Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csite

Analysis of doublet bubble dynamics near a rigid wall in

ferroparticle nanofluids
Ali F. Abu-Bakr a, b, *, Tetsuya Kanagawa c, Ahmed K. Abu-Nab a, d
a
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Shebin El- Koom, 32511, Egypt
b
Theoretical and Mathematical Physics Department, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, 620083, Russia
c
Department of Engineering Mechanics and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, Information and Systems, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai,
Tsukuba, 305-8573, Japan
d
Fluid Dynamics and Seismics Lab, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Moscow, 141700, Russia

G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

Schematic illustration of the problem: doublet bubbles dynamics near a rigid wall boundary.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study aims to characterize the interaction of doublet bubbles growing near a solid wall in
Interaction bubbles ferroparticle nanofluids. Accordingly, we analyzed the behavior of spherical bubbles near a rigid
Solid wall wall considering liquid compressibility of suspended ferro-nanoparticles. In addition to the
Fe3 O4 /water nanofluid interaction effect between two bubbles, we considered the rigid wall forces and thermophysical
Keller–Miksis equation configurations of the particles in nanofluids to understand the bubble growth. The equation of
Overheating liquids
motion of the doublet bubbles was formulated based on the continuity equation, Euler equation,
wave equation, and thermophysical configurations of the particles in nanofluids. Subsequently,
the developed model was analytically solved by modifying the Plesset–Zwick technique.
Throughout the bubble growth, we examined the thermal effects on the cavitation bubble dy­
namics, such as the distance between the interacting bubbles, vertical distance between the
bubble center and rigid wall, and ferro-nanoparticle volume concentration. The analysis results

* Corresponding author. Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Shebin El- Koom, 32511, Egypt.
E-mail address: alibakrm@yahoo.com (A.F. Abu-Bakr).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2022.102060
Received 19 March 2022; Received in revised form 15 April 2022; Accepted 20 April 2022
Available online 25 April 2022
2214-157X/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

revealed that the bubble growth was directly proportional to the Jacob number and thermal
diffusivity, and inversely proportional to the distance between the boundary rigid wall and
bubble center. Furthermore, it can be deduced from the results that the presence of the wall
significantly influenced the bubble growth and made a significant deviation between the moving
velocities of the interfaces both near and far from the wall. Ultimately, the phenomenon was
physically interpreted based on the theory of bubble dynamics, and the water pressure induced by
the bubble growth was estimated. The results were well aligned with the theoretical and
experimental results from previous studies.

1. Introduction
In this study, we aim to understand the phenomena of cavitation of bubble dynamics near a solid wall in ferroparticle nanofluids,
which is important in industrial applications. The mechanics of cavitation bubbles were first discovered in water conservation
equipment, which revel propeller was damaged by cavitation caused by a shock wave and micro-jets generated by the growth or
collapse of cavitation bubbles, and the cavitation phenomenon of the propeller is a typical for cavitation growth or collapse near a rigid
wall. With the application of cavitation technology in a variety of areas, including ultrasonic cleaning, ship structure broken, and
underwater explosions, hydraulic machinery [1–3], it has become a popular research topic among academics in recent years. In
principle, cavitation damage on solid surfaces is a fundamental concern in turbomachinery design, and several studies have been
conducted on bubble behavior or bubble dynamics near solid boundaries [4,5]. The dynamics of bubbles at a solid boundary has been
studied using high-speed photography, which observes the variation in bubble form and measures the tip velocity during the bubble
collapse [6]. Several concise experimental studies have been conducted on bubble behavior near a solid wall by varying the distance
between the bubble and wall surface along with the shape of the wall. These studies revealed that the formation of a disk-shaped
bubble followed by the penetration of a liquid jet on the concave wall surface can generate extremely high pressures because of
shock focusing [7–9]. For instance, hydroturbines, pumps and hydraulic systems [10–14] exhibit violent oscillations with a high
interface speed, creating significant shock waves until a final collapse. Furthermore, the dynamics of a bubble or droplet approaching a
solid surface have been analyzed theoretically and computationally. Based on the lubrication theory and boundary-integral theory,
Yiantsios and Davis [15] investigated the buoyancy-driven motion of a drop moving towards a solid surface or deformable interface
[16]. The development of high-speed liquid jets is one of the most essential and fascinating aspects of bubble dynamics near a stiff wall.
In the case of small-scale bubbles, these jets progress toward the wall and interact with the flow field near the wall [17]. Moreover, they
may even strike the wall in the final stages of the bubble collapse. Therefore, the degree of cavitation erosion of mechanical com­
ponents depends on the energy contained in these jets and their directivity toward the wall. Recently, a toroidal-shaped bubble with a
microscale jet aimed at the wall was observed and analyzed in many studies [18,19]. Therefore, it is clear that cavitation bubbles pose
a significant threat to hydraulics. On the contrary, the harmful potential of a cavitation bubble can be utilized for diverse applications,
such as cleaning dirt [20,21]. To protect a surface from cavitation damage or improve cavitation-induced physical benefits, the precise
physical process of the cavitation dynamics during the entire event should be thoroughly investigated. Moreover, experimental and
theoretical investigations [22–25] of single-bubble dynamics can be classified into two manifolds: without and with boundary. In
previous studies, the authors [23,24] had introduced a comparative analysis between numerical and experimental studies of vapor
bubbles in different sub-atmospheric pressures. The nonequilibrium collapse or growth of a bubble in a viscous compressible liquid has
been discussed in previous studies [11,26–28] In particular, a shock gas-microbubble collapse near a boundary wall [29] was
investigated through numerical simulations based on an invisible and slightly compressible fluid solver. The study determined that the
high-pressure region created in spherical and non-spherical bubble collapses beside the wall can be simulated under the impact of slab
forces [29,30] and multiphase lattice Boltzmann method [31] under the influence of an acoustic field and multiple scale method
[32–34] with considering the thermal effects of microbubbles for weakly nonlinear pressure propagation in bubbly gases and liquids.
In contrast, the interaction between the particles and cavitation bubbles occurs during the bubble growth and collapse [35,36]. An
experimental investigation has been conducted to observe the motion of numerous particles that arises during a bubble collapse under
a supporting cable triggered by an electric spark near a solid wall, whereas others were placed on the solid wall. The interaction
between bubbles and structures near a rigid wall offers several practical applications and contributes to various natural phenomena
[37–39]. More specifically, a large-scale underwater explosive bubble is created if a mine fuse is activated by an approaching sub­
marine, which impacts the submarine under the effect of the seabed. Thus, a thorough understanding of the dynamic characteristics of
bubbles can be critical in military operations [40]. Furthermore, acoustic cavitation bubbles are well-known high-efficiency cleaning
agents in ultrasonic cleaning, and thus, comprehending the underlying mechanisms is dependent on the bubble–particle interaction
near the polluted substrate [41,42].
Numerous researchers have studied bubble–wall interactions in the following categories: solid walls (e.g., plane, concave, convex,
composite materials), particles, gaps, two parallel walls, free surfaces, and non-Newtonian fluids [43–46] as well as the axisymmetric
shape [47]. The major conclusions of previous research on a bubble near a horizontal solid wall can be summarized as follows: During
its dynamic growth phase, the bubble almost maintains its spherically symmetrical shape over a long distance. Additionally, the effect
of spheroidal disruptions due to the initial bubble shape on its dynamics was investigated in several studies [48–51]. Furthermore,
analysis of the interval of the semi-axes ratios of a spheroidal bubble contacting the wall with a cumulative jet implied that the
volumetric growth of the bubbles can generate a radial liquid motion. The bubble displayed no real contact with the wall during the
growing phase when the distance from the solid wall was large. The bubble demonstrated certain non-spherical growth with

2
A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

observable migration toward the solid wall at a medium distance. In particular, the fluid domain surrounding the bubble becomes
more complicated with vortex formation, and the bubble may contact the solid wall depending on the distance. Moreover, the bubble
exhibited significant interface deformations in several directions over a short distance, and a distinct toroidal bubble was formed with
a jet inside it during its final growth [52]. If the distance between the two points is extremely short, the formation and qualities of the
stream are dramatically altered.
Recently, several experimental studies on the dynamics of bubbles in nanofluids have investigated the effect of various thermo­
physical configurations of nanofluids on the behavior of bubble characteristics and cavitation in an isothermal bubble column [53].
Moreover, numerous theoretical investigations have been conducted on the heat and mass transfer related to single-bubble dynamics
in nanoparticles/water nanofluids between the two-phase turbulent flow. The authors [54] formulated a mathematical model of
bubble growth in particles/water nanofluids, based on the heat equation and relations of thermophysical configuration in nanofluids,
wherein the heat distribution corresponding to the bubble growth regions in liquid water was larger than in other regions of parti­
cles/water nanofluids. However, the influence of particles on bubble dynamics is still unclarified, which is the concern of this study.
This study emphasizes to analyze the interaction mechanism between the doublet bubbles near a rigid wall on ferroparticles/water
nanofluids, and accordingly, a mathematical analysis method was formulated by considering the equation of bubble dynamics based
on the continuity equation, Euler equation, wave equation, and thermophysical configurations of particles in nanofluids. Subse­
quently, the model was analytically solved to determine the behavior of bubbles near a rigid wall. The behavior of a bubble near a solid
wall was analyzed considering an incompressible liquid. Furthermore, we investigated the influence of ferroparticles/water on the
behavior of the cavitation bubble growth. Ultimately, the theoretical results and experimental data from this study were compared
with the existing theoretical results.
The remaining of this article is covered in five sections. Physical and mathematical approaches are provided in Sections 2 and 3,
respectively. Thereafter, the analytical method for the solution is briefly discussed in Section 4, and the key outcomes are stated in
Section 5. Finally, the validation and conclusion are presented in Sections 6 and 7, respectively.

2. Physical approach
2.1. Problem
Studying the bubble dynamics near a rigid wall is useful in several industrial and engineering applications. In this study, we
considered the bubble dynamics near a wall in the presence of a ferroparticle-based nanofluid. A schematic of the theoretical setup
used in this study is illustrated in Fig. 1.
The following assumptions were considered herein:
• The bubble geometry was assumed to be spherical during the process with no migration toward the rigid wall.
• The distance between the two bubbles and that between the bubble and rigid wall were assumed to be h and L, respectively.

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of the problem: doublet bubbles dynamics near a rigid wall boundary.

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A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

• The liquid was assumed as nanoscale ferroparticles, which are called ferroparticle nanofluids, with the thermophysical configu­
ration properties, e.g., density, thermal conductivity, viscosity, and specific heat.
• The transfer of heat “temperature” due to concentration gradient and mass due to temperature gradient was considered.
• As the density of vapor was relatively small compared to that of liquid, we neglected the effect of gravitation.
• The vapor or gas was stationary and in a saturated state, indicating that the temperature and pressure of the vapor or gas were
functions of time.
• The gas pressure within the bubbles was uniform within the bubble, and the heat released by viscous dissipation was omitted.
The bubble dynamics can be described by solving the corresponding linear wave equation for the velocity potential Ψ [55,56] as
( ) ( )
1 ∂ ∂Ψ 1 ∂ ∂Ψ 1 ∂2 Ψ
r2 + 2 sin θ = 2 2, (1)
r ∂r
2 ∂r r sin θ ∂r ∂θ C ∂t

where r and θ are the polar coordinates, C denotes the speed of sound in the liquid at infinity, and t denotes time.
Subsequently, the following boundary conditions [55] were imposed:
▪ at infinity: Ψ = 0 at r → ∞,
▪ at the rigid wall: ∂∂Ψr cos θ − 1r∂Ψ = 0 at r = L ,
∂θ cos θ
( )2 ( ∂Ψ)2
▪ at the bubble surface: ∂∂Ψr − 1 ∂Ψ ∂R
r2 ∂θ ∂θ
= ∂∂Rt and ∂∂Ψt + 12 ∂∂Ψr + r12 ∂θ = P− ρPr=R at r = R,
nf

where R denotes the bubble radius, L indicates the distance between the center of the bubble and wall surface, P denotes pressure, and
ρnf denotes the density, as defined in Eq. (3a). Upon applying the boundary conditions in Eq. (1), the velocity potential Ψ can be
expressed as follows [55]:
[ ( )]
1( r) dR 1 dR dR
Ψ= 1+ − R2 + 2R2 + R3 . (2)
r 2L dt C dt dt

2.2. Thermophysical configurations of ferroparticles nanofluids

In general, nanofluids depend on the size of the particles and properties of their thermophysical configurations. As discussed
earlier, the effects of thermophysical configurations on the growth of vapor bubbles near the solid wall require further investigation.
The properties of thermophysical configurations in nanofluids are essential for understanding the physical parameter properties of
ferroparticle nanofluids, such as surface tension, density, thermal conductivity, density, viscosity, and specific capacity. Assuming that
thermal equilibrium prevailed and the Boussinesq approximation was satisfied for the density owing to the absence of any slip
constraint between the ferroparticles /H2 O nanofluids and water, the thermophysical configurations in particle nanofluids can be
expressed as follows [57–66].

• Density ρ is expressed as [57].

ρnf = φρp0 + (1 − φ)ρf , (3a)

where the subscripts f and p0 represent the fluid and nanoparticles, respectively, and φ denotes the volume concentration of nano­
particles in the nanofluids.
• Specific heat cp is expressed as [58].
( ) ( ) ( )
cp nf = φ ρ cp p0 + (1 − φ) cp f . (3b)

• Thermal conductivity k is expressed as [59,61].

( ) ( ) √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
kp + 2kf − 2φ kp − kf ( ) kB T
knf = ( ) ( ) kf + 5 × 104 γ F φρf cp f , (3c)
kp + 2kf + φ kp − kf ρp d

where kp and kf denote the thermal conductivities of the particle and fluid, respectively; d = ρf kB T/(πηf Re) denotes the nanoparticle
8.4407
diameter; T indicates the temperature; kB refers to the Boltzmann constant; Re is the Reynolds number, where Re = (100φ) 1.07304 ; F =

(0.028217φ +0.003917) TT0 − 0.030669φ − 0.00391123 and T0 denotes the initial temperature.

• Viscosity η is expressed as [60].

ηnf = (1 − φ)− 2.5

ηf . (3d)

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A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

• Surface tension σ is expressed as [57].

( ( ))
φ
σnf = σ f 1 − c1 ln +1 , (3e)
c2

where c1 = 7.673 × 10− 7 and c2 = − 7.773 × 10− 7 , which can be experimentally obtained [45].
The values of thermophysical configurations of the Fe3 O4 /H2 O nanofluids and water are summarized in Table 1.

3. Derivation of doublet bubbles model near a rigid wall

The bubble dynamics near a wall boundary described in section 2, including the motion equation of a bubble [55,56] in particle
nanofluids, can be expressed as:
( ) ( ) ( )2 ( )
R 2 dR d2 R 3 2R 4 dR dR 1 R dPT 4ηnf dR 2σnf
1+ − R 2 + 1+ − = ΔP + − − , (4)
2L C dt dt 2 3L 3C dt dt ρnf C dt R dt R

where L denotes the distance between the center of the bubble and wall surface (refer to Fig. 1).
In this study, the pressure gradient is a dominant parameter that is used to determine the type of bubble dynamics. The bubble
mechanism is explained in the schematic illustrated in Fig. 1, and the pressure gradient acting in the growth process can be defined as:
ΔP = Pg − P∞ , (5)

where P∞ denotes the pressure outside the bubble, and the pressure prevailing inside the bubble Pg can be expressed in Refs. [67–69] as
( )3κ
R0
Pg = Pg0 , (6)
R

where κ denotes the polytropic index. The total pressure PT is obtained from the balance of stresses at the bubble wall as follows:
4ηnf dR 2σ nf
PT = P g + P ∞ − − . (7)
R dt R
The first derivative of PT with respect to time assumes the following form
( )3κ− 1 ( ( )2 )
dPT R0 R0 dR 1 d2 R 1 dR 2σnf dR
= − 3κPg0 − 4ηnf − + 2 . (8)
dt R R2 dt R dt2 R2 dt R dt

Upon combining Eqs. (4)–(8), the equation of motion of the bubble dynamics near the wall in ferroparticle nanofluids can be
derived as follows:
( ) ( ) ( )2 [ ( )3κ− 1 { ( ( )2 )}
R 2 dR d2 R 3 2R 4 dR dR 1 R0 R0 dR 4ηnf dR 1 d2 R dR
1+ − R 2 + 1+ − = ΔP − 3κPg0 − + R 2 −
2L C dt dt 2 3L 3C dt dt ρnf R cR dt ρnf R dt c dt dt
( )]
2σnf 1 dR
− 1− . (9)
R C dt

The modified Keller–Miksis equation (Eq. (9)) can be utilized to detect the behavior of an individual bubble near the wall in
ferroparticle nanofluids. In the case of multiple bubbles, we require additional adjustments to this equation that consider the sub­
stantial pressure wave produced by neighboring bubbles in case of a sufficiently narrow center-to-center distance between them. In
reality, the pressure field surrounding the first bubble is modified by the presence of a neighboring bubble, and consequently, the
driving pressure does not remain equal to the external driving pressure. Therefore, when there are several bubbles, the pressure wave
released by the neighboring bubble coordinates with the external driving pressure and acts as a new driving pressure on the first
bubble.
The amplitude of pressure acting on a spherical bubble subjected to volume modification can be determined using the continuity
and Euler equations [70]:

Table 1
Values of water and thermophysical configurations [62] of Fe3 O4 in nanofluids.

Parameter cp (J/(kg ⋅K)) ρ (kg/m3 ) k(W /(m × K))

Fe3 O4 670 5180 9.7

H2 O 4179 977.1 0.613

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A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

∂w ∂w 1 ∂P
+w =− , (10)
∂t ∂r ρnf ∂r

1 ∂( 2 )
r w = 0, (11)
r2 ∂r

where w(r, t) is the liquid velocity in the nanofluids, P(r, t) denotes the pressure in the nanofluids, and r is the distance from the center
of the bubble.
Subsequently, Eq. (9) was integrated with respect to r, supposing w(r, t) = dR dt and w(r → ∞, t) = 0, such that

R2 dR
w= . (12)
r2 dt
Thereafter, Eq. (12) was substituted into (10), assuming P(r → ∞, t) = 0, and after integration, we obtain
( ) ( ) ( )
ρ d dR 1 ρnf d dR
P= R2 +O 4 ≅ R2 . (13)
r dt dt r r dt dt

Notably, the term O(1 /r4 ) is neglected because of the high order of (1/r4 ), and the pressure in Eq. (13) represents the pressure
caused by each bubble. In particular, the subscripts i and j were used to consider the individual influence of each bubble (for instance,
the interaction between i- and j-bubbles). Thus, the new pressure is obtained as
∑ ( ( ))
2
ρnf ∑
2
d 2 dRj
Pnew = Pj = Rj .
J=1,J∕
=i
rj J=1,J∕
=i
dt dt

In the current approach, we assumed that the centers of the bubbles remained unconverted and unaltered. For simplifying the
calculations, we assumed that the interaction occurs between two bubbles (doublet bubbles), i.e., identical bubbles with the same
distance and initial conditions (Ri = R and rij = h for i, j = 1, 2 and i ∕= j; h denotes the distance between the center of the bubbles).
ρnf (n− 1) d ( 2 dR)
Consequently, we obtained Pnew → h dt R dt , where n denotes the number of bubbles. Applying Eq. (7) to the doublet bubbles
near the wall in the nanofluids yields
( ) ( ) ( )2 [ ( )3κ− 1 { ( ( )2 )}
R 2 dR d2 R 3 2R 4 dR dR 1 R0 R0 dR 4ηnf dR 1 d2 R dR
1+ − R 2 + 1+ − = ΔP − 3κPg0 − + R 2 −
2L C dt dt 2 3L 3C dt dt ρnf R cR dt ρnf R dt c dt dt
( )] ( )
2σnf 1 dR 1 d dR
− 1− − R2 . (14)
R C dt h dt dt

4. Bubble growth near a rigid wall surface

During the growth of bubbles near the wall in the ferroparticle nanofluids, the pressure Pg inside the bubble is larger than the
pressure P∞ outside the bubble, i.e., Pg > P∞ , as shown in Fig. 1, mathematically indicating that ΔP = Pg − P∞ . Hence, applying Eq. (6)
to bubble growth yields the following equation:
( )2 ( ( )2 ) ( ( )2 ) ( )3κ
d2 R 3 dR 1 ( ) 1 d2 R dR 2 dR d2 R dR 3κPg0 R0 dR 4ηnf
R 2 + = Pg − P∞ − R2 2 + 2R + R 2 + − −
dt 2 dt ρnf 2L dt dt C dt dt dt c ρnf R dt ρnf R
{ ( ( ) )}( ) ( )
2
2σnf dR 1 d2 R dR 1 dR 1 d dR
− + R 2 − 1− − R2 . (15)
R dt c dt dt C dt h dt dt

In this approach of bubble dynamics, the initial and final conditions can be assumed as:

dR(t0 ) d2 R(t0 )
R(t0 ) = R0 , = Ṙ0 , and ​ = 0, TR = T0 , (16a)
dt dt2

dR(tmG ) d2 R(tm )
R(tm ) = Rm , = Ṙm , and ​ = 0, (16b)
dt dt2

where t0 and tm denote the initial and final periods of bubble in its growth.
The pressure gradient in the bubble growth (e.g., in Refs. [71,72]) can be expressed as:
( )
ΔP = Pg − P∞ = Λ1 Tg − Ts , (17)

where Ts and Tg denote the temperatures of the vapor/gas bubble in the nanofluid and at the bubble wall, respectively. Λ1 is a constant
calculated below.
Therefore, Eq. (13) reduces to:

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A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

( ) ( ( )2 ) ( ( )2 ) ( )3κ
2
1 d 3 dR Λ1 ( ) 1 2 d R dR 2 dR d2 R dR 3κPg0 R0 dR
R = Tg − T∞ − R + 2R + R + −
2R2 Ṙ dt dt ρnf 2L dt2 dt C dt dt2 dt C ρnf R dt
{ ( ( )2 )} ( ) ( ( )2 )
4ηnf dR 1 d2 R dR 2σnf 1 dR 1 d2 R dR
− + R 2 − − 1− − R2 2 + 2R , (18)
ρnf R dt C dt dt R C dt h dt dt
2 ( )2 ( ) ( ) 2
Noting in Ref. [73] as R ddt2R + 32 dR
dt
= 2R12 Ṙ dtd R3 dR
dt
, additionally, the term dtd R2dRdt
can be substituted in the place of the term R2 dd tR2 +
( dR)2
2R dt .
Therefore, initial conditions were applied to determine Λ1 as:
( ) ( )
λ1 3 ρnf ρnf 3κPg0 4ηnf Ṙ0 Ṙ0 2σnf Ṙ0 2 ρnf
Λ1 = ; λ1 = ρnf (Ṙ0 )2 + Ro (Ṙ0 )2 − (Ṙ0 )3 + Ṙ0 + 1− + 1− + R0 (Ṙ0 )2 . (19)
T0 − Ts 2 L C c R0 CR0 R0 C h
We substituted the value Λ1 from Eq. (19) into (18) to obtain:
( ) ( ) ( ( )2 ) ( ( )2 ) ( )3κ
1 d 3 dR λ1 Δ Tg* 1 2
2 d R dR 2 dR d2 R dR 3κPg0 R0 dR
R = + 1 − R + 2R + R + −
2R2 Ṙ dt dt ρnf ΔT0 2L dt2 dt C dt dt2 dt c ρnf R dt
{ ( ( ) )} ( ) ( ( ) )
2 2
4ηnf dR 1 2
d R dR 2σ nf 1 dR 1 2
d R dR
− + R 2 − − 1− − R2 2 + 2R , (20)
ρnf R dt c dt dt R C dt h dt dt

where ΔT0 denotes the initial superheating and ΔTg* = Tg − T0 ; ΔT∗g refers to a solution of the diffusion equation throughout the bubble
growth dynamics, as stated in Refs. [26,74,75], as
⎛ ⎞
(a )12 ∫t ( )⃒
R2 (y1 ) ∂T ⃒⃒
(21)
∗ nf ⎝ ⎠dy1 and ΔT0 = T0 − T∞ .
ΔTg = − ( ∫t )1 ⃒
π R 4 (y )dy 2 ∂r r=R(y1 )
0 0 2 2

( ∂T)⃒ ((4 ) )
The balance of the rate of inward flow through the boundary wall of the bubble is stated as (4πR2 knf ) ∂r
⃒
r=R
= ρv dtd 3
π R3 L ; L
( )⃒ ( )⃒
denotes the latent heat. Therefore, ∂T ⃒ reduces to ∂T ⃒
∂r r=R
= ρv L dR.
∂r r=R knf dt

The above-mentioned relationships and equations are non-dimensional, so we consider the dimensionless relationships to be:
( )3 ∫t √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
R Γ 2σ
Υ= , ν= 4 4
R (y2 )dy2 , Γ = ; (22a)
R0 R0 ρnf R 30
0

( )
dR Γ d2 R Γ2 2
(22b)
′ ´ ′2
and R = R0 Υ1/3 , = R0 Υ2/3 Υ , 2
= R0 Υ2 Υ´ + Υ Υ ,
dt 3 dt 3 3
( )⃒
Initially, we placed ∂∂Tr ⃒r=R in a dimensionless form using Eqs. (22a) and (22b) to obtain the heat gradient of the ferroparticle
nanofluids at the wall of the bubble as:
( )⃒
∂T ⃒⃒ ρ Γ ​ L R0 2/3 ′
= v Υ Υ. (23)
∂r ⃒r=R 3knf

After substituting Eq. (23) into Eq. (21), then Eq. (21) becomes
( )
(a Γ)12 ρ L R ∫ν ′
Υ (ξ)
ΔTg* = − (24)
nf v 0
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ dξ.
9π knf (ν − ξ)
0

Thereafter, combining Eqs. (22)-(24) yields Eq. (20) in terms of Υ and ν as:
∫ν ( )
Γ2 R20 d ( 73 ′ 2 ) λ1 λ1 (anf Γ)12 ρv L R0 Υ(ξ) 1 3 53 2 ( ´ ′ 2) 2 ′( ´ ′ 2) κΓPg0 R0 23− κ ′
ΥΥ = − √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ dξ− R Υ Γ 3ΥΥ´+8Υ + Γ3 R30 Υ2 Υ ΥΥ´+ Υ − Υ Υ
18L 0
′
6Υ dχ ρnf ΔT0 ρnf 9π knf (ν − ξ) 9C C ρnf
0
{ } ( ) 1 { ( ) }
4ηnf ΓΥ1/3 1 2( ′ 2) 2σnf Γ 1 2 ´ 2 2 5 2
(25)
′ ´ ′ ′2
− Υ + R0 ΓΥ3 3ΥΥ´+ Υ − 1− R0G Υ2/3 Υ − Γ2 R30 Υ3 Υ2 Υ´+ ΥΥ + Υ3 Ύ .
3ρnf 3C ρnf R0G Υ 1/3 3C h 3 3 9

To simplify Eq. (25), it was divided by Γ2 R20 to yield the following equation:

7
A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

∫ν ( )
1 d ( 73 ′ 2 ) λ1 Υ(ξ) 1 5( ´ ′ 2) 2 ′( ´ ′ 2) κPg0 2 ′
′ Υ Υ = 2 2 − λ2 √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ dξ − R0 Υ3 3ΥΥ´ + 8Υ + R0 Υ2 Υ ΥΥ´ + Υ − Υ3− κ Υ
6 Υ dν Γ R0 ρnf (ν − ξ) 18L 9C C ρnf ΓR0
0

1/3 { } ( ) ( )
4ηnf Υ 1 2( ′ 2) 2σ nf Γ R0 4 53 2
(26)
′ ´ ′ 8 ´
− Υ + R0 ΓΥ3 3ΥΥ´ + Υ − 1− R0 Υ2/3 Υ − Υ3 Υ´ + Υ Ύ ,
3ρnf ΓR20 3C 3 1/3
ρnf R0 Υ Γ 2 3C 3h 3

( anf )12 ρv L
where λ2 = ΔTλ01 ρ 9π Γ3 R0 knf .
nf

Upon applying the final boundary conditions stated in Eq. (16) at the maximum value (full growth) of the bubble, the term
( 7 ′ 2)
1 d
Υ3 Υ approaches zero and Eq. (26) reduces to
6 Υ dν
′

⎡
∫ν ( )
Υ(ξ) 1 ⎢ λ1 1 5 ( ´ ′2 ) 2 ′ ( ´ ′2 ) κPg0 2 ′
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ dξ = ⎣ 2 2 − R0 Υ3m 3Υm Υ´m +8Υ m + R0 Υ2m Υm Υm Υ´m + Υ m − Υ3− κ Υm
(ν − ξ) λ 2 Γ R ρ
0 nf 18L 9C C ρnf ΓR0 m
0
⎤
{ } ( ) ( )
4ηnf 1 2 ( ′2 ) 2 σ Γ R 4 2 ⎥
(27)
1 ′ ´´ nf − 1 2 ′ 0 8 ´
´ 5
− Υ3 Υm + R0 ΓΥ3m 3Υm Υm + Υ m − Υ 3 1− R0 Υ3m Υm − Υ3m Υm + Υ3m Ύm ⎦.
3ρnf ΓR20 m 3C ρnf R30G Γ2 m 3C 3h 3

Supposing that ξ = x1 ν, Υ(ν) = h1 ν2 , and simplifying the calculation for brevity, we derive Υ(ν) as
1

⎡
2 ⎢ λ1 1 5 ( ´ ′2 ) 2 ′ ( ´ ′2 ) κPg0 2 ′
Υ(ν)= ⎣ − R Υ3 3Υm Υ´m +8Υ m + R0 Υ2m Υm Υm Υ´m + Υ m − Υ3− κ Υ
πλ2 Γ2 R20 ρnf 18L 0 m 9C C ρnf ΓR0 m m
⎤
{ } ( ) ( )
4ηnf 1 2 ( ′2 ) 2 σ Γ R 8 4 2 ⎥ 1
(28)
1 ′ ´´ nf − 1 2 ′ 0 ´
´ 5
− Υ3 Υm + R0 ΓΥ3m 3Υm Υm + Υ m − Υ 3 1− R0 Υ3m Υm − Υ3mG Υm + Υ3m Ύm ⎦ν2
3ρnf ΓR20 m 3C ρnf R30G Γ2 m 3C 3h 3

According to Eqs. (22) and (28), the equation describing the behavior of multiple bubbles near the wall in the ferroparticle
nanofluids can be further reduced to
⎡
2R0 ⎢ λ1 1 5 ( ´ ′2 ) 2 ′ ( ´ ′2 ) κPg0 2 ′
R(t) = ⎣ − R Υ3 3Υm Υ´m + 8Υ m + R0 Υ2m Υm Υm Υ´m + Υ m − Υ3− κ Υm
πλ2 Γ2 R20 ρnf 18L 0 m 9C C ρnf ΓR0 m
⎤
{ } ( ) ( )
4ηnf 1 2 ( ′2 ) 2σ nf Γ R0 4 53 2 ⎥ 1
(29)
1 ′ ´ 1 2 ′ 8 ´
− Υ3 Υm + R0 ΓΥ3m 3Υm Υ´m + Υ m −
2 m
Υ− 3 1 −
2 m
R0 Υ3m Υm − Υm Υ´m
3 + Υm Ύm ⎦t2 .
3ρnf ΓR0 3C 3
ρnf R0G Γ 3C 3h 3

Using the values of λ2 from Eq. (29), it can be converted to

⎡
2σ ⎢ λ1 1 − 5( ´ ′2 ) 2 ′( ´ ′2 ) κPg0 κ− 2 ′
R(t)= ⎣ − R0 φ0 3 3φ−0 1 Υ´m +8Υ m + R0 φ−0 2 Υ φ−0 1 Υ´m + Υ m − φ 3 Υm
R0 λ1 Γ2 R20 ρnf 18L 9C C ρnf ΓR0 0
⎧ ⎫ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
⎪
⎨ ′ ⎪
⎬ 2σ φ1/3 1 ( ) ( )12
4ηnf − 13 1 − 23 ( ) ⎜ Γ 2
⎟ R 4 2 ⎥ 12
(30)
− 1 ´
´ ′ 2 nf 0 − ′ 0 8 ´
´ 5
− φ Υ + R 0 Γφ 3φ Υ + Υ − φ3
⎝1− R φ
0 0
3
Υ ⎠− Υ 3 Υ + Υ3 Ύ ⎦(J )
a nf a t ,
3ρnf ΓR20 0 ⎪ ⎩
m
3C 0 0 m m
⎪ 3 2 0
⎭ ρnf R0 Γ 3C m
3h m m
3 m m π nf

( )3
R0 knf
where φ0 = denotes the void fraction, (Ja )nf = is the Jacob number in nanofluids, and anf = ρ indicates the
ρnhf (Cp )nf ΔT0
Rm ρv L hnf (Cp )hnf

thermal diffusivity in nanofluids.

5. Results of doublet bubbles

5.1. Study of the effect of certain physical configurations on two-dimensional spherical bubbles
In this section, we theoretically investigate bubble growth near a rigid wall in nanofluids containing ferroparticles supposing that
there is an interaction between the doublet bubbles. Specifically, the radius of the gas doublet bubbles is affected by the time period
and thermophysical parameters, such as the vertical distance between the bubble and rigid wall L, the distance between the bubbles h,
and the volume concentration of the nanoparticles φ. In addition, the dynamics of the doublet bubbles were influenced by the liquid
compressibility. Additionally, we examined the influence of the solid wall on the behavior of doublet bubbles. Accordingly, the
evaluated results of the modeling of bubble growth near the surface of a solid wall in ferroparticle nanofluids are displayed in

8
A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

Figs. 2–10 under using the values of the physical parameters in Tables 1 and 2, where the bubble growth occurs in a uniform mixture of
vapor and overheating liquid, and the initial void fraction is estimated as φ0 = 10− 3 . The role of the distance L between the center of
the bubbles and wall is depicted in Fig. 2, which illustrates that the bubble growth increases as L decreases. Conversely, an increase in
the value of L weakens the doublet bubble growth. Moreover, owing to the large lateral pressure, the single bubble eventually separates
into two bubbles as the distance between the walls and bubble decreases. In particular, the rebound of each bubble creates a reactive
pressure that affects the top and lower wall surfaces. The collapse phase shift among the divided bubbles causes further damage to the
wall surface, especially if the bubble is unspecified in the middle of the wall. The impact of the distance between the bubbles h on the
bubble dynamics, especially in the bubble formation, is shown in Fig. 3, which shows that the bubble growth increases with the in­
crease in the distance between the bubbles. Therefore, the main parameters of nanofluids involved in the bubble growth include the
volume concentration, as depicted in Fig. 4, which reveals that the bubble growth is inversely proportional to the volume concen­
tration. It is noted that the volume concentration reduces the behaviour of bubbles near the rigid wall. The given results agree with the
results [54,61,76] for Al2 O3 /H2 O nanofluids.

5.2. Effect of thermal diffusivity and initial void fraction

The effect of thermal diffusivity anf on bubble dynamics with respect to time t and the distance between the centers of the doublet
bubble and rigid wall in ferroparticles/water nanofluids is depicted in Fig. 5. Thermal conductivity incorporates thermal diffusivity in
knf
particle nanofluids as anf = ρ , which can be calculated based on the values of thermal conductivity listed in Table 2. Considering
hnf (Cp )hnf

that the value of thermal conductivity in the given approach equals to knf , 3knf , and 6knf , the thermal diffusivity can be evaluated as
anf = 1.28 × 10− 7 , and 7.68 × 10− 7 m2 /s, respectively. The results, as illustrated in Fig. 5, imply that the number of layers of bubbles
increases with thermal diffusivity anf . Additionally, the influence of the initial void fraction φ0 on the bubble dynamics with respect to
the vertical distance L and time t near the boundary rigid wall is illustrated in Fig. 6. As the initial void fraction inhibits the growth of
the doublet bubbles, it can be concluded that the growth of the bubbles increases with the thermal diffusivity anf but decreases with the
initial void fraction φ0 .

5.3. Dimensionless phase transition criteria

The layers of bubble growth are depicted as functions of time t and vertical distance L in Fig. 7, where the impact of the initial
overheating liquid ΔT0 is considered. As observed, the growth of bubbles was proportional to the initial overheating liquid ΔT0 . Thus,
the growth of bubbles is promoted by with the overheating liquid ΔT0 . Notably, the Jacob number is a dimensionless phase transition
criterion defined as
( )
ρnhf Cp nf
(Ja )nf = ΔT0 ,
ρv L

which indicates that the Jacob number Ja is a function of ΔT0 . In particular, the relationship between the Jacob number and initial
liquid overheating is presented in Table 3. In addition, the impact of the initial overheating of the liquid on the growing vapor bubble is
illustrated in Fig. 7, which shows that the bubble growth near the wall in the ferroparticle nanofluids increases with the initial
overheating. Consequently, an increase in the dimensionless phase transition criterion (Jacob number) enhances the bubble growth
near the boundary rigid wall in ferroparticle nanofluids. Ultimately, the present analytical model could appropriately explain the
phenomenon of the interaction between bubbles in ferroparticle nanofluids.

5.4. Shock pressure during the bubble growth

Under a negative pressure, a cavitation bubble develops and expands at locations where the cavitation bubbles are typically
constricted, and subsequently, the radius of the bubble reduces under increasing pressure, releasing large shock pressures of tens of

Fig. 2. Variation in cavitation bubble radius with time with respect to the distance between the center of the doublet bubbles and the solid wall in nanofluids L; anf =
1.28 × 10− 7 m2 /s, (Ja )nf = 15.11.

9
A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

Fig. 3. Variations in cavitation bubble radius with time with respect to the distance between the centers of the two bubbles in nanofluids h; anf = 1.28 × 10− 7 m2 / s,
(Ja )nf = 15.11.

Fig. 4. Variations in cavitation bubble radius with time with respect to the volume concentration φ for two doublet bubbles in nanofluids; anf = 1.28 × 10− 7 m2 / s,
(Ja )nf = 15.11.

Fig. 5. Doublet bubbles dynamics with respect to t and L under the effect of thermal diffusivity in ferroparticles nanofluids; φ0 = 10− 3 , (Ja )nf = 15.11.

Giga Pascals [56], thereby breaching the solid wall. In particular, the shock pressure is proportional to the distance between the
standoff point and the maximum bubble radius, and the shock pressure created by a bubble implosion is regarded as a key cause of
cavitation erosion, especially in bubbles of micrometer-scale radii. The shock pressure [56,77] is defined as

10
A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

Fig. 6. Doublet bubbles dynamics with respect to t and L under the effect of void fraction in ferroparticles nanofluids; anf = 1.28 × 10− 7 m2 /s, (Ja )nf = 15.11.

Fig. 7. Doublet bubbles dynamics with respect to t and L under the effect of a superheating liquid in ferroparticles; anf = 1.28 × 10− 7 m/s.

Fig. 8. Relationship between shock pressure Pc and distance L for varying distances between the doublet bubble and maximum bubble radius Rm at t = 0.05 s.

11
A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

Fig. 9. Effect of vertical distance L and the distance between the bubbles h with respect to initial void fraction φ0 on the difference of time period (tm − t0 ).

Fig. 10. Evolution of growth of the bubble: curve 1: current model in ferroparticles nanofluid with the effect of rigid wall; curve 2: experimental results [79]; curve 3:
results by Abu-Nab et al. in nanofluids [61]; curve 4: current model without the effect of rigid wall line; curve 5: Hashemi et al. Model [80]; curve 6: Mohamadein et al.
model [48]; ΔT0 = 1.0K.

Table 2
Values of parameters involved in the growth of doublet bubbles.

Parameter ρl ρv σ ΔT0 kl φ R0 Ṙ0 Ṙm η

Value 958.3 0.579 0.035 1.0 0.6786 0.05 0.0002 0.001 0.1 0.2758 × 10− 3

Unit kg/m3 kg/m3 N/m kg/m3 W/mK − m m/s m/s Pa × ​ s

Table 3
Dimensionless phase transition criteria, (Ja )nf .

Initial overheating of the liquid, ΔT0 1.0 K 1.5 ​ K 2.0 ​ K 2.5 ​ K

Jacob Number, (Ja )nf 15.11 22.67 30.22 37.78

⎛ ⎞
⎜( R30
)43 ⎟
⎜ ( ) − 1 ⎟
⎜ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ⎟
( ⎜
)⎜ 4 2σ C (J )
c a
12a
π nf t
3 ⎟
nf
⎟
(31)
R0 λ1
Pc = P∞ + P∞ − Pg ⎜ ( )13 ⎟,
⎜ R30
⎟
⎜ ( ) − 1 ⎟ ⎟
⎜
⎝ R2σλ Cc (Ja )nf √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
12a
π nf t
3 ⎠
0 1

5 ′2 ′2 2
{
1 4ηnf − 1 2
where cc = Γ2 Rλ12 ρ − 18L R0 φ0 3 ( 3φ−0 1 Υ´m + 8Υ m ) + 9C
2
R0 φ−0 2 Υ (φ−0 1 Υ´m + Υ m ) − 1
R0 Γφ0 3 (3φ−0 1 Υ´m +
− ´ ′ ´ κPg0 κ− 3
′ ′ − ´
C ρnf ΓR0 φ0 Υm − φ 3
3ρnf ΓR20 0
ΥmG + 3C
0 nf
′2
} 1/3 1 ( ) ( 2
)
2σ φ − 2 ′ 8 5
Υ m ) − ρ nfR30Γ2 φ30 1 − 3C R0 φ0 3 Υm − R3h0 Υ3m Υ´m + 43 Υ3m Ύm .
Γ ´
nf 0

Furthermore, Eq. (31) can be utilized to examine the impact of various factors on the shock pressure throughout the bubble growth.
The effect of vertical distance between the wall and doublet bubbles L as well as the maximum bubble radius Rm on the shock pressure
along with the standoff distance L are depicted in Fig. 8. As observed, the shock pressure increases as the distance between the doublet
bubbles h and maximum bubble radius Rm decrease. Generally, shock pressure is more sensitive to the distance between the doublet

12
A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

Table 4
Comparison of the present and previous results of bubbles dynamics with various kinds of fluids.

Model Types of Effect of rigid Radius (R(t)) Constant Ci ; i = 1, 2, 3, ..., 7.

fluids wall forces

Current model of a doublet Nanofluids With effect R = C1 (Ja )nf [ 5

2σ 1 −
R0 φ0 3 ( 3φ−0 1 Υ´m + 8Υ m ) +
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ′2
with interaction between 12 C1 =
λ1
−
´

bubbles anf t R0 λ1 Γ2 R20 ρnf 18L

π
2
2 κ−
φ0 3 Υm −
′2 κPg0
R0 φ−0 2 Υ (φ−0 1 Υ´m + Υ m ) −
′ ´ ′

9C C ρnf ΓR0
1( 2
4ηnf 1 )
φ0 3 ΥmG + R0 Γφ0 3 (3φ−0 1 Υ´m + Υ m ) −
− −
′ ´ ′2

3ρnf ΓR0 2 3C
1/3
1 2 ( 8 5 )]
2σnf φ0 3 ( Γ −
3 Υ′ − R0 Υ3 Υ´´ + 4 Υ3 Ύ2
)
φ 0 1 − R0 φ 0 m m m m m
ρnf R30 Γ2 3C 3h 3
[
Current model of a doublet Nanofluids Without 2σ λ1 2 2
R(t) = C2 = + R0 φ−0 2 Υ (φ−0 1 Υ´m + Υ m ) −
´
′ ′
with interaction between effect R0 λ1 Γ2 R20 ρnf 9C
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
bubbles 12
C2 (Ja )nf anf t 2 1( 2
κ− 4ηnf 1
φ0 3 Υm − 3 Υ′
R0 Γφ0 3 (3φ−0 1 Υ´m +
− −
π κPg0 ′ ´
φ mG +
C ρnf ΓR0 3ρnf ΓR20 0 3C
1 2 ( 8
) 2σ φ1/3 ( ) R0
φ3 1 − R0 φ0 3 Υm − Υ3
−
′2 nf 0 Γ ′ ´
´
Υ m) − 3 2 0 m Υm +
ρnf R0 Γ 3C 3h
5 )]
4 3 2
Υm Ύm
3
Current model of a single Nanofluids With effect R(t) = C3 (Ja )nf [ 5
2σ 1
R0 φ0 3 ( 3φ−0 1 Υ´m + 8Υ m ) +
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ −
′2
bubble without 12 C3 =
λ1
−
´

interaction between anf t R0 λ1 Γ R0 ρnf

2 2 18L
π
bubbles 2
2 κ−
φ0 3 Υm −
′2 κPg0
R0 φ−0 2 Υ (φ−0 1 Υ´m + Υ m ) −
′ ´ ′

9C C ρnf ΓR0
1( 2
4ηnf −
3 Υ′ + 1 R Γφ 3 (3φ− 1 Υ´´ + Υ′ 2 ) −
− )
φ mG 0 0 m m
3ρnf ΓR20 0 3C 0

1/3
1 2 ]
2σnf φ0 3 ( )
R0 φ0 3 Υm
−
Γ
φ 1−
′

ρnf R30 Γ2 0 3C
[
Current model of a single Nanofluids Without 2σ λ1 2 ′2
R(t) = C4 = + R0 φ−0 2 Υ (φ−0 1 Υ´m + Υ m ) −
´
′

bubble without effect R0 λ1 Γ2 R20 ρnf 9C

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
interaction between 12
C4 (Ja )nf anf t 2 1( 2
bubbles κ− 4ηnf 1
φ0 3 Υm − φ 3
−
R0 Γφ0 3 (3φ−0 1 Υ´m +
−
π κPg0 ′ ′ ´
ΥmG +
C ρnf ΓR0 3ρnf ΓR20 0 3C
1 2 ]
) 2σ φ1/3 ( )
3 1 − Γ R φ 3 Υ′
−
′2 nf 0
Υ m) − φ 0 m
ρnf R30 Γ2 0 3C 0

Hashemi et al. model [80] of a Water Single bubble C5 = 0.023, and β = 3.78 × 10− 4

single bubble liquid R(t) =

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
12
2 C5 al (t + β)
π
Mohamadein et al. model [68] Water Single bubble R(t) = C6 Ja 1
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ( )
of a single bubble liquid 3 ερl R0 Ṙ0 + 4σ 1 − φ3
2
12
al t C6 =
0
π 2
3 ερl R0 Ṙ0 − 2b0 R0 ΔP0 + 4σ
Abu-Nab et al. [61] of a single Nanofluids Single bubble − 1 2 ( − 1
R(t) = 3 Ṙ0 ξ 4k √̅̅̅ )m
bubble C7 = R0 3 − 1 + − (2 3 )m− 1 R0 3 Γmax
(2ρ g ​ R0 ) 4 ​ g ​ λ R0 m ρnf
nf
C7
ε
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
12
Ja al t
π

13
A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

bubbles and a smaller initial bubble radius because the shock pressure and its variation rate exert a more significant influence at a
smaller initial bubble radius and maximum bubble radius Rm .

5.5. Influence of initial and final times on bubbles growth

Based on the established dynamics of the doublet bubbles near the rigid wall in the particle nanofluids, the stage of bubble growth
initiates at t0 and terminates at tm , which is expressed by the initial and boundary conditions expressed in Eq. (16) under the constraint
Rm > R0 in the present calculations. Accordingly, the solution determining the behavior of doublet bubbles in Eq. (30) was used to
estimate the relationships of the initial and final instants as follows:
( )2 ⎫
π R0 λ1 R0 ⎪
⎪
t0 = ⎪
⎪
12 anf 2σcc (Ja )nf ⎬
( )2 ⎪. (32)
π R0 λ 1 Rm ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎭
tm =
12 anf 2σcc (Ja )nf

The difference in the growth period can be deduced as

( )2
π R0 λ 1 ( 2 )
tm − t0 = Rm − R20 . (33)
12 anf 2 (Ja )nf σ Cc

As illustrated in Fig. 9, the vertical distance L and the distance between the bubbles h directly influence the difference in time
period (tm − t0 ) throughout the growth of the bubble. The results of the growth time period of the bubbles near the wall are consistent
with the theoretical results reported by Mohammadein and Mohamed [78] in a single bubble for a free surface. In addition, it is
2/3
observed that the ratio between the initial time t0 and final time tm can be expressed as ttm0 = φ0 , which depends on the value of the
initial void fraction and is important for the growth of the bubble.

6. Limitation and validation of present model and its solution

The derived theoretical results were validated by comparing them with published results [61,68,79,80] As depicted in Fig. 10, the
theoretically obtained results of the bubble growth near the boundary of the rigid wall in nanofluids were compared with the results
reported in prior research on nanofluids61 neglecting the effect of a rigid wall, with that of pure water [58,74], as well as experimental
results [79]. It was observed that the bubble sizes near the boundary of the rigid wall in ferroparticles/water nanofluids in the current
model were lower than those determined using various models in liquid water. So, the bubbles exhibit a maximum radius in liquid
water and a minimum radius in the ferroparticles/water nanofluids. Moreover, the results were consistent with experimental in­
vestigations [53] on various nanofluid behaviors. The comparison of the results of the proposed model and the varying effects of the
rigid wall forces and interaction between bubbles along with the results reported in previous theoretical models with multiple cases of
fluids are summarized in Table 4.
Based on these results, we can conclude that there is a reasonable agreement between the theoretical and experimental results,
which implies that all previous theories focused on the growth of bubbles containing only a vapor with constant and variable pressure
in an inviscid incompressible fluid. In addition to the proposed model, we determined that the solid wall and ferroparticle nanofluids
suspended in the fluid significantly reduce the Rayleigh’s bubble radius. According to these results, the distance between the doublet
bubble–bubble interaction as well as the vertical distance from the bubble and solid wall is critical for damping the growth of the
bubble.
Additionally, in the following the proposed model and its solution in (30), firstly, we can explain the relationship between the speed
of cavitation bubble dynamics and the different stages of the growth process. It is found that the behavior of the radius of cavitation
bubbles is greater in the static state than in the flow state. Secondly, we observed that the velocity potential Ψ in relation (2) is the
function of radial coordinate r and time t and the radius of bubble growth R is derived in (30) and proportional to time t as R∝ t,
consequently, we get the velocity potential is proportional to time and inversely to radial coordinate through the process of bubbles
dynamics in nanofluids, that can express as Ψ∝rt which is interesting in the formulation the problem of bubbles dynamics in near a solid
wall.

7. Conclusions
A theoretical study was conducted to investigate the growth of vapor doublet bubbles in ferroparticle nanofluids under the action of
rigid wall forces, which was found to be influenced by the pressure gradient between the pressure prevailing inside and outside the
cavitation vapor bubble dynamics and certain thermal effects that are critical to cavitation bubble formation. Accordingly, a math­
ematical simulation of a doublet bubble was introduced by considering the effect of the distance between the bubbles and we
analytically study the simulation based on the Plesset–Zwick method. In conclusion, the bubble radius is inversely proportional to the
distance between the interacting bubbles, vertical distance between the bubble and rigid wall L, and volume concentration of the
nanoparticles φ. However, the bubble radius was directly proportional to the thermal conductivity knf and initial overheating liquid
temperature ΔT0 . Therefore, the distance between the doublet bubble–bubble interaction and the vertical distance from the bubble to
the solid wall are essential for damping the growth of the bubbles. Moreover, the dimensionless phase transition criterion of the Jacob

14
A.F. Abu-Bakr et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 34 (2022) 102060

number enhanced the growth of the bubbles near the boundary rigid wall in nanofluids, whereas the volume concentration of the
particles along with the initial void fraction inhibited the growth of the bubbles. Conclusively, the results of the proposed model
revealed that the impact of the liquid flow on the rigid wall increased the pressure over a few seconds, and this rise do not spread
outward, such as in shock waves. This demonstrates that the liquid flow and rigid walls significantly influence gas doublet bubble
dynamics. In the future, we will focus on studying the impact of slap forces on the growth and collapse dynamics of gas bubble in the N-
dimensions of non-Newtonian hybrid nanofluids.

Author statement
Ali F. Abu-Bakr: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft.
Tetsuya Kanagawa: Writing – review & editing, Investigation.
Ahmed K. Abu-Nab: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft.

Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgment
We would like to thank referees for their valuable comments and suggestions, and Editage (www.editage.com) for English language
editing. Further, this work was partially carried out with the aid of the JSPS KAKENHI (18K03942).

References
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