International Journal of Environmental Studies

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Rainwater and the resulting runoff chemistry in

Shiraz city, southwest Iran

F. Moore & A. Attar

To cite this article: F. Moore & A. Attar (2011) Rainwater and the resulting runoff chemistry in
Shiraz city, southwest Iran, International Journal of Environmental Studies, 68:5, 703-717, DOI:
10.1080/00207233.2011.591898

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 International Journal of Environmental Studies,
Vol. 68, No. 5, October 2011, 703–717

Rainwater and the resulting runoff chemistry in

Shiraz city, southwest Iran
F. MOORE AND A. ATTAR*

Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

(Received 25 May 2011)

Samples were collected from rainwater, the resulting runoff in urban drainage channels and the
Khoshk River (a seasonal river which passes through the city and receives urban drainage channels
runoff). Major elements and selected heavy metals (Cu, Pb and Zn) concentrations were investi-
gated for rainwater samples. Marine and non-marine sources of the elements in rainwater were
investigated by calculation of Sea salt fraction, Non sea salt fraction and application of factor anal-
ysis. pH and mean concentrations of major ions and heavy metals (Cu, Pb and Zn) were compared
to the results of similar studies in other countries. GIS interpolation maps indicated the impact of
traffic pollution and Shiraz industrial complex on spatial distribution of Cu, Pb and Zn in rainwater.
Major ions and Cu, Pb and Zn mean concentrations in runoff samples were also studied and com-
pared to the rainwater results. Since the Khoshk River is the main runoff drainage channel in the
city and is used for irrigation, its water quality was also examined.

Keywords: Rainwater; Runoff; Khoshk River; Shiraz

1. Introduction

Over the past 20 years, rainwater chemistry has been the subject of many studies worldwide
[1–3]. The study of rainwater chemistry was initially developed in response to the adverse
effects of the acidic rain phenomenon on vegetation, living organisms, soil, water and build-
ings [4]. But in recent studies, the more important focus on atmospheric pollutants is consid-
ered to be urban areas, owing to the harmful effects on human health [5,6]. Studying
rainwater composition is helpful in evaluating the relative contribution of different sources of
gases, particulate matter, persistent organic compounds and heavy metals [7–10].
Runoff originates from rainwater. It dissolves and washes away pollutants along its path
and then discharges into receiving drainage channels. Recently, runoff has been considered
as a major pollution source in many urban environments [11,12]. Heavy metals are of
particular interest in urban environments due to their abundance, harmful effects, and
non-biodegradability. A number of investigators have found various levels of heavy metals
in runoff from urban areas and in highway runoff [13,14].

*Email: armaghan.attar@gmail.com

International Journal of Environmental Studies

ISSN 0020-7233 print: ISSN 1029-0400 online Ó 2011 Taylor & Francis
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2011.591898

Published online 09 Nov 2011

704 F. Moore and A. Attar

Shiraz (29° 370 N, 52° 320 E) is located at the northwest of Fars Province. The city is
built on an alluvial plain at the foot of the Zagros Mountains (figure 1a). The population
of this city was reported to be 1,227,331 in 2006. The ephemeral Khoshk River originates
from northwest Shiraz and after passing through the city, discharges into Maharlu saline
Lake, at the southeast Shiraz (figure 1b). In Shiraz city, the runoff from the rainwater dis-
charges into urban minor drainage channels. All these finally discharge into the Khoshk
River. In rainy seasons, apart from municipal and industrial effluents, this river receives
the urban storm water runoff and upstream flows [15]. The Khoshk River is partly used
for irrigation of wheat and vegetable lands before discharging into Maharlu Saline Lake
[16].
Our study is the first of its kind conducted on rainwater and runoff in Shiraz city. The
purpose of this study is to evaluate the quality of rainwater, runoff and the Khoshk River
respectively through measuring major ions and concentrations of selected heavy metals
(Cu, Pb and Zn). The paper discusses both natural and man-made sources of the elements.
The results of this study are compared to similar studies conducted on rainwater in some
other countries.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Sampling and analysis
Rainwater and runoff samples were collected during two rain events in November and
December 2009. Rainwater samples (RW1–RW16) were collected manually on an event
basis using plastic collectors fitted with polyethylene bottles. Sample collectors were
placed on the roof of buildings after being soaked in 10% nitric acid and rinsed with

Figure 1. (A) Study area and (B) sampling sites.

 Rainwater and the resulting runoff chemistry in Shiraz city 705

de-ionised water several times. The collectors were deployed as soon as the rain began,
and were retrieved immediately after being filled or after rain fall.
Urban drainage channel runoff samples (RO1–RO12) were collected from drainage
channels, and samples (RO13–RO18) were collected from the Khoshk River using poly-
ethylene bottles after they were rinsed with de-ionised water several times. We attempted
to collect runoff samples as close as possible to rainwater sampling points and as soon as
each rain event began. We were ready for sampling the urban drainage channel runoff in
the first few minutes during rain event.
The pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were measured in the laboratory within 24
hours after sampling. All samples were filtered through 0.45 lm membrane filters. The fil-
tered samples were preserved by acidifying with reagent grade Merk nitric acid to pH < 2
for heavy metal determination. An extra aliquot of about 800 ml was separated for major
ion measurements.
Analyses were carried out in an accredited Canadian laboratory (ACME laboratories,
ISO 9001:2000) using inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Replicate
samples were analysed to assure precision.

2.2. Data analysis

The Durov diagram summarizes the ionic composition, Total dissolved solid (TDS) and
pH of rainwater and runoff samples. The triangular sections show the relative dominance

of different anions (Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+, K+) and cations (SO2 
4 ; HCO3 ; Cl ). If the composi-
tion is dominated by a particular ion, it will be closer to the corresponding apex of the tri-
angle. The diagram also shows the concentration of TDS with a logarithmic scale and the
bottom section indicates the pH. The central square of the diagram represents a synthesis
of all components.
In order to estimate the marine and non-marine contributions, we calculated different
ratios such as sea salt fraction (SSF), non-sea salt fraction (NSSF) and enrichment factor
(EF). The Na+ is taken as a reference element assuming that all sodium has marine origin
[17].
We calculated SSF and NSSF using equation (1) and equation (2) respectively:
 

þ  X
SSFX ¼ Narain  ð1Þ
Naþ seawater

  
  X
NSSFX ¼ ½Xrain   Naþ
rain  ð2Þ
Naþ seawater

In addition, we calculated EF for Cl, SO2 + 2+  2+

4 , K , Ca , HCO3 and Mg , with respect to
+
Na using equation (3):

X 
þ
EF ¼
NaX rainwater ð3Þ
Naþ seawater

Here X is the ion of interest.

In order to categorise statistically the pollutants into groups of similar variance, we
applied Factor Analysis (FA) to rainwater data using the Varimax rotation method. We
706 F. Moore and A. Attar

produced a series of maps using Arc GIS 9.2. Spline method [18]. These represent the spa-
tial variation of heavy metal concentrations in the rainwater sampling area.
Since the Khoshk River is used for irrigation purposes, samples collected from this river
are classified according to their sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and EC [19]. The SAR is
calculated using equation (4) [20]:
Naþ
SAR ¼ h i12 ð4Þ
Caþ2 þMg þ2
2

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Rainwater
3.1.1. Major ions concentrations
The mean concentrations of major ionic species display the following decreasing order
(table 1):
SO2
4 > Ca
þ2
> Cl > Naþ > Kþ > Mgþ2 > HCO
3

Table 2 compares the mean concentrations of the major ions and pH in our study to
results from similar studies conducted in other countries. The mean rainwater pH (7.49) of
our study is found to be higher than results in samples as follows: Ghore El-Safi (Jordan),
Tibetan (China), Melle (Belgium), Mexico (USA) and Triupati (India), and it is in the
alkaline range compared to 5.6 (the pH of cloud water in equilibrium with atmospheric
CO2) [24]. The alkalinity of the rainwater samples probably reflects the effect of sus-
pended particulate matter rich in calcium carbonate/bicarbonate that buffers the acidity of
rainwater. The high contributions of Ca+2 and HCO 3 are due to the influence of the conti-
nental dust, rich in carbonate materials [25–27].
The higher concentration of sulfate in rainwater in our study, compared to results else-
where, may partly originate from soil dust coming from North Africa and deserts around
Iran, which contain a large fraction of calcite, dolomite, gypsum and halite and clay miner-
als [28]. The amount of SO2 4 and pH in our study are similar to figures for Jordan
(another country receiving soil dust originating from deserts). On the other hand, high con-
centration of SO24 in the atmosphere may be due to human activities like fuel combustion
[29]. Marine ions (Cl and Na+) also show higher concentrations in our study in compari-
son to similar studies in other countries, but the concentrations of these ions are relatively
close to results for Ghore El-Safi (Jordan).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of major element concentrations (mg/l) in rainwater samples

Statistics Na+ Ca+2 K+ Mg+2 SO2

4
Cl HCO
3

Mean 2.9 12.6 1.7 1.01 14.2 5.1 0.36

Std deviation 3.5 17.5 3.3 1.3 21.4 2.2 0.24
Minimum 0.81 1.1 0.02 0.11 0.96 1.24 0.00
Maximum 15.8 66.4 13.2 5.6 68.1 10.6 0.80
 Rainwater and the resulting runoff chemistry in Shiraz city 707

Table 2. Comparison of pH and mean concentrations of major ions (mg/l) in the present study and some other
countries

Ghore Melle, Triupati, Mexico, Tibetan,

a b c d e
Parameters Thisstudy El-Safi,Jordan Belgium India USA China

pH 7.49 6.91 5.19 – – 5.18

Ca2+ 12.60 6.63 1.08 6.04 1.39 1.08
Mg2+ 1.01 2.26 0.22 1.35 0.09 0.22
Na2+ 2.90 3.00 0.85 0.76 0.10 0.85
K+ 1.70 3.33 0.08 1.33 0.08 0.08
HCO
3
0.36 8.15 – – – –
Cl 5.10 5.05 1.18 1.20 0.33 1.18
SO2
4
14.20 10.79 4.55 12.29 7.37 4.55

Notes:
a
[10]
b
[21]
c
[22]
d
[23]
e
[27]

Figure 2. Rainwater samples plotted on Durov diagram.

Plotting the rainwater samples on the Durov diagram (figure 2) reveals that Ca2+, SO2 4
and HCO 3 are the dominant ionic species. The majority of the rainwater samples fall on

the Ca+2, Mg+2, HCO 2
3 , SO4 or Ca+2, Mg+2, HCO 3 , Cl hydrochemical faces. Only
RW6 which was collected on the top of a cement factory falls on the Ca+2, Mg+2, SO2 4 ,
Cl hydrochemical face. The Durov diagram presents the TDS of the samples with ranges
from 18 to 158 (mg/l). The mean pH (7.49) of rainwater samples is in the alkaline range
and the highest pH value belongs to sample RW6 collected at the top of Shiraz cement
factory.
708 F. Moore and A. Attar

Table 3. Comparison of Cl, Mg+2, K+, Ca+2, SO2 +

4 ratios with Na in rainwater and seawater

Ratios Cl/ Na+ Mg+2/ Na+ K+/ Na+ Ca+2/ Na+ SO2
4 /Na
+

Rain ratios 2.7 0.3 0.5 4.2 6.2

Sea ratioa 1.167 0.022 0.227 0.044 0.125

Note: a [26,30]

The ratios of Cl / Na+, Mg+2 / Na+, K+ / Na+, Ca+ / Na+ and SO2 +
4 / Na in rainwater
are higher than the seawater ratios. The elevated values indicate a modification of sea salt
constituents along the trajectory of the air masses and the possible contribution of other
components probably from soil dust or human activities affecting the study area as
shown in table 3 [10,30]. The SSF and NSSF values, indicating non-marine sources for

Ca2+, K+, SO24 , HCO3 and Mg
2+
also support this observation. It appears that non sea

salt sources influence less Cl with minimum NSSF. This agrees with the calculated EF
value for Cl (table 3). The EF values (table 4) indicate that in addition to marine influ-
ence, rainwater is enriched in different constituents from local sources. The EF values
display the following decreasing order:

Ca2þ > SO2  þ

4 > HCO3 > K > Mg
2þ
> Cl

Table 4. SSF, NSSF and EF of rainwater samples

Ions SSF NSSF EF

2+
Ca 0.12 12.49 102.52
Mg2+ 0.35 0.66 2.69
K+ 0.05 1.71 14.43
Cl 5.13 0.04 1.56
HCO3
0.03 0.57 20.38
SO2
4
0.7 13.55 25.62

Table 5. Rotated component matrix using principle component analysis and Varimax rotation method

Elements Factors

Loading 1 2 3
percentage 49.9% 22.4% 17.6%
Na+ .130 .975 .091
Ca2+ .871 .482 .007
Cu .983 .075 .113
K+ .939 .299 .054
Mg2+ .068 .974 .108
Pb .987 .095 .079
Zn .984 .075 .110
SO2
4
.321 .005 .840
Cl .472 .041 .067
HCO
3
.309 .013 .826
 Rainwater and the resulting runoff chemistry in Shiraz city 709

3.1.2. Factor analysis

Factor loadings after Varimax rotation resulted in three factors with Eigen values greater
than unity (table 5). The first factor with high loadings of Pb, Zn, Cu, Ca2+, K+ and SO2 4
explains 49.9% of the total variance. The Cu, Pb and Zn sources are generally anthropo-
genic while Ca+2 and K+ are typically crustal elements. Positive loadings of Ca2+ and
SO2 2
4 may be due to adsorption of SO4 and/or H2SO4 on dust particles and also contribu-
tion of CaSO4 in crustal sources [30]. Thus, this factor represents a combination of crustal
and anthropogenic signatures. The man-made effects are probably due to road traffic and
the Shiraz industrial complex located in the southwest of the city. The second factor with
total variance of 22.44% mainly comprises Na+, Mg2+ and Ca2+. The Na+ is usually con-
sidered to originate from marine sources [17,30]. The Mg2 + and Ca2+ probably originate
from natural sources (soil) and contribute to neutralisation reactions that occur in atmo-
spheric precipitation [31,32]. The third factor representing 17.6% of total variance mainly
comprises SO2 4 . Based on high NSSF values for SO4
2
and HCO 3 , marine sources of

these ions are limited. The significant positive loadings of SO2 4 and HCO3 would also
suggest a soil-related source [3].

3.1.3. Cu, Pb and Zn in rainwater

Since Pb, Cu and Zn are readily associated with urban environments [33], we investigated
the concentrations of these heavy metals in rainwater. Table 6 shows the descriptive statis-
tics of analysed heavy metals in rainwater samples. Metals with anthropogenic origin,
especially Zn, show high concentration levels. These are controlled by the adsorption/
desorption processes of Fe and Mn oxides/hydroxides during precipitation [34].
Table 7 compares the mean concentrations of these heavy metals to results from similar
studies conducted in other countries. The results indicate that mean concentrations of Cu,
Pb and Zn in our study are considerably below the reported concentrations in Ghore
El-Safi (Jordan) [10] and Baghdad (Iraq) [35], but in comparison with the results from

Table 6. Descriptive statistics of heavy metals (lg/l) in rainwater samples

Statistics Cu Pb Zn

Mean 4.16 13.97 18.25

Std deviation 3.21 15.80 15.38
Minimum 0.8 0.6 3.6
Maximum 10.1 48.6 55.5

Table 7. Comparison of mean concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn (lg/l) in the present study and some other
countries

Heavy metals This study Ghorea El-Safi, Jordan Candiotab region, brazil Baghdad,c Iraq

Cu 14.16 73 0.43 
Pb 13.97 66 0.19 29.81
Zn 18.25 210 9.42 18.81

Notes:
a
[10]
b
[34]
c
[35]
710 F. Moore and A. Attar

Candiota region (Brazil) [34], the results of our study show higher concentrations. The dif-
ferences among these three heavy metals concentrations may be due to both different
regional conditions and different pollution control regimes followed in these countries.

Figure 3. Interpolated heavy metal concentrations Cu (a), Zn (b) and Pb (c) of rainwater using the Spline method.
 Rainwater and the resulting runoff chemistry in Shiraz city 711

The Cu (figure 3a) and Zn (figure 3b) display similar distribution patterns. However,
Zn content ranges from 3.6 to 55.5 lgl1 and Cu content ranges from 0.8 to 10.1 lgl1.
The high concentrations of Cu and Zn observed in south Shiraz are probably related to
the Shiraz industrial complex, which is located in this part of the city. High contents of
analysed heavy metals in west and northwest areas may reflect heavy traffic on the ring
road, which circles the city. The Pb (0.648.6 lgl1) is more concentrated in southern
parts of the city (figure 3c) resulting from the emissions of Shiraz industrial complex.
Iran has recently banned the use of Pb in automotive fuel (leaded petrol). There is insig-
nificant Pb distribution in the west and northwest of the city, although there is a high
level of traffic on the ring road; this may reflect the ban on leaded petrol. Nevertheless,
the Pb results in our study are still considerably higher than results shown in the
Candiota region (Brazil).
The lowest concentrations of Pb, Cu and Zn in rainwater occur in northeast Shiraz,
reflecting less traffic load; and green spaces in this part of the city.

3.2. Runoff
3.2.1. Major ions concentrations
Table 8 shows descriptive statistics of major ions concentrations in runoff samples. The
mean contents of major ionic species display the following decreasing order:
 
4 > HCO3 > Cl > Ca
SO2 2þ
> Naþ > Mg2þ > Kþ

Plotting runoff samples on the Durov diagram (figure 4) indicate that in most runoff
samples Ca2+, SO2 4 and HCO 3 are the dominant ionic species. A few samples are
enriched with Na and K+ and most samples fall on the Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO
+ 2
3 , SO4 hydro-
chemical faces.

3.2.2. Cu, Pb and Zn in runoff

Table 9 presents descriptive statistics of the analysed heavy metals (Cu, Pb and Zn). The
mean concentrations of these heavy metals in runoff display the following decreasing
order: Zn > Pb > Cu. These are similar levels to those in the rainwater. The concentration
ranges are: Zn: 11.2–223.6 mgl1; Pb: 3.4–43.3 mgl1; Cu: 2.9–31.3 mgl1.
Today, in many urban areas, motor vehicles are the most significant source of metal pol-
lution. Ranking only behind mining and waste incineration, tyre wear is the third largest
source of Zn in the environment; hence, there is a very strong correlation between traffic

Table 8. Descriptive statistics of major ions in runoff samples (mg/l)

Statistics Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ HCO

3 SO2
4
Cl

Mean 27.60 7.98 8.40 2.08 128.60 182.8 34.24

Median 26.90 1.93 2.68 2.39 85.40 91.20 19.5
Std deviation 31.5 17 16.06 1.73 90.56 249.46 40.13
Minimum 0.05 0 0.32 0.06 67.1 19.2 5.31
Maximum 109.01 59.27 57.50 4.38 335.50 912 136.5
712 F. Moore and A. Attar

100% SO4 Legend

20

%
20
%
Ro1
Ro2
Ro3

50

%
50
%
Ro4
Ro5
TDS (mg/L)

80

%
Ro6

80
%

3
O
HC
Cl
Ro7

1000

1100
200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900
Ro8
% Ca
80 Ro9
% Ro10
50
Ro11
100% Mg

%
20 Ro12

%
20

%
50

%
80
+K
Na
8.0

8.4
pH
8.8

9.2

Figure 4. Runoff samples plotted on Durov diagram.

Table 9. Descriptive statistics of Cu, Pb and Zn in runoff samples (lg/l)

Statistics Cu Pb Zn

Mean 9.76 13.69 72.49

Std deviation 8.23 11.38 77.88
Minimum 2.9 3.4 11.20
Maximum 31.3 43.3 223.6

density and Zn accumulation in urban areas [36,37]. Car batteries can be considered as
sources for Pb and Zn, while copper lined brakes are the major sources of Cu in urban
environments [38].
Our comparison includes also rainwater and runoff quality. This reveals that:

(1) The TDS of runoff (120–1100 mgl1) is significantly higher than rainwater samples
(18–158 mgl1).
(2) The mean pH of rainwater (7.51) and runoff (8.58) are both in the alkaline range.
(3) Rainwater samples on the Durov diagram fall on Ca2+, Mg+2, HCO 3 , SO4
2
or
2+ +2  
Ca , Mg , HCO3 , Cl hydro chemical faces; while the majority of runoff samples
fall on Ca2+, Mg+2, HCO 2
3 , SO4 hydro chemical faces.
(4) A similar decreasing order of Zn > Pb > Cu is observed in both rainwater and run-
off samples; but, the concentrations are higher in runoff samples.

3.3. Khoshk River quality for irrigation

In Shiraz city, there are strong links among rainwater, runoff and the quality of the Khoshk
River. Rainwater dissolves and washes away pollutants in its path. Runoff which originates
 Rainwater and the resulting runoff chemistry in Shiraz city 713

Table 10. Wilcox classification of surface water based on SAR and EC (micromohs/cm at 25°C)

Range Water class Samples

SAR 10 Excellent All samples

18 Good –
18–2626 Doubtful –
Unsuitable –
EC 250 Excellent –
250–750 Good Ro13, Ro15,
750–2000 Permissible Ro14, Ro16, Ro17, Ro18
2000–3000 Doubtful –
3000 Unsuitable –

Table 11. Comparison of the mean concentration of Cu, Pb and Zn with EPA recommended limits of water
constituents for irrigation (lg/l)

Heavy metals Khoshk River EPA standards

Cu 3.8 200
Pb 0.5 5000
Zn 15.3 2000

from rainwater also washes away and discharges the pollutants into urban drainage chan-
nels. Finally, the urban drainage channels discharge their runoff into the Khoshk River
which also receives municipal effluents and upstream flows. This river is partly used for
irrigation purposes.
In order to determine the quality of the Khoshk River for irrigation of wheat and vege-
table lands adjacent, samples from the river are classified according to the Wilcox classifi-
cation [39]. The results (table 10) indicate excellent quality for all samples (lowest
alkalinity hazard) based on the SAR values. According to EC values, samples (RO13, EC
= 515) and (RO15, EC = 707) are classified as good and samples (RO14, EC = 1590),
(RO16, EC = 1523), (RO17, EC = 1646 and (RO18, EC = 1610) show permissible EC
values.
Analytical data obtained by the salinity diagram illustrate that samples (RO14,
RO16, RO17 and RO18) fall in the field of C3S1, indicating high salinity and low
sodium water type, and so the water can be used for irrigation on almost all types
of soils with little danger of exchangeable sodium [40]. Samples (RO13 and RO15)
fall in the field of C2S1, indicating medium salinity and low sodium in the water
(figure 5).
In table 11, Cu, Pb and Zn contents in Khoshk River are also compared to EPA recom-
mended limits for constituents in irrigation water [41]. The mean concentrations of other
heavy metals such as Cd (< 0.05 lgl1), As (1.7 lgl1), Cr (6.2 lgl1) and Ni (1.3 lgl1)
are also below the recommended irrigation standards (10 lgl1), (100 lgl1), (100 lgl1)
and (200 lgl1) respectively. The comparison based on these heavy metals contents
reveals that the Khoshk River is suitable for irrigation during wet seasons. In agreement
with the results of our study, Rose et al. [42] reported that concentrations of heavy metals
in urban drainage channels runoff are often many times greater than stream runoff during
storm events [42].
714 F. Moore and A. Attar

RO13 RO14 RO15

RO17 RO16 RO18
Very High 30
C1 - S4
28
C2 - S4

26
Sodium hazard- Sodium - Adsorption - Ratio ( S . A . R )

C3 - S4
24
High

22
C1 - S3

20
C4 - S4

18
C2 - S3

16
Medium

14 C3 - S3
C1 - S2

12
C2 - S2
10
C4 - S3
8
C3 - S2
C1 - S1
Low

6
C2 - S1 C4 - S2
4
C3 - S1
2
C4 - S1

0
Class 100 250 750 2250
Low Medium High Very High
Salinity hazard - conductivity - micromohs / cm ( EC * 10^6 ) at 25

Figure 5. US salinity diagram for Khoshk River samples.

 Rainwater and the resulting runoff chemistry in Shiraz city 715

4. Conclusions

Since rainwater becomes runoff and the runoff is finally discharged into the Khoshk River
in Shiraz city, in our study we examined respectively the quality of rainwater, the runoff
and the Khoshk River:

(1) The existence of deserts around the country can have considerable effects on rainwa-
ter quality and alkalinity. Iran is 85% desert. The higher concentration of sulphate in
rainwater in our study and the alkalinity of the rainwater samples reflect the effect of
soil dust originating from deserts in neighbouring countries which contain a large
fraction of calcite, dolomite, gypsum and halite. This trend is similar to Jordan
which is another country affected by soil dust originating from deserts.
(2) In this study, Cu, Pb and Zn concentrations display the following decreasing order in:
rainwater < Khoshk River < drainage channels runoff. This trend shows that rainwater
experiences different qualities during its journey in Shiraz city and the highest con-
centrations of heavy metals are observed in urban drainage channels runoff.
(3) Combining different water sources with different qualities in an urban environment
may be useful in achieving a suitable water quality for different purposes such as
irrigation. This is observed for the case of the Khoshk River in rainy seasons.
Although this river receives municipal effluents, rainwater, runoff from drainage
channels and upstream flows, the water quality is still suitable for irrigation.

Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported by Shiraz University Research Council. The
authors also wish to extend their gratitude to Dr F. Rastmanesh for constructive
comments.

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