o r t u n a t e c o n g l o m e r a t i o n o f b o t h t h a t you e n d e d up n o t

knowing t o which you b e l o n g e d " (29). Her f a t h e r went t o c h u r c h

on S u n d a y s , yet k e p t b e h i n d h i s d o o r a g o u r d c o n t a i n i n g a m a g i c a l
potion which served as protection for the family. His wife went

to the rnedicine man in Ibuza to help with her assumed

infertility, while he was buried in a conflict of two cultures.

christian h w s were Sung with an "Africanised beat",

"occasionally sounding completely out of tune as the effect of

the palm wine took hold" (33). Akunna is thus enslaved to both

discordant traditions, and her tragic death is a powerful

illustration of the damaging result.

Akunna and Chike both represent groups denied full equality

with "free" males: both are subjected to restrictive taboos.

Thus, their sexual union underscores Emechetals analogy between

women and slaves. Although Akunna is appreciative of Chike's

true worth, she is "trapped in the intricate web of Ibuza

tradition" and must either "obey or bring shame and destruction

on h e r people" (116). Her situation is brought +,O a climax when

her mother conceives, and her bride price is needed to help her

mother through her confinement. She resists marriage, but when

kidnapped by the son of a leading Ibuza family, her own family is

obliged, according to ancient custom, to agree to her marriage to

her abductor. Again Akunna is treated like a commodity,

possessed forcibly, for her abductor has only to cut a lock of

her hair to legitimize the union.

Anyone, Akunna is told, who contravenes the taboos and

customs was "better dead", for if "you tried to hang on to l i f e ,

you would gradually be helped towards death by psychological

pressures .... Nobody g o e s against the laws of the land and

survives" (141). Chike and Akunna not only defy the taboo
against inter-marriage with slaves, but also break the tradition

of the bride price. "If the bride price is not paid, the bride

will die in childbirth", is the maxim that Akunna, despite her

education, cannot shrug off, and one that she repeats to Chike

(154). Her death in childbirth thus exemplifies the novel's

central thesis. Brown writes:

Fate or destiny in its most significant

sense is not based on the mysterious

predispositions of inscrutable supernatural

forces, but on the function of social

institutions and the shaping patterns of

cultural traditions. In the woman's

experience, f a t e is therefore the

collective will of the community and the

roles that are prescribed by the &ommunity.

In a subjective and much more crucial

sense, the fate of each woman is ultimately

determined by the extreme to which she

accepts or rejects that collective will.

(49)

Ymecheta concludes the novel with the authorial comment, "So it

was that Chike and Akunna substantiated the traditional

superstition they had unknowingly set out to eradicate" (168).

Akunna's death forcibly symbolizes the couple's inability to live

as individuals outside of society, and offers no solution to the

effects of cultural conflict and confusion.

 Emecheta d e s c r i b e s Akunna a s an obanje (9). 0 b a n j e is t h e

I g b o t e m f o r c h i l d r e n believed t o be d e s t i n e d t o d i e a n d b e

reborn r e p e a t e d l y t o t h e same m o t h e r , t h e N i g e r i a n o b a n j e myth

b e i n g one a b o u t i n f a n t r n o r t a l i t y ( S t r a t t o n 1 4 8 ) . I n T h e Bride

P r i c e Emecheta t r a n s l a t e s t h e word as " l i v i n g d e a d " , aptly

d e s c r i b i n g Akunna's l i f e , b u r i e d i n h e r i n h e r i t e d t r a d i t i o n s

which r e s t r i c t hel: f r e e d o m and s e l f d e t e r m i n a t i o n . The h e r o i n e

of h e r n e x t n o v e l , The S l a v e G i r l , is also an obanje. Born t o

h e r mother a f t e r t h e l o s s o f many c h i l d r e n , s h e i s g i v e n t h e name

o f Obanje a n d h e r l i f e , t o o , i s o n e e n t r a p p e d i n s e r v i t u d e .

Emecheta zhus uses t h e m y t h t o r e f l e c t t h e s t a t u s of women l i v i n g

i n a s o c i e t y which d e n i e s them a n y s e l f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .

I n The B r i d e P r i c e , Ezekiel's disease i n d i r e c t l y leads t o

h i s w i f e a n d d a u g h t e r l s move from Lagos t o r u r a l I b u z a a n d t o

t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t submergence i n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y m a l e

dominated l i f e . S i m i l a r l y , i n The S l a v e G i r l , Obejeta's p a r e n t s

succumb t o i n f l u e n z a , i n t r o d u c e d t o N i g e r i a b y t h e E u r o p e a n s .

T h e i r deaths l e a d t o O b e j e t a ' s l e a v i n g r u r a l I b u z a f o r a l i f e o f

slavery i n t h e l a r g e t r a d i n g c e n t r e o f O n i t s h a . A g a i n , Emecheta

i n d i r e c t l y l a y s t h e blame for t h e s l a v e r y o f h e r main p r o t a g o n i s t

on t h e E u r o p e a n s . The s t o r y of O g b a n j e O b e j e t a a p p e a r s t o be a

f i c t i o n a l i z e d b i o g r a p h y of E m e c h e t a ' s mother, whose name was

A l i c e Ogbanje Emecheta. Towards t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , O b e j e t a

a d o p t s t h e E n g l i s h name, A l i c e . I n a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h James,

Emecheta s p e a k s of The S l a v e Girl, a n d c l a i m s :

1 had n e v e r b e e n t o O n i t s h a , i t was my

m o t h e r ' s story. Every d a y , whenever s h e

 asked me to do sornething and I made a

mistake, she would start, "When I was in

Onitsha", and she would go on and on and on

.... our mothers used to go on recalling

their own lives when w e went out of step

.... this is Our oral tradition. It was

from al1 that information that 1 was able

to reconstruct ber life. (In Their Own

Voices 44)

Obejeta is born in 1910, and the novel closes at the end of the

Second World War, the year after Emecheta was born. Emecheta is

thus recording her mother's generation, drawing on her familial,

memory for the setting both in time and place.

Although Akunna moves £rom city to country, and Obejeta the

reverse, from country to city, the themes of both novels suggest

that whether in city or town, there is no escaping female

subservience. Okolie's cruel act of selling his sister on purely

economic and frivolous grounds echoes the economic basis for the
slave trade- He needs money to buy ribbons 3nd tassels with
which to adorn his body at his ritual coming of age dances. When

he sells Obejeta to Ma Palagada for eight pounds, his bargaining

is analogous to Ma Mee's bargaining over a large fish: such is

Obejeta's marketable value. Obejeta, in vain, tries to escape,

as does the struggling fish, but she is caught by Ma Mee who,

with double entendre, inforrns her of the reality of her

situation. "Yeu are not lost little girl with pagan charms ...
you axe just a domestic slave" (59). Whether or not technically
"free", as a female she is enslaved, e i t h e r by the male dominant

society or by the slave t r a d e itself.

Back in Ibuza, Okolie is condemned, riot for selling his

sister, but ironically because he "was violating the custom. He

had no right to d a i m any money that his sister might fetch. Now

that their father was dead, her bride-price when she grew up

belonged by right to his older brothert' (80). Obejeta is thus

subjected to the whims of h e r male guardians, and such subjection

is sanctioned by the traditions of her people. The individual is

lost within the dictates of custom and "Obejeta's name after a

while was almost forgotten, so much so t h a t some people muddled

facts and said she had died with her parents .... So short was

the rnemory of people" ( 7 9 ) .

Through Ma Palagada, Emecheta again demonstrates how the

trade is learnt and perpetuated. Ma Palagada, once married to a

Portuguese slave trader, perpetuates the subservience of her own

sex. The dominating mentality is passed on, Victoria, Ma

Palagada's daughter, displaying an even harsher attitude towards

the slaves than her mother. Through the actions of mother and

daughter, Emecheta reinforces the female complicity in and

responsibility for the victimization of their own sex. As the

women's chorus in Nwapa's Efuru and -

Idu constantly judge and

condemn any women who stray from the traditional noms, so Ma

Palagada and Victoria reinforce the second-class status of their

fellow women. By focusing on the responsibility of women for

their own victimization, Emecheta appears to voice an indirect

cal1 for female solidarity.

 On Obejetals return to Ibuza, when Eze assumes guardianship

of her, she leaxns that she is no more free in Ibuza than in

Onitsha. "A girl was owned ... by her fathex or someone in place

of her father or her older brother, and then, in general, by her

group or homestead" (157). Uteh tells ber that "No woman is ever

free. To be owned by a man is a great honour" (158)- T h u s , when

she marries Jacob, Obejeta rationalizes that it is "better to be

a slave to a master of your choice" (168). She submits

voluntarily to his will and was "happy to be submissive, even to

accept an occasional beating" (174). Jacob, being a "very

conventional person ... would do nothing that went against

custom, tradition and local mores", and happily pays back

Clifford the eight pounds that Ma Palagada had originally paid

for her (168). Emecheta closes the novel with the statement, "So

as Britain was emerging from war once more victorious, and

clairnino to have stopped the slavery which she helped to spread

in all her black colonies, Obejeta, now a woman of thirty-five,

was changing masters" (179).

Smecheta suggests that superstitions and tradition share the

responsibility, together with European domination, for

perpetuating the brutal slavery practice, by citing traditional

or economic reasons f o x slavery. One of Ma Palagada's slaves

"was born a twin and her people ... did not accept twins. Her

mother had nursed her secretly and later had sold her, simply to
give her a chance in life" ( 6 3 ) . Another slave, Chiago, was sold

when her mother became il1 and the fanily hit hard times. Chiago
relates the chiiling tale of the b e a u t i f u l slave unwillingly
b u r i e d a l i v e w i t h h e r d e a d mistress (61, 62). 5 L a t e r Chiago,

herself, i s symbolically "buried a l i v e " , f o r a f t e r M a Palagada' s

d e a t h s h e h a s no c h o i c e b u t t o l i v e w i t h P a P a l a g a d a , t o whose

c h i l d s h e h a s given birth. J u s t a s F r a n c i s i n I n t h e Ditch w a s

wam and c o n t e n t on t h e d o l e , and Adah f i n d s c a m a r a d e r i e w i t h t h e

poor i n P u s s y Mansions, s o t o o d o e s O b e j e t a f i n d a d v a n t a g e s i n

slavery. " I t a t l e a s t p r o v i d e d them w i t h f o o d , c l o t h i n g a n d

s h e l t e r " a n d s h e l e a r n s t o "make t h e b e s t o f e v e r y t h i n g , by b e i n g

d o c i l e and t r o u b l e f r e e " (96, 6 3 ) . L u l l e d i n t o a s e n s e of

s e c u r i t y , the " s l a v e 1 ' becomes more and more d e p e n d e n t .

Emecheta r e c o r d s v a r i o u s c u l t u r a l e x p e c t a t i o n s of women,

p r o v i d i n g s o c i e t a l i n f o r m a t i o n which h e l p s s i t u a t e the woman

w i t h o u t any i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s , e n s l a v e d by t h e c y c l e s of h e r body

and t h e d i c t a t e s of h e r male-dorninated w o r l d . When Umeadi g i v e s

b i r t h , t h e o n l y woman a v a i l a b l e t o h e l p h e r , Ukabegwu's w i f e , was

"under nso" o r m e n s t r u a t i n g , s o Umeadi had t o g i v e b i r t h i n t h e

o p e n , f o r a n " " u n c l e a n " woman was n e v e r a l l o w e d i n t o the h u t o f a

man w i t h t h e Alo t i t l e . Okwuekwu had s u c h a t i t l e " (17). When

Okwuekwu d i e s , t h e r e a d e r l e a r n s t h a t a woman " i n mourning ..,

was f o r b i d d e n t o v i s i t t h e Stream, t o b a t h e , t o e n t e r any h u t

where t h e man of t h e f a m i l y had a t i t l e " ( 2 8 , 2 9 ) . A woman i n

mourning was n o t r e a l l y e x p e c t e d t o s u r v i v e l o n g a f t e r t h e death

o f her h u s b a n d ; however, when Umeadi d i e s w h i l e s t i l l i n

mourning, s h e i s d e n i e d a p r o p e r b u r i a l , a n d is thrown i n t o t h e

"bad bush" ( 8 2 ) . I f a woman m a r r i e d some one who d i d not s p e a k

Igbo, s h e was then " r e g a r d e d a s l o s t o r e v e n s o l d i n t o s l a v e r y t t

(34). Once m a r r i e d , t h e good wife s h o u l d f o r e g o t h e gods of t h e

h u t s of h e r own f a t h e r . "From t h a t d a y she s h o u f d be l o y a l t o

h e r husband, h i s gods a n d h i s p e o p l e , i n body a n d s p i r i t " , a n d

use bis p r a i s e name (11). "Even s l a v e s .. . took t h e g r e e t i n g s of

t h e i r master" (16).

Throughout t h e n o v e l , Emecheta d e r n o n s t r a t e s t h e r e s i l i e n c e

of c u l t u r a l memory, r e t a i n i n g custorns a n d b e l i e f s , a l t h o u g h

s u p e r f i c i a l l y i n f l u e n c e d by Western c u l t u r e . The W e s t e r n

t e a c h i n g s of t h e church n e v e r completely e r a d i c a t e t h e i n h e r i t e d

v a l u e s and b e l i e f s o f t h e i r own p e o p l e , O b e j e t a b e n e f i t s from

t h e m i s s i o n a r y t e a c h i n g : b y l e a r n i n g t o r e a d Igbo, s h e g a i n s a

form of m e n t a l l i b e r a t i o n . However, t h e s l a v e s a r e a l s o t a u g h t

t o sew and c o o k , d o m e s t i c a t t r i b u t e s that s e r v e t o make thern m o r e

" e l i t e " , whether i n t h e m a r k e t p l a c e o r i n marxiage (105). When

t h e y Wear W e s t e r n - s t y l e d r e s s e s made i n M r s S i m p s o n s ' c l a s s e s ,

t h e I g b o women s t i l l Wear t h e i r l a p p a s o v e r t h e i r s k i r t s a n d

shoulders, symbolically syncretising both cultures. Obejeta

assumes t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h , b u t d o e s so f o r t h e a d v a n t a g e s i t

o f f e r s , comparing m a r r i a g e i n a church w i t h an Igbo t r a d i t i o n ,

c l a i m i n g " i t i s l i k e a man c u t t i n g a l o c k o f d g i r l ' s h a i r - it

makes a m a r r i a g e l a s t f o r e v e r u n t i l e i t h e r o f them dies" ( 1 7 3 ) .

T h e t e n a c i t y w i t h which t r a d i t i o n a l c u s t o m s p e r s i s t t h u s

i n d i c a t e s t h e r e l u c t a n c e a n d d i f f i c u l t y w i t h which t h e y a r e

re j e c t e d .

K a t h e r i n e F r a n k comments t h a t i n Emecheta' s w o r k s , h e r

protagonists' " d e g r e e of s e r v i t u d e i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o

t h e amount o f e d u c a t i o n t h e y r e c e i v e " ( 4 8 1 ) . C l e a r l y Emecheta,

l i k e Waciuma a n d Ogot, d e p i c t s e d u c a t i o n as t h e most p o w e r f u l

means of women's liberation. In The Bride Price, Akunna is
encouraged in her development as an independent self-determining

being by Chike, her teacher. In The Slave Girl, the scanty

education Cbejeta receives profoundly affects her life, and her

absorption in an Igbo story book depicts her transportation away

from her cramped, miserable life. Adah in Second Class Citizen

and In The Ditch is better equipped to challenge her cultural

upbringing and cope with change, due to her education. However,

Nnu Ego, in The Joys of Motherhood receives no forma1 education,

and of al1 Emecheta's heroines, she is most firmly enslaved by

her traditions. Her memcry of Igbo culture is al1 the means she
has by which to identify herself, and when exposed to the life in

Lagos, during British domination and the Second World War, she

Decomes confused and hopelessly lost.

Emecheta draws again on her own persona1 memory by depicting

Nnu Ego's early life in her home town village of Ibuza. The

night Nnu Ego i s conceived, Agbadifs senior wife falls il1 and

subsequently dies. When recording her funeral, Emecheta

reiterates the horrific tale of the mistress's slave being buried

a l i v e , thereby accentuating the role tradition plays in slavery.

Al1 the things that she would need in her

after-life were gathered and arranged in

her wooden coffin .... Then her persona1

slave was ceremoniously called in a loud

voize by the medicine man: she must be laid

inside the grave first. A good slave was

supposed to jump into the grave willingly,
 happy to accompariy her mistress; but this

young and beautiful woman did not wish to

die yet.

She kept begging for her life, much to

the annoyance of many of the men standing

around. ( 2 3 )

Agbadi's son administers a blow to her head, but as she dies, the

slave claims prophetically, "1 shall come back to your household,

but as a legitimate daughter. 1 shall come back" ( 2 3 ) . When the

dibia declares that Nnu Ego, born with a significant lump on the

back of her head, is the slave reincarnated, Nnu Ego, like the

heroines o f The Slave Girl and The Bride Price, becomes another

obanje. Even her name Nnu Ego (new ego) may be a pun on her

reincarnation. Emecheta tnerefore parallels Nnu Ego's life with

that of the slave's; she is a slave to her traditions and a slave

to her children, and like Akunna and Obejeta, she is buried in

traditional patriarchy and remains figuratively buried al1 her

life. The superstitions associated with the slave girl have a

powerful influence on Nnu Ego, who cannot shirk their influence.

Her dreams of the slave girl handing her babies suggest that she

allows her traditional chi subconsciously to influence her mind.

Thus Ernecheta, while imparting great sympathy for Nnu Ego in her

struggles, again suggests that her hexoine remains enslaved by

virtue of her own mentality. And Ernecheta also suggests that the

zubmissive and self-sacrificing characteristics are embodied in

the cultural, social memory Nnü Ego inherits from the past.
 I n t h i s n o v e l , Emecheta d e f t l y works o n two l e v e l s ,

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y on t h e o n e hand i n f o r m i n g t h e r e a d e r o f t h e Igbo

t r a d i t i o n t h a t e s t e e m s motherhood as " t h e g r e a t e s t j o y " a woman

c a n e x p e r i e n c e , and o n t h e o t h e r , d e p i c t i n g t h e n a r r a t i v e p l o t

l a r g e l y s e e n t h r o u g h Nnu E g o ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s . As a result

Emecheta o f f e r s t h e reader a d u a l p e r s p e c t i v e w h e r e b y t h e m e r i t s

o f t h e Igbo mother t r a d i t i o n a r e t e s t e d a n d t r i e d by h a r s h

reality. U n l i k e Second Class C i t i z e n , i n which Adah a s s e s s e s t h e

merits o f h e r own c u l t u r e when s h e i s d i s l o c a t e d i n a f o r e i g n

c o u n t r y , i n The J o y s o f Motherhood Emecheta l e a v e s t h e assessrnent

ro the reader.

A g a i c Emecheta s u p p l i e s t h e r e a d e r w i t h I g b o s o c i e t a l

i n f o r m a t i o n a s i t p e r t a i n s t o Nnu E g o ' s l i f e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e

Igbo b e l i e f t h a t p r e g n a n c y , g i v i n g b i r t h a n d r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n

a f f o r d s a woman h e r f u l f i l l m e n t . "What e l s e d o e s a woman want?"

N n a i f e a s k s when Nnu Ego f i r s t f a l l s p r e g n a n t ( 4 9 ) . Nnu Ego

xefers t o t h e e v e n t as " t h e g r e a t e s t j o y " o f h e r l i f e , a n d when

Agbadi and Umunna a r g u e over t h e r i g h t t o O n a f s u n b o r n c h i l d s h e

b e g s , " D o n ' t take my joy away .. . . t h e g r e a t e s t j o y of my l i f e "

(50, 2 4 ) . The r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e word " j o y " r e c a l l s A k u n n a ' s

c h i l d i n The B r i d e P r i c e , who, d e s p i t e c a u s i n g h e r m o t h e r t s

d e a t h , i s c a l l e d Joy. I n t h e Igbo s o c i e t y t h i s i s n o t i r o n i c ,

f o r " t h e joy of b e i n g a m o t h e r was t h e j o y o f g i v i n g a l 1 t o your

c h i l d r e n " (JM 2 2 4 ) . Emecheta i s i n d e b t e d t o Nwapa's E f u r u f o r

the i r o n i c t i t l e and theme o f t h e n o v e l , f o r i n t h e l a s t

p a r a g r a p h o f E f u r u , Nwapa w r i t e s t h a t E f u r u , "had n e v e r

e x p e r i e n c e d t h e joy o f motherhood" (281) . I n many ways, The J o y

of Motherhood i s a r e s p o n s e t o Efuru, f o r Emecheta r e c o u n t s t h e

h a r s h r e a l i t i e s o f motherhood. Nnu Ego, t o t a l l y bound b y her

c u l t u r a l customs, i s i n i t i a l l y t o r t u r e d by h e r i n a b i l i t y t o

r e p r o d u c e w i t h Rmatokwu. When h e r f i r s t b a b y b y N n a i f e dies, s h e

t r i e s t o commit suicide, c l a i m i n g , "1 am n o t a woman a n y more".

The crowd c e a s e t o t h i n k of f i e r as mad when t h e y h e a r t h e c a u s e

of h e r d i s t r e s s , for " t h e y a l 1 a g r e e d t h a t a woman w i t h o u t a

c h i l d f o r h e r h u s b a n d was a f a i l e d woman" ( 6 2 , e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) .

However, i n t i m e s h e manages t o p r o d u c e many h e a l t h y c h i l d r e n

i n c l u d i n g s o n s , b u t h e r l i f e i s f a r from j o y o u s .

Emecheta r e c o r d s many o f t h e women's e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d

c u s t o m s r e c a l l e d i n Second Class C i t i z e n , a n d a l s o b y Nwapa i n

Efuru and K. Nnu Ego l e a r n s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l g e n d e r

expectations from h e r f a t h e r . "My s o n s , you w i l l a l 1 grow t o be

kings among men" h e t e l l s h i s c h i l d r e n , "My d a u g h t e r s , you w i l l

a l 1 grow t o r o c k y o u r c h i l d r e n ' s c h i l d r e n " ( 2 9 ) . The v a l u e of a

g i r l i s l a r g e l y m a t e r i a l i s t i c , r e l a t e d t o t h e b r i d e price s h e can

bring t o her f a t h e r with marriage. Even t h e name Nnu Ego,

meaning twenty bags o f c o w r i e s , p u t s a m o n e t a r y v a l u e o n t h e

child. T h i s v a l u e s y s t e m r e f l e c t s b a c k upon t h e m o t h e r s . Adaku

i s made t o f e e l i n f e r i o r t o Nnu Ego b e c a u s e s h e h a s no s o n a n d

when Nnu Ego h a s a s t i l l b o r n b a b y , "that i t was a g i r l ....

lessenec! her s e n s e o f l o s s " (195). Adaku t e l l s Oshia t h a t h e i s

w o r t h "more t h a n t e n t i m e s " t h a t o f h e r own d a u g h t e r , so t h e boys

l e a r n early i n l i f e t h e i r p r e s u m e d s u p e r i o r i t y (128)- G i v i n g

b i r t h , e s p e c i a l l y t o a son, g i v e s a woman a n i d e n t i t y , f o r s h e i s

t h e n a d d r e s s e d a s someone's m o t h e r . A woman who i s u n m a x r i e d o r

c h i l d l e s s h a s no s t a t u s and no i d e n t i t y f o r she has no

t r a d i t i o n a l l y p r e s c r i b e d r o l e t o p e r f o r m : womanhood i s t h u s

d e f i n e d b y t h e a b i l i t y t o bear c h i l d r e n .

Not o n l y i s t h e Igbo woman t r e a t e d l i k e a commodity i n

m a r r i a g e , b u t s h e i s f u r t h e r h u m i l i a t e d by t h e c u s t o m o f

polygyny. If a woman f a i l s t o c o n c e i v e , a s did Nnu Ego w i t h

Amatokwu, s h e i s demoted b e n e a t h w i v e s whose f e r t i l i t y e l e v a t e s

them i n t h e p o l y g y n o u s h i e r a r c h y , o r t h e b r i d e p r i c e i s r e t u r n e d

and t h e b r i d e r e t u r n s t o her f a t h e r . The n a r r a t o r r e i t e r a t e s t h e

c u s t o m o f widows a n d t h e i r f a m i l i e s b e i n g i n h e r i t e d by t h e e l d e s t

l i v i n g b r o t h e r , s u c h as when N n a i f e i n h e r i t s Adaku. The

h u s b a n d ' s e g o i s f u r t h e r b u i l t on t h e number o f women h e c a n

s u p p o r t a n d when Adaku l e a v e s h i m , N n a i f e p r o c u r e s a n o t h e r w i f e .

C o n t r a r y t o t h e i m p r e s s i o n g i v e n by many male a u t h o r s , showing

t h e t r a d i t i o n a l way o f l i f e t o be a h a n n o n i o u s o n e , u p s e t o n l y by

the i n t r u s i o n Western c u l t u r e , t h e n a r r a t o r d e p i c t s ,

Miriam Were i n T h e E i g h t h Wife, t h e f e m a l e p o i n t o f v i e w ,

r e l a t i n g t h e j e a l o u s y and d i s c o m f o r t p o l y g y n y c a u s e s , e v e n i n t h e

r u r a l s e t t i n g of I b u z a . The w i v e s ' n a i l b i t i n g a n d p i n i n g when

Agbadi s l e e p s w i t h h i s mistress i n d i c a t e s t h e i r c o n c e r n , a n d t h e

n i g h t Ona c o n c e i v e s Nnu Ego, A g b a d i ' s s e n i o r w i f e ' s s u d d e n

i l l n e s s reflects her suffering (22). In t h e c i t y , t h e

d i f f i c u l t i e s o f polygyny a r e f u r t h e r e x a c e r b a t e d . Living i n

cramped q u a r t e r s r e n d e r s t h e p o l y g y n o u s way o f l i f e i n t o l e r a b l e .

I n I b u z a , Nnu Ego, a s s e n i o r w i f e , would a t l e a s t h a v e h e r own

hut. A p a r t £rom t h e e m o t i o n a l s t r e s s p o l y g y n y c a u s e s , more w i v e s

a n d more c h i l d r e n p r e s e n t a s t a g g e r i n g economic b u r d e n , a n d
poverty casts a different picture of the joy an additional child

may bring. As the mother of three sons, Nnu Ego "was supposed to

be happy in her poverty, in her nail biting agony, in her

churning stomach, in her rags, in her cramped room" ( 1 6 7 ) . "Yes,

I have many children", she acknowledges, "but what do I have to

feed them on? On my life. I have to work myself to the bone to

look after them. I have to give them my all" (186). "She was a

prisoner, imprisoned by her love for her children" (137).

Bound, too, by the belief that the sons should be

privileged, Nnu Ego informs her resentful daughters that they

must work to put the boys "in a good position in life, so that

they will be able to look after the farnily. When your husbands

are nasty to you they will defend you" (176). Ironically,

investing in her sons as her own social security fails in the

modern world. Though Oshia and Adim acquire a good education,

they leave the country and neglect their mother and siblings.
The bus driver's rernark, "It's nice to have daughters" possibly

reflects a changing attitude in Lagos toward that tradition, but

it is a change that escapes Nnu Ego. She becomes caught on a

treadmill, working not only to provide food for her children, but

schooling for her sons, too busy to dig herself out of her

proverbial "ditch". Thus, the reality of Nnu Ego's circumstances

forcibly challenges the traditional belief in the joys of

motherhood.

Emecheta, as in her previous novels, rejects the Igbo

customs that trap the woman in subservience and ignorance.

However, with the character of Adaku she does offer a positive
a l t e r n a t i v e ; t h a t o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t , a s s e r t i v e woman. By taking

c h a r g e o f h e r own l i f e , and e s t a b l i s h i n g h e r own i d e n t i t y , one

t h a t i s n o t p r e d i c a t e d upon any husband o r s o n , s h e i s a b l e t o

avoid perpetuating t h e self-defeating subservient m e n t a l i t y .

Adaku a c t s a s a f o i 1 t o Nnu Ego. "1 want t o be a d i g n i f i e d

s i n g l e woman" s h e d a i m s . " 1 s h a l l work t o e d u c a t e my d a u g h t e r s ,

though 1 s h a l l n o t do s o w i t h o u t male companionship" (170, 1 7 1 ) .

Her u n e n v i a b l e p o s i t i o n of b e i n g w i t h o u t sons, o f b e i n g a widow

and t h u s t h e s e c o n d w i f e , p e r h a p s h e l p goad h e r t o w a r d s a new

awareness. She l e a r n s from h e r n e g a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e t h e u n j u s t

i n e q u a l i t i e s of t h e t r a d i t i o n , a n d d e t e r m i n e s t o g i v e h e r

daughters a l i b e r a t i n g education.

I n c o n t r a s t t o Adaku, Nnu Ego d o e s n o t l e a r n f r o m h e r

experiences. She c l i n g s t o h e r s t a t u s a s f i r s t w i f e a n d m o t h e r

of s o n s . Althouoh s h e , h e r s e l f , was f i r s t s o l d t o h e r first

h u s ~ a n d , r e t u r n e d l i k e a p i e c e o f d e f e c t i v e merchandise and l a t e r

s o l d t o Nnaife, s h e n e v e r t h e l e s s p e r p e t u a t e s t h e custom b y

v a l u i n g h e r twin d a u g h t e r s f o r t h e i r p r o s p e c t i v e worth, a p r i c e

t h a t w i l l h e l p e d u c a t e t h e boys. Her t r a d i t i o n a l way o f t h i n k i n g

i s further e x e m p l i f i e d b y h e r a t t i t u d e t o N n a i f e ' s w o r k i n g f o r

t h e Meers a s a washerman, d o i n g "woman's work", e m a s c u l a t e d b y

h i s subservience.' J u s t a s womanhood i s d e f i n e d i n terms o f

child bearing, s o a r e Igbo men d e f i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r work

habits. T h a t t h e I g b o p r a c t i c e o f e n s l a v i n g t h e i r women i s

a n a l o g o u s t o t h e B r i t i s h c o l o n i z e r ' s e x p l o i t a t i o n of men s u c h a s

N n a i f e i s s o m e t h i n g Nnu Ego cannot comprehend: however, Emecheta,

t h r o u g h Nnu Ego's r e a c t i o n , c l e a r l y e q u a t e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
womanrs r o l e w i t h t h a t o f a p o w e r l e s s s e r v a n t . I n t h e white-

dominated economy o f Lagos, t h e men are s l a v e s t o money, "shining

w h i t e m a n ' s money", and t h e y a r e f o r c e d t o s e l 1 themselves

a c c o r d i n g l y , i n a way a n a l o g o u s t o Adaku, who s e l l s h e r s e l f a s a

p r o s r i t u t e (51). N n a i f e a l s o f a i l s t o l e a r n £rom h i s own

experiences. Emecheta d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t r a c i s m , like the slave

mentality, i s p e r p e t u a t e d through experience. Nnaife is verbally

abused by D r . M e e r s ' s r a c i s t comments. L i k e many A f r i c a n s , who

were s o " u s e d t o b e i n g t o l d t h e y were s t u p i d " , h e s t a r t e d t o

b e l i e v e i n h i s own i m p e r f e c t i o n s ( 8 3 ) . However, N n a i f e r e a c t s t o

h i s d a u g h t e r ' s c h o i c e o f husband s a y i n g , "She is b e t t e r d e a d "

t h a n marry a Yoruba man ( 2 0 9 ) . N n a i f e f o l l o w s t h e t r a d i t i o n of

p a t e r n a l c o n t r o l o f t h e c h o i c e of h i s d a u g h t e r ' s h u s b a n d , b u t he

fails t o l e a r n from h i s a n a l o g o u s r a c i s t e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h e

Meers.

When i n n o c e n c N n a i f e is d r a g g e d i n t o a war h e n e i t h e r

u n d e r s t a n c i s , n o r w a n t s a n y p a r t o f , Nnu Ego c o m p l a i n s t h a t " t h e

B r i t i s h own u s , j u s t l i k e God d o e s " ( 1 4 8 ) . Her w o r d s s u g q e s t

t h a t God, t o o , is a s l a v e master. With t h e c o n f u s i o n of

C h r i s t i a n f a i t h a n d I g b o c u s t o m s , b o t h Nnu Ego and N n a i f e t e n d t o

a d h e r e t o w h a t e v e r p r i n c i p l e s s u i t them. J u s t as t h e cook

m a r r i e s h i s w i f e i n c h u r c h t o Save h i s j o b , Nnaife assumes a

superficial Christianity t o protect his. He e v e n w h i ç t l e s "Abide

w i t h me" i n M r s M e e r s ' s p r e s e n c e , a n i r o n i c r e r n i n d e r of t h e

c o l o n i z e r s ' i n a b i l i t y t o l i v e a c c o r d i x g t o t h e i r own f a i t h . At

t i m e s i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o assess Nnu E g o ' s , and p o s s i b l y

Emecheta's, a s s e s s m e n t o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . The n a r r a t o r blames ( o r

c r e d i t s ) Nnu Ego's C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n f o r t e a c h i n g h e r " t o bear

her c r o s s with f o r t i t u d e . I f h e r s was t o s u p p o r t h e r f a m i l y , s h e

would do s o , u n t i l h e r husband f o u n d a new j o b " (89). The

n a r r a t o r a l s o denounces C h r i s t i a n i t y a s a prop, a s u p p o r t ,

p r o t e c t i n g p e o p l e from f a c i n g t h e h a r s h n e s s o f r e a l i t y (162).

What Nnu E g o f a i l s t o r e c o g n i z e i s t h a t h e r b e l i e f i n a n d

a d h e r e n c e t o h e r c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s may a l s o b e a p r o p ,

d i s t o r t i n g t h e r e a l i t y o f h e r own e x i s t e n c e , a n d t h e n a r r a t o r

d o e s n o t q u e s t i o n how o n e i d e n t i f i e s o n e s e l f w i t h o u t a d h e r e n c e t o

some e x t e r n a l c o d e .

I n many ways Nnu Ego's s t x u g g l e s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of t h e

women t h e world o v e r . By d e m o n s t r a t i n g Nnu E g o ' s f a v o u r i n g of

t h e e l d e r s o n , O s h i a , a s a m i s t a k e , Emecheta c h a l l e n g e s t h e

primogeniture t r a d i t i o f i i n t h e Igbo c u l t u r e . However, t h i s

custom i s by no means f o r e i g n t o t h e Western w o r l d . The works of

J a n e A u s t e n and o t h e r s d e a l w i t h t h e i n e q u i t i e s d e a l t t o

d a u g h t e r s and y o u n g e r s o n s . And, by d e p i c t i n g t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s

o f women w i t h h a n d i c a p s o f p o v e r t y , Emecheta p l a c e s t h e

e x p e r i e n c e s o f h e r women w i t h i n a b r o a d c o n t e x t of s o c i a l

i n j u s t i c e s , i n t h e West a s a whole and i n t h e T h i r d w o r l d . Nnu

Ego i s , f o r t h e most p a r t , a s i n g l e m o t h e r , b a t t l i n g on h e r own,

and, a s Adah i n I n t h e D i t c h , s h e s u r e l y s p e a k s f o r a l 1 s i n g l e ,

p o o r m o t h e r s who a r e h a n d i c a p p e d i n t h e i r own s e l f - d e v e l o p r n e n t b y

t h e bcndage of c h i l d c a r e and p o v e r t y . In depicting t h e slave

m e n t a l i t i e s of "dominance and subserT;ience" a s c o n t i n u o u s and

p a r t o f o u r assumed s o c i a l memoxies, s h e i n d i r e c t l y s u g g e s t s t h a t

t h i s i s a g e n e r a l human c o n d i t i o n . As Emecheta d e p i c t s women a s

those most often forced to assume subservient roles, hex indirect

cornmentaries have much in common with Westerr, Lfercinist protest

writing. While she draws on her social memory as embodied in her

cultural past, and expresses her negative attitude towards the

restrictive authority traditions hold, she manages to posit Igbo

women in Nigeria as having much in common with women the world

over .
In Destination Biafra, through the characterization of

Debbie, Emecheta presents a solution to the perpetuating

continuity of female subservience to tradition and motherhood.

Debbie epitomizes a "new breed of Nigerian woman . . . in the

making", for while she renounces her cultural ways, she also, in
her rejection of her white British lover, symbolically refutes

any Western ally (43). Virginia Coulon writes that what she is

searching for "is not a replica of Africa's traditional past nor

a mode1 of the West, but a new, different and specifically

African way" ( 1 0 ) . The independence Debbie embraces is analogous

to the new detribalised and independent Nigeria that Emecheta

optimistically envisions.

In Destination Biafra, Emecheta records Nigeria ' s more

recent history, from a woman's point of view. Again women are

shown in a compromised situation, for the narrator claims that

"in marriage the male partner was superior and the female must be

subservient, obedient, quiet to the point of passivityu (43).

However, the women are further depicted as victims of war,

suffering killings, disease, malnutrition, horrific mutilations

and constant, repeated rape. The enemy, per se, is not always
r e a d i l y recognized, f o r women are v i c t i m s o f t h e s o l d i e r s '

a n a r c h i c b e s t i a l i t y , b e t h e y B i a f r a n o r Nigerian. B e c a u s e many

N i g e r i a n men r e j e c t m a r r i a g e t o a r a p e d woman, f o r many t h e p r i c e

o f war i s t h e i r womanhood, o f t e n t h e i r motherhood a s w e l l . The

r e p e a t e d r a p e o f t h e N i g e r i a n " m o t h e r s " is a n a l o g o u s to t h e

s y m b o l i c c o n t i n u o u s r a p e o f t h e m o t h e r l a n d , be i t by t h e B r i t i s h

o r t h e new l e a d e r s o f i n d e p e n d e n c e .

Emecheta i s a m b i t i o u s w i t h t h i s n o v e i , t r y i n g t o c o v e r t h e

complex d e t a i l s o f a c o n f u s i n g w a r , p o r t r a y i n g p o l i t i c a l

c o r r u p t i o n a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n , w h i l e p o s i t i o n i n g h e r most f e m i n i s t

of p r o t a g o n i s t s i n t h e midst o f t h e a c t i o n . When she j o u r n e y s

w i t h a g r o u p o f women t o t h e w a r f r o n t , Debbie assumes care for a

new b o r n i n f a n t , whose m o t h e r d i e d w h i l e i n p r e m a t u r e l a b o u r , t h e

i n f a n t s y m b o l i c a l l y named B i a f r a - Debbie, a n O x f o r d e d u c a t e d ,

l i b e r a t e d , young woman i s u n a c c u s t o m e d t o c a r r y i n g a c h i l d on h e r

back; s o f a r from h e r o r i g i n s h a s h e r e d u c a t i o n l e d h e r . She

finds the c h i l d onerous in h e r lengthy trek. The d i f f e r e n t

t r i b e s a r e l i k e w i s e a b u r d e n t o N i g e r i a and t h e baby's d e a t h

f o r e s h a d o w s t h e d e a t h o f t h e n a t i o n of B i a f r a , b o r n a t t h e wrong

time. Debbie t h r o w s h e r l o t i n w i t h F e d e r a l f o r c e s , s u p p o r t i n g a

new n a t i o n , a new N i g e r i a , o n e t h a t s u p e r s e d e s t r i b a l

d ifferences .
I n r e c o r d i n g t h e B i a f r a n w a r , Emecheta v o i c e s more r e c e n t

h i s t o r i c a l memories, e v e n t s w h i c h w e r e r e l a y e d a c r o s s t h e w o r l d .

By c h a r t i n g t h e woman's p o i n t o f v i e w , s h e g i v e s v o i c e t o t h o s e

of h e r own s e x and p a y s i n d i r e c t t r i b u t e t o t h e N i g e r i a n woman's

s t r e n g t h a n d e n d u r a n c e i n t h e f a c e of h o r r i f i c s u f f e r i n g , Into
t h e b a s i c p l o t , Emecheta weaves h e r r e c u r r e n t t h e m e s , q u e s t i o n i n g

t h e r e a d y s u b s e r v i e n c e o f t r a d i t i o n a l women t h r o u g h t h e

c o n s c i o u s n e s s of h e r p r o t a g o n i s t , Debbie. Debbie's mother,

a l t h o u g h a woman o f i n n e r s t r e n g t h a n d wisdom, l a m e n t s h e r

d a u g h t e r ' s non-conformity. However, Debbie r e a l i z e s t h a t h e r

n o t h e r s u p p r e s s e s h e r own t h o u g h t s a n d w i s h e s t o a p p e a s e h e r

husband's ego. She r e a l i z e s t h a t f o r t w e n t y - f i v e years her

mother h a s " b e e n t h e w i f e o f a d o m i n e e r i n g man who t o o k it upon

h i m s e l f t o have t h e l a s t word o n e v e r y t h i n g t h a t went o n a r o u n d

him, i n c l u d i n g h i s w i f e " (110) . S h e h a s d i f f e r e n t ambitions.

"She w a n t e d t o do s o m e t h i n g more t h a n c h i l d b r e e d i n g a n d r e a r i n g

and b e i n g a good p a s s i v e w i f e t o a man whose ego s h e m u s t b o o s t

a l 1 h e r d a y s , w h i l e making sure t o submerge e v e r y i m p u l s e t h a t

made h e r a f u l l hurnan" (45) . L i k e Adaku i n The Joys o f

Motherhood, Debbie l e a r n s from h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s .

While Emecheta a g a i n i n f e r s t h a t t h e wrongs w e r e i n i t i a t e d w i t h

c o l o n i z a t i o n , Debbie r e c o g n i z e s t h e e r r o r s i n p e r p e t u a t i n g t h e

e x p l o i t a t i o n l e a r n t from t h e B r i t i s h .

Her father was t r y i n g h a r d t o c o n v i n c e

himself that t h e c o r r u p t side g a i n s he made

were h i s e n t i t l e m e n t . She knew how h i s

a r g u m e n t would run: "The E u r o p e a n s who

r u l e d u s f o r s o l o n g d i d i t , now i t l s Our

turn ...." Her m o t h e r l i k e w i s e s a w n o t h i n g

wrong i n t h e p r o v e r b i a l t e n per cent from

a l 1 c o n t r a c t s s i g n e d by t h e f e d e r a l
 goverment going into the Ogedemgbes'

private purse. (49)

Debbie has the mental strength to end the pexpetuating cycles of

exploitation and submission and estâblish a new role for herself

and the Nigerian wornan, one in which the woman is in charge of

her own life. Her challenge to male dominance and power is

symbolized by her carrying her own gun. Debbie recognises that

the mind of her Nigerian friend and politician, Aboshi, is still

wcolonized" as is that of her white boyfriend, Alan; and she

understands the need for Africans, in Ngugi wa Thiongtofswords,

to "decolonize the mind" themselves. Only by consciously so

doing will the assumed memories of dominance and subservience be

halted, and no longer be subconsciously passed from one

generation to the next. Only by taking control in their own way

will they halt the rape of their own land,

While Emecheta's optimism is expressed through the character

of Debbie, the placing of an assertive woman in the forefront of

war, traditionally a male preserve, is not always convincinq.

She carries her own gun, negotiates with politicians, and along

with other women, survives horrific war atrocities. The soldiers

grant her no respect or authority: Debbie is used, raped and

humiliated. While she demonstrates the ability and understanding

CO withstand such pressures, once again, Emecheta's heroine is an

exceptional wornan. Emecheta is asking much of her own sex--to

risk so much to readjust the traditional and inherited

delineation of gender roles. Furthemore, Debbie's brutal

treatment by soldiers clearly demonstrates that women cannot

establish a new identity for themselves on their own, but only

when men can recognize them as they wish to be perceived.

Furthermore, while Debbie rejects Western culture along with

Nigerian cultural traditions, she remains the product of a

distinctly privileged Western education. However, whether Debbie

succeeds as a convincing character or not, Emecheta certainly

succeeds in her role as a historian, recording with chilling
realism the remembered atrocities perpetuated towards women
during the Bia£ran war. And, although she reiterates her

rejection of traditional attitudes to women, in Destination

Biafra, she demonstrates the potential power a writer has to

create new realities by depicting new possibilities, depicting a

new role for women of the future.
 Endnotes

1
For f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n on Emecheta's use of t h e

s l a v e r y a n a l o g y , r e f e r t o t h i s work ( 1 0 2 ) .
7
&

The Igbo t r a d i t i o n may w e l l b e t t e r p r e p a r e women f o r

change. When a woman m a r r i e s , s h e moves t o h e r h u s b a n d ' s home,

and l i v e s w i t h h i s f a m i l y , a move t h a t must demand a c e r t a i n

arnount o f flexibility a n d a d a p t a t i o n . The man t r a d i t i o n a l l y

remains i n h i s home town.

3
I n hex l a t e r work, Double Yoke, Emecheta g i v e s a

s y m p a t h e t i c d e p i c t i o n o f t h e N i g e r i a n male t r a p p e d i n h i s

cultural attitudes.
4
I n h e r i n t e r v i e w w i t h James, Buchi Emecheta speaks

w i t h vehemence a b o u t t h e " c r a z y w women s t i c k i n g t o t h e i r mourning

t r a d i t i o n s ( I n T h e i r Voices 3 6 ) .
5
T h i s t a l e is repeated i n The J o y s of Motherhood ( 2 3 ) .
6
Arna A t a Aidoo w r i t e s i n "For Whom T h i n g s Did Not

Change1', "When a b l a c k man i s w i t h h i s w i f e who cooks and c h o r e s

for him, he is a man. When he is w i t h w h i t e f o l k s f o r whom he

cooks and c h o r e s , h e is a woman" (No Sweetness Here 1 7 ) .

 CHAPTER THREE

WERE, TLALI AND HEAD WNEGOTIATE

CULTURAL LOCATIONS

I n D e s t i n a t i o n Biafra, Emecheta depicts t h e n e e d f o r women

t o i g n o r e c u l t u r a l d i c t a t e s r e g a r d i n g a woman's s t a t u s . Debbiet s

c h a l l e n g e i s t o f u l f i l h e r own ambitions i n t h e face o f male

prejudice. Kenyan w r i t e r , Miriam Were, o f f e r s a d i f f e r e n t

s o l u t i o n t o t h e problems o f male c h a u v i n i s m . She a r g u e s ,

i n d i r e c t l y , t h a t s i n c e Kenyan s o c i e t y is male d o m i n a t e d , change

can o n l y be e f f e c t i v e i f e n d o r s e d by t h e rnalemL

Were's n o v e l s are s i m p l e t a l e s which o f f e r e x e m p l a r y codes

of b e h a v i o u r f o r young p e o p l e t o emulate. Because she writes f o r

young a d u l t s , h e r message i s c l e a r l y s t a t e d , a t t i m e s somewhat

- s i m p l i s t i c and d i d a c t i c . However, h e r n o v e l s m e r i t a t t e n t i o n

because she r e a s s e s s e s h e r p a s t w i t h n e i t h e r t h e s t r o n g

c o n d e m a t i o n of c u l t u r a l ways, as v o i c e d b y Emecheta, n o r t h e

a n t a g o n i s m t o w a r d s Western c u l t u r e , a s v o i c e d by h e r c o m p a t r i o t s ,

Waciuma, Ogot, and Njau. She i n d i c a t e s a need t o m o d e r a t e and

r e a d j u s t a t t i t u d e s , rather t h a n c u l t u r a l customs, s o a s t o

embrace e q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y f o r b o t h sexes. Moreover, s h e

p o s t u l a t e s t h e need f o r young men t o i n i t i a t e s u c h m o d e r a t i o n a n d

r e a d jus tment .

I n o r d e r t o d e p i c t a n improved f u t u r e , Were, i n The High

School G e n t (1972), r e f e r s t o p a s t communal mernories i n t h e form

o f p r e c o n c e i v e d i d e a s handed down t h r o u g h t h e community,

a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s women, rnarriage a n d e d u c a t i o n . Namunyu and h i s

p e e r s e x h i b i t s t e r e o t y p e d a s s e s s m e n t s of women, attitudes which

t h e i r experience a t school helps r e a d j u s t . Were q u e s t i o n s t h e

unequa1 a f t e r - e f f e c t s of s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s by r e l a t i n g how

p r e g n a n t s c h o o l g i r l s cease t h e i r e d u c a t i o n t o mother t h e i r

c h i l d r e n , w h i l e t h e young boys c o n t i n u e t h e i r s t u d i e s

u n a f f e c t e d . - As a r e s u l t , s e r i o u s minded girls, s u c h as S a r a h ,

b e l i e v e t h e y must r e m a i n s i n g l e i n o r d e r t o p u r s u e a career.

Were f u r t h e r m o r e q u e s t i o n s t h e m a l e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s wornen i n

non-traditional careers. Women t e a c h e r s a r e n o t welcorned by t h e

b o y s . "They d i d n o t want a woman t o t e a c h them B i o l o g y , Women

were n o t good a t s c i e n c e " ( 1 0 2 ) . The b o y s ' r e a c t i o n t o a new

M a t h e m a t i c s t e a c h e r is y e t more n e g a t i v e : n o t o n l y i s s h e a

woman, b u t a " n a t i v e " (110). "It's a l 1 r i g h t i f they a r e

E u r o p e a n s " p r o t e s t e d one boy. "We don't m a r r y E u r o p e a n s . But t o

be t a u g h t b y a woman l i k e t h e o n e 1 w i l l m a r r y " (110). "Foreign

women a r e n o t q u i t e women anyway!" a n o t h e r s t u d e n t cornments

(109). The y o u t h s e x p r e s s t h e i r f e e l i n g s a b o u t "women ' g e t t i n g

o u t o f p l a c e ' and t h i n k i n g t h e y were ' a s i m p o r t a n t a s o r more

i m p o r t a n t t h a n men'" (112). The h e a d m a s t e r , i n many i n s t a n c e s

the a u t h o r i a l spokesman, e x p l a i n s i n a somewhat p e d a g o g i c a l

manner :

You keep s a y i n g "We a r e men, women can't do

t h i s and women c a n ' t d o t h a t " .... This i s

a c e n t u r y i n which it is b r a i n s t h a t c o u n t .

And anyone can get anywhere i f t h e y have

the brains .... But m u s c l e w i l l g e t you

nowhere. You w i l l be t h e l o r r y d r i v e r s
 while the women become Company directors.

(104 1

The reader may q-iestion the headmaster's heirarchical assessrnent

of careers, but his exhortation to strive for educational

equality is clear. By giving these opinions ta the headmaster to

articulate, Were relies on the traditionally accepted authority

of a white male to give weight to her words. However, the black

teacher also appears to take up the authorial comment when she

States :
1 think it's a waste of time to argue that

we are equal or unequal to white people. 1

find it equally a waste of time to talk of

whether women and men are equal. What 1

think is essential is that everyone be

encouraged to explore their possibilities

to the lirnit. (112)

While the teacher refuses to be drawn into a debate about

equality of the sexes or of races, Were nevertheless challenges

the time-honoured, communal thinking.

The story of Namunyu's brother's inability to pay his bride

price i n f o r m s the reader of marriage customs, and while Were

clearly condones the bride price tradition, she places prime

importance on the strength of the relationship. She indirectly

applauds the young couple who have the love and cornitment to
wait with restraint until they can make the bride price payment,

rather than break off their relationship. Namunyu and Sarah are

in a parallel predicament; while Namunyu's friend, Ginendwa,

 m a r r i e s s t r a i g h t a f t e r s c h o o l , Namunyu a n d S a r a h p u r s u e t h e i r

s t u d i e s a n d p l a c e t h e i r f a i t h i n one a n o t h e r . Namunyu's

h e a d m a s t e r a n d S a r a h ' s h e a d m i s t r e s s d o marry; t h e h e a d m i s t r e s s

t h e r e b y d i f f u s e s S a r a h ' s b e l i e f t h a t she must r e m a i n s i n g l e t o

a c h i e v e h e r goals, and t h e headmaster d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t a man may

, be h a p p i l y married t o someone of e q u a l s t a t u s . The two t h u s

o f f e r a n example o f m u t u a l r e s p e c t , b o t h w i t h f u l f i l l i n g c a r e e r s .

The m e n t o r s Were o f f e r s h e r two young p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e ,

however, b o t h w h i t e , p o s s i b l y r e f l e c t i n g t h e a u t h o r ' s a c c e p t a n c e

of W e s t e r n e r s , and, l i k e many of h e r p e e r s , Were a d v o c a t e s t h e

a d v a n t a g e s of a W e s t e r n e d u c a t i o n . S h e r e c o r d s Namunyu's

f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h E u r o p e a n l i t e r a t u r e , a n d h i s e n j o y m e n t of t h e

different genres. H e d e l i g h t s i n b o o k s by Dickens, Dumas, Hope,

Paton, a n d Douglas a n d i s f a s c i n a t e d by t h e l i v e s o f R o o s e v e l t

a n d Helen K e l l e r . So t a k e n i s he w i t h The P r i s o n e r o f Zenda t h a t

ne c a l l s S a r a h h i s " F l a v i a " . Ginendwa l i k e w i s e , captivated by

Blackrnoore ' s Lorna Doone, s e a r c h e s f o r h i s "Lorna" - That F l a v i a

and Lorna a n d t h e i r s e t t i n g s a r e a f a r c r y £rom t h e r e a l i t i e s o f

Kenya i s n o t a n i s s u e . When t h e boys a s k why t h e y d o n o t r e a d

books w r i t t e n by A f r i c a n s , t h e h e a d m a s t e r p o i n t s o u t t h a t Cry t h e

Beloved C o u n t r y i s w r i t t e n by a South A f r i c a n . H e does not

comment t h a t Alan P a t o n i s w h i t e . Through t h e p e r s o n o f Miss

L i v i n g s t o n e , who a s s u m e s a European name, and wears h e r h a i r l o n g

and s t r a i g h t , Were a p p e a r s t o c h a l l e n g e a s t r o n g A f r i c a n

identity. While s u c h a c h a l l e n g e may be somewhat p u z z l i n g , a t no

time d o e s Were d i r e c t l y r e j e c t p a s t c u s t o m s i n t h e manner of

Emecheta. The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Miss L i v i n g s t o n e ' s name i s

u n c l e a r , a l t h o u g h p o s s i b l y Were d e p i c t s h e r as a n e x p l o r e r o f a

new f r o n t i e r , t h a t o f n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l careers f o r b l a c k women.

Were seems t o p o s t u l a t e t h e need t o a c c e p t a b l e n d i n g of

cultures. S a r a h ' s surname i s George a n d Namunyu's f i r s t name i s

Washington; hence, t h e p r o s p e c t i v e u n i o n o f t h e two s u g g e s t s a n

o p t i r n i s t i c f u t u r e f o r Kenya, a s t r o n g l e a d e r s h i p , b u t one w i t h a

d e c i d e d l y Western i n f l u e n c e . However that l e a d e r s h i p c l e a r l y

involves a p a r t n e r s h i p of both s e x e s .

I n The High S c h o o l Gent, Were s k i l f u l l y u s e s t h e male

p r o t a g o n i s t ' s p o i n t o f view t o v o i c e h e r most f e m i n i s t a r g u m e n t s

and seems t o p l a c e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e equality o f s e x e s

o n t h e s h o u l d e r s o f t h e young men. She d o e s n o t show, a s d o

Nwapa a n d Emecheta, how women may p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r own

v i c t i m i z a t i o n , o £ t e n judging one a n o t h e r h a r s h l y f o r n o t

conforming w i t h t h e i r expected r o l e s . I n c o n t r a s t , Were's

a t t i t u d e t o t h e p a s t is p o s i t i v e , a d v o c a t i n g t h a t young Kenyans

s h o u l d make t h e most o f w h a t e v e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h e y have, b u i l d

o n t h o s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s , and d e v e l o p t h e i r own d e s t i n i e s . When

Namunyx r e t u r n s from s c h o o l i n t h e h o l i d a y s , h e p a r t i c i p a t e s i n

t h e wrestling t r a d i t i o n s of h i s p e o p l e . H e w o r k s hard t o build

up h i s s t r e n g t h and e x p e r i e n c e , b u t h i s c o u r a g e a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n

win hirn respect from h i s p e e r s . When Namunyu's m o t h e r d i e s ,

Namunyu d o e s n o t n e g l e c t h i s family d u t i e s . A t t h e same t i m e ,

Were d e p i c t s Namunyu's growing c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s h e l e a r n s t h r o u g h

h i s e d a c a t i o n of t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f famous women, and t h r o u g h

h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h S a r a h , t h a t women a r e o f e q u a l

i n t e l l i g e n c e , demanding e q u a l respect. Were t h u s o f f e r s a happy,

somewhat i d e a l i s t i c b l e n d of c u l t u r e s , and her n o v e l reads a s a

moral c o d e for young p e o p l e , g u i d i n g them t o rnake the b e s t o f

b o t h t h e i r v a r i o u s cultural i n f l u e n c e s and d e v e l o p t h e m s e l v e s to

t h e f u l l , i n d i v i d u a l men and wornen a l i k e .

Were's l a t e r n o v e l , Your Heart i s my A l t a r i s a d e l i g h t f u l

r o m a n t i c t a l e , a l s o s u i t a b l e for young p e o p l e . Chirnolo, the

young p r o t a g o n i s t , t h r o u g h whose e y e s t h e t a l e i s t o l d , falls i n

l o v e w i t h a young Moslem man from a n "enemy" c l a n . The n o v e l

u n f o l d s w i t h e c h o e s of t h e Romeo a n d J u l i e t p l o t , f o r when

C h i m o l o ' s C h r i s t i a n f a t h e r i s k i l l e d b y t h e enemy c l a n , h e r

b r o t h e r t a k e s h i s own l i f e . C l e a r l y , Were a b h o r s t h e r e l i g i o u s

and c l a n p r e j u d i c e s , a n d t h r o u g h Chimolo a n d A l u v i s i a o f f e r s an

o p t i m i s t i c , harmonious a l t e r n a t i v e - Chimolo s t r u g g l e s t o

i d e n t i f y h e r s e l f a s a C h r i s t i a n girl i n a t r a d i t i o n a l community.

Her g r o w i n g a t t a c h m e n t t o Moslem A l u v i s i a p r o v i d e s t h e p l o t , and

t h e n o v e l c l o s e s w i t h a s e n s e o f hope a s t o t h e f u t u r e o f t h e

young c o u p l e . They o f f e r a h i g h standard o f b e h a v i o u r f o r o t h e r s

t o e m u l a t e f o r t h e y show, by t h e i r l o v e f o r e a c h o t h e r , that

r e l i g i o u s and e t h n i c h a t r e d need n o t be p a s s e d from one

g e n e r a t i o n t o a n o t h e r a n d t h a t no c h i l d i s o b l i g e d t o i n h e r i t h i s

p a r e n t s ' o r c l a n ' s pre j u d i c e s . A l u s i v i a , l i k e Namunyu, is

a n o t h e r mode1 of young manhood; s e n s i t i v e t o Chimolo, he

a p p r e c i a t e s h e r t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g s , and r e s p e c t s h e r o p i n i o n s .

F o r t h i s r u r a l t a l e , Were d r a w s more h e a v i l y on h e r cultural

memory a s embodied i n custom t h a n s h e does i n The Hiqh S c h o o l

Gent; s h e examines t h e b l e n d s o f t r a d i t i o n a l and Western c u s t o m s ,

t r a d i t i o n a l f a i t h s a n d o t h e r r e l i g i o n s , and s h e once more

advocates non-traditional c a r e e r s f o r women p r o m o t i n g t h e

a d v a n t a g e s o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n f o r b o t h sexes. Chimolo h o p e d s h e

would s t a y a t s c h o o l u n t i l t h e end o f p r i m a r y s c h o o l , "but there

was t o o much t a l k t h e s e d a y s about g i r l s w a s t i n g t i m e i n s c h o o l "

and s h e i s g r a t e f u l t o A l u v i s i a f o r r e a l i z i n g t h a t s h e i s n o t

" s t u p i d " s i m ~ l yb e c a u s e s h e h a s l i t t l e e d u c a t i o n ( 1 6 , 2 7 ) .

Ligami a n d Limwenyi, who do r e c e i v e f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n , f a 1 1 i n t o

c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e c h i e f who o p p o s e s women h a v i n g c a r e e r s a n d

young men f o l l o w i n g n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l occupations. Ambitious f o r

h e r f u t u r e , Limwenyi claims, "1 d o n ' t i n t e n d t o g e t m a r r i e d f o r a

long t i m e .... I w a n t t o p r o v e t h e c h i e f wrong f o r n o t a l l o w i n g

us g i r l s t o t r a i n f o r a c a r e e r . We'll t e a c h him t o u n d e r s t a n d

t h a t t h e r e a r e more t h i n g s t o l i f e than home-making" (25) ,

C h i m o l o l s p a r e n t s a r e s t a u n c h C h r i s t i a n s , and, i n t h i s

respect, t h e n o v e l p r o v i d e s an i n t e r e s t i n g c o n t r a s t with

Waciuma's Daughter o f Mumbi. U n l i k e Waciuma, who s e l d o m v o i c e s

h e r i n n e r f e e l i n g s a b o u t C h r i s t i a n i t y , and n e v e r q u e s t i o n s h e r

parents' f a i t h , Chimolo e x p r e s s e s t h e i n n e r s t r u g g l e s a n d d o u b t s

of a young woman c o p i n g w i t h t h e d i v e r g e n t p u l l s of h e r

t r a d i t i o n a l background and h e r C h r i s t i a n u p b r i n g i n g ,

d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t t h e p u l l o f t r a d i t i o n a l l i f e s t y l e s c a n n o t be

swept away i n a s i n g l e g e n e r a t i o n . Because Chimolo b e l o n g s t o a

community t h a t r e t a i n s i t s c u l t u r a l ways, s h e f e e l s r n a r g i n a l i z e d

by h e r d i f f e r e n t f a i t h . She S t a t e s , "We had grown up s t r a n g e r s

i n Our l a n d , a l w a y s t r y i n g t o f i g u r e o u t how a C h r i s t i a n s h o u l d

a c t b u t never q u i t e sure. The g i r l s from t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

v i l l a g e s seemed t o know s o much more t h a n w e d i d " ( 8 6 ) . She i s

c o n f u s e d by t h e C h r i s t i a n a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s s e x u a l i t y , for to talk

t o b o y s , s h e h a s b e e n t o l d , i s l u s t , and s h e wonders "how t h e s e

p o t e n t i a l e v i l s i n t h e form o f boys were s u p p o s e d t o t u r n i n t o

r e s p e c t e d husbandst' ( 8 6 ) . N a t u r a l l y drawn t o t h e c u l t u r e of h e r

a n c e s t r a l p a s t , Chimolo f e e l s g u i l t f o r a b a n d o n i n g her customs,

and when she g o e s t o v i s i t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s o o t h s a y e r , her

C h r i s t i a n f a i t h deserts h e r . "1 began t o a d d r e s s t h e a n c e s t r a l

s p i r i t s a s k i n g t h e m f o r p a r d o n on b e h a l f o f t h o s e o f u s who have

d e s e r t e d them by t a k i n g on o t h e r r e l i g i o n s " (62). When t h i n k i n g

a b o u t d e a t h , s h e claims:

1 b e g a n t o r e a l i z e how h a r d i t was t o get

into t h e Christian paradise .... being a

p a r a d i s e of s t r a n g e r s , they could e a s i l y

s h u t you o u t w i t h o u t t o o much r e m o r s e , 1

felt. A t t h a t moment 1 c a s t my l o t w i t h

the ancestors. 1 c o u l d n o t i m a g i n e them

s h u t t i n g m e out .... They c o u l d n ' t p o s s i b l y

disown m e as a member of t h e c l a n . (64)

The s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g t o h e r own p e o p l e i s s o s t r o n g t h a t her

c l a n c u l t u r e r e m a i n s h e r means o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n : s h e s i m p l y

cannot deny, o r be d e n i e d , h e r own o r i g i n s . L i g a m i a n d Limwenyi

a r e more a d v e r s e l y d i s a d v a n t a g e d by t h e s t r i c t u r e s o f t h e i r

f a i t h ; t h e y are t a r g e t s f o r r i d i c u l e and t o n n e n t b y t h e o t h e r

young p e o p l e . The two get c a u g h t up i n a n a t t e m p t o f t h e Moslems

and C h r i s t i a n s t o e r a d i c a t e a n c e s t r a l w o r s h i p , a n d a r e ,

unknowingly, t r a i t o r s t o t h e i r own c l a n , c a u s i n g o f d e a t h of

t h e i r c h i e f and a l s o , most t r a g i c a l l y , t h e i r own f a t h e r .

 Were u s e s C h i m o l o ' s f a m i l y as a synecdochal symbol; t h e

r i f t s t h e y e n C o u n t e r due t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f modern ideas r e f l e c t

what i s h a p p e n i n g i n t h e community a t large, and t h e i r f i n a l

d e s t r u c t i o n poses a salutary warning. However, Were appears t o

blame p r e j u d i c e a n d i n f l e x i b i l i t y a s t h e c a u s e o f t h e r i f t s ,

r a t h e r than t h e i n f l u e n c e s themselves. C h i m o l o ' s m o t h e r and

f a t h e r corne £rom a n t a g o n i s t i c c l a n s , a n d h e r p a t e r n a l a u n t h a s

n o t always b e e n welcome i n t h e i r home. Chimolors f a t h e r ' s

conversation with h i s d a u g h t e r t s father-in-law reflects differing

p o i n t s of v i e w .

"God i s m e r c i f u l , " F a t h e r s a i d t o Mukwana's f a t h e r -

i n - l a w when h e came t o v i s i t o u r home.

"Our a n c e s t o r s are k i n d t o u s , " h e s a i d .

"They wouldn't l e t us p e r i s h " .

" C h r i s t c e r t a i n l y works wonders i n r e s p o n s e t o Our

p r a y e r s , " Father continued.

"Our a n c e s t o r s a l w a y s bow t o o u r n e e d s , o n c e w e

remember them" . ( 99)

T h e i r c o n v e r s a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e s , i n a manner s u i t a b l e f o r young

p e o p l e t o f o l l o w , t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e two men t a l k on d i f f e r e n t

wave l e n g t h s , n e i t h e r one l i s t e n i n g t o t h e o t h e r , t h e i r

s e n t i m e n t s are s i m i l a r . Were s u g g e s t s a n open-minded a p p r o a c h t o

the influence of foreign cultures. The d a n g e r , s h e p o ç i t s , is

t h e p e o p l e ' s i n t o l e r a n c e t o and l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

difference, r a t h e r than t h e d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s themselves.

Were i n t r o d u c e s t h e r e a d e r t o t h e Kenyan c u l t u r e b y e x p o s i n g

Chimolo t o time-honoured c u s t o m s p r a c t i s e d from b i r t h t h r o u g h

puberty t o marriage. Were t h u s r e c o r d s customs and p r o v i d e s a

c e r t a i n amount o f s o c i o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n . However, a s w i t h -
The

High School Gent, s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n i s c a r e f u l l y b l e n d e d i n t o t h e

s t o r y and a l w a y s p l a y s i n t o t h e p l o t . Most o f t h e customs s h e

d e s c r i b e s p e r t a i n t o women, t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s a n d ways o f

behaviour. C h i m o l o ' s s i s t e r ' s g i v i n g b i r t h a f f o r d s Were t h e

o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p o s e Chimolo t o some c u l t u r a l c u s t o m s

surrounding c h i l d b i r t h . T h e baby i s announced b y u s i n g a

symbolic " s e c r e t l a n g u a g e " , "a r i n g i n f r o n t o f t h e d o o r - s t e p i f

i t ' s a g i r l and a panga i f i t ' s a boy" ( 4 2 ) .3 Chimolo l e a r n s o f

t h e custom p r a c t i s e d i f a woman l o s e s many b a b i e s ; when

e v e n t u a l l y t h e woman d o e s g i v e b i r t h t o a h e a l t h y c h i l d , o t h e r

women take t h e c h i l d a n d l e t t h e m o t h e r f i n d i t o n a p a t h . In

t h i s way t h e women i n t e r v e n e t h e f o r c e s which a r e r e s p o n s î b l e f o r

t h e womanrs r e p e a t e d l o s s . Were a l s o r e c o r d s d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c i n g

uncircumcised g i r l s . C h i m o l o ' s " g r e a t e s t r e g r e t s came i n t h e

c i r c w n c i s i o n s e a s o n when [ s h e ] rnissed a l 1 t h e j o y o u s c e r e m o n i e s

of t h o s e e n t e r i n g manhood" (87). She and h e r s i b l i n g s a r e d e n i e d

participation i n t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s . "To d a n c e was sin, and

t o watch d r u m - b e a t e r s was a n even w o r s e s i n " ( 8 7 ) . She f i n d s t h e

custom of s l e e p i n g w i t h boys a s p r a c t i s e d u n d e r t h e w a t c h f u l eye

of h e r grandmother s t r a n g e ; s h e d o e s n o t know what i s r e q u i r e d of

h e r , and t h e o t h e r young g i r l s mock h e r s e n s e o f a l a m .

Were a l s o e x p o s e s Chimolo t o t h e k i d n a p p i n g custom, a custom

which b e l i t t l e s Akunna i n Emecheta's The B r i d e P r i c e . Ligami

kidnaps a g i r l , b u t o n l y t o prove h i s m a n l i n e s s t o o t h e r s ; he i s

n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n m a r r y i n g t h e g i r l , b u t s h e i s shrewd enough t o
mark bis fatherfsprize bu11 with her blood and hence the f-11~
have to forfeit their beast. ' Chimolo' s elder sister, LiItkwenyi,

is also kidnapped, and she too rejects the custom. She did net

assume the role of wife but merely returned to her home. The

villagers are not happy to see her back without any discussions
as to a marriage settlernent, but Limwenyi has the strength to

ignore them. "No one is going to trick me, not even into

marriage" (83). Limwenyi suffers with admirable silence, and

Chimolo's father is deeply distressed by Ligamifs behaviour. By

presenting these cultural customs, particularly those pertaining

to women, Were records a difficult transitional period, and

demonstrates the advantages and disadvantages in both traditional

and Western ways. Unlike Emecheta, she does not appear to r e j e c t

these customs, b u t remains optimistic, offering as a solution,

mutual understanding, tolerance and respect at the individual

level.

In The Eighth W i f e , another short novel, Were examines the

issues of polygyny. The story opens with the male circumcision

ceremcnies of particular importance to the clan she depicts, for

the eldest living son of the chief, Shalimba, has corne of age.

The circumcision ceremony inducts young men into manhood.

However, subsequent infection is common, and Shalimba, although

succumbing to the knife in a manly fashion, subsequently battles

for his life. Although Were demonstrates the anxiety of the

mothers as their sons are removed from their care, and subjugated

to a process inherent with physical dangers, she does not

question the pxactice.

 According to custom, the parents of the newly initiated man
then select a daughter-in-law from another clan. When the aging
chief selects Kalimonje for Shalimba, he, himself, falls in love

with the young girl. Thus father and son both vie for the same

woman. Unaware that the chief is contemplating her as his eighth

wife, Kalimonje speaks to Shalimba of her dislike of polygyny.

She would prefer to rnarry a poor man, rather than the chief's
son, because a poor man would be unable to afford many wives,

She has experienced the suffering, fighting and jealousy within

such polygynous families. She notes the example of the rich, old

man in her clan who refuses to take on more than one wife as he
wishes to avoid the expense and conflict that inevitably arise,

and as a result his harmonious home is wealthy and happy.

Shalimba, however, puts forth arguments supporting polygyny,

arguments which Kalimonje appears to accept. Polygyny, Were

seems to postulate, may be supported if no children are

forthcoming £rom the first marriage, to e n s u r e that a man's seed
be fruitful. Were appears to suggest that, in certain

circurrstances only, polygyny might be condoned. She also seems

to adhere to the custom of attributing blame for an infertile

marxiage on the woman. Happily the young couple in her tale do

prevail over the chief, and do marry, much to the approval of the

clan elders.

Were's criticism is clearly focused on the chief, who

acquires younger and younger women to bolster h i s failing libido,

without any concern given to the feelings of his wives. He also

displays resentment towards his son, his future heir, a threat to

his dominance. The elders and the community at large disapprove

of the chief's behaviour. And again, through the character of

~halimba,Were depicts a young man capable of reassessing the

attitudes of his past. He is sensitive and careful in his

handling of Kalimonje. His arguments for polygyny are put

forward rationally and seem to imply that should he and Kalimcnje

have a fruitful marriage, he would have no need for more than one

wife. Through the contrasting portraits of Shalimba and his

father, Were posits the need for the young male to change his

attitude rather than his custorns. He needs to listen to women

with understanding, and treat them with the respect they deserve.

Were's works clearly place faith in the younger generation,

and her solutions, albeit somewhat idealistic, are appropriate

goals for young people. With more education, she seems to

believe, they w i l l slough off inherited prejudices. Through

mutual understanding and greater awareness they will reinforce

Fanon's theory that the individual should not allow him or

herself to be "mired in what the past has determinedw, and

through her acceptance of foreign influences, s h e supports the

benefits of a broader perspective leading to greater tolerance

and understanding of the other ( 2 3 0 - 2 3 1 ) .

South African, Miriam Tlali's memories of her past

experiences lead her, in her novel Amandla (1980), also to place

hope for the future in the younger generation, particularly young

men, However, in her earlier work, Muriel at Metropolitan
(1975), she focuses on the political conditions of a city woman,

Muriel, who has to devise her own means of coping with her
circuiiistances in Jcrk~nesburg,for she finds no solutions offered
her through the lives of those with whom she works.' In her
later work, Amandla, she no longer advocates a personal,
individual response to the black South Africans' circumstances,

but a collective response and it is in this later work that she

demonstrates the abilities of the younger generation to forge a
new future, one which includes sexual equality.
Like Were, Tlali rejects neither Western nor traditional
influences; in the time and place in which her novels are set,
tribalism is al1 but lost. Muriel at Metropolitan and Amandla
both focus on conditions of city people who face challenges
different £rom those in rural areas. In her works, her short
scories included, she explores the plight of blacks living in
poverty, yet surrounded by affluence, She records their
struggles to survive while maintaining their own sense of worth,
with a focus on the lives of women in particular.

Muriel at Metropolitan records the daily trials and

happenings at the Metropolitan Radio and Furniture Store in
Johannesburg. The novel recounts conversations, debates and
small episodes that take place at the store, while Muriel, the

protagonist, works there. Tlali writes the novel in the first

person, frorn Muriel's point of view. The Metropolitan Radio

Store is a microcosm of the larger metropolitan Johannesburg, in

which people of al1 South African cultures, races and linguistic

backgrounds work a n d i n t e r a c t t o g e t h e r i n t h e b u s i n e s s w o r l d .

~ u r i e lh e l p s w i t h c l e r i c a l d u t i e s working s i d e by side w i t h h e r

white Jewish boss, M r . B l o c h , h i s s i s t e r a n d nephew, a n d o t h e r

w h i t e women b o t h E n g l i s h a n d A f r i k a a n s s p e a k i n g . A l s o working

for Mr. B l o c h a r e b l a c k a n d w h i t e m a l e m e c h a n i c s , black and

c o l o u r e d d r i v e r s and o f f i c e h e l p e r s . The s y s t e m b y which t h e

s t o r e o p e r a t e s m i r r o r s t h a t of t h e l a r g e r S o u t h A f r i c a n w o r l d .

Customerst c a r d s a r e fi-led according t o r a c e and township, r a t h e r

t h a n a l p h a b e t i c a l l y , a n d a "Whites Only" c o a t h a n g e r h o l d s o n l y

t h e j a c k e t s of t h e w h i t e s (162). W h i l e t h e " b o s s " , M r . Bloch, is

w h i t e , m o s t o f t h e e m p l o y e e s a r e b l a c k men. Muriel, a s a w e l l

e d u c a t e d b l a c k woman, i s t h e m i n o r i t y ; t h e o n l y o t h e r women

workers a r e w h i t e . T h u s , b y remembering h e r e x p e r i e n c e , T l a l i

r e c o r d s t h e p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e s c o n f r o n t i n g b l a c k women a s t h e y

work w i t h i n an a p a r t h e i d s y s t e m . Although confined t o a narrow

tirne f r a m e , t h e work i s a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l ; T l a l i draws on h e r own

p e r s o n a 1 p a s t f o r s h e worked a s a c l e r k - t y p i s t i n a Johannesburg

s h o p , s e l l i n g e l e c t r i c a l wares. Like M u r i e l , T l a l i a t t e n d e d

university a n d b u s i n e s s s c h o o l . I n Muriel a t Metropolitan, by

d e p i c t i n g t h e d a i l y h a p p e n i n g s a t work, t h e customary r e p a r t e e

between t h e d i f f e r e n t s e x u a l a n d r a c i a l g r o u p s , and t h e v a r i o u s

problems t h e y e n c o u n t e r , T l a l i p r o v i d e s a p o r t r a y a l o f c i t y a n d

p o l i t i c a l l i f e i n S o u t h A f r i c a and u n d e r a p a r t h e i d i n t h e 1960s.

A l t h o u g h t h e t o n e o f t h e n o v e l i s subdued a n d c o n t r o l l e d ,

t h e work i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , p r o t e s t w r i t i n g , for i n i t T l a l i

s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d e l i n e a t e s t h e a t r o c i t i e s of t h e a p a r t h e i d ç y s t e m ,

a n d t h r o u g h t h e words o f M u r i e l , c a l l s f o r a n a t i o n a l s t r i k e .
Shortly after publication, the South frica an ~ensorship~ o a r d

deemed the work necessitated banning.6 Because the community of

workers at the store reflects society at large, ~ l a l iis able to

voice the opinions of al1 racial, sexual and cultural groups, as

they debate political issues, both past and present. But, most

of all, through the mouth-piece of Muriel, Tlali is able to voice

her own view of the political situation, particularly as it

pertains to black women. While Muriel, through various

discussions, criticizes many aspects of the apartheid system, she

also quietfy assesses her own compromised situation, as a black

woman working for the aggrandizement of the whites who condone

and perpetuate the very policies she denounces.

The novel is filled with dialogue, and can be compared with

Nwapa's Efuru and Idu. However, whereas Nwapa records the gossip

of the women of the Igbo tribe, the constant chatter, repartee

and debate of Tlali's novel provide a babble of voices reflecting

the multi-lingual, multi-racial and multi-cultural world in which

Muriel works, each voice using distinctive linguistic idioms,

Phrases of Afrikaans, Fanagalo, Zulu, Tswana, even Yiddish

proliferate the novel. At times Tlali provides translations, at

others sne does not. By recording accurately the language used,

Tlali posits language as a predominant theme. The racial

hierarchy of apartheid is reinforced by the terminology employer

and employee use to address one another, Al1 employees address

Mr. Bloch as "baas", the Afrikaans word for "boss"; he is the

authority to whom they must pay due respect. Employees and

customers alike strive to speak and write English, the language
of commerce and power. Mr. Bloch and the white women, on the

other hand, have a repertoire of demeaning names with which to

address the black employees and customers, names such as "boys",

"nannies", "muntus", "baboons", and "soggensv'. ' The blacks tend

to address one another with their traditional greeting, "brother"
or "sister"; they address the white women formally, as Mrs.
Green, Mrs. Singham, Mrs. Kuhn and Mrs. Stein. Muriel, however,
is simply known and addressed by her first name, by blacks and
whi tes a l i ke -

The store is a noisy place, full of voices shouting,

yelling, insulting, demanding and ordering. Requests and demands
lack any pleasantries or courtesies. No one says "please" or
"thank you", no one apologizes for a wrongful accusation. The
women constantly tell Adam to "shut up", "tula wena" [a Zulu term
meaning "shut up"] or "voetsak" [an Afrikaans term meaning "get
lost"]. They give Johannes endless orders to get this or that
for them. Afrikaans-speaking Mrs. Stein's voice was "normally

harsh, offensive and guttural when speaking to Africans";

however, when speaking to a European custorner on the telephone
her voice "transformed into smooth beautiful tones" (175).
Without considering the blacks' linguistic challenges, the white
women repeatedly refer to them as "stupid". The errors and
faulty expression in the customers' letters are the source of

amusement, and al1 laugh delightedly at the strange names of some

of their customers. However, the joke proves to be on the white

women, when Miriarn explains that some of the strnage names are,
in fact, acronyms for powerful, political movements (130).
 M u r i e l , p r o f i c i e n t i n the A f r i c a n v e r n a c u l a r a s w e l l a s

A f r i k a a n s a n d E n g l i s h , i s a tremendous asset t o M r . Bloch. As

s h e u n d e r s t a n d s a l 1 r a c i a l g r o u p s , s h e i n t e r p r e t s for M r . Bloch

and d e a l s w i t h c u s t o m e r s h e r s e l f , e i t h e r i n p e r s o n o r on t h e

telephone. A t one p o i n t s h e even e x p l a i n s t o him t h e A f r i k a a n s

pronunciation. However, more i m p o r t a n t l y , s i n c e c u l t u r a l memory

1s e&&ded i n language, M u r i e l ' s l i n g u i s t i c a b i l i t y g i v e s h e r an

i n n e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c u l t u r e s a n d "world v i e w s " t r a n s m i t t e d

through t h o s e l a n g ~ a g e s . ~She can communicate w i t h and r e l a t e t o

a l 1 language groups; consequently, i n t i m e s h e i s a c c e p t e d and

r e s p e c t e d by a l l . Although M r . B l o c h ' s b u s i n e s s p r o f i t s from

b l a c k p a t r o n a g e , he s p e a k s o n l y a f e w p h r a s e s i n F a n a g a l o . He

t h e r e f o r e d e p e n d s on b l a c k employees, s u c h a s Adam and M u r i e l , t o

conduct h i s n e g o t i a t i o n s . However, M u r i e l , i n h e l p i n g h e r

employer, i s c o g n i z a n t t h a t s h e is h e l p i n g a s y s t e m t h a t u s e s t h e

l a b o u r of t h e b l a c k , i n t h i s c a s e h e r own, f o r t h e m a t e r i a l

advancement o f t h e w h i t e .

M u r i e l ' s l i n g u i s t i c a b i l i t y c o n t r a s t s with t h e l i n g u i s t i c

i n a b i l i t y of t h e o t h e r w h i t e women. Mrs. Singham is E n g l i s h

speaking, b u t l i k e M r s . Kuhn, " c o u l d s p e a k a l m o s t no A f r i k a a n s a t

all" ( 1 7 4 ) . Mrs. Green a n d Lennie, t h e w h i t e m e c h a n i c , a r e b o t h

A f r i k a a n s s p e a k i n g , b u t s p e a k v i r t u a l l y no E n g l i s h . A s Lambert

mentions, " t h e r e a r e g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e E n g l i s h -

speaking and Afrikaans-speaking g r o u p s t h a n t h e r e a r e among t h e

A f r i c a n t r i b e s " and M u r i e l remarks t h a t " t h e w h i t e s o f t h e

Republic of South A f r i c a can be s o s e g r e g a t e d i n t h e i m a g i n a r y

oneness" ( 4 4 - 4 5 , 174). Being l i m i t e d t o o n l y t h e i r mother

tongues l i m i t s t h e i r exposure t o o t h e r c u l t u r e s . As a r e s u l t

t h e i r p e r s p e c t i v e is o f n e c e s s i t y narrow, p l a c i n g t h e m s e l v e s i n

t h e c e n t r e , w h i l e m a r g i n a l i z i n g t h o s e whom they n e i t h e r know n o r

understand. The w h i t e women s p e a k t o t h e A f r i c a n s i n whatever

language i s t h e i r own, e i t h e r E n g l i s h o f A f r i k a a n s , a n d e x p e c t t o

be u n d e r s t o o d . The o n u s is, t h e r e f o r e , o n t h e b l a c k s t o

understand t h e white languages. As a result M u r i e l may be

j u s t i f i e d i n h e r c l a i r n t h a t " T h e w h i t e s , w i t h a few e x c e p t i o n s ,

a r e ignorant of the Africans' l i v i n g conditions. The A f r i c a n s

... know more a b o u t t h e w h i t e s b e c a u s e t h e y have t o know them i n

order t o survive . . ,." (11). I r o n i c a l l y , i n a c u l t u r a l sense,

t h e w h i t e s are m a x g i n a l i z e d by t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c i n a b i l i t i e s , a n d

Muriel i s t h e one i n t h e c e n t r e .

T l a l i r e c o r d s t h e most p r a c t i c a l a n d a l s o most d i s t a s t e f u l

problems c o n f r o n t i n g t h e b l a c k woman i n t h e work p l a c e . The

f i r s t is t h e problem o f washroom f a c i l i t i e s . Mr. Bloch does n o t

have a s e p a r a t e t o i l e t f o r a b l a c k woman: l e g a l l y s h e i s n o t

a l l o w e d t o s h a r e t h a t provided f o r t h e w h i t e women a t work.

Secondly, a l t h o u g h s h e works w i t h t h e w h i t e women, b e c a u s e of her

r a c e , s h e r e q u i r e s a s e g r e g a t e d a r e a i n which t o s i t - Initially

s h e s i t s "below t h e s t a i r s ...- s e p a r a t e d from t h e rest of t h e

w h i t e s t a f f by t h e c a b i n e t s a n d s t e e l mesh wires", b u t t h i s i s

awkward b e c a u s e s h e h a s t o u s e t h e sarne l a r g e heavy l e d g e r s a s

t h e o t h e r women, and t h e s e c a n n o t be e a s i l y moved ( 1 5 ) . Because

of t h e c o s t of conforming w i t h t h e law, t h e s e p r a c t i c a l problems

d e t e r e m p l o y e r s from employing q u a l i f i e d b l a c k women. Jews, l i k e

Mr. Bloch, "bribe these Boers, not to charge thern" when they

break the law (189).

Mr. Bloch, certainly, is prepared to defy the law, for
employing Muriel is very much to his advantage. She is competent

and capable, in many ways more efficient than her white

colleagues, and most importantly he can employ her at a far lower

salary than he could a white woman. However, the white women in

the office are antagonistic towards ber, clearly threatened by

her: her very presence creates tension. They resent her being

given anything but menial work. Although Mr. Bloch is happy to

overlook the legal requirements for his economic gain, the white

female employees are anxious to maintain their artificially

created superior status, and they cornplain when Muriel, on Adam's

instructions, uses t h e i r toilet facility.

Tlali's authorial voice and Muriel's thoughts and

perspective a t tirne= tend t o merge. Early in the novel the

authorial voice explains the basic political background in broad,

generalized terms.

In the white world t h e r e are two main

groups with two distinct cultures - the
English-speaking and the Afrikaans-speaking

groups. The former are aloof, indifferent,

in favour of white domination. The

Afrikaans-speaking groups are composed of

whites of Dutch origin, who p r e f e r to be

called Afrikaners .... They are despised by

the English-speaking groups as well as by

 the other non-whites and Africans. In

fact, al1 non-white groups look upon them

as proud, arrogant, aggressive,

ethnocentric and hypocritical. (11)

possibly Tlali was conscious of writing for a foreign audience

which requires what Dan Jacobson has termed "that wearisome

explaining of local conditions" (162). The danger of providing

background information is that it is not always properly

integrated with the rest of the novel; it may clog the narrative

line or be didactic in tone. However, Tlali is c1earl.y anxious

to inform the reader of the underlying racial issues of that

time, from her point of view- Again and again Muriel muses on

the dependence of the entire economy on the backs of the blacks,

her point of view often merging with the authorial commentary.

The sunny Republic of South Africa - the

white man's paradise - would never tick

without them- To their labour the Republic

owes her phenomenal industrial development

. . . . a sit-down strike throughout the

country lasting only two w e e k s would bring

the whole paradise crumbling down! (111)

However, Tlali does manage to incorporate most skilfully a

great deal of background information through the dialogue between

workers and customers- In this way, she provides an historical

account of the political issues of the time, and the

stereotypical attitudes to such issues. Mrs. Stein, the "typical

Boer" with an "insatiable lust for persecuting blâcks", speaks

f o r t h e A f r i k a a n s r i g h t , t h e government p o l i c y (38) . Mrs.

Singham s p e a k s for t h e s l i g h t l y more m o d e r a t e English s p e a k i n g

groups . Muriel, of c o u r s e , is spokesperson f o r t h e undertrodden

"voiceless" black. T l a l i s t r u c t u r e s M u r i e l ' s memory t o s e l e c t

t h o s e i s s u e s t h a t c o n c e r n h e r s p e c i f i c a l l y , a n d t h e u s e and abuse

of b l a c k women b y t h e w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n i s a theme t h r o u g h o u t t h e

novel. A g r i p p a ' s c a u s t i c comment t o a b l a c k c u s t o m e r c a r r y i n g a

w h i t e c h i l d o n h e r b a c k draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r o l e b l a c k women

play i n r a i s i n g white c h i l d r e n , a s w e l l a s Agrippa's a t t i t u d e

t o w a r d s t h i s custom. While many b l a c k women work a s n a n n i e s ,

t h e i r own c h i l d r e n s u f f e r n e g l e c t i n t h e t o w n s h i p s . A customer

c o m p l a i n s t h a t t h e blacks " a r e t h e o n e s who do e v e r y t h i n g f o r

chem [ t h e w h i t e s ] . Even i n t h e i r homes 3 cook f o r them a n d

clean .... I t is o u r women f o l k who n u r s e t h e i r b a b i e s and g i v e

them f o o d " (90). T h r o u g h Lennie a n d Ben, t h e reader l e a r n s of

t h e h y p o c r i s y of t h e I m m o r a l i t y A c t f o r b i d d i n g i n t e r r a c i a l

intercourse. Lennie, a w h i t e mechanic, openly s u p p o r t s

a p a r t h e i d , but s e c r e t l y e n j o y s i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h b l a c k

women. Ben, a b l a c k employee, r u n s a t h r i v i n g b u s i n e s s l e a s i n g

o u t h i s room t o couples o f mixed r a c e , at t i m e s f i n d i n g b l a c k

women f o r w h i t e men. The r e a d e r l e a r n s t h e s i t u a t i o n of t h e

m i g r a n t l a b o u r e r , who cornes t o J o h a n n e s b u r g u s u a l l y t o work o n

t h e mines, l e a v i n g a w i f e a n d c h i l d r e n i n t h e homeland t o f e n d

f o r t h e m s e l v e s , d e p e n d e n t upon any money t h e y may be s e n t . Once

i n J o h a n n e s b u r g t h e w o r k e r i n e v i t a b f y f i n d s a n o t h e r "common l a w "

w i f e a n d h a s a n o t h e r f a m i l y , which s t r e t c h e s h i s meagre r e s o u r c e s

yet f u r t h e r . T l a l i t h u s r e f e r s t o t h e e f f e c t of m a l e migration
on b l a c k women; i t o f t e n i n e v i t a b l y l e a d s t o t h e breakdown o f t h e
10
family o r household u n i t -

A c o n v e r s a t i o n between Adam and t h e b l a c k d r i v e r s r e c o r d s

t h e a t t i t u d e s towards t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e s e homelands-

Lambert c o m e n t s , "The Nats d i v i d e us up i n t o p i e c e s f o r t h e i r

own g a i n " ( 45) ." But M r s . S t e i n d e f e n d s t h e government p o l i c y of

t h e B a n t u s t a n s as p r o v i d i n g t h e Blacks w i t h t h e i r own a r e a ,

"where t h e y can Say what t h e y l i k e and h a v e t h e i r own c a b i n e t

ministers." However, M u r i e l ' s r e t o r t v o i c e s t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f

the times. "But t h e r e a r e more A f r i c a n s i n t h e c i t i e s , l i v i n g

with t h e whites, than there a r e i n t h e Bantustans .... These

B a n t u s t a n s a r e t h e p o o r e s t a r e a s t h a t a b l e - b o d i e d men a n d women

a r e o n l y happy t o f l e e from" ( 1 7 8 - 7 9 ) . M r s . S t e i n a n d M r s . Kuhn

make many c o m e n t s a b o u t g r a n t i n g b l a c k i n d e p e n d e n c e . While M r s .

S t e i n r e c o u n t s t h e l a v i s h s p e n d i n g o f one o f t h e b l a c k l e a d e r s i n

a newly i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e , M r s . Kuhn c i t e s t h e Congo as a n

example of t h e i n a b i l i t y of blacks t o g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s ( 2 9 ) .

Again M u r i e l e n t e r s i n t o t h e d e b a t e . She a s k s :

Why d i d t h e B e l g i a n s keep a l 1 d o o r s c l o s e d

t o t h e Africans f o r a l 1 those years u n t i l

t h e e l e v e n t h hour? Why d i d t h e y n o t train

t h e Africans i n l o c a l administration first

and g i v e them r e s p o n s i b l e p o s i t i o n s

g r a d u a l l y , why d i d t h e y wait u n t i l t h e

p e o p l e demanded r i g h t s ? ( 1 8 0 )

The r e c o r d e d c h i t - c h a t a l s o i n f o r m s t h e r e a d e r of many of t h e

most d e s p i s e d a p a r t h e i d p o l i c i e s , such a s t h e h a t e d pass l a w s and

the necessity of carrying the pass book at al1 times. Even when

making a purchase at the store, a black customer must produce his

or her passbook for verification. Muriel, herself, often checks

the customers' legitimacy by examining their passbooks, a task

which gives her a feeling of discornfort.

The women discuss at length the absurdities of coloux

classification in relation to Chris Barnard's first epic heart

transplant. English-speaking Mrs. Singham comrnents, "They put a

Coloured's heart into a white man. How can they do that when

they believe in apartheid?" She concludes that "The whole thing

is ridiculous .... It just goes to show that al1 people are the

same" (176-77). Afrikaans-speaking Mrs. Stein argues for the

extreme right: the heart is "merely a muscle. It merely pumps

blood" she claims (177). When Mrs. Kuhn voices concern that

"South Africals enemies will howl" with scorn, Mrs. Stein defends

South Africa, offering a popular white attitude of that tirne.

"The critics overseas are ill-informed about the true situation-

They only receive false information. South Africa is a most

peaceful country. People are free to go where they like, and say

what they feel" (177).

In describing the comings and goings in the store, Tlali

depicts most successfully the daily patience required of the

blacks. Always considered inferior, secondaxy to the white

population, the blacks are treated with no respect, either for

their time or persons. Constantly the blacks are kept waiting,

employees waiting for their pay packets, customers "'waiting for

the master' as patiently as only an A f r i c a n can wait" (43).

"European c u s t o m e r s n e v e r s t o o d i n a queue. As a rule, t h e y were

s e r v e d i m m e d i a t e l y t h e y e n t e r e d the shop and n o t w i t h o t h e r ,

black customers" (113). While c u s t o m e r s wait, t h e white women,

M r s . Stein i n particular, make s c a t h i n g comments a b o u t b l a c k

employees and c u s t o m e r s a l i k e . "You s e e " , M r s . S t e i n c l a i m s ,

" t h e y do n o t t h i n k l i k e u s " , and s h e a n d M r B l o c h r e p e a t e d l y

r e f e r t o them a s " s t u p i d " (99, 163) .

The whole Western c o n c e p t o f c u s t o m e r service i s t h u s

r e v e r s e d when t h e c l i e n t e l e i s p r i m a r i l y t h e b l a c k p o p u l a t i o n .

I r o n i c a l l y , t h e c u s t o m e r r e g a r d s t h e s h o p k e e p e r as " t h e M a s t e r "

o r "Baas", w h i l e t h e c u s t o m e r i s i n s u l t e d , a b u s e d , and k e p t

waiting on t h e s t o r e ownerts convenience. D e s p i t e t h e i r humble

means, however, t h e b l a c k s c o n s t i t u t e a huge p o t e n t i a l economic

market, t a p p e d by w h i t e businessmen. "There w a s keen c o r n p e t i t i o n

t o e x p l o i t t h e A f r i c a n b u y i n g power whose p o t e n t i a l t h e

r n a n u f a c t u r e r s a s w e l l a s t h e r e t a i l e r s were w e l l aware o f and

c o u l d n o t i g n o r e f f (116). Mrs. Kuhn, w h i l e h a p p i l y e x p l o i t i n g h e r

i m p o v e r i s h e d c u s t o m e r s , comments c y n i c a l l y , " T h e y ' l l g i v e you

anything f o r a radio. T h e y would r a t h e r go h u n g r y and n a k e d . As

l o n g as t h e y have a n F.M. t h e y a r e s a t i s f i e d " (31-32). Her

comments d e m o n s t r a t e t h e t e n s i o n c a u s e d by t h e huge gap between

t h e haves a n d h a v e - n o t s . Surrounded by m a t e r i a l i s i t c l u x u r y , t h e

p o o r e r A f r i c a n is e a s i l y ternpted t o spend beyond h i s o r her

means. A t t i m e s a v e r y s m a l l c a s h d e p o s i t o r a trade i n i s a l 1

that Mr. Bloch r e q u i r e s . I r o n i c a l l y , "[slome are s o g r a t e f u l t o

t h e kind baas - who makes i t p o s s i b l e f o r e v e n t h e p o o r e s t t o own

something - t h a t t h e y n e v e r f a i l t o pay t h e monthly i n s t a l m e n t "

(37). Mr. Bloch e v e n p l a y s on the A f r i c a n s ' supernatural fears,

implying t h a t he c a n c o n t r o l t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e i r r a d i o s i f

t h e y do n o t p a y on t i m e . However, n o t a l 1 w h i t e p e o p l e a r e

c o m f o r t a b l e e x p l o i t i n g t h e b l a c k s f o r p r o f i t , and ~ l a l does
i

r e c o r d t h e c o n c e r n some w h i t e p e o p l e have about the h i r e p u r c h a s e

system ( i n s t a l l r n e n t p l a n s ) . S e l l i n g t o t h e b l a c k p o p u l a t i o n on

h i r e p u r c h a s e i s c l e a r l y n o t an a d m i r a b l e way t o make a l i v i n g ,

and M u r i e l h a s t o q u e s t i o n h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s u c h a p r a c t i c e .

That M r . B l o c h is J e w i s h p o s s i b l y r e f l e c t s T l a l i ' s own, o r

assumed, r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e , as she f a l l s i n t o s t e r e o t y p i n g o f

r o l e s , d e p i c t i n g him a s a money g r a b b i n g Jew."

The w o r l d T l a l i d e p i c t s i s a c i t y w o r l d and her black

characters a r e second a n d t h i r d g e n e r a t i o n J o h a n n e s b u r g d w e l l e r s .

While working i n t h e c i t y , t h e y commute d a i l y from Soweto, a c i t y

in itself. She i n f o r m s t h e r e a d e r :

The R e p u b l i c o f South A f r i c a i s a c o u n t r y

d i v i d e d i n t o two w o r l d s . The one, a w h i t e

world - r i c h , cornfortable, f o r a l 1

p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s o r g a n i z e d - a world i n

f e a r , armed t o t h e t e e t h . The o t h e r , a

b l a c k world; poor, p a t h e t i c a l l y n e g l e c t e d

and d i s o rg a ni z e d - v o i c e l e s s , oppressed,

r e s t l e s s , c o n f u s e d and unarmed - a world i n

t r a n s i t i o n , i r r e v o c a b l y weaned from al1

t r i b a l ties. ( I l , emphasis added)

W h i l e T l a l i d o e s n o t d i s t i n g u i s h the two main r a c i a l groups i n

terms of w e s t e r n and t r i b a l ways, she d o e s make b r i e f i n d i r e c t

r e f e r e n c e t o past customs. When Johannes complains of t h e w h i t e

women i n t h e s t o r e , he r e f e r s t o t h e A f r i c a n custom of p a y i n g a

m a r r i a g e dowry. The w h i t e women, he c l a i m s , "are a l 1 s o s p o i l t .

S i t on t h e i r b a c k s i d e s t h e whole day and cal1 J o h a n n e s , J o h a n n e s .

No wonder t h e i r husbands d o n ' t pay any l o b o l a f o r them. They're

worth n o t h i n g . Lazy" (26-27) .'' Muriel, by c o n t r a s t , is conf u s e d

when Johannes a s k s hex i f s h e would l i k e him t o get h e r a n y t h i n g

£rom t h e s h o p s . "1 was r e l u c t a n t t o s e n d him. How c o u l d I ? He

was a man and 1 was a woman. According t o o u r custom a woman

d o e s n o t send a man. We reserve a place, an e l e v a t e d place, for

Our men" ( 2 7 ) . D e s p i t e T l a l i ' s c l a h t h a t t h e A f r i c a n is "weaned

from a l 1 tribal t i e s " , J o h a n n e s ' s and M u r i e l ' s comments s u g g e s t a

r e s i d u e of t r i b a l t h i n k i n g a s r e g a r d s t h e s t a t u s o f women. The

woman, a c c o r d i n g t o Johannes, s t i l l s h o u l d b e judged a s a u s e f u l

comrnodity v a l u o d i n m a t e r i a l i s t i c terms, and M u r i e l i s i n a n

awkward p o s i t i o n working s i d e b y s i d e w i t h men, when t r a d i t i o n a l

t h i n k i n g p l a c e s t h e man i n a s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n . Not o n l y i s s h e

a t h r e a t t o t h e w h i t e women, b u t also p o s s i b l y t h e b l a c k men.

W i t h t h e b l a c k men c o n s t a n t l y made t o f e e l i n f e r i o r t o w h i t e s ,

men and women, t h e b l a c k woman i s c l e a r l y a t t h e b o t t o m of t h e

hierarchical ladder.

The d r i v e r s and Muriel d i s c u s s their t r a d i t i o n a l p a s t a n d

t h e d a y s when Shaka was t h e c h i e f of t h e Z u l u s . Simon and

Lambert were b o r n and b r e d i n Johannesburg, " c h i l d r e n o f h o u s e s

w i t h t h e numbers" (42). They know n o t h i n g o f t h e i r p a s t

traditions. Lambert a s k s :
 Who needs a chie£? If people want to h a v e

leaders or people who make regulations for

them, then the people must choose those

leaders. Besides, w e are detribalised.

Our fathers and our grandfathers had no

links with their chiefs. Most of them

don1t e v e n know where they came from. (44)

Again, Muriel appears to speak for t h e author.

As different tribes in the past we had a

few cultural differences, but these minor

distinctions are a thing of the past. They

may be put down on record and preserved,

stored away in the museums and archives so

that coming generations may read about them

and know them, but they now belong to an

age we shall n e v e r go back to, an age we

cannot go back to whether we like it or

not. (44)

Muriel's words acknowledge the impossiblity of retrieving the

past £rom the perspective of the present- The community at

Metropolitan is made up of disparate individuals from many tribal

origins, each one struggling in his or her own way to improve his

or her self-esteem. Yet strangely the community of the store

reflects a unique type of social relationship which perhaps only

existed under the structure of a system as iniquitous as

apartheid. Despite the appalling disparity between the races,

the at tintes open hostility, the arrogance of the white workers,

and t h e d e f i a n c e a n d d i s h o n e s t y o f t h e b l a c k s , t h e s t o r e

community does o f f e r a form o f bonding. There i s a s t r a n g e

a c c e p t a n c e of one a n o t h e r , p e r h a p s a i d e d b y T l a l i t s a b i l i t y t o

r e p r o d u c e t h e humorous r e p a r t e e i n which races o f S o u t h ~ f r i c a

a r e a b l e t o indulge. The a b i l i t y t o work and p e r h a p s more

i m p o r t a n t l y l a u g h t o g e t h e r i s p e r h a p s what w i l l pave the way f o r

t h e future. Mr. Bloch d e p i c t s a n e q u i v o c a l way of d e a l i n g w i t h

his employees a n d c u s t o m e r s . A t t i m e s h e is a hard-nosed, penny-

p i n c h i n g b u s i n e s s man; a t o t h e r s , he is humorous, and good-

n a t u r e d , happy t o g i v e money t o t h e odd b e g g a r , happy t o throw i n

a f r e e b a t t e r y h e r e and t h e r e , a n d o f t e n w i t h a ready j o k e . As

t i m e p a s s e s , M u r i e l i s c l e a r l y r e s p e c t e d a n d v a l u e d a t work, by

b l a c k and w h i t e c o l l e a g u e s a l i k e , and s h e r e a c h e s a g r e a t e r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h e r w h i t e c o l l e a g u e s , r e a l i z i n g t h a t t h e y "had

t h e same p r o b l e m s " . She comments:

We were al1 u n d e r t h e thumb o f a demanding

b o s s , who was u n y i e l d i n g i n many ways,

g i v i n g l i t t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o t h e fact

t h a t we had p r i v a c e l i v e s o f o u r own, homes

and d e p e n d a n t s t o l o o k a f t e r . . ..
The c o l o u r of o u r s k i n s d i d n o t come

i n t o i t - t h e r e w a s work t c bc U z x , and

t h e b o s s had e q u a l c o n f i d e n c e i n a l 1 of us.

When t h e r e was a n e r r o r i n the o f f i c e

r e c o r d s , he d i d n o t care what c o l o u r the

hand was t h a t made t h e e r r o r , o n l y whose

h a n d w r i t i n g it w a s . When a r a d i o o r motor
 w a s damaged i n t h e workshop, i t d i d n o t

m a t t e x i f t h e mechanic r e s p o n s i b l e w a s

w h i t e o r black. ( 1 6 3 )

M u r i e l a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t "These p e o p l e were n o t inhuman n o r were

t h e y d o w n r i g h t c r u e l , as 1 u s e d t o b r a n d them a l l . 1 had learned

t h a t t h e y c o u l d be k i n d a n d g e n t l e " (174). Y e t Muriel f e e l s t h e

n e e d t o l e a v e t h i s community, w h i c h s h e h a s l e a r n t t o u n d e r s t a n d ,

a n d which o f f e r s her some form of s e c u r i t y . In depicting the

l i v e s and h a b i t s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t employees, T f a l i i n d i r e c t l y

p r e s e n t s t h e r e a d e r w i t h t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s open t o M u r i e l a t t h a t

time. C l e a r l y , M u r i e l h a s no f e n a l e r o l e m o d e l . M r s . Stein

i r o n i c a l l y s p e a k s t h e t r u t h when s h e c l a i m s t h a t blacks d o n o t

c h i n k like w h i t e s . Each b l a c k man, however, r e p r e s e n t s a

d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e and p r e s e n t s a p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e

c o u r s e for h e r t o f o l l o w . The men a l s o d e p i c t t h e d i f f e r e n t ways

blacks coped with t h e a p a r t h e i d system i n t h e 1960s.

Adam a n d W i l l i a m No. 2 a c c e p t t h e s y s t e m . Adam, s u b s e r v i e n t

a n d s u b m i s s i v e , i s t h e " o n l y o n e M r . Bloch t r u s t e d , a l i t t l e ,

t h a i is" ( 1 9 ) . "The l o n g p a i n f u l y e a r s o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e

whites had d e v e l o p e d within him a h a r d p r o t e c t i v e c o r e of

i n d i f f e r e n c e t o a l 1 t h e i r constant abusive reprimands. H e was

d e a d i n s i d e " (106). One o f t h e b l a c k c u s t o m e r s a c c u s e s him

a n g r i l y o f b e i n g "one of t h e o l d p e o p l e who a r e s c a r e d of

Europeans", o f being "white" himself ( 1 4 1 ) . W i l l i a m No.2 wcirks

hard f o r h i s f a m i l y , a n d i n s i s t s upon m a i n t a i n i n g h i s h o n e s t y ,

b e l i e v i n g t h a t "you m u s t show t h e w h i t e man that h e c a n t r u s t

you" ( 4 8 ) . H e o p t i r n i s t i c a l l y b e l i e v e s t h a t by d o i n g h i s b e s t h e
will receive greater rewards- "The white man is the boss in this

land, -
he is the one holding the gun. You must listen to him" he

infoms Muriel (49). Ben sirnply exploits the system by making

money out of harbouring those breaking the lmmorality Act.

However, in so doing, he also exploits the women of his race-

Douglas, on the other hand, tries to outwit the system. He

outlines a plan whereby he and Muriel could work as a team

cheating Mr. Bloch: Muriel tactfully rejects his offer. He goes

ahead without her and ultimately loses his job. Though he

maintains he is happy to be free of working for Mr. Bloch, his

quality of life suffers. He does nothing but "sit and drink",

and Muriel senses that part of him would like to be back with the

Metropolitan community (143). Agrippa presents a di£ferent

alternative. Mr. Bloch puts up with his many inconsistencies,

his swindling and unreliabiiity, because Agrippa performs the

unpopular and dangerous task of repossessing merchandise from

Soweto homes. Agrippa is confident of his value to Mr. Bloch for

other drivers f e e l fearful for their safety and their

consciences, taking goods away from their own people. Like Adam,

Agrippa is "a dead thing", caring for nothing but money which he

squanders on drink (52). Thus, the black men at the Metropolitan

Radio Store, and by analogy in the city at large, offer no

dignified solution for M i r i a m . She, as a black woman, has to

find her own way of dealing with the systern and f o r g i n g her own

future.

Muriel's reasons for leaving the store appear to be

threefold. Firstly, she concludes that she cannot continue being

P a r t y t o t h e system, working i n a r o l e t h a t e x p l o i t s t h e b l a c k s ,

and condones and p e r p e t u a t e s t h e i r i n f e r i o r t r e a t m e n t . She f e e l s

l i k e "a t r a i t o r " h e l p i n g c u s t o m e r s p u r c h a s e g o o d s t h e y c a n n o t

a f f o r d , a n d l i k e a p o l i c e m a n i n s p e c t i n g t h e i r p a s s e s (100). A

c u s t o m e r ' s r e m a r k s , "You work n i c e l y h e r e , my sister. Like a

white person", e q u a t e h e r w i t h Adam and make h e r " f e e l l i k e

screaming" (91). Being " l o y a l t o t h e f i r m - . - .c r e a t e d a gnawing

f e e l i n g of g u i l t " w i t h i n h e r ( 1 1 7 ) . S e c o n d l y , Muriel's work

places her i n a vulnerable position- When s h e s e n d s o u t demand

n o t i c e s s h e w o r r i e s f o r her own s a f e t y . "1 d r e a d e d t o t h i n k what

would h a p p e n t o m e a n d my f a m i l y i n Soweto ( w h e r e t a k i n g l i f e

means n o t h i n g ) , i f i t were t o be known t h a t I w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

the l e t t e r s " (137) . Like Agrippa, she h e l p s t h e w h i t e s i n t h e

p r o c e s s of d e p o s s e s s i n g from t h e b l a c k s , a p r o c e s s w h i c h i s n o t

only dangerous b u t a l s o analogous t o c o l o n i z a t i o n . Thirdly,

working w i t h w h i t e women p l a c e s a i n v i s i b l e c e i l i n g a b o v e h e r .

B e c a u s e of h e r c o l o u r , s h e w i l l o n l y p r o g r e s s s o f a r . She S t a t e s

"1 would h a v e t o r e m a i n s t a t i c , junior, f o r t h e rest of rny

working l i f e , i r r e s p e c t i v e of my e x p e r i e n c e a n d my p r o f i c i e n c y " ,

a n d h e r m o t h e r ' s comrnents t h a t s h e i s w a s t i n g h e r e d u c a t i o n e c h o

i n h e r e a r s l i k e t h e v o i c e of h e r own c o n s c i e n c e ( 1 4 0 , 1 3 9 ) .

However, h e r new j o b o f f e r c o n f r o n t s t h e same o l d p r o b l e m s ,

p r o b l e m s w h i c h ML. Bloch managed t o o v e r l o o k , b u t which h e r new

e m p l o y e r , a s a new i m m i g r a n t t o t h e c o u n t r y , c a n n o t e v a d e , The

new e m p l o y e r has no s e p a r a t e t o i l e t f a c i l i t y f o r a b l a c k woman,

and no s e p a r a t e w o r k i n g a r e a . Muriel f i n d s h e r s e l f b a c k w h e r e

s h e b e g a n , o n l y now her v e r y l i v e l i h o o d i s i n j e o p a r d y . Unlike

h e r male c o l l e a g u e s , s h e c h o o s e s t o l i v e according t o h e r

conscience, m a i n t a i n i n g h e r d i g n i t y and h e r - s e l f r e s p e c t , as a n

h o n e s t , l a w f u l woman, b u t s h e f a c e s a f u t u r e f r a u g h t w i t h

insecurities. However, M u r i e l c l e a r l y r e f u s e s t o p l a y a p a r t i n

s u p p o r t i n g an economy which n o t o n l y r e l i e s on t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n

o f b l a c k s , but a l s o s t r e n g t h e n s a p a r t h e i d . By r e s i g n i n g , s h e i s

a b l e t o r e j e c t and c h a l l e n g e t h e c u l t u r a l a u t h o r i t y embedded i n

t h e i n i q u i t o u s a p a r t h e i d system. T l a l i t h u s v i v i d l y and

a c c u r a t e l y d e p i c t s t h e p r a c t i c a l and e t h i c a l problems c o n f r o n t i n g

t h e b l a c k woman e n t e r i n g t h e work f o r c e i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s . She

a l s o r e c o r d s t h e main p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s of t h o s e y e a r s , and t h e

d i f f e r i n g r a c i a l a t t i t u d e s t o them.

I n M u r i e l a t M e t r o p o l i t a n , much o f t h e s t o r e ' s p r o f i t i s

based on r e p o s s e s s i o n . I f a c u s t o m e r f a i l s t o m a k e payments h i s

white c r e d i t o r r e p o s s e s s e s . I n T l a l i ' s n e x t n o v e l , Amandla, t h e

r e p o s s e s s i o n theme i s r e v e r s e d . I t i s t h e young A f r i c a n s who

s t r i v e t o r e p o s s e s s f r o m t h e w h i t e s t h e c o u n t r y which, a s S i l a s

i n Muriel i n M e t r o p o l i t a n c l a i m s , was " b l a c k m a n ' s c o u n t r y " from

"Cape t o C a i r o " ( 1 6 9 ) . The s e e d s of p r o t e s t sown i n M u r i e l i n

M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e f u r t h e r and more f o r c i b l y d e v e l o p e d i n Amandla.

Based on t h e Soweto U p r i s i n g i n 1 9 7 6 , a n d e v e n t s t h a t f o l l o w e d ,

t h e novel r e c o r d s t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s of t h e b l a c k s i n t h e l a t e

seventies. I n t h i s novel, T l a l i i s again preoccupied with c i t y

d w e l l e r s , b u t t h i s t i m e t h e s e t t i n g is w i t h i n t h e a l 1 b l a c k

township o f Soweto, a n d t h e p r o t e s t v o i c e s a r e much more

s t r i d e n t , w i t h none o f t h e m i t i g a t i n g humour d e p l o y e d i n M u r i e l

a t Metropolitan.
 From a literary standpoint, Amandla possibly s u f f e r s from

being propaganda. The debates Tlali depicts incorporate much

past history as if forcibly to educate and inform the reader.

Signi£icantly, the title is in the African vernacular, "Amandla"

meaning "Power", and the cry "Amandla Ngawethu" meaning "Power is

O U ~ S " ,or "Power to the People" reverberates throughout the work.

The cry is usually associated with an accompanying raised

clenched fist, although Tlali does not mention this action.

While Muriel in Muriel at Metropolitan ultimately makes a

private, personal choice of total non-collaboration with the

dominant powers in the apartheid system, in Amandla, Tlali

advocates a public, collective, conscious goal of non-

collaboration as being the only way to effect change. Her novel
reads like a political cal1 to action. The title sets the tone
which is urgent and forceful, and not surprisingly the South

African Censorship Board banned the work six weeks after

publication.
Again, Tlali depicts many perspectives through conversation,

discussion and debate, and she successfully portrays the

conflicting attitudes among her own people. In this novel, Tlali

appears to voice her own opinions through three young male

leaders, Pholoso, Muntu, and Kifler. The men of the older

generation, as those depicted in Muriel at Metropolitan, offer no

workable solutions, but in Amandla Tlali suggests that the

idealistic and courageous young men and women offer hope for the

future. While she glories in the courage and achievement of the

youth who organize the uprisings, she depicts the role of the
women, a s mothers, wives and girlf r i e n d s , a s s u p p o r t i v e and l o n g

suffering, Such r o l e s , s h e d e m o n s t r a t e s , a r e as h e r o i c and as

courageous as t h o s e o f t h e young, b l a c k , p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s *

Although the novel is set in t h e a l 1 black township o f

Soweto, T l a l i d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e t o w n s h i p ' s m u l t i l i n g u a l c h a r a c t e r

by a g a i n r e f l e c t i n g t h e mixture o f t o n g u e s and c u l t u r e s - In the

opening p a s s a g e s , t h e young b l a c k h e r o , P h o l o s o , s p e a k s i n

A f r i k a a n s t o h i s f r i e n d Sipho, w h i l e on t h e cinema s c r e e n b e f o r e

them C e c i l B . de M i l l e speaks of t h e coming a t t r a c t i o n , The Ten

CornmancimentS .

The Soweto r i o t s of J u n e 16, 1976 were i n i t i a t e d i n p r o t e s t

a g a i n s t t h e e n f o r c e d u s e o f A f r i k a a n s a s t h e medium o f

i n s t r u c t i o n i n black schools. The s t u d e n t s b o y c o t t e d t h e i r

s c h o o l s a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y set them on f i r e . The l a n g u a g e issue is

t h u s the basis of t h e unrest, p i v o t a l t o t h e p r o t e s t and central

t o the novel. The s t u d e n t s a t t h e t i m e wished to be t a u g h t i n

E n g l i s h , a language t h e y r e c o g n i z e d a s o f g r e a t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l

a n d b u s i n e s s v a l u e , b u t T l a l i makes no d i r e c t mention of t h e i r

preferred choice. The s c h o o l b o a r d s had "been b a t t l i n g t o have

t h i s A f r i k a a n s removed f o r a g e s " ( 2 7 ) . T h e i r e f f o r t s were

f r u s t r a t e d , f o r s c h o o l b o a r d members who spoke a g a i n s t t h e

A f r i k a a n s medium o f i n s t r u c t i o n were f i r e d (25). Enforcing

A f r i k a a n s i n t h e s c h o o l s is i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e g o v e r m e n t ' s

f o r c i n g o f t h e i r c u l t u r e upon the b l a c k s , and T l a l i even r e f l e c t s

t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e i m p o s i t i o n of A f r i k a n e r c o u n t r y f o l k music.

"They f o r c e t o o much of t h i s " t i k k i e d r a a i " m u s i c down Our

e u s t a c h i a n tubestf a young B l a c k lawyer cornplains of t h e radio

( 1 3 7 ) . L5

T l a l i shows A f r i k a a n s t o be t h e l a n g u a g e o f dominance, t h e

l a n g u a g e o f t h e officiais, p o l i c e m e n , p r i s o n g u a r d s , t h o s e o f

a u t h o r i t y , who t r e a t t h e b l a c k s w i t h inhumane i n d i f f e r e n c e . The

teachers, therefore, o b j e c t t o using Afrikaans, f o r then

" t e a c h i n g would be l i k e a d r n i n i s t e r i n g p o i s o n " (22). They would

b e " v i r t u a l policemen" if t h e y e n t i c e d s t u d e n t s b a c k t o s c h o o l

(116). The new Bantu E d u c a t i o n s y s t e m t r i e d t o e x e r t p r e s s u r e on

the t e a c h e r s w i t h t h e l u r e o f l a r g e pay p a c k a g e s . Students,

however, d e c i d e t o e x e r t p r e s s u r e on t h e s e " p a i d s l a v e s " t o

resist t h e goverment ( 1 3 7 ) . I n r e c o r d i n g t h e s e e v e n t s , Tlali

n o t o n l y v o i c e s h e r own c o n t e m p t o f assuming t h e l a n g u a g e o f

o p p r e s s i o n , b u t a l s o c l a r i f i e s a n d j u s t i f i e s why s t u d e n t s

r e j e c t e d t h e i r e d u c a t i o n and b u r n t t h e i r s c h o o l s . Therefore, she

provides a n i m p o r t a n t A f r i c a n p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e p o l i t i c a l

turbulence i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s .

Throughout t h e t e x t o f Amandla, T l a l i i n s e r t s p h r a s e s o f

A f r i c a n , A f r i k a a n s and E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e s . E n g l i s h idioms

p r o l i f e r a t e t h e novel. A f r i k a a n s , s h e c l a i m s , had l o n g b e e n a

"bone o f c o n t e n t i o n " ( 2 4 ) . She r e f e r s t o a n empty, unwanted b u s

as a "white elephant" ( 1 2 1 ) . The b l a c k p e o p l e cornplain t h a t it

i s " e a s i e r f o r a came1 t o go t h r o u g h a n e e d l e ' s e y e " t h a n t o

become a d o c t o r o r a n e n g i n e e r 1 1 2 4 ) - However, when a n E n g l i s h

o f f i c i a l cornments on t h e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n r e f u s i n g e d u c a t i o n ,

s a y i n g , "You c a n t a k e a h o r s e t o t h e r i v e r , b u t you c a n v t m a k e

him d r i n k " , t h e p e o p l e l a u g h a s k i n g , "What are w e now, h o r s e s ? "

(119). T l a l i selects f r o m t h e l a n g u a g e s s h e u s e s , a n d t h e

c u l t u r e s embodied i n them, what t o c r i t i c i z e , what t o j e t t i s o n

a n d what t o r e t a i n o r a d o p t . When Zwane, o n e o f t h e o l d e r

generation, a d v o c a t e s working w i t h t h e s y s t e m i n o r d e r t o

u n d e m i n e i t , h e c l a i m s , " I t is t h e cow w h i c h t r i e s t o rise that

g e t s a s s i s t a n c e " , b u t K i l l e r q u e s t i o n s t h e wisdom o f t h i s

t r a d i t i o n a l p r o v e r b by a r g u i n g t h a t p e o p l e s h o u l d n o t e x p e c t any

assistance (253). The way t o o v e r t h r o w the s y s t e m , K i l l e r

i m p l i e s , i s t o b e f u l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r own u p r i s i n g . Only

then can t h e y c o n t r o l t h e i r own f u t u r e w i t h o u t compromise.

However, some A f r i c a n p r o v e r b s T l a l i c h o o s e s t o x e t a i n . When t h e

elders d a i m t h e " t h e wisdom o f a w h i s t l e cornes £rom t h e "young"

whistle", t h e r e l e v a n c e of t h e proverb t o t h e p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n s

of t h e s t u d e n t s i s i m p l i c i t (209) . Proverbs r e l a t i n g t o female

e x p e r i e n c e axe a l s o r e t a i n e d . The t r u t h of " a female c h i l d s a y s :

Mother i s no w i t c h , w h i l s t a s o n d o e s n o t s a y t h a t " i s v e r i f i e d

i n t h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c a r e t h e women of t h e f a m i l y g i v e Gramsy

i n her dying days ( 2 6 8 ) . And t h e p r o v e r b t h a t c l a i m s i t i s t h e

wornan who "grabs t h e s h a r p e n d o f t h e k n i f e " i s one T l a l i

e n d o r s e s a n d r e - u s e s i n l a t e r s h o r t s t o r i e s (2681'~

Thus, T l a l i c o n s c i o u s l y s e l e c t s what s h e c h o o s e s t o a d o p t

from t h e E u r o p e a n c u l t u r a l p a s t and remember £rom h e r own

c u l t u r a l past by r e a s s e s s i n g t h e v a l u e s a n d meanings i n c o r p o r a t e d

i n these d i c t a . Those t h ~ speak

t t o her personally, she retains.

F u r t h e r m o r e , s h e s u b s t a n t i a t e s w i t h i n t h e t e x t t h e v a l i d i t y of

t h e woman g r a b b i n g t h e " s h a r p end of t h e k n i f e " by h e r p o r t r a y a l

o f s t r o n g and s u f f e r i n g f e m a l e p r o t a g o n i s t s , s u c h a s Gramsy,
p h o l o s o ' s t r a d i t i o n a l l y - m i n d e d grandmother. Pholoso, h e r

f a v o r i t e g r a n d c h i l d , t a k e s " t h e p l a c e o f his f a t h e r i n [ h e r ]

hearttl (39) . H e a l s o takes t h e p l a c e of h i s f a t h e r i n h i s

p o l i t i c a l cornmitment, and as a r e s u l t , h e c a n n o t be w i t h Gramsy

when s h e d i e s . A t h e r d e a t h h e r daughter

t h o u g h t o f t h e s u f f e r i n g h e r m o t h e r had t o

endure. She t h o u g h t o f how h e r m o t h e r had

s t o o d by them and h e i p e d them when they had

b o r n e i l l e g i t i m a t e b a b i e s , when t h e men who

had p r e t e n d e d t o l o v e them had t u r n e d t h e i r

b a c k s o n them, and t h e i r m o t h e r h a d been

t h e i r s o l e support. (272-73)

B e f o r e h e r s t r o k e Gramsy o p e r a t e d a s m a l l c r e c h e , t a k i n g i n

c h i l d r e n o f working m o t h e r s . "Some of t h e s e p o o r g i r l s were

o r p h a n s a n d t h e b o y s j u s t dumped them" s h e r e l a t e s ( 4 1 ) . Even

a f t e r h e r s t r o k e Gramsy h e l p e d w i t h l o o k i n g a f t e r h e r

grandchildren, f i l l i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l mother r o l e . P h o l o s o is

s p e c i a l t o h e r , f o r he i s h e r o n l y l e g i t i m a t e g r a n d c h i l d , f o r t h e

f a m i l y p a i d l o b o l a for h i s m o t h e r . She c o n s u l t s a w i t c h d o c t o r

t o h e l p r e l e a s e P h o l o s o frorn p r i s o n , who c o m f o r t s h e r b y s a y i n g ,

"These a r e d i f f e r e n t , troubled t i m e s .... The gods o f o u r

f o r e f a t h e r s must i n d e e d be a n g r y w i t h ust1 ( 1 1 3 ) .

Gramsy i s c a r e d f o r by h e r two n i e c e s , Agnes a n d Nana.

Agnes' l i f e , too, is one of p a i n a n d s u f f e r i n g ; h e r h u s b a n d ,

J o s e p h , is a d r u n k a r d , who a b u s e s and b e a t s h e r , e v e n b e f o r e

t h e i r c h i l d r e n , f o r c i n g h e r t o move away. H e r problems are

c l e a r l y commonplace, f o r i n her s h o r t s t o r i e s , T l a l i r e i t e r a t e s
t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a woman h a s when l e a v i n g h e r husband.17 Nana

and h e r husband strive h a r d t o l i v e w e l l w i t h i n t h e s y s t e m .

A f t e r y e a r s o f s a v i n g t h e y buy t h e i r f i r s t car, o n l y t o have i t

s t o l e n , a n d t h e i r s o n i s k i l l e d b y t o t s i s [ r u f f i a n s ] on t h e t r a i n

commuting t o J o h a n n e s b u r g . T l a l i describes the callous

i n d i f f e r e n c e w i t h w h i c h t h e p o l i c e h a n d l e t h e s e i n c i d e n t s , and

t h e r e b y e x p l a i n s t h e young p e o p l e ' s h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d s t h e

m u n i c i p a l a u t h o r i t i e s and t h e p o l i c e . P h o l o s o ' s young g i r l

f r i e n d i s a l s o d e p i c t e d a s a woman who must s u f f e r . She must

s e l f l e s s l y r e l i n q u i s h al1 c l a i r n s t o P h o l o s o , whose c h i l d s h e

carries. Pholoso t e l l s h e r :

W e have t o do what i s b e s t f o r a l 1 o f u s ,

f o r the people. I n o u r p o s i t i o n we may n o t

think of ourselves only .... There a r e

c e r t a i n t h i n g s which a r e g r e a t e r than o u r

individual fancies, .... W e must n e v e r l e t

o u r s e l f i s h p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s drown t h e

greater aspirations i n l i f e . (72)

Pholoso c a l l s F e l l e n g t h e "mother o f A f r i c a " a n d a s s u c h s h e

must, l i k e Gramsy b e f o r e h e r , n u r t u r e t h e young o f t h e f u t u r e .

However, on a p e r s o n a l l e v e l , s h e may w e l l have t o be a s o l e

bread w i n n e r , and face many d i f f i c u l t i e s : s h e w i l l h a v e t o be

prepared t o "grab t h e s h a r p end o f t h e k n i f e " .

The y o u t h of Soweto a d v o c a t e change w i t h i n t h e i r own

community, change t h a t c o u l d improve t h e l i v e s of women s u c h a s

Agnes, Nana, and F e l l e n g . The o l d e r , less e d u c a t e d p e o p l e work

d i l i g e n t l y w i t h i n t h e s y s t e m , s t r i v i n g t o educate t h e i r young,
c l i n g i n g t o the hope t h a t b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n w i l l bring them b e t t e r

living standards. However, what t h e young l e a r n i s t h a t t h e

education they receive is sub-standard. They t h e r e f o r e r e j e c t

t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l t o g e t h e r , a d v o c a t i n g t h e need t o e d u c a t e

themselves. But, as K i l l e r i n h i s d e b a t e with t h e o l d e r T p o i n t s

o u t , " t h e e d u c a t i o n b r a n c h is n o t i s o l a t e d £rom the o t h e r s ...-

The t h i n g i s , t h e whole s t r u c t u r e , t h e s o c i e t y i t s e l f , is

u n a c c e p t a b l e a n d abnormal" (213) . T l a l i , l i k e Nwapa, r e c o r d s t h e

generation gap t h a t develops. However, i n S o u t h A f r i c a , r a t h e r

than e d u c a t i o n c a u s i n g t h e gap as i t d o e s i n Nwapa's Igbo w o r l d ,

i t i s t h e r e j e c t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n which d r i v e s t h e g e n e r a t i o n s

apart. F u r t h e m o r e , t h e young l e a d e r s oppose t h e i r p a r e n t s '

d e s i r e t o e f f e c t change p e a c e a b l y . They a r e c r i t i c a l of t h e i r

p a r e n t s ' p a s s i v e a c q u i e s c e n c e and i n a c t i o n ; t h e y d o n o t e x c u s e

Q r i n k i n g a s t h e e f f e c t o f o p p r e s s i o n , but a d v o c a t e that p e o p l e

s h o u l d assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e m s e l v e s , t a k e c o n t r o l o f

themselves and t h e i r f u t u r e . The g e n e r a t i o n gap i s i l l u s t r a t e d

when K i l l e r c r i t i c i z e s T ' s accommodating complacency a s a " t h r e a t

t o humanity", a c c u s i n g him o f p u t t i n g up w i t h a n y k i n d of " s u g a r -

coated poison" (221). When t h e s t u d e n t s o r g a n i z e t h e m s e l v e s t o

march i n p r o t e s t , o n l y t o b e gunned down m e r c i l e s s l y d u r i n g t h e

Soweto r i o t o f 1 9 7 6 , t h e i r p a r e n t s s h a k e t h e i r h e a d s i n a m i x t u r e

of a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e i r y o u t h f u l c o u r a g e , and a feax f o r t h e i r

safety.

While r e j e c t i n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s s a n c t i o n e d forma1

e d u c a t i o n , Pholoso e x h o r t s t h e p e o p l e t o "read, r e a d , read" and

s t r o n g l y a d v o c a t e s c h a n g e i n t h e cultural c h a u v i n i s t i c a t t i t u d e

t o w a r d s women :

Our women c a n a c c o m p l i s h a l o t if we l e t

them. L e t u s a v o i d t h e p i t f a l l s of t h e

p a s t when women were c o n f i n e d t o t h e

k i t c h e n , a n d were n e v e r a l l o w e d t o read.

L i t e r a t u r e i s f o r e v e r y b o d y , n o t f o r men

only, When you go t o t h e l i b r a r y , t a k e

your sister, your a u n t , even your mother

w i t h you .... e n c o u r a g e them. The wornen

were brainwashed i n t o b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e

o n l y t h i n g t h e y c o u l d do was t o w a i t on u s

a n d be a t Our d i s p o s a 1 . . - .L e t u s remember

t h a t i f you keep a p e r s o n down, you remain

down w i t h him. (89)

F s l l e n g i s d e p i c t e d a s a modern woman, shown r e a d i n g t h e

newspaper a n d a c t i n g a s a s p o k e p e r s o n f o r t h e young women who

s u p p o r t t h e F I Y O H p r o j e c t , Freedom i n Your Own Hand ( 5 , 7 0 , 256) .

I f t h e s y s t e r n i s t o c h a n g e , s o t o o must t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e

t o w a r d s women, which i s , i n i t s e l f , a f o m o f dominance a n d

suppression as oppressive as apartheid. However, l i k e Were,

T l a l i c l a i m s t h a t since t h e A f r i c a n culture i s m a l e - d o m i n a t e d ,

t h e males n e e d t o a l t e r t h e i r t h i n k i n g a s r e g a r d s women, t o make

change p o s s i b l e . When K i l l e r , Moremi a n d T d e b a t e the best

course of a c t i o n t o f r e e t h e m s e l v e s , a young woman comments: " I f

you c a n n o t corne t o a n a g r e e m e n t , ... why not l e a v e i t t o u s t h e

women?" Men l a u g h : "They c o n s i d e r e d h e r remark a mere j o k e "

(254). However, one of t h e young s t u d e n t s a s k s t h e woman f o r h e r

ideas. S t r o n g , free t h i n k i n g young men s u c h a s Pholoso and

K i l l e r o f f e r hope f o r t h e f u t u r e a s does Namunyu i n The High

S c h o o l Gent.

The youth of Soweto a r e , t h u s , t h e h e r o e s and h e r o i n e s o f

t h e novel, The n o v e l opens w i t h P h o l o s o a n d F e l l e n g i n t h e

cinema a b o u t t o watch t h e Ten Commandments. The n o v e l c l o s e s

w i t h K i l l e r expounding h i s Ten P o i n t Programme, f o r a j u s t a n d

free society. A s l e a d e r of t h e p e o p l e , and p o s s i b l y t h e i r

s a v i o u r , Pholoso assumes t h e name a n d r o l e o f Moses. Thus t h e

b i b l i c a l commandments and b i b l i c a l Moses a r e r e p l a c e d with

A f r i c a n ones. The d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s i n a s e n s e b l e n d , f o r w i t h

s e l e c t i v e memory, T l a l i d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l o r Western

s o c i a l memories rnay be r e f o c u s e d , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n e e d s of t h e

future. I n t h i s way, t r a d i t i o n is n o t t o t a l l y l o s t , merely

r e a s s e s s e d w i t h a new p e r s p e c t i v e . Then the g e n e r a t i o n g a p

between t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s and t h e r e b e l l i o u s y o u t h i s , p e r h a p s ,

not as g r e a t a s it seems. When Ramoine cornplains t h a t t h e o l d e r

g e n e r o t i o n must have angered t h e a n c e s t o r s t h e r e is t h e i m p l i c i t

s u g g e s t i o n t h a t h e may be c o r r e c t . T h e young p e o p l e c e r t a i n l y

f e e l t h a t t h e i r parents a r e too passive. When P h o l o s u ' s a u n t

b i d s h i m f a r e w e l l with t h e words, "May t h e s p i r i t s o f your

a n c e s t o r s go w i t h you and l e a d your way", h e r f a i t h i s n o t s o

v e r y d i f f e r e n t from Pholoso ' s d a i m :

I f w e e v e r f o r g e t t h o s e who l a i d down t h e i r

l i v e s , t h e n t h e y w i l l have done s o i n v a i n

.... The e v e n t s o f t h e p a s t year--1ike

 others in our centuries-old history of
struggle for liberation--should be and will

be a part of us for a long time to corne.

(283, 290)

In Muriel at Metropolitan, Muriel disregards her persona1

economic security when choosing a way of life that will not help
perpetuate a system that inflicts hardship on her own people. In

Arnandla, Pholoso insists that he and Felleng must think of the

needs of the black society at large, rather than their persona1

desires. Thus, Tlali's protagonists both appear to adher to the

African tradition of valuing the group over the individual.

However, with the depiction of her protagonists, Tlali clearly

also values strong, individual leaders.

In her novels, When Rain Clouds Gather (1969) and Maru

(1971), Bessie Head, like her compatriot, Tlali, also depicts

strong, individual male protagonists who challenge traditional

attitudes to women. Although al1 Head's works are set in

Botswana, her persona1 South African past inforrns her novels,

for, like Tlali, she examines the negative attitudes inherited

from living in an apartheid system. As a South African of mixed

blood, the daughter of a white woman and a black father, Bessie

Head herself embodies conflicting cultures, and in her writing

she voices the inequities of the past in a particularly persona1

way. Her persona1 history has a strong and direct bearing on her
work, a n d t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s i t a t e s r e c o u n t i n g . She d a i m s t h a t

"her m o t h e r was .... from a S c o t t i s h f a m i l y but b o r n i n S o u t h

Africa" .
The f a m i l y owned race h o r s e s .... My mother

..,. w a s a t t r a c t e d t o o n e o f t h e grooms who

looked a f t e r r a c e h o r s e s and i n t h a t way

she a c q u i r e d m e . A f t e r s h e h a d t a k e n up a n

a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h him h e r f a m i l y h a d h e r

committed. 1 was i n i t i a l l y h a n d e d o v e r t o

a white f m i l y f o r adoption, t h a t is, an

Afrikaner boer family. A f t e r a week 1 was

r e t u r n e d s i n c e they s a i d t h e baby appeared

t o be b l a c k and t h e y c o u l d n o t a c c e p t a

baby l i k e t h i s . (Marquard 4 9 )

She w a s t h e n g i v e n t o a c o l o u r e d f o s t e x p a r e n t , l a t e r deemed

u n f i t t o l o o k a f t e r h e r , whereupon s h e was p l a c e d i n a n A n g l i c a n

m i s s i o n orphanage i n Durban. There she completed a h i g h school

diploma and took a t e a c h e r ' s t r a i n i n g c o u r s e .

Head was r e p u t e d l y born i n t h e i n s a n e asylum, whexe h e r

mother committed s u i c i d e when Head was b a r e l y one y e a r o l d .

Although f a l l i n g u n d e r t h e South A f r i c a n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f

" c o l o u r e d " , s h e d i d n o t speak A f r i k a a n s , t h e c u s t o m a r y m o t h e r

tongue for c o l o u r e d s , s o she t h u s f e l t a l i e n a t e d from a l l t h r e e

o f t h e c l a s s i f i e d c o l o u r groups, w h i t e , b l a c k a n d c ~ l o u r e d . ~ 'She

was f u r t h e r m a r g i n a l i z e d n o t o n l y by b e i n g a woman, but a l s o b y

c a r r y i n g t h e f e a r a n d s t i g m a o f p o t e n t i a l h e r e d i t a r y insanity.

I n 1 9 6 3 , a f t e r a s h o r t unhappy m a r r i a g e a n d t h e b i r t h o f h e r o n e
s o n , s h e removed h e r s e l f t o Botswana where she l i v e d f o r many

years a s a stateless person. T h e r e s h e worked as a p r i m a r y

s c h o o l t e a c h e r and a s a g a r d e n e r i n a v i l l a g e c o - o p e r a t i v e . In

1 9 6 9 s h e s u i f e r e d a n e r v o u s breakdown, p o s s i b l y c o n g e n i t a l l y

induced. A t one p o i n t s h e i s s a i d t o have a c c u s e d "Sir S e r e t s e

Khama o f r i t u a l c a n n i b a l i s m and i n c e s t " , a n a c c u s a t i o n she p o s t e d

o u t s i d e a p o s t o f f i c e ( A Woman A l o n e x i ) . T h e r e a f t e r s h e was

taken i n t o p s y c h i a t r i c custody .

Head d r a w s on h e r p e r s o n a 1 p a s t i n a l 1 o f h e r n o v e l s . Her

dilemma a s a S o u t h A f r i c a n c o l o u r e d woman a c c o u n t s f o r t h e

intense s e n s e of i s o l a t i o n not found i n o t h e r a u t h o r s . Not o n l y

i s s h e u n c l a s s i f i a b l e i n r a c i a l terms, b u t s h e i s s t a t e l e s s i n

Botswana, u p r o o t e d fxom her m a t e r n a 1 p l a c e , a s u p r e r n e l y a l i e n a t e d

individual. H e r novels, themselves, defy f a l l i n g i n t o t h e

c a t e g o r i e s o f o t h e r s a n d s h e i s u n a b l e t o w r i t e £rom a s i t u a t i o n

of b e l o n g i n g i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n e i t h e r r a c i a l s o c i e t y . Nor i s s h e

a b l e t o s h a r e the c o r n f o r t Emecheta seerns t o find i n h e r a d o p t e d

Western c u l t u r e . Rather than i d e n t i f y i n g w i t h t h e problems of

t h e w o r l d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f o n e c o l o u x g r o u p , Head e x a m i n e s

the s h o r t c o m i n g s o f b o t h g r o u p s . As a S o u t h A f r i c a n c o l o u r e d ,

s h e i s t h e a r c h e t y p a l o u t s i d e r , a n d a s s u c h i s t h e f i r s t non-

w h i t e S o u t h A f r i c a n woman w r i t i n g i n E n g l i s h t o d e a l w i t h r a c i a l

identity.

H e r t h r e e n o v e l s , When Rain C l o u d s G a t h e r (1969), Maru

( I W l ) , a n d A Q u e s t i o n o f Power ( 1 9 7 3 ) a l 1 d e a l w i t h t h e j o u r n e y

towards s e l f d e t e r m i n a t i o n , e a c h s u c c e s s i v e n o v e l becoming more

and more a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l . The more a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l t h e work,

the more internalized her writing becomes, as she takes her

reader into the inner confusion of her characters' minds- As

Arthur Ravenscroft comments :

Each novel both strikes out anew, and also

reshoulders the same burden. It is as if

one were obscuring a process that involves

simultaneously progression, introgression

and circumgression, but also .... organic

growth in both her art and her central

concerns . ( 175)

The main protagonists in these three novels, like Head herself,

feel they have no choice but physically to escape their past and

to subject thernselves voluntarily to a self-imposed exile, which

brings with it inevitable loneliness, isolation and alienation.

The political exiles she depicts cannot, however, jettison their

past emotionally, but must learn to recognize and accept it.

Ezekiel Mphahlele, a fellow South African exile, explains the

inability to cast away the South African reality. He claims that

the "tyranny of the place" he left still courts him; it gives him

"the base to write, the very reason to write . .. . It still

remains his place" (81). Head's protagonists are similarly

shaped internally by the tyranny of their past experiences, and

their futures are directed by it.

While Head's works share the familiar South African themes

of political and spiritual exile, racial hatred, corrupt power

and oppression, they differ from other writersl works because she

provides such an intensely internalized, individualized and

subjective perspective. The reader experiences first hand the

inner struggles of self-identification. As a result her works

may be at times confusing and/or harrowing for the reader, but

the very intensity of the experiences depicted suggests an

authenticity that can only result £rom the author's first hand
experience. Because of this more emotional and persona1
perspective, some critics judge her as non-political .l 4 However,
Head refuses, as does fellow South African, Nadine Gordimer, to
separate the political from the per~onal.'~ An examination of her
novels will show that the inner and outer worlds are inseparable,
for the one informs the other. As Paul Connerton explains, "the
world of the percipient, defined in t e m s of temporal experience,
is an organised body of expectations based on recoliections" ( 1 ) .
The settings and plots of al1 three of Head's novels bear
striking parallels with her own circumstances. The main
protagonist, Makhaya, in When Rain Clouds Gather, like Head,
herself, is a voluntary exile from South Africa, who flees the
-# 1
iniquitous apartheid system.-* Although Makhaya is male, and is
not of mixed race, he is the embodiment of another duality; he is

both tribal, being a Z u l u , and urban, coming £rom the inner city.
Head claims, "Makhaya was a blending of me and of what 1 needed
from someone else. I needed in a sense to be very African and

Makhaya is". In A Woman Alone she writes of Makhaya as follows:

The central character ... is almost

insipid, a guileless, simple-hearted

simpleton. But that is a true reflection

of the black South African personality. We

 are an oppressed people who have been
stripped bare of every hurnan right. We do

not know what it is like to have Our

ambitions aroused, nor do we see liberation

on an immediate horizon. (68)

These words of Head's recall her cynical authorial comment in

When Rain Clouds Gather, for she describes the emotional and

spiritual conditioning Makhaya received in South Africa. Makhaya

comes to Botswana believing that he does not care for people or

anything else (10).

He hated the white man in a strange way,
It was not anything subtle or sly or mean,

but a powerful accumulation of years and

years and centuries and centuries of

silence. It was as though, in al1 this

silence, black men had not lived nor

allowed themselves an expression of
feeling. But they had watched their lives

overrun and everything taken away. They

were like Frankenstein monsters, only

animated by the white man for his own
needs. Otherwise they had no life apart

from being servants and slaves. (133)

Makhaya symbolizes the black South African man in general,

bearing the internalized scars of oppression in his ingrained

sense of inferiority and his deep seated hatred of the white man.

Head thus examines the emotional and psychological effects of

subordination and oppression in a manner similar to that which
Emecheta depicts through her slave analogies. When Head moved to

Botswana she "encountered human ambition and greed ... in a black

f o m W for the first time ( A Woman Alone 68). Likewise, Makhaya

did not know "there was such a thing as an African oppressor"

until his experience in Botswana (183). He learns that

corruption and oppression are not monopolies of the white but the

destructive forces of power. "People in southern Africa were

still oppressed" and he sees himself as part of the mass of

suffering mankind (80).

While he fiercely opposes the white oppression he suffered

under the white Afrikaner rule, so does Makhaya resist the

restrictions and narrowness of tribal constraints. The narrator

relates :
He had been born into one of the most

custom-bound and conservative tribes in the

whole African continent, where half the men

and women still walked around in skins and

beads and even those who moved to the

cities moved with their traditions too.

There seemed to be ancient, ancestral lines

drawn around the African man which defined

his loyalties, responsibilities, and even

the duration of his smile. (124)

Mahkaya's Zulu name, ironically meaning "he who stays at home" is

almost an embarrassrnent to him. "It's just a tribal name" he

claims and suggests to Gilbert, "You can cal1 me Mack" (29). in

contrast, the corrupt chief, Matenge, "understood tribalism" and

"comanded the largest diehard traditionalists" (44, 45). Head

claims that tribalism was encouraged by colonists because it kept

the people subdued (58). She thus equates colonial and tribal

oppression. But Head does not simply condemn tribalisrn; she

indicates that traditions must be flexible and reassessed in

order to maintain their validity. Accordingly, Makhaya learns

the validity of his own Zulu name by finding his home in Golerna

Mmidi .
Head appears to work through her own persona1 conflicting

"blends"--racial, social, and nationab-through Makhaya . Like

Head, Makhaya is trying to escape his past. The village of

"Golema Mmidi consists of individuals who had fled there to

escape the tragedies of life" (22, emphasis added) . The main

protagonists do not conform with societal n o m s and expectations.

Gilbert is "running away £rom England", where he "had not felt

free"; Paulina Sebosa arrives as a fugitive from Northern

Botswana, a single mother of two children; Mma Millipede "was one

of those rare individuals with a distinct personality at b i r t h w

(31, 102, 68). Head posits that it is in the cooperative

organization, where various cultures and personalities blend

successfully, that individualism can flourish, while the

traditional African way of life is as chilling as the draconian

apartheid systern. "It was as though people looked at each other

al1 the time, questioning themselves: Am 1 exactly the same as my

neighbour? The fear was to differ from the next man ..." (100).

Head argues that the conforming strictures of traditional ways

trap and imprison the people in outdated customs and conventions
that stunt not only progress and growth of the comunity, but the

development of the individual. In this way Head's major

protagonists reflect her own dilemma of non-confomity; to be

truly liberated, one must be individualistic. But the more

individualistic the protagonist, the greater his or her sense of

isolation and marginalization-

The most evident confrontation with cultural custorns

concerns scientific and agricultural innovations, Gilbert d i d

not fully understand the "complexity of the land tenure system"

which was a hindrance to agricultural progress (38). Golema

Mmidi is established in defiance of custorns. For the first time,

people are able to live permanently in one place and have fences

to control anirnals. As +hey are situated in a drought stricken

land, Gilbert strives to introduce drought resistant grasses.

Sorghum and maize were eaten as a daily staple: millet was more
drought resistant. However, certain minority groups

"traditionally considered inferior, had long had a liking for

millet and had always grown it as part of the season's crop.

Therefore, other tribes who considered themselves superior would

not grow or eat it" (41). The agricultural authorities had

decided it was not their policy to interfere with the traditional

prejudices of the Batswana people. "Year in and year out people

had grown the exact same crops. Somewhere along the line they

had become mixed up with tribal tradition" (42).

Head thus skilfully provides the reader with the cultural

and sociological background while depicting the stultifying

effect adherence to customs has on its people. Within the

context of the cooperative, she also gives the reader information

on the customs as regards women's labour. "The women were the

traditional tillers of the earth, not the men" for "women were on

the land 365 days of the year while the men shuttled to and fro

with the cattle" (34, 43). "No men ever worked harder than
Botswana women for the whole burden of providing food for the

families rested with them" (104). The authorial voice blends

with Gilbert's as he thinks that "perhaps al1 change in the long

run would depend on the women of the country" (43).

Once again, as with Nwapa and Emecheta, education leads to

breaks with tradition. The old man on the border tells Makhaya,

"They should not have given you an education. It's only the

education that turns a man away from his tribe" (9). Yet Head,

l i k e Emecheta, shows education as the means of liberation.

However, unlike higher learning as advocated by Emecheta, Head's

education is of a practical kind, one that will directly

challenge the inbred habits and customs and decrease hunger and

poverty. Gilbert proceeds to educate women in astute

agricultural practices, employing Makhaya to instruct the women,

and they learn to grow millet as a cash crop.'2

Makhaya, in his dealings with women, also breaks with custom

and acts as a spokesperson for the author's feminist views. His

attitude suggests his awareness of the analogy between racial and

-
sexual domination. Both entrap the victim and stunt progression.

The women he instructs are initially puzzled by him, for they

"were unaccustomed to a man speaking to them as an equal .... but

once it struck them that he paid no attention to them as women
they also forgot he was a man and became absorbed in following

his explanations" (106). Makhaya had long believed in the

equality of women. On his father's death he had reorganized the

household, insisting that his sisters address him by his first

name, rather than Buti (meaning elder brother), and associate

with him as equals and friends. On his early arriva1 into

Botswana, the old woman, who offers him her daughter as a means

of making money, is astounded that Makhaya pays the child for no

favour given. "1 have not yet known a man who d3d not regard a

woman as a gift from God! He must be mad!" she exclaims ( 1 5 ) -

Paulina is amazed when he offers to help her. "When had anyone

helped another, free of charge? It wasn't a custom" (142). When
Paulina tells him "don't touch the fire. It's a womants work",

Makhaya voices equality directly (139). "It's time you learned

that men live on this earth too- If 1 want to make tea, 1'11
make it and if I want to sweep the floor, 1'11 sweep itu (139).

Through Makhaya, Head describes the ideal man, respectful of

women as equals. Like Were, by attributing the authoxity of

Makhaya, a man, with statements affirming sexual equality, she

implies that the breaking down of traditional chauvinistic

attitudes must begin with the male. Change cannot be imposed

externally upon a people, but must corne from within, from strong,

liberated individuals.

In every aspect of living as described in Golema M m i d i , the

past informs the present, whether embedded in customs and

traditions or as experienced personally by the individuals. From

Mma M i l l i p e d e , Makhaya l e a r n s t h a t h i s b r o t h e r i s " e a c h p e r s o n

who 1s a l i v e o n t h e e a r t h " a n d t h a t " e v e r y t h i n g i n l i f e depended

on g e n e r o s i t y t ' ( 1 3 0 , 132). Through h i s l o v e f o r P a u l i n a h e

r e c o g n i z e s that h i s f e e l i n g o f d i s c o n t e n t w a s caused by h i s need

t o l o v e , and t h r o u g h G i l b e r t he "discovered i n h i m s e l f a

compassion for t h e whole g r e a t drama o f human h i s t o r y . Only

G i l b e r t a d m i t t e d t h e mutual i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f a l 1 men" (134).

However, w h i l e Makhaya works t h r o u g h h i s p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s t o

r e a c h a new p e a c e w i t h h i m s e l f , Head t a k e s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o

nake some s t r o n g p r o p h e t i c c o m m m t s on t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n system.

" V i o l e n c e breeds h a t r e d , and h a t r e d b r e e d s v i o l e n c e " (134) she

w a r n s , and when cornmenting o n Makhaya's d i s l i k e of t h e w h i t e

m a n ' s guns s h e s t a t e s :

They must know what would happen one d a y i n

s o u t h e r n Africa. They must know, somewhere

d e e p down, t h a t o n e day a l 1 t h o s e m i l l i o n s

of unarmed p e o p l e would p i t c h t h e m s e l v e s

b o d i l y on t h e b u l l e t s , i f t h i s was t h e o n l y

way o f r i d d i n g t h e m s e l v e s o f a n o p p r e s s o r .

(133)

Her words, w r i t t e n s e v e n y e a r s b e f o r e t h e Soweto r i o t s , t o d a y

s p e a k a p r o p h e t i c t r u t h , a n d r e a f f i r m t h e maxim t h a t t h e p a s t

informs t h e f u t u r e . While Makhaya a c h i e v e s a l i b e r a t i n g peace

w i t h i n h i m s e l f , t h e a u t h o r i a l comment r e m a i n s b i t t e r .

Head, l i k e s o many o t h e r A f r i c a n w r i t e r s , t o u c h e s on t h e

impact of W e s t e r n r e l i g i o n s on t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s . She

denounces t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , c l a i r n i n g t h a t " t h e r e was no g r e a t e r

crime as y e t t h a n a l 1 t h e l i e s W e s t e r n c i v i l k a t i o n h a d t o l d i n

t h e n m e of J e s u s C h r i s t " a n d t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s " t a i n t e d t h e

b i b l e b y n o t making t h e w o r d s t h e y p r e a c h e d o u t of i t match t h e i r

de=&" (134, 131). Yet h e r own W e s t e r n p a s t , a s embodied i n h e r

own r e l i g i o u s u p b r i n g i n g , i s e v i d e n t . T h e Batswana tribes s h e

compares w i t h t h e w a n d e r i n g t r i b e s o f I s r a e l , P a u l i n a l s son,

s a c r i f i c e d t o t h e d r o u g h t , i s named Isaac, a n d s h e u s e s a

c o m p a r i s o n w i t h two types o f Solomon, o n e who d e c k s h i m s e l f i n

g o l d a n d b u i l d s a n i m p r e s s i v e h o u s e a n d t h e o t h e r who walks

b a r e f o o t , t o d e p i c t t h e two d e s t i n i e s which f a c e A f r i c a ( 1 2 7 ,

185). Golema Mmidi is a f i c t i v e m e t a p h o r f o r t h e g a r d e n of Eden,

a l s o likened t o Utopia (31) - However, t h e a n a l o g y i s i r o n i c .

T h i s g a r d e n o f Eden i s o n e beset w i t h h a r s h r e a l i t i e s , and Head

o f f e r s t h e r e a d e r some g r a p h i c g e o g r a p h i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l

i n f o r m a t i o n about ~ h ev i l l a g e . C a t t l e d i s e a s e , p r e j u d i c e , and

c o r r u p t i o n of t r i b a l l e a d e r s hinder any progress. However, t h e

greatest o b s t a c l e is t h a t o v e r which man h a s l e a s t c o n t r o l : l a c k

of r a i n . Botswana i s a s e m i - d e s e r t c o u n t r y , where t h e r a i n

c l o u d s t e a s e and t a u n t , o f t e n l e a d i n g t h e p e o p l e t o f a l s e h o p e s .

R a i n e q u a t e s w i t h w e a l t h , w e l l b e i n g , a n d pro gr es^.'^ The a l m o s t

c o n s t a n t d r o u g h t c r e a t e s a h a r s h , c o l o u r l e s s and b a r r e n " g a r d e n " ,

i n which s u r v i v a l i s a g a i n s t e x t r e m e o d d s . The l a n d s c a p e s e r v e s

a s a metaphor f o r t h e moral wasteland of t h e world. The c h i e f s '

i n s i s t e n c e on a d h e r i n g t o c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n a n d o p p o s i n g

b e n e f i c i a l p r o g r e s s r e i n f o r c e s t h e c o r r u p t i o n o f t h o s e i n power.

I n a manner a n a l o g o u s t o t h o s e w i e l d i n g power i n the a p a r t h e i d

system, t h e c h i e f s m a i n t a i n t h e i r h o l d over t h e i r p e o p l e by

maintaining t h e i r subsistence l i v i n g standard.

The p o s i t i v e n o t e i n t h i s n o v e l i s t h a t s u r v i v a l d o e s t a k e

p l a c e i n t h i s h o s t i l e environment. Makhaya f i n d s he can p u t down

h i s roots and flourish, f o r he learns t o j e t t i s o n the e v i l o f

b o t h c u l t u r e s and a b s o r b t h e good of b o t h . H e learns that:

Gilbert's c u l t u r e ... had catalogued e v e r y

s i n g l e d e t a i l on e a r t h w i t h c u r i o s i t y ....
H i s own c u l t u r e l a c k e d , a l m o s t e n t i r e l y ,

t h i s l o v e a n d care f o r t h e e a r t h , b u t had

a l 1 i t s i n t e r e s t d i r e c t e d towards p e o p l e

. . . . People were t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f the

u n i v e r s e o f A f r i c a and t h e world s t o o d

still because of t h i s . (135)

I n When R a i n Clouds G a t h e r , t h e r e a d e r i s made a w a r e of t h e

u n r e m i t t i n g Sun, w i t h i t s d e s t r u c t i v e q u a l i t y as i t bakes t h e

l a n d , d r i e s up t h e l i t t l e w a t e r , a n d c a u s e s death a n d h u n g e r .

Nature e x p r e s s e s a d u a l i t y , f o r t h e n u r t u r i n g , l i f e g i v i n g

q u a l i t i e s o f t h e Sun a r e o n l y p o s i t i v e when t e m p e r e d w i t h r e l i e f

i n t h e E o r m o f d a r k n e s s , c l o u d s a n d most i r n p o r t a n t l y , r a i n .

The n o t i o n of good a n d e v i l p r e s e n t i n a l 1 t h i n g s i s

-
r e p e a t e d a n d d e v e l o p e d f u r t h e r i n H e a d ' s l a t e r work, Maru. In

t h i s s e c o n d n o v e l , t h e s i t u a t i o n of t h e main p r o t a g o n i s t , a woman

named M a r g a r e t , c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s that o f Head. Although

Margaret is n o t a c o l o u r e d , s h e i s a n o u t s i d e r , f o r s h e i s a

Masarwa, a "bushman", a n d a s such is d e s p i s e d a n d s c o r n e d b y t h e

l o c a l people." Like Head, s h e l o s e s h e r mother v e r y e a r l y i n h e r

life, and was "never able to Say: 1 am this or that. My parencs

are this or that" (15). Margaret, like Head, was mission

educated; she was raised by a British missionary's w i f e , Margaret

Cadmore ." From her she receives a special education.

Her mind and heart were composed of a

little bit of everything she had absorbed

from Margaret Cadmore. It was hardly

African or anything but something new and

universal, a type of personality that would

be unable to fit into a definition of

something as narrow as tribe or race or

nation. (16)

Margaret, again like Head, defies classification and as such

endures alienation and isolation; as a result of her enforced

marginalizztion she is extremely individualistic. "Her

brilliance [was] based entirely on social isolation and lack of

communication with others, except through books" (18). Like

Head, Margaret travels to Botswana to take up a teaching

position, in which she suffers from racism and male chauvinism;

the teachers could tolerate her were she a coloured, but a

bushman is unacceptable. "She can be shoved out1' the principal

concludes. "It ' s easy. She ' s a woman" (41). And Head adds an
authorial comment.

How universal was the language of

oppression! They had said of the Masarwa

what every white man had said of every

black man: They can't think for

 themselves . They don ' t know a n y t h i n g " .
The matter never rested t h e r e . The

s t r o n g e r man c a u g h t h o l d o f t h e weaker man

and made a c i r c u s animal o u t of him,

r e d u c i n g him t o t h e state o f m i s e r y a n d

s u b j e c t i o n a n d non-humanity. The

c o m b i n a t i o n s were t h e same, f i r s t c o n q u e s t ,

t h e n a b h o r r e n c e a t t h e looks of t h e

c o n q u e r e d a n d , from t h e r e onwards, al1

f o r m s of h o r r o r a n d e v i l p r a c t i c e s . (109)

Although n o t a w r i t e r , M a r g a r e t h a s s t r o n g c r e a t i v e powers,

producing p a i n t i n g s t h a t d e p i c t not o n l y physical s u b j e c t s , b u t

the i n n e r w o r k i n g s o f t h e mind. C l e a r l y , Head imbues M a r g a r e t

w i t h much o f h e r own p e r s o n a 1 p a s t , a n d t h e r o l e o f p a i n t e r

a s c r i b e d t o M a r g a r e t i s p a r a l l e l e d by t h e r o l e o f t h e n o v e l i s t

c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n t h e i n n e r a w a r e n e s s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l woman,

M a r g a r e t , t h r o u g h h e r p a i n t i n g s , i s a b l e t o " w r i t e " h e r own

"text". T h i s is b e r means o f i d e n t i f y i n g h e r s e l f , self-contained

and i ~ d i v i d u a l , w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y communicating t h r o u g h h e r

a r t w i t h others.

The t w o male p r o t a g o n i s t s , Maru a n d Moleka, b o t h f a 1 1 i n

l o v e w i t h M a r g a r e t , y e t t h e two a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n

personality. Although characterized b y h i s t h u n d e r c l o u d e y e s and

brow, Moleka i s g e n e r a l l y l i k e n e d t o t h e Sun. "Moleka was a Sun

around which s p u n a b i l l i o n s a t e l l i t e s . A l 1 t h e Sun had t o do

w a s r a d i a t e f o r c e , e n e r g y and l i g h t " (58). T h i s leadç Maru t o

wonder; "Did t h e Sun have compassion a n d good s e n s e ? I t had o n l y

t h e ego of t h e b r i g h t e s t l i g h t i n t h e heavens .... Not i n a n y way

d i d h e desire M o l e k a r s kingdom o r i t s dizzy, r e v o l v i n g e n e r g y "

(58). I n many ways, Moleka i s t h e f o r e r u n n e r o f Dan i n

Q u e s t i o n o f Power, for h i s " d i z z y i n g energy" s e r v e s t o s e d u c e one

woman a f t e r a n o t h e r . Moleka h a s a s t r i n g o f i l l e g i t i m a t e

c h i l d r e n a n d t a k e s p r i d e i n knowing e v e r y t h i n g about a woman's

anatomy which makes him a r r o g a n t and v i o l e n t (35). His

e x p l o i t a t i v e power, l o c a t e d i n t h e m a l e e g o , i s p a r a l l e l e d w i t h

feudal privilege, racism a n d t r i b a l i s m , a n d b o t h D i k e l e d i a n d

M a r g a r e t succumb t o h i s p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i o n s . Brown States:

Margaret's experience suggests t h a t t h e

woman needs t o c o n f r o n t t h e i s s u e o f m a l e

power, n o t o n l y a s i t has b e e n embodied, by

t h e man h i r n s e l f , b u t more i n s i d i o u s l y , a s

i t e x i s t s i n h e r own p s y c h e i n modes s h e

has accepted, unwittingly, from t h e m a l e -

o r i e n t e d c o n v e n t i o n s of h e r s o c i e t y . (174-

75)

T h e two women p r o v i d e a c o n t r a s t ; D i k e l e d i h a s a s u g g e s t i v e walk

that is p h y s i c a l l y s e d u c t i v e t o Moleka, whereas Margaret is more

s e l f p r o t e c t i v e , revealing l i t t l e of h e r inner emotions, except

t h r o u g h h e r art. Head's i n d i r e c t s u g g e s t i o n i s t h a t D i k e l e d i ,

d e s p i t e h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e , p l a y s i n t o t h e c o n v e ~ t i o n a lf e m a l e r o l e

and e n c o u r a g e s Moleka t o e x e r t h i s power o v e r h e r .

Maru, i n c o n t r a s t w i t h Moleka, " a l w a y s f e l l i n l o v e w i t h his

women" y e t he f o u n d a " t e n d e r smile a n d a scheming mind went hand

in hand, a b e a u t i f u l v o i c e t u r n e d i n t o a d o m i n a t i n g v i p e r " ( 3 5 ) .
"Maru had no e q u i v a l e n t o f [Moleka1s sun] i n h i s own kingdom. He

h a d no Sun l i k e t h a t , o n l y an eternal a n d g e n t l e i n t e r p l a y of

shadows a n d l i g h t a n d p e a c e " , f o r "Maru p r e f e r r e d t o be t h e

moon"; h i s very name, Maru, means t h e moon, and " h i s methods w e r e

c o l d , c a l c u l a t i n g and r u t h l e s s " (58, 7 3 ) .26 H e acknowledges

"Moleka was greater t h a n him i n power" but r e a l i z e d t h a t Moleka

had a n o v e r a b u n d a n c e o f power. Margaret, with h e r s e l f

p r o t e c t i v e ways, is a b l e t o m o l l i f y t h i s power, w h i l e D i k e l e d i ,

w i t h h e r b l a t a n t f e m i n i n i t y , p r o v o k e s i t ( 5 8 ) . Maru, t o o , i s

i n f l u e n c e d b y M a r g a r e t , b u t i n a p o s i t i v e way. She i n d i r e c t l y

encourages h i s idealism, h i s e f f o r t s t o a t t a c k t r i b a l i s m , s o c i a l

p r i v i l e g e a n d t h e l i m i t i n g of s e x u a l r o l e s . He a p p e a r s , l i k e

Makhaya i n When Rain C l o u d s G a t h e r , t o b e a b l e t o p e r c e i v e the

a n a l o g y b e t w e e n c o r r u p t f o r m s of s o c i a l power a n d t h e hand of

e x p l o i t a t i v e m a s c u l i n i t y t h a t marks Moleka. I n d e f i a n c e of

t r a d i t i o n , h e t r e a t s his s l a v e s a s e q u a l s , and r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t

h i s was n o t t h e kind of p e r s o n a l i t y t o r u l e t h e m a s s e s , r e n o u n c e s

h i s claims t o t h e chieftainship. H e organizes h i s s i s t e r ' s

r n a r r i a g e t o Moleka, a n d t a k e s M a r g a r e t , o f t h e s h u n n e d bushman

t r i b e , t o be h i s w i f e . Maru, l i k e Makhaya, is t h e t y p e of h e r o

Head s e t o u t d e l i b e r a t e l y t o c r e a t e . She c l a i m s , "1 would

d e l i b e r a t e l y c r e a t e h e r o e s and show t h e i r e x t r e m e w i l l i n g n e s s t o

a b d i c a t e £rom p o s i t i o n s o f power a n d a b s o r b t h e m s e l v e s i n

a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h would be o f immense b e n e f i t t o people" ( B r u n e r ,

263)-

However, Maru's r n a n i p u l a t i v e means o f a c h i e v i n g h i s

i d e a l i s t i c ends remain t r o u b l e s o m e . Margaret r e m a i n s a p a s s i v e

symbol, used t o v o i c e t h e need t o embrace i n d i v i d u a l i s m a t t h e

e x p e n s e o f t r a d i t i o n , f o r " t h e c o n d i t i o n s which s u r r o u n d e d him a t

t h e t i m e f o r c e d him t o t h i n k o f h c r as a symbol o f h e r t r i b e a n d

t h r o u g h her he s o u g h t t o g a i n a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e v e n t u a l

l i b e r a t i o n of a n oppressed people" (108) . Although h e t h i n k s t o

h i m s e l f , "You c o u l d n o t marry a t r i b e o r a r a c e " , i t a p p e a r s i n

many ways t h a t h e d o e s e x a c t l y t h a t ( 1 0 9 ) . Margaret, although

t h e "sun" of M a r u 1 s l o v e , e n d s up l i v i n g a somewhat f a i r y - t a l e

e x i s t e n c e , i n a h o u s e s u r r o u n d e d by y e l l o w Sun l o v i n g d a i s i e s ,

"Elowers which r e s e m b l e d t h e f a c e o f h i s wife and t h e sun of h i s

l o v e " , b u t f a r removed from t h e community ( 5 ) . She is s t i l l

i s o l a t e d and s t i l l keeps i n h e r house a room i n which " s h e

t o t a l l y l o v e d Moleka" ( 8 ) .

Maru, a l t h o u g h i d e a l i s t i c a l l y h m a n i s t i n h i s a c c e p t a n c e o f

Margaret, is a s s o c i a t e d with T l a d i , t h e e v i l s p i r i t . "The

p e o p l e , w h i l e f e a r i n g T l a d i , knew i t h a d a r e a l , l i v i n g s o u r c e .

Even t h e n , t h e y c o u l d n o t b r i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o u t t e r t h e name,

Maru" ( 9 2 ) . T h e Sun and moon imagery p r e d o m i n a t e s t h e n o v e l , a n d

M a r g a r e t l s i n n e r a w a r e n e s s of t h e n e c e s s a r y b a l a n c e of t h e two i s

evident i n her paintings. While t h e b a l a n c e of l i g h t a n d d a r k ,

s u n and moon, b l a c k and w h i t e , s u g g e s t s t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of

r a c i a l g r o u p s , t h i s i d e a is n o t d e v e l o p e d : Head r e s i s t s f a c i l e

polarities. L i k e w i s e , w h i l e Moleka and Maru p r o v i d e a b a l a n c e t o

one a n o t h e r , Maru e x e r t i n g p r e s s u r e s upon a n d m a n i p u l a t i n g

Moleka, w i t h i n e a c h man e x i s t s t h e c o n f l i c t i n g t e n s i o n between

good and e v i l . While Moleka a n d Maru a r e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e Sun

and moon r e s p e c t i v e l y , b o t h s h a r e good a n d e v i l qualities. In a

s e n s e t h e y a r e d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of t h e same p e r s o n e x e r t i n g

d i f f e r e n t f o r c e s o f power o v e r M a r g a r e t . Head t h u s develops h e r

t h e o r y o f d u a l i t y v o i c e d i n When R a i n Clouds G a t h e r , a d v o c a t i n g

t h e c o e x i s t e n c e of good and e v i l w i t h i n a l l . Head's p h i l o s o p h i c

themes s u g g e s t t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n between t h e d u a l i t i e s i s

n e c e s s a r y , f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f good n e c e s s i t a t e s t h e c o n t r a s t i n g

evil. J u s t a s M o l e k a ' s r a d i a n t s u n - l i k e e n e r g y without t h e

relieving darkness is destructive, s o is unrelenting darkness

without l i f e renewing l i g h t . -
Thus, i n Maru t h e r e i s a n i m p l i c i t

s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e one group c a n n o u r i s h t h e o t h e r ; t h a t mutual

interdependence i s a b e n e f i t t o a l l .

H e a d ' s theme o f r e c o n c i l i n g t h e d u a l i t y w i t h i n human n a t u r e

i s t a k e n y e t f u r t h e r i n h e r t h i r d n o v e l , A Q u e s t i o n o f Power.

The s t o r y o f E l i z a b e t h , t h e m a i n p r o t a g o n i s t , is clearly

autobiographical. Head c l a i m s o f t h e work, " T h e r e ' s no way i n

which 1 can deny t h a t t h a t was a c o m p l e t e l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l

n o v e l t a k i n g a slice o f my l i f e , my e x p e r i e n c e a n d t r a n s c r i b i n g

i t v e r b a t i m i n t o n o v e l form" (Bruner, 267). E l i z a b e t h , l i k e Head

h e r s e l f , moves t o Botswana w i t h h e r s m a l l s o n , after a n

unsuccessful marriage. She s e t t l e s i n t h e srna11 town o f

Motabeng, where s h e i n i t i a l l y f i n d s work a s a t e a c h e r , b u t

s u b s e q u e n t l y l o s e s h e r j o b and i s t e m p o r a r i l y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d .

With t h e h e l p o f a s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l , Eugene, s h e f i n d s work i n a

c o o p e r a t i v e garden. Eugene is most l i k e l y a f i c t i o n a l i z e d

p o r t r a y a l o f Patrick Van Rensburg, o f whom Head w r i t e s m o s t

a d m i r i n g l y i n Serowe." The work i n t h e g a r d e n g r o w i n g v e g e t a b l e s

s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t h e s e m i d e s e r t , a r i d c o u n t r y o f Botswana, a n d
working with individuals from many parts of the world, helps

Elizabeth restore her health. In the garden she befriends

workers like Kenosi, Birgette and Tom, who treat her with genuine

affection and humaneness. The story line follows that of Head's

own life.
However, Head does more than record past events. She voices

the inner struggles of her protagonist, and demonstrates the ever

present influence the past has on the ever evolving present.

Elizabeth's story is one predominantly of the mind. The story

line remains a background, providing a cornforting touchstone with

the outer world, while the main focus of the novel is Elizabeth's

mental state and her inner turmoil as she suffers two mental
breakdowns. Elizabeth searches for a self-inscribed personal

identity, one in which she can reconcile the two races of which
she is a blend, as well as reconcile herself in relation to male

domination.

Elizabeth is tormented by mental visions, dreams and

fantasies, fragments of her imagination that take the form, in

particular, of two black men, Sello and Dan. The work is

difficult reading, for Elizabeth drifts in and out of

consciousness, hallucinating and envisioning, t a k i n g the reader

with her through her confusing labyrinth of tho~ght.~' The

background of the harsh landscape as demonstrated in When Rain

C l o u d s Gather is again used to mirror the barren moral landscape

of her world. The outer world, with its inhospitable, arid

environment intrudes upon her inner world: the two are

inseparable. The exterior political landscape is ever present

w i t h i n h e r i n n e r world. Head g i v e s a n a n a l o g o u s d e s c r i p t i o n o f

t h e m e r g i n g o f t h e p h y s i c a l i n n e r a n d o u t e r w o r l d s when r e c o r d i n g

E l i z a b e t h ' s a d a p t a t i o n t o l i f e i n t h e Botswana bush.

The s l o w l y d r i f t i n g c l o s e n e s s t o t h e s o i l

was i n c r e a s e d by l i v i n g i n a mud h u t . It

was l i k e l i v i n g w i t h t h e trees a n d i n s e c t s

r i g h t i n d o o r s b e c a u s e t h e r e was n o s h a r p

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c i r c l i n g mud w a l l s

of a hut a n d t h e e a r t h o u t s i d e . (60)

S i r n i l a r l y t h e r e is, Head d e m o n s t r a t e s , n o s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n

between p u b l i c , p o l i t i c a l l i f e and p r i v a t e l i f e . Elizabeth's

m e n t a l anguish i s a r e s u l t o f t h e environment i n which s h e h a s

l i v e d a n d i s s t i l l l i v i n g , a n d h e r m e n t a l breakdowns o c c u r when

she voices her i n n e r tonnent publicly. Head d o e s , however, o f f e r

optimism. J u s t a s Makhaya o f When R a i n C l o u d s G a t h e r f i n d s h i s

home i n Golema m i d i , so d o e s E l i z a b e t h f i n d s h e c a n p u t down

r o o t s i n Botswana. A s w i t h t h e Cape G o o s e b e r r y t h a t s y m b o l i c a l l y

manages t o grow a n d t h r i v e i n a l i e n a n d b a r r e n s o i l , s o d o e s

Elizabeth discover she t o o can survive and prosper."

Not o n l y are t h e o u t e r a n d i n n e r w o r l d s , p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e ,

i n e x t r i c a b l y i n t e r t w i n e d , b u t so t o o are t h e past and p r e s e n t .

E l i z a b e t h ' s p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s p r o v i d e the c h a l l e n g e of b e r i n n e r

journey. The v i s i o n s s h e e x p e r i e n c e s a r e p r o j e c t i o n s o f h e r own

mind, a n d a r e , a s s u c h , r e f l e c t i o n s o f h e r own i n t e r n a l i z e d view

of t h e w o r l d . Having b e e n b o r n a n d e d u c a t e d i n S o u t h A f r i c a ,

w h e r e t h e s y s t e m s e g r e g a t e d b y law t h e t w o r a c e s o f w h i c h s h e i s

a b l e n d , s h e h a s a b s o r b e d t h e a t t i t u d e s p r e s c r i b e d by t h e s t a t e ,
i n t e r n a l i z e d and a c c e p t e d n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s a b o u t h e r s e l f a s a

c o l o u r e d p e r s o n and a s a woman. Thus h e r past e x p e r i e n c e s have

given h e r a b e l i e f i n her i n f e r i o r i t y . She h a s a l s o i n t e r n a l i z e d

a d i s l i k e o f t h e black man. As a result, Elizabeth, half black,

cannot l o v e h e r s e l f , l e t a l o n e o t h e r s , and hence she t e l l s the

d o c t o r "1 d o n ' t l i k e people" (51). Her words echo t h o s e o f

Makhaya i n When Rain Clouds G a t h e r , who, upon a r r i v i n g i n

Botswana c l a i m s "1 don' t c a r e a b o u t p e o p l e " (10). That p a s t

e x p e r i e n c e has an impact upon t h e p r e s e n t i s made e v i d e n t b y t h e

v e r y s t r u c t u r e o f t h e novel; i t opens w i t h t h e e n d i n g a n d ends

w i t h t h e beginning, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e e n d is i m p l i c i t i n what

h a s gone before.

Some c r i t i c s have i n t e r p r e t e d t h e two men, S e l l o a n d Dan, a s

d e p i c t i n g good and e v i l , b u t a g a i n , Head i s more cornplex. As

w i t h Moleka and Maru, t h e two men d e p i c t p o w e r f u l i n f l u e n c e s o v e r

Elizabeth. That t h e y are p r o j e c t i o n s of her own mind f o r c e s h e r

t o acknowledge t h e good and e v i l w i t h i n h e r s e l f . The men remind

E l i z a b e t h of men i n t h e v i l l a g e , men she knows o n l y b y s i g h t .

The two s e c t i o n s i n t o which t h e novel i s d i v i d e d d e a l

p r e d o m i n a n t l y w i t h t h e v i s i t a t i o n s of S e l l o and Dan r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Head leads t h e reades s k i l f u l l y through smooth t r a n s i t i o n s from

one world t o a n o t h e r , that o f t h e dark c o n f u s i o n of E l i z a b e t h ' s

mind i n t o t h e o u t e r world o f t h e r e l e n t l e s s Motabeng Sun.

S e l l o a p p e a r s b e f o r e E l i z a b e t h a s a v i s i o n , a God-like

f i g u r e , who a d v o c a t e s u n i v e r s a l r a t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l l o v e . "He

p r e f e r s a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h mankind t o an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h

a p a r t i c u l a r environment" and s t a t e s "1 am just anyone" (11). ïie

hungers ' a f t e r things o f t h e s o u l , i n w h i c h o t h e r p r e o c c u p a t i o n s

were submerged" (11). I n i t i a l l y E l i z a b e t h wants t o i d e n t i f y w i t h

him, and " s h e too r a p i d l y a c c e p t e d S e l l o a s a c o r n f o r t a b l e p r o p

a g a i n s t which t o l e a n " (29). As S e l l o t a k e s on many d i f f e r e n t

g u i s e s , E l i z a b e t h a n d t h e r e a d e r have t o work t h r o u g h h e r

confusion. " H e h a d a n a l m i g h t y a i r o f c a l m and a s s u r a n c e a b o u t

him. He wore t h e s o f t , w h i t e f l o w i n g r o b e s of a rnonk" (22). His

" f a v o r i t e h u n t i n g g r o u n d h a d been I n d i a " , and he f r e q u e n t l y

a p p e a r s a s Buddha. A t t h e same time he p r e s e n t s her w i t h " a

s p e c t a c u l a r a r r a y of p e r s o n a l i t i e s ... crowded w i t h memories o f

the past. They were a l 1 S e l l o i n h i s work, a s t h e p r o p h e t o f

mankind" (24-25) . H e t h u s a p p e a r s t o b e a l 1 p r o p h e t s i n one,

" [dl o m i n a t i n g and d i r e c t i n g t h e whole d r a m a . . ." (29).

While E l i z a b e t h i s a t t r a c t e d t o him, she i s c a u t i o n e d by him

to " r e t a i n h e r own m e n t a l i n d e p e n d e n c e " ( 2 9 ) . Furthermore, t h e

omnipotence and m a s c u l i n i t y o f t h e s e p r o p h e t f i g u r e s seem t o

trouble E l i ~ a b e t h . ~S' h e s e e s gods a s " t e r r i b l e m o n s t r o s i t i e s who

had n u r l e d t h e m s e l v e s a r o u n d w i t h s o l i t t l e r e g a r d f o r t h e

w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s " , a n d s h e r e s i s t s t h e i r p r e s u m p t i o n of b e i n g

" g r e a t e r " t h a n t h e o r d i n a r y man, b e c a u s e o f t h e i r g r e a t e r power

( 4 1 ) . "God was no s e c u r i t y f o r t h e s o u l " , b u t r a t h e r "God i s t h e

t o t a l i t y of a l 1 g r e a t s o u l s a n d t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t s : t h e

a c h i e v e m e n t s a r e n o t t h a t of one s i n g l e , i n d i v i d u a l s o u l b u t of

many s o u l s who a l 1 worked t o make up t h e s o u l o f God, and t h i s

might be c a l l e d God o r t h e Gods" (65, 5 4 ) . She a d v o c a t e s "Be

ordinary. Any a s s u m p t i o n of g r e a t n e s s l e a d s t o dog-eat-dog fight

and i n c u r s m a s s i v e s u f f e r i n g " a n d s h e t e l l s S e l l o , a t one p o i n t ,

"Yeu are making a mistake, Sello. I'm God tool' (39, 38) .
Sellols guise as a man in a brown suit seems more acceptable to

Elizabeth, for it is in the ordinary man that she ultimately

finds God. Thus Sello also represents "people who had been
killed and killed and killed again in one cause after another for

the liberation of mankind. She thought at the time: why, an

absolute title has been shared. There are several hundred people
who are G o d " (31). Her experience with Seflo leads Elizabeth to

conclude that "Christianity and God were courteous formalities

people had learned to enjoy with mental and emotional detachment-

-the real battlefront was living people, their personalities,

their treatrnent of each other" (66).

She also recognizes that the base of her relationship with

Sello was "masculine" (24). Thus Sello is more complex t h a n

rnerely representing the good. He forces Elizabeth to question

religion as a "comfortable prop" and a male-dominated institution

(29). He also introduces Elizabeth to Medusa, who flaunrs her

sexuality before Elizabeth making her feel inferior and

inadequate. She hurls accusations at Elizabeth, accusing her of

not being a true African. "You'll only drown h e r e . Youqre not

linked to the people. You don't know any African languages"

(44). She challenges Elizabeth by claiming, "You never really

liked Africans. You only pretended to" (51). Medusa ultimately

brings Elizabeth to a state collapse, with her asserting, "You

are inferior. You are filth", and repeating, "Dog, filth, the

Africans will eat you to death" (47, 45). Her words echo in

Elizabeth's head, forcing her to reflect upon herself, but the

words a r e , o f c o u r s e , h e r own. Subsequent t o h e r e n c o u n t e r w i t h
Medusa s h e v e r b a l l y a b u s e s a Batswana man i n a s t o r e ; i n t h e

p u b l i c present the p r i v a t e torments of t h e p a s t bring on h e r

collapse.

Dan i n many ways i s quite d i f f e r e n t from S e l l o . "Once you

s t a r e d t h e i m p o r t a n r power m a n i a c i n the f a c e you saw t h a t h e

n e v e r saw p e o p l e , humanity, compassion, tenderneçs. I t was a s

t h o u g h he had a t o t a l blank s p o t and o n l y s a w h i s own power, h i s

influence, h i s s e l f " (19) . However, "more t h a n a n y t h i n g , t h e

e x t r e m e m a s c u l i n i t y of t h e man i n s t a n t l y a t t r a c t e d h e r " (105).

Like Moleka, Dan i s a womanizer, and h e t a u n t s E l i z a b e t h w i t h h i s

s e x u a l i t y , and p a r a d e s women b e f o r e h e r . H e c l a i m s "1 g o w i t h

al1 t h e s e women b e c a u s e you a r e i n f e r i o r " ( 1 4 7 ) . On t h e one hand

E l i z a b e t h i s f o r c e d t o acknowledge h e r b a s i c and n a t u r a l

a t t r a c t i o n t o h i s rnasculinity. On t h e o t h e r hand, s h e a p p e a r s t o

have i n t e r n a l i z e d t h e myth r e g a r d i n g t h e b l a c k man's s e x u a l

s u p e r i o r i t y , t h u s i n c r e a s i n g h e r own s e n s e o f i n f e r i o r i t y . Dan

is p r e s e n t e d a s a powex m a n i a c . " I n some way h e had g a i n e d

d i r e c t o r s h i p o f t h e u n i v e r s e s i n c e 1910. He had a s t a c c a t o way

of p u t t i n g it. 'Directorship since 1910'" ( 2 5 ) . T h e d a t e 1910

marks t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e Union o f S o u t h A f r i c a . A g a i n , Head

i m p l i e s a n a n a l o g o u s d o m i n a t i o n , t h a t of male s e x u a l i t y a n d

p o l i t i c a l , r a c i a l domination.

Dan, l i k e Medusa, f o r c e s E l i z a b e t h t o f a c e t h e l e s s n o b l e

a s p e c t s of h e r p e r s o n a l i t y . I n t h i s s e n s e , Dan i s a s much of a

t e a c h e r as i s S e l l o . Both e x e r t a t t r a c t i o n s t o E l i z a b e t h , a n d

y e t b o t h t r o u b l e h e r w i t h t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y and m a s c u l i n i t y . By
facing the image of herself as presented negatively by ~edusa,

Elizabeth is forced to recognize the good and bad within herself,

and she subsequently asks Tom, "What would you do if you were

both God and Satan at the same time?" (161). Unable to corne to

t e m s with this recognition, she projects ont0 Sel10 the label of

God and Satan in one, and, subsequent to posting a notice on the

post office door accusing him of incest, breaks down for the

second tirne." Elizabeth's tragedy is that the "evil" she

perceives is a reflection of her adoption of opinions and

prejudices given to her by the South African systern. Elizabeth's

internalization and acceptance of the alleged superior sexuality

of the black man contributes to her feeling of being sexually

inferior, and her distaste for sexual habits. She needs to

redefine her own codes of morality. In her turmoil, Elizabeth is

forced to recognize her own responsibility for her oppression.

Just as Head, herself, in this novel is able to write her own

text, describing most personally her own inner tonnent, so too

must Elizabeth write herself. In the cooperative garden her

notebook becomes important to her, and at the time of her

recovery, her son finds her writing poetry. Elizabeth finally

does find her own voice.

Unlike other African women writers, Head, belonging to

neither major racial group, cannot look for an identity

prescribed for her by a culture or tradition and is thus forced

to c o n f r o n t her own pysche. Without a cultural backing with

which to be integrated, Head, as Elizabeth, needs to find an

individual self-acceptance and self-reliance. She iç, as a

r e s u l t , more i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c t h a n her A f r i c a n peers. She i s

a l s o , i t a p p e a r s , more c o n f u s e d a n d t r o u b l e d . A s a b l e n d of two

c u l t u r e s , s h e a p p e a r s t o r e j e c t b o t h and live a c c o r d i n g t o h e r

own d i c t a t e s : she i s t h e truly l i b e r a t e d i n d i v i d u a l . However,

t h e r e a d e r ni11 a p p r e c i a t e t h e i n d i v i d u a l a g o n y E l i z a b e t h e n d u r e s

by h e r v e r y l i b e r a t i o n . By n o t b e i n g p a r t of a p a r t i c u l a r group,

s h e l i v e s on t h e e d g e , " f o r a few y e a r s s h e l i v e d on t h e edge of

S o u t h A f r i c a ' s l i f e " , and s h e l i v e s on t h e e d g e physically i n

Motabeng, a place o f sand, "a v i l l a g e r e m o t e l y i n l a n d , p e r c h e d on

t h e e d g e of t h e K a l a h a r i d e s e r t " ( 1 8 , 19). She a l s o l i v e s o n t h e

edge o f s a n i t y ; a t t i m e s " s h e s l i p p e d o v e r t h e edge, [ a n d ] c l u n g

t o i t s p e r i p h e r y w i t h both hands" (97). E l i z a b e t h ' s young son

v o i c e s E l i z a b e t h ' s f e a r s , when he c l a i m s : "I'm a f r a i d o f t h e edge

. . . I t h i n k a l o t o f t h i n g s h a v e f a l l e n o f f t h e edge" ( 9 4 - 5 ) .
She cannot a f f o r d , f o r the sake of her s a n i t y , t o r e t a i n t h e

n o t i o n of b e i n g r e l e g a t e d t o t h e margin, a s d i c t a t e d by the w h i t e

and b l a c k g r o u p s i n S o u t h e r n A f r i c a . E l i z a b e t h has t o r e w r i t e

t h e s c r i p t , with herself placed securely i n t h e centre. The

n o v e l s i g n i f i c a n t l y ends w i t h H e a d ' s s t a t e m e n t , " A s s h e f e l l

a s l e e p , s h e p l a c e d one s o f t hand o v e r h e r l a n d . I t w a s a gesture

of b e l o n g i n g " (206). True l i b e r a t i o n r e q u i r e s tremendous self-

a s s u r a n c e and s e l f - r e l i a n c e , a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e i n an

environment of r a c i a l d o m i n a t i o n and i n e q u a l i t y . For t h e s a k e of

s a n i t y , E l i z a b e t h , a s a l 1 i n d i v i d u a l s , needs t o belong.
 Endno t e s

1
T h i s theme i s e x p r e s s e d somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y i n Buchi

Emecheta's l a t e r work, Double Yoke, (London: A l l i s o n and Busby,

1979) . Her m a l e p r o t a g o n i s t , Ete Kamba learns d u r i n g t h e course

o f t h e novel t o change h i s p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t women. However,

t h e r o l e of t h e female l e c t u r e r , M i s s Bulewayo, has much t o do

w i t h h i s change i n a t t i t u d e .
i
Emecheta c o n f r o n t s t h i s i s s u e i n Double Yoke.
C

3
A panga i s a l a r g e , long, vide b l a d e d k n i f e .
4
Were w r i t e s : "Girls who were kidnapped assumed t h e

s t a t u s o f a w i f e and came t o h e l p with h o u s e h o l d choses t h e next

morning . .. . When a g i r l b l e d form h e r f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e w i t h sex,

she could c l a i m a n y t h i n g w i t h t h a t blood (95).

5
T l a l i f i n i s h e d w r i t i n g t h e n o v e l i n 1 9 6 9 , and i t was

f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 7 5 by Ravan Press i n a v e r y much e x p u r g a t e d

form. T l a l i c l a i m s t h a t a "lot of m a t e r i a l was removed from i t

t o make i t a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e w h i t e r e a d e r " . The Longman v e r s i o n ,

T l a l i c l a i m s , is hou s h e had w r i t t e n t h e book ( C r a i g MacKenzie

and Cherry C l a y t o n 7 1 - 7 2 ) .
a
The banning was l i f t e d i n 1 9 8 5 .
7
Fanagalo is a s i m p l i f i e d , a r t i f i c i a l mixture of

words from v a r i o u s Bantu languages, widely employed as a

medium of communication i n many p a r t s o f S o u t h e r n A f r i c a . Its

use was o f f i c i a l l y encouraged by t h e T r a n s v a a l and Orange Free

S t a t e Chamber of Mines and other a u t h o r i t i e s .

8
'tMuntus", a n A f r i c a n tem, and "soggens", a Y i d d i s h
term b o t h s i g n i f y " b l a c k s " .
4
Chinua Achebe s t a t e s t h a t "no man c a n u n d e r s t a n d

a n o t h e r whose l a n g u a g e he d o e s not s p e a k " , a n d adds "and

" l a n g u a g e " h e r e d o e s n o t mean s i m p l y words, b u t a m a n ' s world

view" (Emenyonu 3 1 ) .
?O
E l i z a b e t h T h a e l e R i v k i n and R i c h a r d E . L a p c h i c k w r i t e

o f t h e i n i q u i t o u s B a n t u s t a n p o l i c y which d i d not a l l o w men

w o r k i n g i n t h e c i t i e s t o b r i n g t h e i r w i v e s w i t h them. The p o l i c y

t h u s p r e v e n t e d t h e men from f u l f i l l i n g t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l m a r i t a l

d u t i e s (18-19, 219-223, 239) .

il
" N a t s " i s a n a b b r e v i a t i o n f o r t h e r i g h t wing

N a t i o n a l i s t Party.
7
-
3

T l a l i r e l a t e s a c o n v e r s a t i o n s h e h a d when s h e was

i n v i t e d by some J e w i s h women t o t h e i r homes. " [ A ] wornan a s k e d ,

'How c a n you write a b o u t Jews t h a t way? How c a n you m a k e your

main c h a r a c t e r a Jew?' And 1 r e p l i e d 'Look a r o u n d , and go t o

Jo'burg. Go t o a l 1 t h e s h o p s , a l 1 t h e f u r n i t u r e s h o p s . Who do

you find there? I t ' s Jews. Why s h o u l d 1 g o and c r e a t e somebody

from Mars when we h a v e t h e s e p e o p l e ? ' T h e Jews a r e v e r y , v e r y

s t r o n g e c o n o m i c a l l y and t h e y own a l m o s t e v e r y t h i n g - i t was worse

i n the s i x t i e s " (MacKenzie a n d C l a y t o n 7 8 ) .

?3
Lobola i s an African word s i g n i f y i n g b r i d e p r i c e .
14
The ban w a s l i f t e d i n 1 9 8 9 .
l5
T i k k i d r a a i music accompanies a n e n e r g e t i c A f r i k a a n s

s t y l e of dancing. A "tikki" is a n o b s o l e t e s m a l l u n i t o f South

A f r i c a n currency ( t h e s i z e o f a dime), and "draai" is Afrikaans

for "turn". T i k k i d r a a i t h u s means, to " t u r n on a t i k k i " , to

" t u r n on a dime".
16 T l a l i r e i t e r a t e s t h i s p r o v e r b i n h e r s h o r t story

("Detour i n t o D e t e n t i o n " , M i h l o t i 35) .

1-7
T l a l i d e p i c t s t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r t h e b l a c k woman

l e a v i n g a n a b u s i v e h u s b a n d more f u l l y i n h e r s h o r t s t o r y , " m a - -

Lithoto", ( F o o t p r i n t s i n t h e Quaq 1 2 - 2 6 ) .
18 Head was b o r n i n P i e t e r m a r i t z b u r g , Natal, a province

of p r e d o m i n a n t l y E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g w h i t e s and Zulu b l a c k s . The

m a j o r i t y o f c o l o u r e d s l i v e i n t h e Cape P r o v i n c e , a n d a l t h o u g h

t h e y s p e a k a b l e n d of many t o n g u e s , t h e Cape c o l o u r e d s a r e

predominantly Afrikaans speaking.

19
Nkosi writes, " B e s s i e Head i s n o t a p o l i t i c a l n o v e l i s t

i n a n y s e n s e w e c a n r e c o g n i z e ; i n d e e d , there i s a m p l e e v i d e n c e

that s h e i s g e n e r a l l y h o s t i l e t o p o l i t i c s " (102).

- l-"
-9

Nadine Gordimer c l a i m s t h a t "a writer u s e s t h e

s u b s t a n c e o f t h e l i f e around him - that's a l 1 h e h a s - and i f he

d o e s s o t r u t h f u l l y t h e n o f c o u r s e p o l i t i c a l t h i n g s come into i t ,

especially i n South A f r i c a . P o l i t i c s , t h e e f f e c t s of p o l i t i c s ,

permeate e v e n t h e most p r i v a t e s e c t o r o f p e o p l e ' s l i v e s and t h i s

cornes i n t o y o u r w r i t i n g " ( I n t e r v i e w , S a l k e y 184-85).

--
7 1
When Head £ i r s t a r r i v e d i n Botswana, s h e s t a y e d i n a

refugee camp i n F r a n c i s t o w n , where s h e met a Zimbabwean man who

became h e r mode1 for Makhaya (Marquard 5 3 ) .

- --
1
D e s p i t e t h e a p p a r e n t a d v a n t a g e s of c a s h crops, a s p u t

forward by Head, b o t h O g u n d i p e - L e s l i e a n d S t e a d y a d v o c a t e t h a t
t h e g r o w i n g o f c a s h c r o p s h a d a n e g a t i v e i m p a c t on women

( ~ g u n d i p e - L e s l i e 28-29, Steady 1 2 ) .
23 I n Botswana, t h e s t a p l e c u r r e n c y is t h e pula, a

Tswana word rneaning r a i n .

54 1 r e f e r t o M a r g a r e t a s a "bushman" a n d n o t "bushwoman"

a s t h i s is t h e term used by Head t o d e s c r i b e M a r g a r e t .

-
?C
A Head c l a i m s t h a t what s h e " s i m p l y o f f e r e d t o t h e

Masarwa g i r l , M a r g a r e t , was [ h e r ] own b a c k g r o u n d - the early l i f e

i n t h e mission .... The woman M a r g a r e t Cadmore ... was one of

[ h e r ] t e a c h e r s i n t h e mission". Head r e l a t e s how a B r i t i s h woman

d o c t o r , upon r e a d i n g t h e n o v e l , r e c o g n i z e d t h e name M a r g a r e t

Cadmore, a n d i d e n t i f i e d t h e woman who h a d t a u g h t Head £rom Head's

p o r t r a y a l o f her i n Maru.
2O
Maru i s Tswana word s i g n i f y i n g r a i n c l o u d ( J o h n s o n ,

"Proper Names" 1 3 2 ) .
-
-- Head g i v e s a b r i e f h i s t o r y of t h e work P a t r i c k Van

Rensburg d i d i n Serowe, e s t a b l i s h i n g a s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l , and t h e

Swaneng P r o j e c t , a v i l l a g e developrnent workshop, ernbracing t h e

whole community a n d i t s n e e d s (Serowe 1 3 5 - 3 8 ) .

29
Nkosi j u d g e s t h e n o v e l a s " a d i s a s t r o u s f a i l u r e " i n

which " t h e m e n t a l breakdown o f t h e h e r o i n e is accompanied by a

p a r a l l e l breakdown i n communication, w i t h a n i n c r e a s i n g l o s s of

t h i s power t o i n s t r u c t o r a r o u s e sympathy" (101-02).

--
7G
The name "Cape Gooseberry" a n d t h e t e r m "Cape

coloured", t h e commonly u s e d term i n S o u t h A f r i c a f o r a l 1

c o l o u r e d s , be t h e y from t h e Cape or e l s e w h e r e , a r e a n a l o g o u s .

Head i n d i r e c t l y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e word " g o o s e b e r r y " , w h i c h

suggests an unnatural combination, echoes the South African

official attitude to mixed race. The Immorality Act forbade

interracial propagation,
30
Ogundipe-Leslie advocates that b o t h Islam and

Christianity are male-dominated and hold patriarchal values. She

claims that these religions affected t h e status of African women,

causing greater subordination.

31
Elizabeth's accusations of S e l l o are clearly based on

Head's own accusations made against Sir Seretse Khama. She

reputedly accused him of ritual cannibalism and incest, and

posted her accusations on the door to the post office in Serowe

( A Woman Alone xi).

 CONCLUSION

I n A Q u e s t i o n o f Power, Elizabeth i s f o r c e d b y Medusa t o

c o n f r o n t h e r own r e f l e c t i o n and recognize t h e l a t e n t power and

passive self-victimization within h e r s e l f . Only by h e r i n t e r n a 1

s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n i s s h e a b l e t o take r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h e r own

person. Head, t h r o u g h E l i z a b e t h , presumably w o r k s t h r o u g h h e r

own p a i n f u l s e l f - e x a m i n a t i o n and is i n H e l e n e C i x o u s ' s words,

finally able t o " w r i t e her self .... put h e r s e l f i n t o t h e text--

a s i n t o t h e world and i n t o h i s t o r y - - b y h e r own movement" (245).

S i n c e who w e p e r c e i v e o u r s e l v e s t o be depends on what w e remember

and t h e a u t h o r i t y t h a t cornes w i t h memory, s e l f - a n a l y s i s a n d

reflection force Elizabeth, within her present context, t o

c o n f r o n t h e r p a s t , and t o examine t o what e x t e n t she has

i n t e r n a l i z e d s o c i a l memory. L i k e w i s e , a l 1 A f r i c a n women w r i t e r s ,

by r e c o r d i n g t h e i r own p e r s p e c t i v e s o f t h e i r changing w o r l d s , are

r e f l e c t i n g upon t h e m s e l v e s t h r o u g h memory a n d t h e a u t h o r i t y t h a t

accompanies i t . When c u l t u r a l memory, i t s e l f , a l i e n a t e s o r

r n a r g i n a l i z e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l , s e l f - a n a l y s i s o f n e c e s s i t y becomes

t h e process of d i s a l i e n a t i o n , o f which Fanon w r i t e s , and which,

a s Head d e m o n s t r a t e s , may t h r e a t e n i n d i v i d u a l s t a b i l i t y ; it is

t h i s process t h a t I have t r i e d t o t r a c e .

S i n c e t o t a k e on a language i s t o assume t h a t l a n g u a g e ' s

c u l t u r a l memory and a u t h o r i t y , t h e methods employed b y t h e

A f r i c a n women writers 1 examine, when u s i n g t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e ,

r e f l e c t t h e i r a t t i t u d e s towards t h e i r own c u l t u r e s and h i s t o r i e s ,

a s w e l l a s t h e i r a d o p t e d language w i t h its i n h e r e n t s o c i a l
cultures. The more they retain and incorporate their own
language idioms into their English expression, the more they

appear to remain embraced within their cultural memory. It is

difficult, if not impossible, to substantiate whether the

retention of their own idioms is by choice or whether it reflects

the strength of dictating customs.
Through memory and language, Waciumals Daugher of Mumbi

demonstrates that in the Gikuyu oral culture, the world, the

place of culture does not exist outside of the Gikuyu language in

the way it does in a dernotic language like English. Thus

Waciuma, in recalling her past, incorporates her Gikuyu language
with its inherent customs into her text to reaffirm her very

existence. Nwapa, likewise, incorporates the idioms and

intonation of her Igbo language to re-create the reality of her

oral society. In this manner, Waciuma and Nwapa are able to

convey in a language not their own the spirit and culture that is

their own, and thus they "adopt strategies of appropriation ....

which maintain the integrity of ... Otherness (Ashcroft,

Griffiths and Tiffin, The Empire 71). Their works demonstrate

how language does not express memory in any simply ostensive way,
but contributes to its formation. On the other hand, the works

of Emecheta reflect both a total rejection of her Igbo language

with its inherent cultural memories, and an adoption a new

language together with its inherent culture.

Waciuma and Nwapa differ, however, in their depiction of the

individual, for despite Waciuma's writing of her own history, she
appears to conform with Kenyan cultural beliefs, and clearly
values t h e g r o u p o v e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l . Nwapa, on the o t h e r hand,

r e c a l l s d i g n i f i e d , i n d i v i d u a l women c h a r a c t e r s , who s u f f e r t h e

f a t e of non-conf orming . Emecheta ' s w o r k s , p e r h a p s i n e v i t a b l y ,

r e f l e c t her a d o p t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l f o c u s i n h e r e n t i n her

a d o p t e d Western c u l t u r e . Openly h o s t i l e t o w a r d s ber I g b o P a s t ,

s h e o f f e r s no s o l u t i o n s f o r h e r i n d i v i d u a l p r o t a g o n i s t s , e n s l a v e d

a n d t r a p p e d by e l e m e n t s o f t h e i r I g b o c u s t o m s . However, f o r

t h o s e who r e j e c t t h e p a s t c u s t o m s , s t r o n g i n d i v i d u a l s l i k e Adah,

Adaku and Debbie, s h e o f f ers new n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l roles .

O t h e r a u t h o r s , s u c h a s Ogot, Were a n d T l a l i , o f f e r a more

compromising b l e n d of c u l t u r e s , a s d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e i r w r i t t e n

expression. Again t h e use o f l a n g u a g e b o t h e x p r e s s e s mernory and

a l s o contributes t o its formation. By d r a w i n g on e l e m e n t s o f

c u l t u r a l memory o f b o t h W e s t e r n a n d A f r i c a n c u l t u r e s , a n d a s

embedded i n l a n g u a g e , they a r e a b l e t o o f f e r s o l u t i o n s t h a t

demand n e i t h e r a n a b r u p t o r t o t a l r e j e c t i o n o f t h e i r African

c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s , nor a complete immersion i n a f o r e i g n

culture. F u r t h e m o r e , t h e s e a u t h o r s r e c o g n i z e t h e v a l u e of

s t r o n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o l e a d t h e community o r n a t i o n , a n d t h e y t h u s

a c h i e v e a compromise i n v a l u i n g b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e

g r o u p , hence b o t h c u l t u r a l i d e o l o g i e s . I n t h i s way, they

i n d i c a t e t h a t , t h r o u g h accommodation, a s p e c t s o f t h e W e s t e r n

c u l t u r a l memory have become p a r t o f t h e i r own.

Ong c l a i m s t h a t W e s t e r n n a r r a t i v e h a s become more a n d more

p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h and a r t i c u l a t e a b o u t i n n e r , p e r s o n a 1 c r i s e s , a

s t a g e of r e f l e c t i o n which would n e v e r h a v e been r e a c h e d w i t h o u t

t h e conscious r a i s i n g a t t r i b u t e s of w r i t i n g ( 1 7 8 ) . If o n e
a c c e p t s h i s a s s e r t i o n , o n e could a r g u e t h a t A f r i c a n women w i l l

become more and more f o c u s e d on t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e f u r t h e r t h e y

a r e i n t i m e from t h e i r o r a l b a c k g r o u n d s . Head, s o p a r t i c u l a r l y

p e r s o n a l and i n t r o s p e c t i v e , i s u n i q u e i n having o n l y t h e assumed

s o c i a l memory of h e r Western, E n g l i s h , m i s s i o n a r y s c h o o l i n g .

However, N j a u ' s R i p p l e s i n t h e Pool i s a l s o p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h

i n n e r persona1 crises. N j a u ' s and H e a d t s mind-bending works b o t h

r e c a l l c o n f u s i o n a n d t r a u m a of t h e mind and i l l u s t r a t e t h e

p s y c h i c h o r r o r s and t u r b u l e n t h i s t o r i e s of t h e i r p r o t a g o n i s t s .

I n c o n t r a s t , t h e n a r r a t i v e r e a l i s m o f Nwapa a n d E m e c h e t a l s

n o v e l s , which d e p i c t t h e more mundane e x p e r i e n c e s of c o u r t s h i p ,

marriage and c h i l d b e a r i n g i n r u r a l c o m u n i t i e s , helps r e c o r d

o b j e c t i v e l y t h e i r u n h u r r i e d , c u l t u r a l worlds.

O g o t a l s o e x p l o r e s t h e i n n e r c o n f u s i o n o f t h e mind, ilthough

she u s e s a c h r o n o l o g i c a l n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e . Ochola's "disease"

F s , i n a s e n s e , one o f t h e mind. H i s near l o s s of l i f e s u g g e st s

the n e a r loss of h i s i d e n t i f y i n g c u l t u r e , h i s p a s t r o o t s . The

l o s s o f e i t h e r i s synonymous. On o n e l e v e l , E m e c h e t a f s r e j e c t i o n

of h e r I g b o p a s t s u g g e s t s s h e began t o lose h e r Igbo i d e n t i t y

when e m i g r a t i n g t o London and s h e rnay be s e e n t o exernplify O g o t t s

fear. However, E m e c h e t a ' s drawing s o h e a v i l y o n h e r N i g e r i a n

background i n s o many o f h e r works s u g g e s t s t h a t , a s w i t h E z e k i e l

Mphahlele, t h e " t y r a n n y o f p l a c e " s t i l l c o u r t s h e r . While

Emecheta rnay chocse t o d i f f e r from h e r i n h e r i t e d p a s t , s h e s t i l l

needs t o d e f e r t o it. The p a s t cannot be c u t o f f : a l 1

e x p e r i e n c e s and a i l moments of t h e p a s t impact upon t h e p r e s e n t .

Emecheta may in fact need to 'reject" her past in order to cope
with the physical disassociation from it.

The reassessing of the remembered authority by women writers

leads naturally to feminist issues because the writers are

dealing predominantly with women's concerns. While there is no
continuous pattern to trace in these early women's novels, most
depict the inequities and injustices of women's subservience,
polygyny and bride-price traditions. However, just as one cannot

totally remove the effects of the past and its authority, one can
never forget enough of the familiar present to rernember the past
without the present's influence. Thus, the remembered past, as
presented to the reader in the novels of these writers, of
necessity is tainted by the present when transmitted through
their perspectives. Their assessment of African customs may well
be subtly and subconsciously influenced by other present factors.

Without exception, these women take advantage of the educational

and attitudinal opportunities offered by Western modernization

and in so doing, accept the difficulties of a multifaceted

identity, which combines elements of old and new.

Katherine Frank argues that feminism is an "individualistic

ideology in contrast to the communal nature of African society"
(15). 1 hope that my examination of the burden of mernory

suggests an alternative explanation. Most African women writers

do f o c u s on individual protagonists, but 1 would argue that the

desired liberation of al1 women is implicit. The writers find

the solutions for liberation from the authority of imposed memory
through different avenues. Nwapa appears to advocate the
advantages of economic power. Efuru and Idu, by being excellent

traders, attain an economic independence. In particular, Efuru's

good money management allows her to achieve a status within the

community as a benevolent money lender. Emecheta, Were, Ogot and

Waciuma advocate education as their liberating means, in some

cases, education being a means to economic independence. Through
her schooling, Adah becomes independent of the dole. Education
also offers the woman a vision of human experience beyond the

narrow confines of her own life and a breadth of perspective, no

doubt necessary to instigate any change. Even Obejeta in -

The
Slave Girl, when reading an Igbo book, can temporarily and
imaginatively escape her life of entrapment. Others, like
Karungaru in The Graduate, and Debbie in Destination Biafra are
empowered by means of their education and able to prescribe new

roles for themselves.

Tlali and Head confront the more extreme complexity of
apartheid, although both also posit education as a means of
liberating women from their past subservience to authority. The
women in When Rain Clouds Gather are taught the modern

agricultural techniques, and Pholoso in Amandla speaks

passionately and persuasively of the importance for women to
educate themselves. However, Head's and Tlali's prime concern
confronting the deeper ramifications of apartheid. In Amandla

Tlali places emphasis on the need for collective solidarity, men

and women together, as necessary for the liberation of the

people. In Muriel at Metropolitan, Muriel, through self-analysis

of her own physical entrapment in apartheid, tries to liberate
herself by refusing to ccntribute to it any longer. Xowever, in
resigning from her job, she risks a different f o m of oppression,

economic oppression. That Tlali's works were banned illustrates

the government's attempt to suppress and control memory and

preserve its own authority, and makes Tlali' recorded memory al1
the more valuable, Head takes the personai self-analysis yet

further, analyzing the internalization and psychological damage

of her social memory formed in South Africa, and finds freedom

through self-acceptance. Tlali, Were and Head also advocate that

no solution to the subservient status of women will be found in

their male dominated worlds unless the men, themselves, change

their attitudes towards women and traditional authority.

Njau, too, depicts the psychological damage resulting from

Western capitalisrn and materialism. None of the women in h e r

novel work out any kind of integration as being women and women

workers in the modern economy. Nevertheless, Njau seems to hold

out the hope that her people might restore the old way of life,

and take up where they were, before colonization. As Muthee, in

Ripples in the Pool suggests, the river, when meeting an

obstacle, merely winds around it and proceeds on its course.

Njau implies by analogy that the past colonial intrusion is

merely a temporary obstacle, easily circumnavigated or forgotten.

However, as Waciuma states, "there is no going back", and the

post-colonial experience, of necessity, becomes part of the

African histories, and hence part of African cultural mernories

(91). Njau's analogy remains a nostalgie dream.

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