Chapter two

outline
o Introduction to PIC microcontroller
o Overview of the PIC microcontroller
o Overview of pic18fxxx microcontroller family
o Features of pic18fxxx microcontroller
o Architecture and memory organization of pic18fxxx
microcontroller
 introduction to microcontroller
o Integrated chip that contains CPU, RAM, some form of
ROM, I/O ports, and timers
o Designed for a very specific task to control a particular
system Reduce production Cost
o Microchip’s pic’s Series,
atmel’s AVR series and
8051 series
µC vs General-Purpose
µC vs General-Purpose
 A Brief History of PIC µC
o In 1989, microchip technology corporation introduced an
8-bit µc called PIC (peripheral interface controller).
o This 8 pins chip contains a small amounts of data ram, a
few hundred bytes of on chip rom for program, one
timer, and a few pins for i/o ports.
o The family of 8-bit µc: 10cxx, 12cxxx, 14cxxx, 16fxxx,
17fxxx, and 18fxxx
o The PIC18xxx family has the highest performance of all
the families of 8-bit PIC micro-controllers.
o the PIC family not all 100% upwardly compatible in terms of
software when going from one family to another family.
History of PIC µC
Harvard and von Neumann architectures
Harvard
 Von Neumann Architecture:
Architecture  Fetches instructions and data
from a single memory space
8-bit Bus Data
 Limits operating bandwidth
Memory

16-bit Bus
CPU
 Harvard Architecture:
Program
Memory  Uses two separate memory
spaces for program instructions
Von Neumann and data
Architecture
 Improved operating bandwidth
 Allows for different bus widths

8-bit Bus Program

& Data
Memory
CPU
 PIC18 Features
PIC 18 has:
o RISC architecture
o On chip program ROM, data RAM and data
EEPROM
o Timer
o ADC and DAC
o USART
o I/O ports
o The size of the program ROM, data RAM, data
EEPROM, and I/O ports varies among the family
members, they all have peripherals such as timers, ADC,
and USART
Simplified block diagram/view of pic18
Block diagram for pic18
Chapter three
 outline
o Introduction to PIC microcontroller assembly
programming
o Assembling and running PIC microcontroller program
o Program counter and ROM space in the PIC
microcontroller
o Data types, directives, flag bits, PSW, bank register and
stack
o JUMP, LOOP, AND CALL instructions
o I/O port programming and addressing modes
o Arithmetic & logic instructions and programs
 Register Organizations of pic18fxxx
WREG register
o In the CPU, registers are used to store information temporarily.
That information could be a byte of data to be processed or an
address pointing to the data to be fetched.
o The vast majority of pic registers are 8-blt registers.
o In the pic there is only one data type is 8 bit

o The 8-bit WREG register is the most widely used

registers in the pic microcontrollers
o WREG stands for working register, as there is only one register.
o The working register in the pic microcontroller is the same with
the accumulator in other microprocessor
o The WREG register used to for all arithmetic and logic
instructions
o Example of WREG registers instruction MOVE and ADD.
MOVLW instruction
o Instruction moves 8-bit data into the WREG register.
o the format is MOVLW K move literal value K into WREG
register. K is an 8-bit value that can range from 0-255 in decimal
or 00-ff in hex.
o L stands from literals and W stands from Working register.
o Example MOVLW 4AH;it means move hex value 4A in to WREG
register. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
 ADDLW instruction
o Instruction add 8-bit data into the WREG register.
o the format is ADDLW K add literal value K into WREG
register. K is an 8-bit value that can range from 0-255 in decimal
or 00-ff in hex.
o L stands from literals and W stands from Working register.
o Example: ADDLW 4AH;it means add hex value 4A in to WREG
register.
MOVLW 4AH; move the hex value 4AH into WREG register
ADDLW 5BH; add literal value 5BH into WREG register
ADDLW 37H; add literal value 37H into WREG register

MOVLW 4AH
ADDLW 5BH 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
ADDLW 37H 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
PIC WREG and ALU Using Literal Value
 The pic file register
o The PIC microcontroller has many other registers in
addition to the WREG register.
o They are called data memory space to distinguish them
from program (code) memory space.
o The data memory space in PIC is a read/write (Static
RAM) memory.
o In the PIC microcontroller literature, the data memory is
also called the file register.
o File Register (Data RAM) Space Allocation in PIC
o The file register is read/write memory used by the CPU
for data storage, scratch pad, and registers for internal
use and functions.
o As with WREG, we can perform arithmetic and logic operations on
many locations of the file register data RAM.
o The PIC micro-controllers file register size ranges from 32 bytes
to several thousand bytes depending on the chip.
o Even within the same family, the size of the file register data
RAM varies from chip to chip.
o The file register data RAM has a byte-size width, just like WREG.
o The file register data RAM in PIC is divided into two sections:
o Special Function Registers (SFR)
o General-Purpose Registers (GPR) or General Purpose RAM
(GP RAM)
Special Function Registers in PIC micro-controller
o The Special Function Register (SFRs) are dedicated to specific
functions such as ALU status, timers, serial communication, I/O
ports, ADC and so on.
o The function of each SFR is fixed by the CPU designer at the time of design
because it is used for control of the micro-controller or peripheral.
o The PIC SFRs are 8 bit registers.
o The number of locations in the file register set aside for SFR
depends on the pin numbers and peripheral functions supported by
that chip.
o That number can vary from chip to chip even among members of
the same family.
General-Purpose Registers or RAM in PIC micro-controller
o The general purpose registers are a group of RAM locations in the
file register that are used for data storage and scratch pad.
o Each location is 8 bits wide and can be used to store any data we
want as long as it is 8 bit.
o In the PIC micro-controllers, the space that is not allocated to the
special function registers is used for general purpose registers.
o the number of RAM locations in the file register that are set aside for general purpose
registers can vary from chip to chip, even among members of the same family.
o A larger GPR size means more difficulties in managing these
registers if you use assembly language programming.
 General Purpose Registers RAM Vs EEPROM in PIC micro-controller

o There are two RAM columns in the chip information section of the
Microchip company.
o One refers to the general purpose registers GP RAM size, and the
other is the EEPROM size.
o GP RAM, which constitutes most of the file register, must not be
confused with the EEPROM data memory.
o The GPRs are used by the CPU for internal data storage, whereas
the EEPROMs are considered as an add-on memory that one can
also add externally to the chip.
o Many PIC chips have zero bytes of EEPROM data, it is
impossible for a micro-controller to have zero size for the file
register.
 File Register and Access bank in the PIC18
o The file register of the PIC18 family can have a maximum of 4096
(4K) bytes. With 4096 bytes, the file register has addresses of 000-
FFFH.
o The file register in the PIC18 is divided into 256 byte banks. We
can have up to a maximum of 16 banks (16 X 256 = 4096).
o Although not all members of the PIC18 family have that many
banks, every PIC18 family member has at least one bank for the
file register. This bank is called the access bank and is the default
bank when we power up the PIC18 chip.
o Examine the access bank for the PIC18 in figure below. The 256
byte access bank is divided into two equal sections of 128 bytes.
These 128 bytes sections are given to the general purpose registers
and special function registers
o The I / O port SFRs, PORTA, PORTB, PORTC, PORTD, and associated
registers are among the most widely used special function registers in PIC .
 Using instruction with the access BANK
o The instruction we have used so far the literal (constant)value of
K.
o They also used the WREG register as their destination.
o The pic allows direct accesses to other location in the file register
for ALU and other operation.
MOVWF Instruction
The access bank of the file register is the default bank upon powering
up the PIC18.
The term file register must be emphasized because the instructions
have the letter F in their mnemonics.
In instructions such as MOVWF, the F stands for a location in the file
register, while W means WREG.
The MOVWF instruction tells the CPU to move, in reality copy, the
source register of WREG to a destination in the file register (F).
Special Function Registers of the PIC18 Family
o The location in the file register can be one of the special function
registers SFRs or a location in the general purpose register region.
o For example: The "MOVWF PORTA" instruction will move the
contents of WREG into the SFR register called PORTA.
o The following program first loads the WREG register with value 55H,
then moves this value around to various SFRs of PORT B, C and D.

o We can also move (copy) the contents of WREG into any location
in the general purpose registers (RAM) region of the file registers.
The following program will put 99H into locations 0 - 4 of the
general purpose register GPR region in the file register.
 Instructions involving the WREG and the Access Bank
o You cannot move literal (immediate) values directly into the general
purpose RAM locations in the PIC18. They must be moved there via
WREG.
o There is a group of logic and arithmetic instructions that involve
both the WREG and a location in the file register. The ADDWF
instruction is one of them. The ADDWF instruction adds together the
contents of WREG and a file register location. The file register
location can be one of the special function registers SFRs or a general
purpose register GPR. The destination for the result can be the
WREG or the file register. The following format indicates the
destination.
o Where fileReg is the file register location and D indicates the destination bit.
The D bit can be 0 or 1. If D = 0, it means that the destination is WREG. If D =
1, then the result will be placed in the file register.
o To make things less confusing as far as the D bit is concerned, the PIC
assembler allows us to use the letters W or F instead of 0 or 1 to indicate the
destination.
PIC WREG, fileReg and ALU
o The instructions in table below operate on both WREG and a file register
location and then give you the option of placing the result in WREG or a file
register location.

o The d bit selects the destination for the operation. If d = w; the result is stored in
WREG (d = 0). If d = F; the result is stored in the fileReg (d = 1). The default is
F. That means "ADDWF myfile" is the same as "ADDWF myfile, F“
File Register Instructions Using FileReg or WREG as Destination
o Table below operate on the file register only and then give you the
option of placing the result in WREG or a file register location..
o The d bit selects the destination for the operation. If d = w; the
result is stored in the WREG (d = 0). If d = F; the result is stored
in the fileReg (d = 1). The default is F. That means "DECF myfile"
is the same as "DECF myfile, F.“
o The COMF Instruction in the PIC micro-controller :The "COMF
fileReg, d" instruction complements (inverts) the contents of
fileReg and places the result in WREG of fileReg.
o in the following program, we put 55H into WREG and then send it out to SFR
location of port B. Then the content of Port B is complemented, which becomes
AA in hex. The 01010101 (55H) is inverted and becomes 10101010 (AAH).

o DECF Instruction in the PIC micro-controller :The "DECF fileReg, d"

instruction decrements (subtract one from) the contents of
fileReg and places the result in WREG of fileReg.
MOVF Instruction:
o The MOVF mnemonic is intended to perform MOVFW.

o If D=0, it copies the content of fileReg to WREG. If D=1, the

content of fileReg is copied to itself.
o Typically we use the MOVF instruction to bring data into WREG from I/O pins,
sometimes we use it to copy fileReg to itself for the purpose of testing fileReg
contents.
o Examine the difference between the
MOVWF and MOVF instructions.
We used the MOVWF instruction
earlier to move data to special
function registers such as Port B.
MOVFF :The MOVFF instruction copies data from one location in
fileReg to another location in fileReg. The fileReg location for source and
destination can be any of the 4096 locations in the data RAM space of
the PIC18. The MOVFF instruction allows us to move data within the
4K space of the data RAM without going through the WREG register.

MOVFF fileReg1, fileReg2

Write instructions to add the value of 16h and CDH.
Place the result in location 0 of the file register.
 The PIC18 Status Register
o The PIC has a flag register to indicate arithmetic conditions such as
the carry bit. The flag register in the PIC is called the status register.
o The status register is an 8-bit register. It is also referred to as the flag register.
The status register is 8 bits wide. 5 bits of status register is used by the PIC18.
The three unused bits are unimplemented and read as 0. The 5 flags are called
conditional flags.
o They indicate some conditions that result after an instruction is
executed.
CY, the carry flag: This flag is set whenever there is a carry out from the D7
bit. This flag bit is affected by addition or subtraction. It can also be set to 1 or 0
directly by an instruction

DC, The Ditigal Carry Flag: If there is a carry from D3 to D4

during an ADD or SUB operation, this bit is set, otherwise, it is cleared.
This flag bit is used by instructions that perform BCD (binary coded
decimal) arithmetic. In some microprocessors this is called the AC
(auxiliary carry flag).

Z, The Zero Flag: The zero flag reflects the result of an arithmetic
or logic operation. If the result is zero, then Z=1. The result is not zero if
Z=0.

OV, The overflow Flag:-This flag is set whenever the result of a

signed number operation is too large, causing the high order bit to
overflow into the sign bit. In general, the carry flag is used to
detect errors in unsigned arithmetic operations while the overflow flag
is used to detect errors in signed arithmetic operations. The OV and N
flag bits are used for the signed number arithmetic operations.
N, The Negative Flag: Binary representation of signed numbers
uses D7 as the sign bit. The negative flag reflects the result of an
arithmetic operation. If the D7 bit of the result is zero, then N = 0 and
the result is positive. If the D7 bit is 1, then N = 1 and the result is
negative. The negative and OV flag bits are used for the signed
number arithmetic operations.
Rules for OV flag
o If there is a carry from D6 to D7 and no carry from D7 out.
o If there is a carry from D7 out and no carry from D6 to D7.
o if there is a carry both from D7 out and from D6 to D7, OV = 0.
PIC Microcontroller Data Type.
Hex Numbers:
o There are 4 ways to show hex numbers:
o Can use 'h' or 'H' right after the number like this: MOVLW 88H or
MOVLW 88h
o Put 0x or 0X in front of the number like this: MOVLW 0x88 or
MOVLW 0X88
o Put nothing in front or back of the number like this: MOVLW 88
o Put 'h' in front of the number, but with this single quotes around
the number like this: MOVLW h'88‘
Binary Numbers: There is only on way to represent binary numbers
in a PIC assembler. It is as follows.

Decimal Numbers : there are 2 ways to represent decimal numbers in

a PIC assembler, One way is as follows.

The lowercase d will work also. This is different from other assemblers
such as the 8051 and x86, In those assemblers, to indicate decimal
numbers we simply use the decimal e.g, 12 and nothing before or after
it, while in the PIC assembler, 12 is the default for hex numbers.
ASCII Character

Assembler Directives
o Instructions tell the CPU what to do. Directives, also called
pseudo-instructions give directions to the assembler.
o The MOVLW and ADDLW instructions are commands to the
CPU, but EQU, ORG and END are directives to the assembler.
The widely used directives of the PIC are EQU and SET.
 Assembler Directives
o EQU (equate)
o This is used to define a constant value or a fixed address.
o The EQU directive does not set aside storage for a data item, but
associates a constant number with a data or an address label so
that when the label appears in the program, its constant will be
substituted for the label.
o The following uses EQU for the counter constant, and then the
constant is used to load the WREG register

o Assume that a constant, a fixed value, is used through

out the program, and the programmer wants to change its
value everywhere.
o SET: This directive is used to define a constant value or a fixed
address. In this regard, the SET and EQU directives are identical.
The only difference is the value assigned by the SET directive may
be reassigned later.
o ORG, Origin: The ORG directive is used to indicate the
beginning of the address.
o It can be used for both code and data. The number that comes after
ORG must be in Hex.
o END Directive: The important pseudocode directive is END.
o This indicates to the assembler the end of the source, asm file.
o The END directive is that last line of the PIC program, meaning
that anything after the END directive in the source code is ignored
by the assembler
o LIST Directive: END and ORG are used my all assemblers.
o LIST directive is unique to the PIC assembler. It indicates to the
assembler the specific PIC chip for which the program should be
assembled.
o The #include directive tells the PIC assembler to use the libraries associated
with the specific chip for which we are compiling the program .
 Rules for Labels in Assembly Language
o By choosing label names that are meaningful, a programmer can
make a program much easier to read and maintain.
o There are several rules that names must follow. First, each label
name must be unique.
o The names used for labels in assembly language programming
consist of alphabetic letters in both upper and lower case, the
digits 0 through 9, and the special characters question mark (?),
period (.), at (@), underline (_), and a dollar sign ($).
o The first character of the label must be an alphabetic character. In
other words, it cannot be a number.
o Every assembler has some reserved words that must not be used as
labels in the program.
o Foremost among the reserved words are the mnemonics for the
instructions.
 Introduction to PIC Assembly Programming

o The CPU can work only in binary, it can do so at a very high speed.. To deal
with 0's and 1's in order to program the computer.
o A program that consists of 0's and 1's is called machine language. In the early
days of the computer, programmers coded programs in machine language.
o Although the hexadecimal system was used as a more efficient way to represent
binary numbers, the process or working in machine code was still cumbersome
for humans.
o Eventually, Assembly Languages were developed, which provided mnemonics
for the machine code instructions, plus other features that made programming
faster and less prone to error.
o The term mnemonic is frequently used in computer science and engineering
literature to refer to codes and abbreviations that are relatively easy to
remember.
o Assembly Language programs must be translated into machine code by a
program called an assembler.
o Assembly language is referred to as a low-level language because it deals
directly with the internal structure of the CPU.
o To program in assembly language, the programmer must know all the registers
of the CPU and the size of each, as well as other details.

Structure of Assembly Language

o An assembly language program consists of, among other things, a
series of lines of Assembly language instructions
o An assembly language instruction consists of a mnemonic, optionally
followed by one or two operands.
o The operands are the data items being manipulated, and the
mnemonics are the commands to the CPU, telling it what to do with
those items.
o an assembly language program is a series of statements, or lines, which are
either assembly language instructions such as ADDLW and MOVWF, or
statements called directives
o The directive ORG tells the assembler to place the opcode at memory
location 0 while END indicates the end of the source code to the
assembler.
o One directive is for the start of the program and the other for the end
of the program.

o Brackets indicate that a field is optional and not all lines have them.
Brackets should not be typed in. Regarding the above format, the
following points should be noted:
o The label field allows the program
o to refer to a line of code by name.
The label field cannot exceed
a certain number of characters.
o The Assembly Language
mnemonic (instruction) and
operand fields together perform
the real work of the program
and accomplish the tasks for
which the program was written.
Assembling and Linking a PIC Program
 Program Counter in pic controller
o The program counter (PC) or sometimes called Instruction Pointer points to the
address of the next instruction to be executed.
o As the CPU fetches the opcode from the program ROM, the program counter is
incremented to point to the next instruction.
o The role of the Program Counter (PC) in executing a program and show how
the code is fetched from ROM and executed.
o The program counter in pic18f is 21 bits wide. This means that the pic18f can
access program addresses 000000 to 1FFFFFH, a total of 2M bytes of code.
o when the pic18f is powered up, the PC (program counter) has the value of
000000 in it.
o the first opcode must be burned into memory location 000000H of program
ROM since this is where it looks for the first instruction when it is booted.
o We achieve. this by the ORG statement in the source program as shown earlier
Placing Code in Program ROM
Placing Code in Program ROM
 JUMP, LOOP, AND CALL instructions
o Looping in the pic18f: Repeating a sequence of instructions or
operation a certain number of times is called a Loop.
o Example add 3 to WREG 5 times:

o Problem in the above program is too much code space would be need
to be increase the repetition size .a much better way for this is using
loop.
o There are two ways making loop for pic18f
o DECFSZ (Decrement fileReg and Skip if zero):Decrement fileReg
and skip if fileReg has zero in it.This instruction subtracts 1 from the
byte operand of fileReg. If the results zero, then it skips execution of
the next instruction. DECFSZ filereg,D
o By placing goto target instruction to create loop.
JUMP, LOOP, AND CALL instructions
 JUMP, LOOP, AND CALL instructions
o BNZ (Branch if No Zero ): Jump if Zero flag is 0
 JUMP, LOOP, AND CALL instructions
o BZ (jump if Z= 1) :in this instruction the Z flag is checked. If it is
high, it jump to target instruction.
Over movf PORTB,w
BZ Over
o BC (jump if carry), jump only if a certain condition is met. That
condition is C flag must be high(C=1)
Over movf PORTB,w
BC Over

o BNC ( branch if c==0): jump to

to target address if a carry flag
is LOW.

Over movf PORTB,w

o BNC Over
Nested loop
 JUMP, LOOP, AND CALL instructions

Quiz (5%)

1)write an assembly instruction to find the

factorial value of the given number

Note factorial value is byte data.

2)write an assembly instruction to send the

maximum Fibonacci value in byte data into
PORTC.
JUMP, LOOP, AND CALL instructions

include<p18f452.inc>
fact1 equ 25h
count equ 15h

org 0h
movlw d'5'
movwf count,1
movlw d'1'

fact movwf fact1,1

mulwf count,0
movf PRODL,0
decf count,1
bnz fact
movwf fact1,0
end
JUMP, LOOP, AND CALL instructions
#include<p18f452.inc>
Fib1 equ 25h
Fib2 equ 15h
Count equ 10h

org 0h
movlw d‘12'
movwf count,1
movlw d‘1‘
movwf Fib2,1
movlw d‘0‘

fact movwf Fib1,1

addwf Fib2,0
movff Fib1,Fib2
decf count,1
bnz fact
movwf PORTC,1
end
 JUMP, LOOP, AND CALL instructions

3)write an assembly instruction to add three

numbers 98H,ADH and F5H.send the sum
into PORTA(low byte),and PORTC (high
byte)

2)write an assembly instruction to receive a

byte data from PORTE and send its
complement data into PORTC and PORTA
,repeats an action for 5000000 times;
 JUMP, LOOP, AND CALL instructions
o All conditional branches are short jump because of the address of
the target must be within 256 bytes of the contents of the program
counter.
o Unconditional branch instructions: The unconditional condition
is a jump in which control is transferred unconditionally to the target
location. In the pic18f there are two unconditional jumps:
o LBCH (long branch):LJMP is an unconditional long jump. It is a 3-
byte instruction in which the first byte is the opcode, and the
second and third bytes represent the 16-bit address of the target
location. The 2-byte target address allows a jump to any memory
location from 0000 to FFFFH.
o SBCH (short branch):in this 2-byte instruction, the first byte is the
opcode and the second byte is the relative address of the target
location. The relative address range of 00 – FFH.
o Calculating the short jump TARGET address: all conditional
branches such as BNC, BZ, and DBNZ are also short jumps due to
the fact that they are all two-byte instructions.
Calculating the short jump TARGET address

Example : Forward calculation

TARGET ADRESSE=2x(Relative address of instruction)+PC
Calculating the short jump TARGET address

Example : Backward calculation

TARGET ADRESSE=2x(2s’ OF Relative address of

instruction)+PC
 CALL Instructions
o CALL instruction is used to call a subroutine. subroutines are often
used to perform tasks that need to be performed frequently.
o This makes a program more structured in addition to saving memory
space.
o In the pic18f there are two instructions for call: LCALL (long call)
and RCALL (relative call). Deciding which one to use depends on the
target address.
o LCALL is 3-byte instruction, the first byte is the-opcode and the
second and third byte are used for the address of the target
subroutine. Therefore, LCALL can be used to call subroutines located
anywhere within the 64K-byte address space of the pic18f.
o To make sure that after execution of the called subroutine the pic18f
knows where to come back to, the processor automatically saves on
the stack the address of the instruction immediately below the
LCALL.
o When a subroutine is called, control is transferred to that subroutine,
and the processor saves the PC (program counter) on the stack and
begins to fetch instructions from the new location.
 CALL Instructions
o After finishing execution of the subroutine, the instruction RETURN
transfers control back to the caller. Every subroutine needs RETURN
as the last instruction.
o Example: Write a program to toggle all the bits of port B by
sending to it the values 55H and AAH Continuously. Put a
delay in between each issuing of data to port B.
 Stack and Stack Pointer
o The stack is read /write memory (RAM) used by the cpu to store some
very critical information temporarily.
o This information usually is an address but it could be data as well.
o The cpu needs this storage area because there are only a limited
number of register.
o The stack in the PIC18 is 21-bit because of the PC is 21-bit
o The registers used to
access the stack is called
SP register
o The PIC18 has a 5-bit SP
 Stack and Stack Pointer
o Accesses stacks in pic18f:the storing of CPU information such as the
program counter on the stack is called PUSH
o Loading the contents of the stack back into a CPU registers is called
POP
o PUSH→ to save it
o POP→ retrieve it
o Pushing onto stack :SP is pointing to the last used location of the
stack.it refers the top of the stack

o The stack pointer incremented. SP=SP+1

o Popping from stack :the contents of the stack back into a given
register such as the PC is the opposite process of pushing
o SP=SP-1
 Call instruction and role of the stack
o Analyze the stack for the CALL instruction using program.
 Stack and Stack Pointer
o Analyze the stack for the RCALL instruction using program.
Cont..
 Delay calculation for PIC18
o In creating a time delay using assembly language instruction one
must be mindful of two factors that can be affect the accuracy of the
delay.
o The crystal frequency : the frequency of the crystal oscillator
connected to OSC1 and OSC2 input pins is one factor in the time
delay calculation.
o The duration of the clock period for the instruction cycle is a function
of this crystal frequency.
o The PIC design: it depend on the IC design
o Instruction cycle(Machine Cycles)time for PIC18
Clock Cycle time =(4/(crystal frequencies or clock rate))

o
 Delay calculation for PIC18
o
 Delay calculation for PIC18
o
 Delay calculation for PIC18
o
 Delay calculation for PIC18
o
 Delay calculation for PIC18
o
 Pic18xxx I/O Programming: Pin Diagram
o
 Pic18xxx I/O Programming: Pin Diagram
o
 Pic18xxx I/O Programming: Pin Diagram
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 Pic18xxx I/O port structures
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 Pic18xxx I/O port structures
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 Pic18xxx I/O port structures
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 Pic18xxx I/O port structures
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 Pic18xxx I/O port structures
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 Pic18xxx I/O port structures
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 Pic18xxx I/O port structures
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 Pic18xxx I/O port structures
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 Pic18xxx I/O port structures
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 Pic18xxx I/O port structures
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 Examples
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 examples
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 Seven segment
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