Technological Forecasting & Social Change 143 (2019) 101–113

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Technological Forecasting & Social Change

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techfore

How aluminum changed the world: A metallurgical revolution through T

technological and cultural perspectives
Dana Ashkenazi
School of Mechanical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 6997801, Israel

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The history of aluminum is rather short since it was discovered only in the nineteenth century, yet it has become
Advanced applications an important part of everyday life. This article reviews the history of aluminum through technological break-
Aluminum throughs as well as from cultural and social perspectives, beginning with its discovery, through the nineteenth
History of science and twentieth centuries until today; and aims to suggest possible future trends and applications for aluminum
Material culture
alloys. Aluminum has a high strength-to-weight ratio combined with excellent thermal conductivity and good
Technological forecasting
Technological innovation
corrosion resistance. Therefore, aluminum is an attractive material for many applications, including transpor-
tation, electrical and packaging industries, architecture, and food industries. It is also a recyclable metal, which
provides both environmental and economic advantages. The commercial use of aluminum started at the end of
the nineteenth century and continues to grow today with the development of new advanced aluminum alloys.
Consequently, from a cultural perspective, aluminum is considered a symbol of modernity. Technological
breakthroughs generate economic growth and social benefits. Present applications of aluminum include new
choices, such as 3D printing, composite materials, nano-rods, biomedicine devices and aerospace uses. Based on
the excellent properties of aluminum, its low price, combined with its significant scrap value and a growing
recycling market, as well as its accelerating global production, it is expected that the aluminum industries will
considerably grow through the twenty-first century and aluminum will continue to be a major part of our
everyday culture. Therefore, based on the increasing growth of aluminum production and consumption, addi-
tional research and development effort is needed in the following years to minimize the negative environmental
side effects associated with the technological developments related to aluminum production and at the same
time creating further technological innovation.

1. Introduction
Since ancient times, the discovery of new materials and the devel-
opment of novel technologies has unalterably changed mankind's cul-
tures and influenced our surroundings. The term “material of past
cultures” is often used in archaeological studies, focusing on ancient
objects as evidence for past civilizations (Hurcombe, 2014, p. 3). Ma-
terial culture represents the relationships between civilizations and
their physical things (objects), including the materials that are used,
purchase and consumption habits, the use of modified items, domestic
utensils, working tools, trade of artefacts, as well as the interpretation
of objects, rituals that use objects, and the relationships between in-
dividuals and the surrounding buildings. These physical objects reflect
the society in which we live in, including our social status, and there-
fore our world is dominated by material culture.
Innovation based on technological breakthroughs is a dynamic
process, which changes over time, and generates economic growth and
societal benefits (Hekkert et al., 2007, pp. 414, 417; Li et al., 2018, pp.
287, 295). In order to achieve maintainable technological evolution,
social changes such as regulation and industrial networks are un-
avoidable (Hekkert et al., 2007, p. 414).
The research question guiding this study is: how aluminum changed
the world, based on technological breakthroughs and cultural per-
spectives, since the time it was discovered until today? Consequently,
this research reviews the history of aluminum through the nineteenth,
twentieth and twenty-first centuries based on interdisciplinary ap-
proach that includes aspects such as technological innovations, me-
tallurgical progress, industrial applications, environmental issues and
cultural perspectives. This study also aims to suggest possible future
directions, developments and applications for aluminum and its alloys.
The article is divided into six sections, the first one includes an
historical introduction. The second section contains a metallurgy
background. The third section presents the applications of aluminum as
cultural symbols of modernity. The fourth section reports the

E-mail address: dana@eng.tau.ac.il.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.03.011
Received 13 June 2018; Received in revised form 29 November 2018; Accepted 21 March 2019
0040-1625/ © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
D. Ashkenazi
environmental issues of aluminum. The fifth section includes a discus-
sion; and finally, the sixth section presents the main conclusions of this
study.
1.1. The ancient metal of dreams
Aluminum (Al) was unknown during antiquity, yet, in his Naturalis
Historia, the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described a light and shiny
metal, which was isolated from clay. According to the legend, the
Roman Emperor Tiberius was very interested in this novel unique
metal, which was introduced to him by a foreign craftsman. Yet,
Tiberius was very worried that as a result, all of his gold and silver
treasures would lose their value. Therefore, the foreign craftsman was
immediately decapitated and his workshop was destroyed. Some
sources suggest that the unique metal described by Pliny the Elder was
aluminum. However, this suggestion is doubtful, and the element alu-
minum remained unknown until the nineteenth century (Venetski,
1969, p. 451).
Alum is a chemical compound found naturally in the earth; it is a
hydrated double sulfate salt of aluminum and an alkaline metal. For
example, the formula of potassium alum is KAl(SO4)2·12H2O, and the
formula of sodium alum is NaAl(SO4)2·12H2O. Alum was the first ore of
aluminum to be used (Rabinovich, 2013, p. 76). From antiquity, alum
was used in various applications. For instance, based on its capacity to
shrink tissue, alum was used to treat injuries (Osborn, 2016, p. 429).
The oldest known Egyptian medical book, written around 1550 BCE,
describes different diseases and their treatment, using approximately
500 materials, mostly based on minerals such as alum (Gomes et al.,
2012, p. 317). In his book, Pliny the Elder described the use of a lime
and alum mixture for water clarification (Pearse, 2003, p. 103).
Sapphire and ruby are precious gemstones composed of the mineral
corundum, a crystalline form of aluminum oxide. In ancient Rome,
rough sapphire and ruby stones were cut and polished into highly
prized, beautiful and lustrous gemstones (Butini et al., 2018, pp.
160–169). During the Medieval period, sapphire was considered among
the most popular gemstones (Bengtsson Melin, 2014, pp. 259–266); and
through the Viking Age and Medieval period, amulets made of sapphire
were believed to cure illness (Fuglesang, 1989, p. 22).
In De Re Metallica, published in 1556, the German scholar, Georgius
Agricola, describes the mining processes in harvesting alum from earth
minerals (Pearse, 2003, p. 104). Alumina (Al2O3) was isolated almost
two hundred years later (in 1754) by the German chemist Sigismund
Marggraf (Hachez-Leroy, 2013, p. 230; Smith, 1926, p. 32).
1.2. The nineteenth century aluminum revolution
Unlike other common metals, such as gold, silver, copper, lead and
iron, which were already used in the ancient world, aluminum was
discovered only in the nineteenth century (Davis, 1999, p. 1). Although
~8 wt% (by mass) of the earth's crust is composed of aluminum, the
high affinity of aluminum for oxygen, as well as the stability of alu-
minum oxides and silicates prohibited its isolation for a long time. For
that reason, aluminum became economic for engineering applications
only at the end of the nineteenth century (Buffington, 2012, p. 923;
Davis, 1993, p. 3; Davis, 1999, p. 4; Rabinovich, 2013, p. 76).
In 1783, the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier caused a philoso-
phical and scientific revolution when he proposed the new oxygen
theory of combustion, which replaced the governing phlogiston theory
(Le Grand, 1972, pp. 2–18). As a part of this revolution, Lavoisier
propounded his idea that alumina was an oxide of a metal with a strong
affinity for oxygen (Chastain, 1989, p. 36).
In 1800, the Italian physicist and chemist, Alessandro Volta, dis-
covered that when a pair of metal electrodes was separated by an
electrolyte, an electric current was generated (Fig. 1). Napoleon was
impressed by Volta's achievement, and ordered the École Polytechnique
Institute in Paris to build a large battery for research purposes. Volta's
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Technological Forecasting & Social Change 143 (2019) 101–113
discovery soon spread to England and a very large battery was built at
the Royal Institution in London. In 1807, the English chemist Sir
Humphry Davy, using this battery, succeeded in isolating both po-
tassium and sodium (Habashi, 2013, p. 333; Le Roux, 2015, p. 116). A
year later Davy announced his belief that the abundant compound
named alumina is probably the earth oxide of an undiscovered metal,
he named aluminum from the Latin term alumen for alum salts. Sub-
sequently, many researchers invested great efforts in isolating the alu-
minum metal; Davy himself never succeeded in producing aluminum
(Christie et al., 1993, p. 20; Eskin, 2008, p. 1; Habashi, 2003, p. 1;
Habashi, 2013, p. 333; Kumar and Milewski, 1987, p. 690; Osborn,
2016, p. 429; Williams, 1993, p. 89).
A tiny amount of highly impure aluminum was successfully ex-
tracted for the first time only in 1825 by the Danish chemist, Hans
Christian Ørsted, through the reducing processes of aluminum chloride
with potassium amalgam (Fig. 1). Ørsted had produced aluminum
chloride a few years earlier by heating together alumina and charcoal in
a stream of chlorine (Habashi, 2013, p. 333). In 1827, the German
chemist Friedrich Wöhler repeated Ørsted's experiments and effectively
produced an aluminum powder (Fig. 1). Both Ørsted and Wöhler se-
parated the aluminum metal from its chloride; however, the use of
expensive potassium in this process did not permit industrial produc-
tion of aluminum (Christie et al., 1993, p. 20; Eskin, 2008, p. 1; Kumar
and Milewski, 1987, p. 690; Williams, 1993, p. 89).
Since Wöhler's process could not produce large-scale production,
aluminum remained an expensive metal that cost more than gold
(Eskin, 2008, pp. 1–2; Kumar and Milewski, 1987, p. 690; Rabinovich,
2013, p. 76). In 1854, the French chemist Henri Sainte-Claire Deville, at
the Paris Academy of Sciences, reported on the first successful in-
dustrial production of aluminum (Fig. 1), using sodium as a reducing
agent (Kumar and Milewski, 1987; Rabinovich, 2013, p. 76). In his
processes, Deville produced alumina from bauxite ore (a clay like mi-
neral rich in aluminum oxide) and used sodium as a reducing agent
instead of potassium to produce aluminum metal (Buffington, 2012, p.
925; Habashi, 2013, p. 335; Williams, 1993, p. 89). Although Deville's
process significantly reduced the cost of aluminum production, the
metal still remained very expensive until the last quarter of the nine-
teenth century (Eskin, 2008, p. 2; Osborn, 2016, p. 430).
An aluminum metal was introduced to the general public for the
first time during the 1855 Paris World Exposition (Fig. 1), attracting a
great deal of interest when a bar of aluminum was presented inside a
glass case lying on top of dark velvet fabric, with the title “the silver
from clay” (Richards, 1901, p. 107; Williams, 1993, p. 89). During the
same year, Napoleon III used aluminum tableware at state dinners to
impress his most distinguished guests (Byko, 2000, p. 10; Eskin, 2008,
p. 2; Rabinovich, 2013, p. 76; Roesky, 2004, p. 7284).
In 1858, two French scholars, Charles and Alexandre Tissier (the
Tissier brothers), published the first book about aluminum (Le Roux,
2015, p. 121). In his 1865 novel “From the Earth to the Moon”, the
French novelist Jules Verne describes the unique properties of alu-
minum (Fig. 1) as a symbol of the future (Eskin, 2008, pp. 1–2). In the
1867 Paris exposition, aluminum sheets, foil and wire, as well as alu-
minum goods such as helmets and telescopes, were introduced to the
general public (Richards, 1901, p. 108). Aluminum was a prestige metal
in the second half of the nineteenth century, and, based on its light
weight combined with good corrosion resistance, it was chosen as
cladding material to complete the top of the Washington Monument in
1884 (Osborn, 2016, p. 430). In 1886, the British Royal Society pre-
sented scales made of aluminum and gold to the Russian scientist,
Dmitri Mendeleev, to honor his achievements (Eskin, 2008, p. 2).
The first large-scale industrial production method of pure alu-
minum, known as the Hall–Héroult process (Figs. 1 and 2), was si-
multaneously and independently developed by the American engineer
Charles Martin Hall and the French engineer Paul Héroult in 1886
(Buffington, 2012, p. 925; Davis, 1993, p. 3; Kumar and Milewski,
1987, p. 691; Rooy, 1992, p. 18; Tarcy et al., 2011, p. 101; Williams,
D. Ashkenazi
Fig. 1. The timeline of aluminum discovery, technological developments and applications during the nineteenth century.
Fig. 2. Flow chart of the aluminum production processes: aluminum refining
(Hall-Héroult process), smelting (Bayer process) and aluminum fabrication
technics (casting, forming processes such as rolling, forging, deep drawing and
extrusion, and powder metallurgy) (Buffington, 2012, p. 925; Davis, 1999;
Ingarao et al., 2018, p. 267).
1993, p. 92). The Hall–Héroult process of converting alumina into
aluminum metal (Fig. 2), which replaced the former process developed
by Deville, was based on the electrolysis of alumina dissolved in cryolite
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Technological Forecasting & Social Change 143 (2019) 101–113
(Na3AlF6). The Hall–Héroult process made aluminum less elitist and
more accessible (Byko, 2000, p. 10; Davis, 1993, p. 3; Habashi, 2016, p.
344; Le Roux, 2015, p. 115; Rabinovich, 2013, p. 76). In 1888, Hall
established the Hall-Process smelter for aluminum production in Ken-
sington, Pennsylvania (Williams, 1993, p. 93). During the same year,
the American industrial chemist, Hamilton Young Castner, developed a
process for the production of sodium metal, which decreased the price
of sodium, and correspondingly reduced the cost of aluminum pro-
duction (Williams, 1993, pp. 92–93). While the industrial production of
aluminum continued to rise, its value dropped. For example, in 1860
the cost of 1 kg of aluminum was $40, and in 1914 the price of alu-
minum had dropped to 40 cents, and it was no longer considered a
precious metal (Eskin, 2008, p. 2).
An aluminum bronze (aluminum-copper alloy), which was mainly
used in ornaments and tableware manufacturing based on its golden
appearance, was first produced in 1884 by the Cowles brothers' alu-
minum company in the United States (Habashi, 2013, p. 338). In 1889,
the Austrian chemist, Carl Joseph Bayer, found a method to produce
aluminum metal, based on the Hall–Héroult process, by purifying
bauxite, which is the most common aluminum ore (Figs. 1 and 2)
(Kermeli et al., 2015, p. 630). Bauxite is mostly composed of either AlO
(OH) or Al(OH)3, yet it usually contains iron oxide, titanium oxide, clay
and quartz as well (Davis, 1999, p. 4). The Norwegian chemist, Carl
Wilhelm Söderberg, improved the Hall–Héroult process in 1918, which
significantly increased aluminum production in the world (Tarcy et al.,
2011, p. 101). The modern production of aluminum metal until today is
based on both the Bayer and the Hall–Héroult processes (Fig. 2)
(Kermeli et al., 2015, p. 633; Rabinovich, 2013, p. 76).
The first commercial Al-Mg-Si alloy (51S) was developed in 1921.
The heat-treatable commercial 61S (6061) aluminum alloy, with
medium strength and good corrosion resistance was introduced in
1935. The 6061 Al alloy was popular in early railroad and marine ap-
plications based on its corrosion resistance even after welding, and it is
still used today for various applications, including automotive and truck
wheels and automotive drive shafts (Sanders, 2001). At the beginning
of the 1960s aluminum became the most widely used non-ferrous metal
in the world (Rabinovich, 2013, p. 76).
D. Ashkenazi
2. Aluminum from a metallurgy perspective
Aluminum is highly reactive metal with strong affinity for oxygen;
therefore, there are more than 270 different minerals in nature that
contain aluminum compounds. However, the existence of native alu-
minum (Al°) is remarkably rare because of its chemical reactivity
(Rabinovich, 2013, p. 76; Shugalei et al., 2013, p. 2633). Al° can only
be formed and preserved as a minor phase in strongly reducing en-
vironments, such as the low oxygen cores of some volcanoes and in
sediments from the oceans (Chen et al., 2010, pp. 355–356; Chen et al.,
2011, p. 363; Dekov et al., 2009, pp. 1283–1286).
Bauxite is the main ore used for the production of aluminum metal.
The Hall–Héroult process produces aluminum with more than 99.0 wt%
Al purity. Specific applications of aluminum, such as capacitors, require
high purity aluminum (more than 99.97 wt% Al), with extremely small
amount of impurities. Further purification of the metal can be done by
the Hoopes process (Gaustad et al., 2012, p. 83; Lindsay, 2014, pp.
217–222; Rooy, 1992, p. 18). Primary production of aluminum is de-
fined as the process through which new metal is produced from bauxite;
and secondary production of aluminum is defined as the process in
which used aluminum metal is recycled (Balomenos et al., 2011, p. 70).
Aluminum metal has a lustrous or bright shiny attractive appear-
ance, and it is highly reflective. It has a face-centered cubic (FCC) unit
cell structure and a low melting temperature of ~660 °C. In its pure
state, aluminum is rather soft and ductile; it has a low density of 2.7 g/
cm3, which is only one-third of the density of steel. It has a high
strength-to-weight ratio, and aluminum alloys are available in a wide
range of strength values. In order to produce high strength and stiffness
aluminum alloys, powder metallurgy can be used (Santos et al., 2016, p.
3067; Schaffer et al., 2001, p. 85). Moreover, aluminum is a non-fer-
romagnetic metal, which makes it attractive in the electrical as well as
electronic industries. It has high fatigue resistance, and is an excellent
conductor of electricity and heat (Chi et al., 2018; Santos et al., 2016, p.
3067; Yu et al., 2016, p. 135501).
Aluminum production today is based on the Hall–Héroult process,
reducing alumina into aluminum and oxygen. Primary aluminum is
produced by electrolysis of alumina (Hall-Héroult process) at a tem-
perature range of 950 to 980 °C (Santos et al., 2016, pp. 3067–3068).
The major impurities of smelted aluminum are silicon and iron;
nevertheless, minor concentrations of other elements, such as zinc, ti-
tanium, gallium and vanadium are often also presented (Davis, 1993, p.
3).
Aluminum is much more than a single material, it includes various
alloys whose mechanical properties vary widely. The common alloying
elements in aluminum alloys are copper, magnesium, manganese, si-
licon, tin and zinc (Mazzolani, 2004, p. 186). Aluminum alloys are
commonly divided into two major groups: (1) cast aluminum alloys,
where the final shape of the part is obtained by casting process, and (2)
wrought (workable) aluminum alloys that undergo hot or cold me-
chanical working process (Davis, 1993, p. 3). Some aluminum alloys
respond to heat treatments based on phase solubility, and can be har-
dened by controlled heating and cooling cycles. These thermal treat-
ments include three major processes: solution heat treatments, rapid
quenching, and precipitation hardening (aging).
The hardness and strength of some aluminum alloys may be in-
creased by the formation (precipitation) of a second phase within the
aluminum matrix, accomplished by phase transformations. Such a
process is called precipitation hardening (or age hardening), and it is
attained by appropriate heat treatments. Two essential conditions must
be present for precipitation hardening: (1) a considerable solubility (a
few percent) of one component in the other, and (2) a solubility limit
that significantly decreases with temperature reduction. Both of these
conditions are satisfied by the Al-Cu phase diagram (Fig. 3a–b)
(Callister and Rethwisch, 2010, pp. 436–440).
Precipitation hardening is accomplished by a two stage heat treat-
ment process: (1) a solution heat treatment, in which the solute atoms
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Technological Forecasting & Social Change 143 (2019) 101–113
are dissolved in the metal matrix to form a homogenous α phase solid
solution (Fig. 3c), followed by a quenching process (rapid cooling),
resulting in the formation of a non-equilibrium supersaturated α phase
solid solution alloy, which is rather soft; and (2) the supersaturated α
phase is next heated to a temperature for which the diffusion rates
become significant enough to initiate the formation of a θ″ phase within
the α phase matrix, characterized by maximum values of hardness and
strength (Fig. 3d). When the heat process continues long enough (over-
aging), a large coherent θ phase is formed, resulting in the reduction of
both hardness and strength (Fig. 3e) (Callister and Rethwisch, 2010, pp.
436–440).
Non-heat-treatable aluminum alloys can be hardened by a cold-
working (strain-hardening) process of plastic deformation mechanism
(Davis, 1993, p. 5; Santos et al., 2016, p. 3069). For instance, in 1907,
the Swiss aluminum manufacturer, Robert Victor Neher, invented a
technique to produce aluminum foil by a continuous rolling process
(Fig. 4) (Robles-Hernandez et al., 2017, p. 161). The first plant for
aluminum foil manufacturing by rolling was established by Neher in
1910 (Robles-Hernandez et al., 2017, p. 161).
In 1909, the duralumin age-hardenable alloy (~95 wt% Al), which
contains ~4 wt% Cu and up to ~1 wt% of other elements (mainly
manganese and magnesium), was developed by the German metallur-
gist Alfred Wilm (Fig. 4) who was looking for a lightweight alloy to
replace brass for cartridge casings (Gayle and Goodway, 1994, p. 1015;
Sanders, 2001, p. 25; Starke and Staley, 1996, p. 132; Williams, 1993,
p. 93).
Al-Si alloys (Fig. 5a) are characterized by low weight, good me-
chanical properties, good castability, weldability, high heat con-
ductivity and excellent corrosion resistance. Al-Si alloys are found in
domestic applications, automotive and aerospace industries. By adding
magnesium to the Al-Si alloy, a precipitation of Mg2Si will strengthen
the aluminum matrix. AlSi10Mg alloy, which typically contains be-
tween 0.4 and 0.6 wt% Mg, is commonly used in selective laser melting
(SLM) three-dimensional (3D) printing (Fig. 5b–c) (Kempen et al.,
2012).
During the first half of the twentieth century, aluminum alloys were
developed by trial and error. In 1933, the Aluminum Association was
founded (Fig. 4) (Das and Kaufman, 2007, p. 62); and in the 1950s there
was significant progress in metallurgical research, resulting in better
understanding of the relationships between the composition, micro-
structural characteristics, mechanical properties and processing of
aluminum alloys (Starke and Staley, 1996, p. 131).
Since 1886, when aluminum was produced for the first time by the
H‫י‬roult technique, its annual production in the world rose significantly
(Fig. 6a) from just ~45,000 tons to 17.3 million tons in 1988, 25 mil-
lion tons in 2000, and more than 58.8 million tons in the year 2016
(Brown et al., 2018; Rooy, 1992, p. 18; Santos et al., 2016, p. 3067).
Around ~250 million tons of primary aluminum were manufactured in
the world between the years 1900 and 1971, and from 1972 to 2017,
the production of primary aluminum was dramatically increased to
~1 billion tons. Among ~75% of that amount is still used today in
various applications, such as beverage cans, light-weight cars, durable
window frames, photovoltaic panels, and art (Bayliss, 2017, p. 40).
Since the beginning of the 1940s, the price of aluminum has fallen
below the price of copper (Fig. 6b) (Habashi, 2016, p. 349). In 1999 the
U.S. aluminum production included ~5.6 million tons of flat-rolled
products, ~2.4 million tons of cast ingot and ~1.7 million tons of ex-
trusions and tubes (Sanders, 2001, p. 21). Of the 900 million tons (Mt)
of aluminum used in 2017, over 200 Mt were used in China, around
75 Mt were used elsewhere in Asia, 200 Mt were used in North America
and 170 Mt were used in Europe (Bayliss, 2017, p. 40).
The production of large quantities of complex aluminum compo-
nents by traditional manufacturing techniques, such as casting, fol-
lowed by forming operations, for example, rolling, forging, deep
drawing and extrusion, usually involves wasteful and expensive sec-
ondary machining processes. In some cases, using powder metallurgy is
D. Ashkenazi Technological Forecasting & Social Change 143 (2019) 101–113

Fig. 3. The aluminum-copper phase diagram: (a) general view of the Al-Cu phase diagram (based on Callister and Rethwisch, 2010, p. 439; Schaffer et al., 2001, p.
88); (b) the left side of the diagram, showing the Al-Al2Cu equilibrium system, including the metastable equilibrium between α-Al and GP (Guinier-Preston) zone
(based on Gayle and Goodway, 1994, p. 439); (c) supersaturated homogenies α phase solid solution; (d) the formation of coherent θ″ phase within the α phase matrix;
and (e) over-aging stage, characterized by the formation of large non-coherent θ phase (based on Callister and Rethwisch, 2010, p. 440).

Fig. 4. The timeline of aluminum production, manufacturing processes, technological developments and applications during the twentieth century.

suitable instead of traditional processing methods, to produce complex
net-shaped aluminum components, which require slight or no sec-
ondary machining processes. However, powder metallurgy processing
usually results in some residual porosity, which influences the proper-
ties and performance of the manufactured component (Judge et al.,
2017, p. 375).
To classify cast and workable alloys, numerical designations was
suggested by the Aluminum Association (Table 1). In the 1xxx series the
aluminum percentage is high (98.8–99.99 wt% Al). The chemical and
electrical industries use this series because of the excellent corrosion
resistance and the good electrical and thermal conductivities. The 2xxx
series alloys are usually produced as profiles, plates and pipes. Basi-
cally, 2xxx series alloys are used in the aircraft industry with riveted
connections. Since the corrosion resistance of these alloys is not very
good, it is essential to protect them when they are used in aggressive
environments. The 3xxx series alloys cannot be heat treated; they have
slightly higher strength than 1xxx series, with a high ductility, which
allows cold-forming processes for increasing their strength. The 3xxx

105
D. Ashkenazi
Fig. 5. Three-dimensional printing of aluminum: (a) a binary Al-Si phase diagram (based on Murray and McAlister, 1984, pp. 74–75), which is the only commercial
3D printable aluminum alloy today; (b) SLM technology (base on Wong and Hernandez, 2012, p. 5); and (c) schematic flow chart explaining the major printing steps
of aluminum part by the SLM technique.
Fig. 6. Aluminum timeline: (a) the change in aluminum production versus
copper production; and (b) the change of aluminum price versus copper price
during the twentieth century (based on Habashi, 2016, p. 349).
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Technological Forecasting & Social Change 143 (2019) 101–113
series alloys have good corrosion resistant; and they are used as panels
and trapezoidal sheeting for roofing systems. The properties of 4xxx
series alloys are relatively similar to those of the 3xxx series. They are
often used for welding wires. The mechanical properties of 5xxx series
alloys can be increased by cold-working to higher values than those
corresponding to the 1xxx, 3xxx and 4xxx series. The mechanical
properties of 6xxx series alloys can be increased by heat treatment. The
6xxx series alloys are mainly suitable for extrusion and they are used in
welded structures, as well as bolted and riveted connections. The 7xxx
series alloys are produced in the form of rolled and extruded heat-
treated profiles. The 7xxx series alloys have good corrosion resistant
and they are used for structural applications. The 8xxx series alloys are
preferably used as material for packaging; however today it is gaining
more applications in the building industry (Mazzolani, 2004, p. 186;
Santos et al., 2016, pp. 3067–3069). The aluminum alloys of the 2xxx,
6xxx, and 7xxx series are among the heat-treatable group, and the
aluminum alloys of the 1xxx, 3xxx, 4xxx and 5xxx series are among the
group of mechanically workable alloys (Santos et al., 2016, pp.
3067–3069).
The mechanical properties of some common aluminum alloys are
presented in Table 2. The 2xxx series wrought age-hardenable Al 2519
alloy is used in the armor plates industries because of its extremely high
specific strength combined with good resistance to stress corrosion
cracking (SCC). Applying combined cold rolling and stretching plastic
deformation before aging is useful for attaining higher SCC resistance,
since it reduces the amount of precipitates at the grain boundaries, and
therefore, encourages further homogeneous distribution of the pre-
cipitates (Dymek and Dollar, 2003, pp. 286, 288).
3. Aluminum applications as cultural symbols of modernity
The materials and objects used by different civilizations reflect their
cultures. Since the beginnings of aluminum as a commercial metal
started only at the end of the nineteenth century, when the
Hall–Héroult electrolytic reduction process was developed, aluminum
has been considered a symbol of modern life, as reflected by its tech-
nological developments and applications during the twentieth and at
D. Ashkenazi Technological Forecasting & Social Change 143 (2019) 101–113

Table 1
Main series of 4-digit system of wrought (workable) aluminum alloys (Long et al., 2017, p. 2636; Mazzolani, 2004, pp. 186–187; Santos et al., 2016, pp. 3068–3069;
Starke and Staley, 1996, p. 140).
Series Main alloying element Properties Applications

1xxx Aluminum content between Excellent corrosion resistance, good electrical and Commercial pure aluminum (non-heat treatable), electrical applications, cables
98.8 and 99.99 wt% thermal conductivity, good workability. and tanks.
2xxx Copper (heat treatable) High strength and toughness. Airframes, skin of aircrafts, aircraft constructions, rocket chamber, satellite parts,
Can be strengthened by solution heat treatment. beams, and armor plates.
3xxx Manganese (non-heat Good workability combined with moderate Cooking utensils, aluminum beverage cans, panels and trapezoidal sheeting for
treatable) strength. roofing systems.
4xxx Silicon (non-heat treatable) Sufficient quantities of silicon reduce the melting Filler materials for welding 6xxx series alloys for automotive industries and
point of aluminum (Fig. 5). structural applications.
5xxx Magnesium (non-heat High strength, excellent corrosion resistance in Aluminum sheets, automotive industries, marine applications, military
treatable) marine environments, and good weldability. applications, pressure vessels, storage tanks, building and construction
applications, including bridges.
6xxx Magnesium and silicon (heat High strength, good weldability, good workability, Airframes, aircraft constructions, ship building, military applications, aluminum
treatable) and excellent corrosion resistance. sheets, automotive industries, and structural applications.
7xxx Zinc (heat treatable) Very high strength and good fracture toughness. Airframes, aircraft, automotive applications, military applications, constructions,
fittings, gears, and shafts.
8xxx Iron and silicon High strength, stiffness and good formability. Airframes, and military applications.
9xxx Unused High strength. Not currently used.

Table 2 in aircraft industry since 1930s (Santos et al., 2016, p. 3068). The
Mechanical properties of some common aluminum alloys. L represents the Douglas DC3 airplane, which first flew on December 1935, is an ex-
longitudinal direction and T the transversal direction. The yield strength was ample of the transition from wood and fabric planes to the new gen-
measured by 0.2% offset, and the hardness was measured with load of 200 g- eration of all metal aircraft (Jakab, 1999). Aluminum alloys continued
force (Bray, 1992, p. 187–196; Callister and Rethwisch, 2010, Appendix A; to be the leading structural material used for civil aircraft until the end
Hahn and Rosenfield, 1975, p. 654; Santos et al., 2016, p. 3069).
of the twentieth century, when composite materials became a more
Aluminum alloy Yield Ultimate Fracture Hardness attractive choice, although their elevated price (Ashby, 2011, p. 15).
strength strength toughness Vickers (HV) At the beginning of the twentieth century aluminum metal started to
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa·m1/2)
appear in other applications, such as architecture, transportation and
2011-T3 295 380 – 95 food industries (Byko, 2000, p. 10). For example, in 1911, the Tobler
2024-T3 345 485 44 137 Swiss Company was the first to use aluminum foil for chocolate
2024-T351 345 485 26 – packaging, including Toblerone chocolate (Monetta et al., 2017, p. 33).
(temper)
In 1920, the first Soviet State Commission for Electrification plan,
6061 (L) 342 365 – 121
6061 (T) 326 352 – 125 the Goelro plan, was adopted in Russia. Goelro allowed the USSR to
6061-T6 275 310 29 107 grow into a leading player in the worldwide aluminum market (Volkov
7050-T7451 455 510 31 162 and Kostyuk, 2009, p. 330).
7075-T6 505 572 – 175 In 1934, the American railway company, Union Pacific, launched
(temper)
7075-T7351 391 505 20 155
the first aluminum train, named M-10000 (Bush, 1974, p. 314). Since
7079-T651 502 572 24 – 1930s, aluminum alloys (mainly 2xxx, 6xxx, and 7xxx series, Table 1)
have become the chosen materials for structural components of aircraft
industries in order to achieve minimum weight combined with ad-
the beginning of the twenty-first centuries (Davis, 1999, p. 1). The vanced mechanical properties (Santos et al., 2016, p. 3068; Starke and
earliest commercial products and applications of aluminum included Staley, 1996, p. 131–132).
cooking utensils, mirror frames, and house address numbers (Davis, Since the 1930s, aluminum has become a part of our everyday
1993, p. 3; Davis, 1999, p. 1; Worden, 2009, p. 155). modern life, and since the 1940s its cost has fallen below that of copper
In 1893, Sir Alfred Gilbert designed an aluminum sculpture of (Fig. 6b) (Byko, 2000, p. 9; Habashi, 2016, p. 349). For instance, in
Anteros, the ancient Greek god of selfless love (Fig. 1). The sculpture 1931, the Empire State Building in Manhattan, New York City, which
was displayed at Piccadilly Circus in London as a memorial statue to the was the tallest skyscraper in the world between the years 1931–1971,
Earl of Shaftesbury (Martini et al., 2012, p. 405; Williams, 1993, p. 90). was the first building that extensively used aluminum in its design
In 1903, the American engineers and aviators, Wilbur and Orville (Fig. 4) (Sanders, 2001, p. 25).
Wright (the Wright brothers), built and flew the first plane (also known In 1933, the first aluminum bridge deck was built in Smithfield
as Flyer I). Early planes were constructed of lightweight woods, silk, Street, Pittsburgh, in order to replace an earlier steel and wood deck,
and steel wires. However, in order to lift their plane up into the air, the with the purpose to increase live-load carrying capacity (Das and
Wright brothers used a new lightweight and strong engine, which in- Kaufman, 2007, p. 6; Walbridge and de la Chevrotière, 2012, p. 2). The
cluded components made of aluminum (Fig. 4), based on its strong and components of the deck were made of rolled 2014-T6 Al alloy, which
structural reliability combined with good fracture resistance (Davis, was the most common high-strength structural aluminum alloy at the
1999, p. 1; Gayle and Goodway, 1994, p. 1015; Williams and Starke, time. The 1933 bridge remained in service until 1967, when it was
2003, p. 5777). Wood continued to be the main material of airframe upgraded with a new welded aluminum orthotropic deck, built of 5456-
construction well into the twentieth century. However, when airplanes H321 Al plates welded to 6062-T6 Al extrusions with 5556 Al filler
became larger, it became impractical to continue using wood. The so- wire, in order to handle more cars and bigger trucks. The upgraded
lution to this problem was to use aluminum airframes, with relatively aluminum deck remained in service until 1993, then it was replaced
high strength per light weight and high bending stiffness. In 1917, the (based upon short-term economics) by a steel deck (Das and Kaufman,
German aircraft designer, Hugo Junkers, designed the first all-metal 2007, pp. 61–62). Since 1933, aluminum alloys, with high strength-to-
plane, which used duralumin in its structure (Krause, 2012). Aluminum weight ratios combined with excellent corrosion resistance, have been
alloys (mainly those of classes 2xxx, 7xxx, and 6xxx) have been engaged used in bridge construction in order to replace wood and steel decks, for

107
D. Ashkenazi
Fig. 7. The Smolarz auditorium at the Tel Aviv University, which serves as a hall for many academic and public events, is covered with aluminum cladding
(Photos: R. Ashkenazi).
better load carrying capacity (Das and Kaufman, 2007, pp. 62, 66). The
first all-aluminum bridge, the Grasse River Bridge, in Massena, New
York, was constructed in 1946 for railroad traffic. The beams of this
bridge were made of 2014-T6 Al plate riveted with 2117-T4 Al rivets.
Several aluminum bridges were built in the late 1940s and early 1950s,
including the Sunderland Bridge in England and the Aberdeen Bridge in
Scotland (Walbridge and de la Chevrotière, 2012, pp. 2–3). The first all-
aluminum highway bridge in the North America was constructed in
1950 over the Saguenay River, Arvida, Canada (Das and Kaufman,
2007, p. 63). The first aluminum road bridge in Europe, the Schwans-
bell Bridge, was constructed in Germany in 1956 (Mader and Pieper,
2006, p. 356; Walbridge and de la Chevrotière, 2012, p. 3).
The world's first plane flight under turbojet power, composed of
aluminum, was carried out in 1939 by the German Heinkel He 178
airplane which was constructed of aluminum skin (Scott, 1995, p. 68).
Aluminum production increased dramatically during World War II as a
part of the war effort. However, after war ended, aluminum corpora-
tions struggled to maintain their production capabilities (Byko, 2000, p.
11).
In 1952, the first greenhouse made completely of aluminum alloy
was built at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, London (Fig. 4) (Barker,
1996; Brenan, 1952). The first artificial satellite of the Earth, the USSR
Sputnik, was launched in 1957. The Sputnik's frame, with total mass of
83.6 kg, was made completely of aluminum alloy (Wissehr et al., 2011,
p. 368). In 1959, Bill Coors invented a seamless aluminum can (Fig. 4),
which was more efficient from the mechanical design perspective and
furthermore enabled an environmental solution to the problem of tin
plated and steel can littering (Buffington, 2012, p. 925; Sanders, 2001,
p. 25). During the same year, the first climatron greenhouse, walled by
108
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 143 (2019) 101–113
a geodesic dome made of aluminum alloy, was built in the Missouri
Botanical Garden in St. Louis (Bolonkin and Cathcart, 2007; De Vos,
1974, p. 269).
In 1962, Marion Lee (Mickey) Thompson, an American auto-racing
builder, participated in the Indianapolis 500 race, driving a racing car
with an aluminum engine, and the car achieved excellent results
(Ludvigsen, 2002, pp. 11–15). The first experimental aluminum sub-
marine, named Aluminaut, was built by the Reynolds Metals Company
(RMC) in 1964, for oceanographic research. In order to design a press
hull container that would be capable of cruising and operating at great
depths of up to 15,000 ft (4572 m) for long periods, a stiffened cylinder
was determined to be the most efficient choice. For that purpose, a high
strength-to weight ratio was needed. Based on these criteria, aluminum
alloy 7079-T6 was selected (Chernyshov et al., 2016, p. 186; Sheets and
Loughman, 1965, p. 450). In 1969, the Airbus Company used aluminum
alloys as main structural materials (Starke and Staley, 1996). In the
same year, the first wide body passenger airplane, the Boeing 747,
which was constructed of high strength aluminum as the main struc-
tural material, made its first flight. The opening commercial flight of
Boeing 747 was in January 1970 (Kelly et al., 2007. p. 5; Williams and
Starke, 2003, p. 5780).
The first aluminum high speed electric train, built by the TGV,
France's high-speed intercity rail service, was launched in 1981 (Fig. 4)
(Amos et al., 2010, pp. 5, 9–10; Gieras, 1995, p. 7; Skillingberg and
Green, 2007, p. 1). The first component of the International Space
Station (ISS), which is a joint project of five space agencies: NASA, CSA,
Roscosmos, ESA and JAXA, was launched into orbit in 1998 (Fig. 4).
Most of the ISS structure, which is the largest habitable artificial sa-
tellite of our planet, was built of aluminum alloys, including 2219-T6
D. Ashkenazi
aluminum alloy (Blau et al., 2002; Novikova et al., 2006, p. 6).
Today, the main uses of aluminum alloys include car structures,
panels, and wheels, made of 6061 aluminum alloy; airplane structures
built of 7050-T7451 aluminum alloy; skins of airplanes constructed of
2024-T3 aluminum alloy; as well as rocket chambers created with 2014
aluminum alloy. Aluminum alloys, such as the heat-treatable 2024-T3
alloy, are used in the aerospace industries for advanced applications,
where high strength-to weight ratio, high fracture toughness, high fa-
tigue resistance, super-plasticity and high formability are required
(Huda et al., 2009, p. 515). Other applications of aluminum alloys are
found in the electrical and packaging industries and in building con-
struction applications (Santos et al., 2016, p. 3068; Scott, 2017, p. 17).
For example, the Smolarz auditorium at Tel Aviv University, Israel, is
coated with naval aluminum 5086 (alloyed with magnesium) clad
walls, designed by the architect Avraham Yaski (Fig. 7).
The automotive industry is considered as one of the most significant
factors for the estimation of countries' economy and trade growth (it
generates in the world more than $2.5 trillion in revenue per year), it
shapes the individual life as well as the cities and creates new working
places (Vaz et al., 2017, pp. 880–881). A good example for the growth
of aluminum production in the world is its use in the automotive sector
(Santos et al., 2016, pp. 3067–3068). The use of aluminum alloys in
transportation applications has increased dramatically from 6% in the
year 1950 up to 28% in 2010 (Attar et al., 2015, p. 225). At present,
aluminum uses in the automotive industry applications are increasing
in order to improve fuel economy and energy efficiency, and reduce
waste, as well as to improve vehicle performance and safety (Firth
et al., 2015; Long et al., 2017, p. 2635; Roth et al., 2001, p. 28; Vaz
et al., 2017, p. 881). The average use of aluminum in the car industry is
about 180 kg per passenger vehicle, and it is estimated to increase ac-
cording to extrapolation up to 250 kg per passenger vehicle in 2025
(Santos et al., 2016, pp. 3067–3068). The automotive industry is cur-
rently searching for lightweight and higher-strength aluminum mate-
rials. For example, today, 45% of all the hoods produced in the auto-
motive industries in North America are made of aluminum (mostly 6xxx
and 5xxx aluminum alloys, with ultimate strength values between 250
and 400 MPa), and it is predicted that 85% of the automotive hoods will
be aluminum by 2025. The choice of aluminum hoods results in notable
weight reduction, improving the weight distribution in the front area of
the vehicle. Similarly, doors and deck covers in large automobiles are
also produced of aluminum alloys. The aluminum alloys of the future
automotive industry should have ultimate strengths approaching
600 MPa, which is needed for further weight reduction; therefore, new
7xxx sequence high-strength alloys should be developed (Long et al.,
2017, pp. 2635–2636).
In 2007, the world's largest aluminum ship was built in Australia by
the Austal Company (Crosser, 2016, p. 1; Worden, 2009, p. 158). The
application of aluminum alloys for marine transportation, such as ship
building, is growing today, based on their lightness, their low cost
maintenance, and their excellent corrosion resistance. The commonest
used aluminum alloys in corrosive marine atmospheres are the alloys
belong to groups 5xxx and 6xxx, which provide satisfactory strength
combined with excellent corrosion resistance. The traditional most used
aluminum alloys for ship building are the 5083 Al-Mg and the 6082 Al-
Mg-Si alloys, which have been found to be reliable during their man-
ufacturing process and through their naval service (Ertuğ and
Kumruoğlu, 2015, p. 146).
Because of their light weight, good corrosion resistance and me-
chanical properties, aluminum alloys such as 2139-T8, 5083-H131,
6061-T651, and 7075-T651 are widely used in military applications,
including armor plates (Forrestal et al., 2010, pp. 1245–1251; Forrestal
et al., 2018, pp. 1–3).
Metallic matrix composites (MMCs) reinforced with continuous,
discontinuous, whiskers, and particle reinforcement materials have
advanced combinations of properties, including ductility, toughness,
high strength and high modulus of elasticity, and, therefore, are very
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Technological Forecasting & Social Change 143 (2019) 101–113
promising materials for various uses (Chi et al., 2018, p. 29; Singh and
Chauhan, 2016, p. 160). MMCs with aluminum matrix are gaining in-
terest due to their relatively low price combined with high performance
resulting from their advanced properties, such as low density, high
strength, stiffness, fatigue resistance and good wear resistance (Attar
et al., 2015, p. 225; Kala et al., 2014, p. 1951; Kang and Chan, 2004).
Such aluminum matrix composites (AMCs) are well suited for different
applications in various industries, including automotive, aircraft and
space uses (Attar et al., 2015, p. 225). The mechanical properties of
AMCs reinforced with ceramic particles are influenced by the size of the
particles and their volume fraction (Kang and Chan, 2004, p. 438).
Porous aluminum composite materials have received growing attention
in recent years based on their outstanding properties, including stiff-
ness, light weight, high strength, excellent shock resistance, and good
energy absorption (Liu et al., 2018, p. 1). Hybrid aluminum matrix
composites (HAMCs) are the next generation of AMCs, designed to
achieve optimization of physical and mechanical properties, combining
low cost and high performance. Such HAMCs could be suited for var-
ious automotive and aircraft uses, as well as aerospace applications,
marine structures, defence assemblies, and sports uses (Singh and
Chauhan, 2016, pp. 160, 167–168). In 1982, the first icosahedral
quasicrystal was discovered by Dan Shechtman in a rapidly quenched
binary Al-Mn alloy (Shechtman et al., 1984). This sensational discovery
led to a paradigm shift, followed by a scientific revolution, as suggested
by Thomas Kuhn in his famous book The Structure of Scientific Revolu-
tions (Ashkenazi and Lotker, 2014). For his discovery of quasicrystals,
Dan Shechtman was awarded the 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The
first stable ternary quasicrystal was discovered by Tsai and his collea-
gues in an Al-Cu-Fe system (Ashkenazi and Lotker, 2014; Tsai et al.,
1987, pp. L1505–L1507). Nevertheless, bulk Al-based quasicrystals are
too brittle for most uses. However, since Al-based quasicrystals have
low wettability with water, they have potential as thin films and
coatings applications (Parsamehr et al., 2018, p. 952).
The requirement for sustainable and efficient techniques for energy
storage is a crucial need of today's modern society (Elia et al., 2016, pp.
7564). Because of the global rising demand for alternative energy re-
sources, and since metal–air batteries have high energy density and
capacity, combined with flat discharge voltage and a relatively low
production price, metal–air batteries have promising potential as al-
ternative energy storage devices. Since aluminum is inexpensive, non-
toxic, and environmentally friendly, having a high electrochemical
equivalent value, aluminum is one of the most attractive candidates to
serve as anode material in metal–air battery storage (Mokhtar et al.,
2015, p. 1).
Rechargeable aluminum-based batteries are considered as a pro-
mising alternative to the conventional lithium-ion technology because
of their high volumetric capacity. Significant study activities have been
performed in the field during the last few years, although only a limited
number of potential electrode materials have been developed and ex-
amined, and the system is still in its early stages and efforts are needed
to overcome some limitations and allow opportunities for further de-
velopments and applications (Elia et al., 2016, pp. 7564, 7576).
Mono-disperse anisotropic aluminum nano-rods have great poten-
tial in applications such as biomedical devices, spanning photocatalysis
and optoelectronics. However, for that purpose, shrinking of the nano-
rods from their present dimensions is necessary (Clark et al., 2018, pp.
1234, 1239).
Modern 3D printing or additive manufacturing (AM) techniques,
developed in the 1980s, currently make use of various materials, in-
cluding aluminum, to build objects layer-by-layer from a 3D computer-
aided design (CAD) model. AM technologies are used in order to
manufacture rapid prototypes, as well as enabling the building of
complex geometries, increasing product customization, and allowing
resource-efficient production (Baumers et al., 2016, pp. 193–194,
Campbell et al., 2011, pp. 1, 7; Deshpande and Hsu, 2018, p. 73;
Kempen et al., 2012; Rosenthal et al., 2014). It is worth mentioning that
D. Ashkenazi
the development of AM techniques for printing 3D objects became
possible by the adaption of other three different technologies combined
together: the CAD, the computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and the
computer numerical control (CNC) (Wong and Hernandez, 2012, p. 2).
AM techniques use the data received from CAD files, next transformed
into Standard Triangle Language (STL) files (first developed in 1987),
describing the geometry of the 3D components (Fig. 5c). Today, AM
technologies represent great engineering potentials and challenges
(Buchbinder et al., 2011, p. 271; Wong and Hernandez, 2012, p. 3).
Aluminum alloys that can be easily welded are the most appropriate
materials used for 3D printing applications (Canter, 2018, p. 12).
Current metal AM methods include SLM, binder jet (BJ), electron beam
melting (EBM), laser engineered net shaping (LENS), cold spray (CS)
and acoustoplastic metal direct-write (AMD) techniques (Deshpande
and Hsu, 2018, pp. 73–74). SLM technology is used in order to produce
parts by locally melting powder material, such as AlSi10Mg alloy, in a
layer-by-layer approach (Murr, 2018, p. 105; Rosenthal et al., 2014;
Sing et al., 2015, p. 220). SLM allows the production of lightweight
structures, as well as complex and functional components. Therefore,
aluminum is a best suited metal for many 3D printing applications,
thanks to its superior properties of high strength-to-weight ratio and
high fatigue resistance, its good corrosion resistance and its recycl-
ability (Buchbinder et al., 2011, p. 271; Yu et al., 2016, pp.
135501–135502). The manufacturing of aluminum products by AM
technologies is particularly challenging due to oxidation and thermal
conductivity issues, and since the energy required for melting alu-
minum is high (Murr, 2018, p. 119). As new raw materials for 3D
printing are being developed with improved properties, and as their
price declines, in the future the use of 3D printing technologies is ex-
pected to expand dramatically. Therefore, research on the impact of AM
technologies on aspects such as health, energy consumption and the
environment should study further (Baumers et al., 2016, p. 194). In the
long term, industrial applications of 3D printing will rise steeply, with
the development of new 3D printers, able to produce larger products
with higher levels of precision (Berman, 2012, p. 161). Therefore, 3D
printing will potentially be used in numerous industries, including
aerospace, automotive and biomedical industries. Electrochemistry is
an additional branch that could benefit from the development of AM
technologies, enabling the design and fabrication of cheaper and ad-
vanced electrochemical devices (Ambrosi and Pumera, 2016, p. 2740).
Yet currently only limited alloys can be reliably printed, among them
Al-Si alloys (Fig. 5a), such as AlSi10Mg, with yield strength of
~200 MPa and low ductility of 4% (Martin et al., 2017, p. 365; Yu
et al., 2016, p. 135502). For comparison, the 2xxx, 5xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx
series of wrought aluminum alloys, which are used in the automotive
and aerospace industries, have a yield strength of ~400 MPa combined
with ductility of more than 10%. Additively manufactured AlSi10Mg
parts are frequently hot-isostatic-pressed to reduce porosity and to
improve properties (Martin et al., 2017, p. 369). The characteristic
microstructure of as-printed SLM AlSi10Mg parts is an extremely fine
cellular dendritic structure (Rosenthal et al., 2014). Today, wrought
aluminum alloys, such as 6xxx and 7xxx aluminum series, cannot in-
dustrially be additively manufactured because the process leads to
crack formation. However, recently researchers have succeeded in
producing 3D printed aluminum 6061 and 7075 alloys, with similar
properties as the aluminum wrought alloys prepared conventionally, by
adding nanoparticle grain refiners to metal powder prior to the printing
process, resulting in 3D-printed crack-free microstructures (Canter,
2018, p. 12; Martin et al., 2017, p. 365).
4. The environmental impact of aluminum
Technological breakthroughs often have negative side effects asso-
ciated with the harmful influence of technology on the natural en-
vironment (Hekkert et al., 2007, p. 414). Bauxite rock contains
35–55 wt% Al2O3 (Christie et al., 1993, p. 20). In order to produce 1 ton
110
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 143 (2019) 101–113
of primary aluminum, 2 tons of alumina are needed, and therefore
4–6 tons of bauxite ore should be purified (Buffington, 2012, p. 924).
Australia is currently the largest producer of bauxite. Large quantities
of bauxite are also produced today in China, Guinea, Brazil, India and
Jamaica (Xue et al., 2016, p. 1121). Bauxite residue is the waste gen-
erated through the production of alumina. The transformation con-
version of bauxite to alumina by the Bayer process as well as the con-
version of Al2O3 into aluminum metal by the Hall–Héroult process are
both energy-intensive processes (Balomenos et al., 2011; Tan and Khoo,
2005, p. 607). The production of 1 ton of alumina causes ~1.5 tons of
bauxite alkaline waste residues. Although the bauxite residues can be
recycled, the volume recycled is extremely small due to the risk of high
alkalinity and salinity. Hence, bauxite residue is becoming a global
environmental concern (Xue et al., 2016, p. 1120).
The Hall-Héroult process is responsible for ~70% of the total energy
consumed during primary aluminum production (Kermeli et al., 2015,
p. 633). Although production of alumina usually takes place near a
bauxite mining site, the production of aluminum from alumina happens
through an energy-intensive electrolytic process. Due to the high energy
needed for the refining process of alumina into aluminum metal, the
aluminum industry is one of the major energy consumers of the world's
total energy (~3%). Yet, the secondary production of aluminum by
scrap recycling has considerably lower energy demands (~5% of the
primary aluminum energy consumption is needed) (Table 3)
(Buffington, 2012, p. 925; Gaustad et al., 2012, p. 79; Ingarao et al.,
2018, p. 264; Kermeli et al., 2015, p. 629).
Aluminum is a recyclable metal, which has a significant scrap value,
combined with a large recycling market, providing both environmental
and economic benefits (Davis, 1999, pp. 1–2; Gaustad et al., 2012, p.
79). The recyclable aluminum can was first introduced in 1959 (Fig. 4).
Yet, the aluminum beverage cans of carbonated soft drinks, composed
of ~92–99 wt% Al, was started to be in use in 1967 (Elmore, 2012, p.
485). In 1999, the recycling rate of aluminum cans in the U.S. was
63.9% (862,000 tons of Al) (Sanders, 2001). However, theoretically
aluminum may be infinitely recyclable up to 100% (Buffington, 2012,
p. 925). In 2016 in a joint effort, the Aluminum Association, along with
scientists from the Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI), concluded
that the overall recycling rate for automotive aluminum would rise
beyond 90% in the U.S. (Scott, 2017, p. 17). Since the early days of the
aluminum industry, there was a need for high purity aluminum pro-
duction (Lindsay, 2014, pp. 217–222). In the case of recycled alu-
minum, accumulation of unwanted elements is a growing problem. The
list of problematic impurities is rather large, including elements such as
Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Si, V and Zn. The removal of the unwanted
elements is challenging and dictated by energy considerations, and
therefore an effort should be done to develop new technologies in order
to improve the recycling processes of aluminum based on both eco-
nomic and environmental considerations (Gaustad et al., 2012, pp. 79,
86).
Aluminum has a great corrosion resistance in various aggressive
service environments, including natural atmospheres, many solids and
chemicals, fresh water and marine atmospheres (Davis, 1993, p. 3;
Davis, 1999, pp. 1–2, 25; Monetta et al., 2017, p. 33; Starke and Staley,
1996, p. 132; Yu et al., 2016, p. 135501). Furthermore, the use of
aluminum for food packaging provides great protection from light,
Table 3
Energy required for aluminum production pathways according to initial raw
material (primary and secondary). 1 MJ = 2.388 × 10−5 ton of oil equiva-
lents (toe) (Sverdrup et al., 2015).
Aluminum metal pathway from Energy need (MJ/kg)
Feldspar rock 500–1400
Low quality bauxite 250–342
High quality bauxite 227–300
Recycled aluminum scrap 11–17
D. Ashkenazi
oxygen, moisture, and microorganisms (Monetta et al., 2017, p. 33).
Aluminum in small amount is considered as a nontoxic metal. There-
fore, it is often used in containers for beverage and food industries (food
additives, packaging materials, and kitchenware), as well as in vac-
cines, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics (Shugalei et al., 2013, p. 2634;
Tomljenovic, 2011, p. 576). Aluminum can enter the human body
through breathing, drinking water and eating food (Shugalei et al.,
2013, p. 2634; Tomljenovic, 2011, p. 576). For an adult the normal
daily consumption of aluminum is 35–49 mg per kg of body mass. It is
assumed that the entire content of aluminum in the blood of an adult
lies within a range of 50–140 mg. There is no evidence that ordinary
exposure to aluminum presents a risk to healthy adults (Shugalei et al.,
2013, pp. 2634–2635). Yet, exposure to high levels of aluminum can
lead to strong signs of neurological damage (Bondy, 2016, p. 226). Most
aluminum consumed will leave the human body. The small amount that
enters the body will remove from the body with urine, feces, exhaled
air, and sweat. Aluminum that does stay in the body is deposited in
bones, lungs, kidney, liver, and brain; the content of aluminum in the
brain and the lungs increases through age (Panhwar et al., 2016, pp.
242–247; Shugalei et al., 2013, p. 2635). High levels of aluminum in
the body may cause neurotoxicity as well as damage to some human
cells and tissues, and could lead under certain conditions to Alzheimer's
disease and Parkinson's disease (Bhattacharjee et al., 2014, p. 62; Gupta
et al., 2015, p. 80; Mirza et al., 2017, p. 30; Tomljenovic, 2011, p. 588).
5. Discussion
The main function of forecasting is to suggest possible prediction of
the future based on existing data, such as historical data (Surve, 2014,
p. 600). The aim of this research was to examine, based on literature
survey and reported data, how aluminum changed our society since the
day it was discovered from different aspects, including: historical point
of view, metallurgical progress, industrial applications, cultural char-
acteristics and environmental issues; and to suggest possible future
directions for aluminum and its alloys. In order to fulfill the objective of
this study, the following 10-step methodology was applied. (1) A review
was made on the history of aluminum oxide minerals and their appli-
cations in antiquity. (2) A literature survey was performed on the his-
tory of aluminum, beginning with its discovery and through the nine-
teenth century. (3) A timeline was built, presenting the main
technological developments and applications of aluminum during the
nineteenth century (Fig. 1). (4) The aluminum revolution was examined
from a metallurgy perspective. (5) Literature review was performed to
examine the applications of aluminum as cultural symbols of modernity
through the twentieth century and during the beginning of the twenty-
first century (until today). (6) A timeline was built, presenting im-
portant technological developments and applications during the twen-
tieth century (Fig. 4). (7) The change in aluminum production versus
copper production and the change of aluminum price versus copper
price during the twentieth century were discussed based on the litera-
ture data (Fig. 6). (8) Environmental issues associated with aluminum
production and consumption were described. (9) The different tech-
nological and cultural aspects of aluminum were discussed. (10) Based
on the history of aluminum, its current metallurgy and applications
through technological and cultural perspectives, and taking into ac-
count environmental considerations, possible future trends and appli-
cations were suggested and discussed, and conclusions were drawn.
Aluminum was discovered only in the nineteenth century; and it
started to be profitable player for commercial applications only near the
end of that century (Fig. 1) (Davis, 1999, p. 1). The aluminum industry
has changed dramatically over the last 130 years from limited manu-
facture (Fig. 1) to extensive production of widespread alloys and a
variety of products (Figs. 4, 6b, Table 1) (Sanders, 2001, p. 21).
Therefore, aluminum is associated with the culture of modern everyday
life, as reflected in the engineering and art projects of the nineteenth
century and throughout the twentieth century, as well as in the first
111
Technological Forecasting & Social Change 143 (2019) 101–113
quarter of the twenty-first century (Byko, 2000, p. 1; Davis, 1999, p. 1;
Osborn, 2016, p. 428). For example, in 1893 the aluminum sculpture of
Anteros was displayed at Piccadilly Circus in London (Martini et al.,
2012, p. 405; Williams, 1993, p. 90). Another example is the invention
of recyclable seamless aluminum can in 1959 (Fig. 4) and the use of
aluminum in beverage cans of carbonated soft drinks, which was
started in 1967; and the common tab opening mechanism of aluminum
drinking cans, which came into use during the 1980s (Elmore, 2012, p.
485). Consequently, from a cultural perspective, aluminum can be
considered a symbol of modernity.
Aluminum alloys are the second most used engineering metals today
(after steel), based on their advanced properties (Table 2), relatively
low price (Fig. 6a), and since they can easily be manufactured and re-
cycled, as well as simply formed by most common metal-working
processes and joining techniques (Davis, 1999, p. 1). Aluminum prop-
erties include high strength-to-weight ratio, high fatigue resistance,
good formability, excellent thermal conductivity and good corrosion
resistance in various aggressive environments. The growth and expan-
sion of the aluminum industries is a continuous process, as well as the
development of new and advanced aluminum alloys, designed for nu-
merous applications.
Numerous technological developments were achieved during the
last few years. Therefore, there is a need to find trends and forecast the
future of these technologies (Surve, 2014, p. 600). The development of
3D printing technologies has fundamental impact on the traditional
manufacturing techniques (Li et al., 2018, pp. 287, 295). AM of alu-
minum alloys enable construction of complex geometries (due to the
high geometrical freedom of the SLM technique) with light weight, high
strength-to-weight ratio, high fatigue resistance, good corrosion re-
sistance and recyclability (Buchbinder et al., 2011, p. 271; Vyatskikh
et al., 2018, p. 594; Yu et al., 2016). AM technologies were developed
in the 1980s to produce models and prototype parts, however they have
expanded since then (Wong and Hernandez, 2012, p. 2). Printed SLM
AlSi10Mg parts (Fig. 5) have mechanical properties, including elonga-
tion, UTS, hardness, and impact energy at least comparable and often
higher than the cast AlSi10Mg material, resulting from their fine mi-
crostructure combined with a homogenous distribution of the Si phase
(Kempen et al., 2012). With AM technologies it is possible to build
lightweight parts. In the automotive and aerospace industries the main
goal is to produce the lightest everyday car or aircraft while obtaining
best safety (Wong and Hernandez, 2012). Hence, aluminum alloys have
great potential for various industrial AM applications, including auto-
motive industries, military, aircraft, aerospace, bio-medical, and elec-
tronics industries, and personal products (Ambrosi and Pumera, 2016,
p. 2740; Deshpande and Hsu, 2018, p. 73).
According to the Aluminum Association 2017 annual report data,
there are 395 aluminum plants in the U.S., and more than 700,000 jobs
are supported by the U.S. aluminum industry (O'Neill and Brock, 2017,
p. 1). The reduction in aluminum prices has increased the demand for
the metal as a possible replacement for more expensive metals, enabling
technological innovation. For aluminum manufacturers, dropping en-
ergy prices significantly contribute to the reduction in aluminum pro-
duction costs. Nevertheless, in order to efficiently benefit from lower
energy prices, investing in innovative energy supplies is frequently re-
quired (Brown, 2015, pp. 20–21).
In recent years many studies have been performed to estimate the
eco-efficiency of aluminum products. These studies recognize that en-
ergy consumption during primary aluminum manufacturing is the main
problem in terms of environmental considerations. Consequently, based
on circular economic strategies, the demand for secondary aluminum is
considerably increasing today in order to reduce reliance on primary
aluminum (Table 3) and accordingly, to decrease the emissions of
greenhouse gases (Niero et al., 2016, p. 352).
D. Ashkenazi
6. Conclusions
Aluminum is an attractive material for many applications, including
automotive industries, airplanes, trains and ships, electrical and
packaging industries, architecture, and food industries. It is also re-
cyclable, which provides both environmental and economic advantages
for its use. Since aluminum was discovered only in the nineteenth
century and its commercial use started only at the end of that century,
from a cultural perspective, aluminum is considered a symbol of
modernity. The use of aluminum alloys continues to grow today, and
present applications also include new uses, including 3D printing,
composite material industries, and aerospace. Based on the excellent
properties of aluminum, its low price, combined with its significant
scrap value and a growing recycling market, the aluminum industries
are expected to grow through the twenty-first century and aluminum
will most probably continue to be a major part of our everyday life and
culture. Based on the continuous increasing growth of aluminum pro-
duction and consumption, additional research and development effort
is needed in the next following years to minimize the negative en-
vironmental side effects associated with technological developments
related to aluminum production and at the same time creating further
technological innovation.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to Rafi Ashkenazi for his contribution and to
Barbara Doron for the English editing. Finally the author would like to
thank the two anonymous journal reviewers, which provided con-
structive feedback on the manuscript.
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Dana Ashkenazi is a researcher at the School of Mechanical Engineering, Tel Aviv
University, Israel. She earned her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Tel Aviv
University, and she holds M.Sc. and B.Sc. in Materials Engineering from the Ben-Gurion
University of the Negev. Her fields of interest include materials engineering; metallurgy;
archaeometallurgy; materials characterization; manufacturing processes of metals; and
advanced technologies.