CHAPTER 2

FLEXURAL AND SHEARING STRESSES

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In addition to supporting tension or compression, a beam can resist shear, bending, and torsion.
The way a part is loaded determines whether it is called a tensile or compressive member, a
torsional shaft, or a beam. Loading the rod in tension parallel to its axis makes the rod a tensile
member; loading it in compression parallel to its axis makes it a compressive member. If you
twist the steel rod with torque T, then we call it a torsional shaft. If loading is perpendicular
(transverse) to its axis so that the rod bends, then the rod is called a beam.
Structural members are usually classified according to the types of loads that they support. In this
chapter, we begin our study of beams, which are structural members subjected to lateral loads, that
is, forces or moments having their vectors perpendicular to the axis of the bar.

Fig. : Examples of beams subjected to lateral loads

Types of beams
A beam with a pin support at one end and a roller support at the other is called a simply supported
beam or a simple beam. The essential feature of a pin support is that it prevents translation at the
end of a beam but does not prevent rotation. Consequently, a pin support is capable of developing a
force reaction with both horizontal and vertical components, but it cannot develop a moment
reaction.
The roller support prevents translation in the vertical direction but not in the horizontal direction;
hence this support can resist a vertical force but not a horizontal force. The vertical reactions at
roller supports and pin supports may act either upward or downward, and the horizontal reaction at
a pin support may act either to the left or to the right.
The beam which is fixed at one end and free at the other, is called a cantilever beam. At the fixed
support (or clamped support) the beam can neither translate nor rotate, whereas at the free end it
may do both. Consequently, both force and moment reactions may exist at the fixed support.
The beam which has member which projects beyond the support is termed as overhang beam.
Types of Loads
When a load is applied over a very small area it may be idealized as a concentrated load, which is
a single force. When a load is spread along the axis of a beam, it is represented as a distributed
load. Distributed loads are measured by their intensity, which is expressed in units of force per unit
distance (for example, newtons per meter or pounds per foot). A uniformly distributed load, or

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uniform load, has constant intensity q per unit distance. A varying load has an intensity that changes
with distance along the axis; for instance, the linearly varying load has an intensity that varies
linearly. Another kind of load is a couple, illustrated by the couple of moment M.
Reactions
Finding the reactions is usually the first step in the analysis of a beam. Once the reactions are
known, the shear forces and bending moments can be found. If a beam is supported in a statically
determinate manner, all reactions can be found from free-body diagrams and equations of
equilibrium.
2.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOADS, SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING
MOMENTS DIAGRAM
The variation of shear force V and bending moment M over the length of a beam provides
information necessary for the design analysis of the beam. In particular, the maximum magnitude
of the bending moment is usually the primary consideration in the design or selection of a beam,
and its value and position should be determined. The variations in shear and moment are best
shown graphically, and the expressions for V and M when plotted against distance along the
beam give the shear-force and bending-moment diagrams for the beam.
For any beam with distributed loads we can establish certain general relationships which will aid
greatly in the determination of the shear and moment distributions along the beam.
The loading w represents the force per unit length of beam. At the location x the shear V and
moment M acting on the element are drawn in their positive directions. On the opposite side of
the element where the coordinate is x + dx, these quantities are also shown in their positive
directions.They must, however, be labeled V + dV and M + dM, since V and M change with x.
The applied loading w may be considered constant over the length of the element, since this
length is a differential quantity and the effect of any change in w disappears in the limit
compared with the effect of w itself.

Equilibrium of the element requires that the sum of the vertical forces be zero. Thus, we have

The slope of the shear diagram must everywhere be equal to the negative of the value of the
applied loading.

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We may now express the shear force V in terms of the loading w by integrating the above Eq.
Thus,

Or

In this expression V0 is the shear force at x0 and V is the shear force at x. Summing the area under
the loading curve is usually a simple way to construct the shear-force diagram.
Equilibrium of the element in above Fig. also requires that the moment sum be zero. Summing
moments about the left side of the element gives

We may now express the moment M in terms of the shear V by integrating. Thus,

Or

In this expression M0 is the bending moment at x0 and M is the bending moment at x. For beams
where there is no externally applied moment M0 at x0 = 0, the total moment at any section equals
the area under the shear diagram up to that section. Summing the area under the shear diagram is
usually the simplest way to construct the moment diagram.
Bending moment is related to load as:

The following are some important properties of shear and moment diagrams:
1. The area of the shear diagram to the left or to the right of the section is equal to the moment
at that section.
2. The slope of the moment diagram at a given point is the shear at that point.
3. The slope of the shear diagram at a given point equals the load at that point.
4. The maximum moment occurs at the point of zero shears. This is in reference to property
number 2, that when the shear (also the slope of the moment diagram) is zero, the tangent
drawn to the moment diagram is horizontal.
5. When the shear diagram is increasing, the moment diagram is concave upward.
6. When the shear diagram is decreasing, the moment diagram is concave downward.

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2.3 FLEXURAL STRESSES IN BEAMS
In this section we investigate the stresses and strains associated with shear forces and bending
moments. Knowing the stresses and strains, we will be able to analyze and design beams
subjected to a variety of loading conditions. Forces and couples acting on the beam cause
bending (flexural stresses) and shearing stresses on any cross section of the beam and deflection
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam. If couples are applied to the ends of the beam
and no forces act on it, the bending is said to be pure bending. If forces produce the bending, the
bending is called ordinary bending.

ASSUMPTIONS
In using the formulas for flexural and shearing stresses, it is assumed that a plane section of the
beam normal to its longitudinal axis prior to loading remains plane after the forces and couples
have been applied, and that the beam is initially straight and of uniform cross section and that the
moduli of elasticity in tension and compression are equal.

Flexure Formula
Stresses caused by the bending moment are known as flexural or bending stresses. Consider a
beam to be loaded as shown.

Consider a fiber at a distance y from the neutral axis, because of the beam’s curvature, as the
effect of bending moment, the fiber is stretched by an amount of cd. Since the curvature of the
beam is very small, bcd and Oba are considered as similar triangles. The strain on this fiber is

By Hooke’s law, ε = σ / E, then

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which means that the stress is proportional to the distance y from the neutral axis.

Considering a differential area dA at a distance y from N.A., the force acting over the area is

The resultant of all the elemental moment about N.A. must be equal to the bending moment on
the section.

But

Then

Substituting ρ = Ey / fb

Then,

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and

The bending stress due to beams curvature is

The beam curvature is:

where ρ is the radius of curvature of the beam in mm (in), M is the bending moment in N·mm
(lb·in), fb is the flexural stress in MPa (psi), I is the centroidal moment of inertia in mm 4 (in4),
and c is the distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber in mm (in).
SECTION MODULUS
In the formula

the ratio I/c is called the section modulus and is usually denoted by S with units of mm 3 (in3).
The maximum bending stress may then be written as

For a beam of rectangular cross section with width b and height h:

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For a circular cross section of diameter d:

Solved Problems in Flexure Formula

Example 1: A cantilever beam, 50 mm wide by 150 mm high and 6 m long, carries a load that
varies uniformly from zero at the free end to 1000 N/m at the wall. (a) Compute the magnitude
and location of the maximum flexural stress. (b) Determine the type and magnitude of the stress
in a fiber 20 mm from the top of the beam at a section 2 m from the free end.
Solution

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Example 2: A simply supported beam, 2 in wide by 4 in high and 12 ft long is subjected to a
concentrated load of 2000 lb at a point 3 ft from one of the supports. Determine the maximum
fiber stress and the stress in a fiber located 0.5 in from the top of the beam at midspan.

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Example 3: A simple beam AB of span length L = 22 ft supports a uniform load of intensity q = 1.5
k/ft and a concentrated load P = 12 k. The uniform load includes an allowance for the weight of the
beam. The concentrated load acts at a point 9.0 ft from the left-hand end of the beam. The beam is
constructed of glued laminated wood and has a cross section of width b = 8.75 in. and height h = 27
in. Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the beam due to bending.
Solution

The maximum bending stresses in the beam occur at the cross section of maximum moment.
Section modulus. The section modulus of the cross-sectional area is calculated as follows:

Maximum stresses. The maximum tensile and compressive stresses and , respectively, are:

Example 4: A high strength steel band saw, 20 mm wide by 0.80 mm thick, runs over pulleys
600 mm in diameter. What maximum flexural stress is developed? What minimum diameter
pulleys can be used without exceeding a flexural stress of 400 MPa? Assume E = 200 GPa.
Solution

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Example 5: In a laboratory test of a beam loaded by end couples, the fibers at layer AB in Fig.
below are found to increase 60 × 10–3 mm whereas those at CD decrease 100 × 10–3 mm in the
200-mm-gage length. Using E = 70 GPa, determine the flexural stress in the top and bottom
fibers.

Solution

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2.4 DERIVATION OF BENDING STRESS EQUATION FOR COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
A beam made up of two or more different materials assumed to be rigidly connected together and
behaving like a single piece is known as a composite beam. When such a beam is subjected to
bending, the bending stresses and hence strains due to bending stresses at a point are proportional
to the distance of the point from the common neutral axis. Consider the composite beam as
shown in Fig. below and let at a distance y from the N.A., the stresses in steel and wood are f1
and f2 respectively.
Let E1 = Young’s modulus of steel plate
I1 = Moment of inertia of steel about N.A.
M1 = Moment of resistance of steel
E2 = Young’s modulus of wood
I2 = Moment of inertia of wood about N.A.
M2 = Moment of resistance of wood
Strain in steel at a distance y from N.A.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
= = 𝐸1 (Stress in steel =𝜎1)
𝐸 1
Strain in wood at a distance y from N.A.
𝜎
= 𝐸2
2
But strain at the common surface is same
𝜎1 𝜎
= 𝐸2
𝐸 1 2
𝐸1
Or 𝜎1 = 𝐸 𝑥𝜎2
2
= 𝑚𝑥𝜎2
𝐸
Where 𝑚 = 𝐸1 and is known as modular ratio between steel and wood.
2
𝑀 𝜎 𝜎
Using the relation = 𝑦 , we get 𝑀 = 𝑦 𝑥𝐼
𝐼
Hence moment of resistance of steel and wood are given by,
𝜎 𝜎
𝑀1 = 𝑦1 𝑥𝐼1 and 𝑀2 = 𝑦2 𝑥𝐼2
Total moment of resistance of the composite section,
𝑀 = 𝑀1 + 𝑀2
𝜎 𝜎
= 1 𝑥𝐼1 + 2 𝑥𝐼2
𝑦 𝑦
𝑚𝜎 2 𝑥 𝐼1 𝜎2
= + 𝑥𝐼2
𝑦 𝑦
𝜎2
= (𝑚𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )
𝑦
𝑚𝐼1 + 𝐼2 can be treated as equivalent moment of inertia of the cross-section. Let this be denoted
by I.
𝐼 = 𝑚𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝜎
Then, 𝑀 = 𝑦2 𝑥𝐼

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Example:
A timber beam 150 mm wide and 200 mm deep is to be reinforced by bolting on two steel
flitches each 150 mm by 12.5 mm in section.
Calculate the moment of resistance in the following cases:
i) Flitches attached symmetrically at the top and bottom
ii) Flitches attached symmetrically at the sides
Allowable stress in timber is 6 N/mm2.
What is the maximum stress in the steel in each case? Take Es = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and Et = 1 x 104
N/mm2.

Solution
1st case:

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2nd case

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2.5 SHEARING STRESSES IN BEAMS
When a beam is in pure bending, the only stress resultants are the bending moments and the only
stresses are the normal stresses acting on the cross sections. However, most beams are subjected to
loads that produce both bending moments and shear forces (non-uniform bending). In these cases,
both normal and shear stresses are developed in the beam.
Derivation of Shear Formula
Instead of evaluating the vertical shear stresses acting on a cross section, it is easier to evaluate the
horizontal shear stresses acting between layers of the beam. Of course, the vertical shear stresses
have the same magnitudes as the horizontal shear stresses.
Consider a beam in non-uniform bending. We take two adjacent cross sections mn and m1n1,
distance dx apart, and consider the element mm1n1n. The bending moment and shear force acting on
the left-hand face of this element are denoted M and V, respectively. Since both the bending
moment and shear force may change as we move along the axis of the beam, the corresponding
quantities on the right-hand face are denoted M + dM and V + dV.

Fig: Shear stresses in a beam of rectangular cross section

Because of the presence of the bending moments and shear forces, the element shown in Fig. is
subjected to normal and shear stresses on both cross-sectional faces. However, only the normal

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stresses are needed in the following derivation, and therefore only the normal stresses are shown.
On cross sections mn and m1n1 the normal stresses are, respectively,

In these expressions, y is the distance from the neutral axis and I is the moment of inertia of the
cross-sectional area about the neutral axis.
We begin by identifying an element of area dA in the cross section at distance y from the neutral
axis. The force acting on this element is dA, in which is the normal stress obtained from the
flexure formula. Summing the elements of force over the area of face mp of the sub element gives
the total horizontal force F1 acting on that face:

Note that this integration is performed over the area of the shaded part of the cross section shown in
Fig. d below, that is, over the area of the cross section from y = y1 to y = h/2. The force F1 is shown
in Fig. on a partial free-body diagram of the sub element (vertical forces have been omitted). In a
similar manner, we find that the total force F2 acting on the right-hand face m1p1 of the sub element
is:

Fig. : Partial free-body diagram of sub element showing all horizontal forces
Knowing the forces F1 and F2, we can now determine the horizontal force F3 acting on the bottom
face of the sub element. Since the sub element is in equilibrium, we can sum forces in the x
direction and obtain

The quantities dM and I in the last term can be moved outside the integral sign because they are
constants at any given cross section and are not involved in the integration. Thus, the expression for
the force F3 becomes

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If the shear stresses 𝜏 are uniformly distributed across the width b of the beam, the force F is also
equal to the following:

In which b dx is the area of the bottom face of the sub element. Combining Eqs. and solving for the
shear stress 𝜏 we get

The quantity dM/dx is equal to the shear force V, and therefore the preceding expression becomes

The integral is the first moment of the cross-sectional area above the level at which the shear stress
𝜏 is being evaluated. This first moment is usually denoted by the symbol Q:

With this notation, the equation for the shear stress becomes

This equation, known as the shear formula, can be used to determine the shear stress 𝜏 at any point
in the cross section of a rectangular beam. Note that for a specific cross section, the shear force V,
moment of inertia I, and width b are constants. However, the first moment Q (and hence the shear
stress 𝜏) varies with the distance y1 from the neutral axis.

Example 1
A wooden beam 100 mm wide and 150 mm deep is simply supported over a span of 4 meters. If
shear force at a section of the beam is 4500 N, find the shear stress at a distance of 25 mm above
the N.A.
Solution

𝑄𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑦𝑐 = 100𝑚𝑚 𝑥 50𝑚𝑚 𝑥 50𝑚𝑚 = 250,000 𝑚𝑚3

100 𝑥 150 3
𝐼= = 28,125,000 𝑚𝑚4
12
4500 𝑥 250,000
𝜏 = 28,125,000 𝑥 100

= 0.4 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

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Example 2
A metal beam with span L = 3 ft is simply supported at points A and B as shown in Fig. below. The
uniform load on the beam (including its own weight) is q = 160 lb/in. The cross section of the beam
is rectangular with width b = 1 in. and height h = 4 in. The beam is adequately supported against
sideways buckling.
Determine the normal stress 𝜎c and shear stress 𝜏c at point C, which is located 1 in. below the top of
the beam and 8 in. from the right-hand support. Show these stresses on a sketch of a stress element
at point C.

Solution
Shear force and bending moment:
The shear force VC and bending moment MC at the cross section through point C are:

The signs of these quantities are based upon the standard sign conventions for bending moments
and shear forces.
Moment of inertia:
The moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the neutral axis (the z axis) is

(a) (b)
Fig: (a) cross section of beam, and (b) stress element showing the normal and shear stresses at
point C
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Normal stress at point C:
The normal stress at point C is found from the flexure formula with the distance y from the neutral
axis equal to 1.0 in. Thus,

The minus sign indicates that the stress is compressive, as expected.

Shear stress at point C:
The first moment QC of the cross-sectional area above point C is equal to the product of the area
and its centroidal distance (denoted yC) from the z axis. Thus,

From shear formula, the magnitude of the shear stress is:

The best way to show the directions of both the normal and shear stresses is to draw a stress
element as shown in Fig. b above.

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