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ProcediaScienceDirect
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
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ScienceDirect
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Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Procedia Manufacturing 34 (2019) 408–417
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
47th
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Parametric Study
Composite
Composite of Micro
Stacks Ultrasonic
using
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Finite
using Finite Element Process of Hybrid
Element Analysis
Analysis
Parametric Study of Micro Machining Process of Hybrid
Manufacturing Composite Stacks
Engineering Society using aFinite
International Element
Conference Analysis
2017, MESIC 2017, 28-30 June
Composite Stacks using
2017,Sagil
Vigo
Sagil James aFinite
*, SagarElement
*, Sagar
(Pontevedra),
James Spain a Analysis
Panchal
Panchal
a

a
Sagil Jamesa*, Sagar Panchala
California State University Fullerton, 800 N State College Blvd, Fullerton, California 92831, USA
a
Sagil James *, Sagar Panchal
California State University Fullerton, 800 N StateaCollege Blvd, Fullerton, California
a 92831, USA
Costing models for capacity optimization in Industry 4.0: Trade-off
a
a
California State University Fullerton, 800 N State College Blvd, Fullerton, California 92831, USA
California State University Fullerton, 800 N State College Blvd, Fullerton, California 92831, USA
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-657-278-3337; fax: +1-657-278-6470. E-mail address: sagiljames@fullerton.edu
between used capacity and operational efficiency
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-657-278-3337; fax: +1-657-278-6470. E-mail address: sagiljames@fullerton.edu
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-657-278-3337; fax: +1-657-278-6470. E-mail address: sagiljames@fullerton.edu
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-657-278-3337; fax: +1-657-278-6470. E-mail address: sagiljames@fullerton.edu
Abstract
Abstract A. Santana , P. Afonso , A. Zanin , R. Wernke
a a,* b b

Abstract
Hybrid composites stacks are multi-materiala University laminates of which
Minho,find4800-058
extensive applications
Guimarães, in industries such as aerospace, automobile, and
Portugal
Abstract
Hybrid composites stacks are multi-material laminates which find extensive applications in industries such as aerospace, automobile, and
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Unochapecó, layers ofChapecó,
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Brazil
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composites and metal sheets stacked together. These composite
stacks have excellent physical and mechanical laminates
properties which
including high extensive
strength, high hardness, in industries such
high stiffness, as aerospace,
excellent fatigueautomobile,
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stacks have
Hybrid
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multi-material
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laminates of including
which
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extensive
of fiber high hardness,
applications
composites high stiffness,
in industries
and metal sheetssuch excellent fatigue
as aerospace,
stacked together. resistance
automobile,
These compositeand
low thermal expansion. Micromachining of these materials require particular attention as conventional methods such as micro-drilling is
low
stacksthermal
electronics andexpansion. Micromachining
so on. physical
havechallenging
excellent Most hybrid
and composites
mechanical of these
consist materials
properties require
of multiple
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as These
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physical the non-homogeneous
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Micromachining of properties
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materials require andparticular
high anisotropic nature
strength,attention
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stiffness,
conventional Micro
excellent
methods such Ultrasonic
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as Machining
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is
(μUSM) is a manufacturing process capable of machining such difficult-to-machine materials with ultraprecision. Experimental study showed
Abstract
(μUSM)
low is a manufacturing
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expansion.considering
Micromachining capableof ofthese
machining such
materials difficult-to-machine
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that μUSMchallenging
process could successfully non-homogeneous
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at nature
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good Micro
surface Machining
finish. This research uses
that μUSM
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challenging
a could
manufacturing successfully
considering
process the machine hybrid
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capable of composite
machining structure
such stacks
and at micron scale
anisotropic
difficult-to-machine withofa the
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materials relatively
material
with good surface
layers.
ultraprecision. Microfinish. This study
Ultrasonic
Experimental research uses
Machining
showed
finite element simulation technique to investigate the material removal during the μUSM process for micromachining hybrid composite stacks.
Under
(μUSM)
finite
that
The μUSM the concept
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element simulation
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4.0",
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investigate
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be
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are studied.
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technique to investigate
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by and
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results could be used to B.V. B.V. improvement approaches suggest capacity optimization
meet the industry needs of performing precision machining on hybrid composite stacks. instead of
This isisan open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND licenselicense
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maximization.
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Keywords: Fiber Reinforced Polymer, Finite Element Analysis, Micro Ultrasonic Machining
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Keywords: Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer, Finite Element Analysis, Micro Ultrasonic Machining
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 Sagil James et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 34 (2019) 408–417
2 James, S., Panchal, S.,/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
stacks [8]. CFRP composites stacked with thin layers of
lightweight metals such as Copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al),
Titanium (Ti) and their alloys have been identified as an
innovative material for several critical engineering
applications [9-11]. The CFRP metal stacks exhibit high
load-bearing capability and excellent impact and shock
resistance [12]. The fuselage, wings and tail-plane
components of modern day aircraft including Airbus A380
or Boeing 787 contain stacks of hybrid composite metal
stacks such as CFRP, CFRP/Ti, and CFRP/Al and so on [13].
The addition of thin layers of metals or metal alloys on CFRP
enhances the structure’s ability to withstand high mechanical
loads, resulting in increased strength-to-weight ratio and
thereby reducing the fuel consumption [14]. Some of the
other critical applications of CFRP metal stacks include
modern automobiles where CFRP/Al stack is used for
exterior body components, rotor blades of helicopters
consisting of CFRP/Al stacks and so on [15].
Most of the applications mentioned here require
machining or drilling of the hybrid composite metal stacks to
the required precision [16, 17]. In the past, there have been
several attempts on drilling hybrid stacks such as CFRP/Ti
and CFRP/Al through conventional drilling in a single shot
operation [17-21]. However, most of these studies have
reported difficulties associated with the drilling operation
including low tool life, severe damage and delamination to
CFRP layers and clogging of drill flutes [17, 20, 21]. These
difficulties can be attributed to the poor machinability of the
stacked constituents and the differences in properties across
the thickness of the stacks [17]. Similarly, studies done on
drilling Fiber Metal Laminates (FML) consisting of stacks of
Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) and Aluminum
sheets have reported drilling-induced damages and
delamination [22]. There have been reports of machining
hybrid composite metal stacks using non-traditional
machining processes such as Abrasive Waterjet Machining
(AWJM) [23], Rotary Ultrasonic Machining (RUM) [24],
and Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) [25]. Studies on
drilling of CFRP/Ti stacks through RUM process suggested
longer tool life and better surface quality in RUM compared
to conventional drilling [24]. Studies on both AWJM
process and EDM process reported limitations in machining
hybrid composite stacks [23, 26]. While AWJM causes
delamination of FRP layers, EDM process produces
extremely low surface finish along with cracks in the matrix
material [23, 25].
Growing demand for micro-sized components with
enhanced performance necessitates the need for producing
micro-scale features on the composites and the hybrid
composite stacks with ultraprecision and high accuracy.
Typical examples include micro-holes on Printed Circuit
Boards (PCB) for microelectronics and optoelectronics
industries [27], micro-perforations on aircraft wings and tail
surfaces [9] and micro-perforated composite panel absorbers
[28]. While the micro-perforations on aircraft wings help
reduce the airflow turbulence and increase fuel efficiency
[27], the micro-perforated panels help in acoustic absorption
and noise control [29]. In the majority of these applications,
the micro-holes and micro-perforations are drilled on the
composite surface and not on hybrid composite stacks. The
409
lack of micromanufacturing processes capable of accurately
machining hybrid composite stacks limits their applications
in industries such as aerospace and automobile.
Moreover, the techniques used for drilling these
microfeatures on composite materials include mechanical
micro-drilling and laser drilling [27, 30]. However, these
techniques are incapable of accurately machining hybrid
composite stacks at the micron scale. Laser drilling of
laminar stacks is a considerable challenge considering the
extreme differences in material properties across the
thickness of the stacks . Additionally, laser machining has
limitations in cutting thickness and causes high thermal
damage and microstructural changes around the machined
region resulting in loss of strength in the materials [31, 32].
Mechanical micro drilling processes such as twist drilling
and end milling have been traditionally used in PCB
industries over the years [24]. However, these techniques
have limitations while drilling difficult-to-machine materials
such as titanium [24]. Limitations of micro-drilling include
high cutting forces and cutting temperatures, composite
delamination, poor surface finish and significant hole-size
variation [24].
Problems in micromachining CFRP/Ti stacks can be
overcome by using Micro Ultrasonic Machining (μUSM)
process. The μUSM process uses a vibrating micro tool and
a slurry consisting of hard abrasive particles to remove
material from the substrate surface through repeated impacts
[33]. The schematic of the μUSM process is shown in Figure
1. The μUSM process is capable of micromachining hard and
brittle materials as well as both electrically conductive and
non-conductive materials. The μUSM process produces
surfaces without any thermal damage, results in crack-free
machining and with only minimal residual stresses [33].
Recently, our research group studied the micromachining of
hybrid composite stacks consisting of CFRP/Ti using μUSM
process [34]. The study used tungsten carbide (WC) and Cu
micro tools for micromachining stacks of CFRP/Ti. Figure 2
shows the experimental setup used for micromachining
CFRP/Ti stacks using μUSM process. The study found that
μUSM process is capable of successfully machining
CFRP/Ti stacks at micron scale with a relatively good
surface finish and no CFRP delamination. Representative
images of micro-holes machined on CFRP/Ti stacks using
μUSM process is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 1. Schematic representation of Micro Ultrasonic Machining process
[34]
410 Sagil James et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 34 (2019) 408–417
James, S., Panchal, S., / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
Figure 2. Experimental setup of Micro Ultrasonic Machining process [34]
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Microcavities machined on CFRP/Ti stacks using µUSM
process a) CFRP entrance Side and b) Ti exit Side [34]
Our past experimental studies suggested that
simultaneously ensuring both quality and efficiency during
the μUSM process is challenging [34]. The challenges
include proper selection of operating conditions along with
appropriate tool and abrasives. Similarly, an experimental
study on RUM process of machining CFRP/Ti stacks at
macron scale reported that using variable feed rates leads to
lower cutting forces, lower tool wear and shorter cycle times
compared to fixed feed rates [35]. The study recommends
using almost ten times higher feed rate while machining
CFRP compared to Ti. These studies suggest that it is critical
to use optimized machining conditions while machining
hybrid composite stacks during the μUSM process to achieve
good surface quality, increased tool life and shorter
machining time. Determining optimal machining conditions
will require better insight of critical parameters involved in
the μUSM process including cutting force and tool force and
so on. Considering the complexity and dynamic nature of the
process, determining these critical process parameters
through experimental studies is extremely inconvenient and
time-consuming.
Simulation techniques such as Finite Element Analysis
(FEA) are ideal in such cases. However, there have only been
very few simulation studies reported on the μUSM process.
A simulation study performed by Wang et al. used Smoothed
Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) mesh-free method to
understand the material removal in μUSM process of glass
[36]. It was found that crack generation influences the
material removal process in the workpiece and the wear of
abrasive grains. Another study by the same authors
investigated the effect of tool materials during the μUSM
process and found that WC tool undergoes less wear
compared to stainless steel tool [37]. A preliminary
simulation study on CFRP/Ti machining using μUSM
process done by authors found that there are minimal surface
residual stresses on the workpiece after machining [38]. To
our best knowledge, there has been no study reported on FEA
simulation of the μUSM process for micromachining of
hybrid composite stacks.
3
The goal of this research is to use finite element analysis
and simulation technique to study the μUSM process for
micromachining hybrid composite stacks. In this study,
CFRP/Ti stacks are used as the hybrid composite material.
The study investigates the material removal during the
μUSM process in terms of critical parameters including
cavity depth, and cutting force.
2. Finite element analysis and simulation
The μUSM process is simulated using commercial finite
element analysis tool of MSC Marc/Mentat (Santa Ana, CA,
USA) [39]. In this simulation study, a two-dimensional (2D)
Finite Element (FE) analysis technique is used to investigate
the material removal during the μUSM process of CFRP/Ti
stack. The FEA model of the μUSM process consists of a
vibrating tool, substrate, and abrasive particles. The FE
simulation model used in this study is shown in Figure 4. The
tool is considered as a rigid body and is rectangular (size 8
μm x 20 μm) in shape dividing into 1200 elements with a
meshing of 20x60. A negative bias factor of 0.5 is provided
on the tool to refine the mesh near machining zone. The tool
materials used in the study are WC and Cu. Three spherical
particles having a diameter of 2 µm is used as the abrasive
medium. The reason for considering three particles is to
understand the neighbouring effects of material damage
during the machining process. The abrasive particles are
made of silicon carbide and are meshed using a quadrilateral
mesh (20x20x5). The simulation dimensions are considered
slightly smaller than the actual experimental size due to the
computational limitations. The material properties of the tool
and abrasive particles are shown in Table 1.
The substrate materials of CFRP and Ti are separately
analyzed during the simulation. The schematic of the FE
simulation model of μUSM Process on CFRP and Ti
substrates are shown in Figure 4a and 4b respectively. Both
CFRP and Ti substrates are rectangular (size 100 μm x 30
μm) divided into 5000 elements with a meshing of 100x50.
The CFRP substrate is made of carbon fiber/epoxy
unidirectional laminates. Each laminate consists of four plies
in quasi-isotropic laminate orientations of 0°, 45°, -45°, and
90°. This orientation helps carry the load equally in all
directions and is the most used configuration for CFRP
laminates [40]. The mechanical properties of CFRP
composite used for the FE simulation study are shown in
Table 2 [38]. The Ti substrate is made of Ti-6Al-4V alloy
which is the most commonly used Ti alloy. The material
properties of Ti are shown in Table 1. A positive bias factor
of 0.5 is provided on both the substrates to refine the mesh
near machining zone. 4-node isoparametric, quadrilateral
plane strain elements (element type 11) is used with
geometric and material non-linearity for the tool, abrasive
particles, and Ti substrate. 4-node, plane strain, composite
element (element type 151) is used for modeling the CFRP
substrate. The automatic global remeshing feature in MSC
Marc is used to increase the accuracy of the simulation and
reduce computational time.
 Sagil James et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 34 (2019) 408–417 411
4 James, S., Panchal, S.,/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000

considered in this study.

The boundary conditions used in the simulation are 1)
The tool is considered to be rigid and is constrained to move
only in Y-direction 2) The boundary layer of the substrate
material is constrained in X-direction and 3) The abrasive
grain is considered to be rigid. A gravity force is applied to
the abrasive grain with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 in the
negative Y-axis direction. The abrasive particles are not
constrained in its motion. The conditions used for the FE
simulation study of μUSM Process on CFRP/Ti stacks are
(a) shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Conditions Used for FE Simulation of µUSM of CFRP/Ti Stacks

Parameter Unit Value
Tool Material WC, Cu
Tool Dimensions µm 8x20
Substrate Material CFRP, Ti
Substrate Dimensions µm 100x50
Abrasive Material SiC
Abrasive Particle Size µm 2
Number of Abrasives 3
(b)
Figure 4. Finite element simulation model of μUSM process of a) Initial Machining Gap µm 3
CFRP substrate and b) Ti substrate Frequency KHz 20
Amplitude µm 2, 3, 4
Table 1. Material Properties used in FE Simulation Study of μUSM
Feed Rate µm/s 5, 10, 15
Process
Material Elastic Poisson’s Density, Duration of Simulation µs 250
modulus, E ratio, ν ρ
(GPa) (Kg/m3)
2.1. Damage Criteria
Tool – Tungsten Carbide 600 0.25 15880
Tool – Copper 128 0.36 8960 Damage plays a significant role in the material removal
Abrasive – Silicon Carbide 137 0.37 4840 during the μUSM process on CFRP and Ti substrates. In this
Substrate – Titanium 113 0.342 4430 simulation study, the damage initiation criterion is defined
according to the material behaviour to determine the
condition for the onset of damage on CFRP and Ti substrates.
Table 2. Material Properties of CFRP Substrate The damage criteria used for CFRP substrate for this study is
E11 E22 E33 υ12 υ13 υ23 G12 G23 G13 ρ Hashin Criteria [41]. The damage of Ti substrate in this study
is modeled according to the Cockcroft-Latham Criteria [42].
127 9.1 9.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 5.6 4 5.6 1600
GP GP GP 1 1 5 GP GP GP Kg/m
a a a a a a 3 Failure Criteria for CFRP Substrate

The model is analyzed for a total simulation duration of
250 microseconds (µs). The tool is subject to ultrasonic
vibrations according to a sinusoidal function as shown in the
equation below for a frequency of 20 KHz. The displacement
X of the tool can be expressed as
X =Amplitude × Sin (2 × π × Frequency × Time)
The amplitude values used in this study are 2 μm, 3 μm,
and 4 μm. A constant feed rate is given by the movement of
the substrate in the positive Y-direction. The feed rate values
used in this study are 5 μm/s, 10 μm/s, and 15 μm/s. The
underlying assumptions used in this simulation study are 1)
Abrasive particles are assumed to be spherical in shape 2)
CFRP substrate is considered as elastic-plastic orthotropic
and undergo brittle mode failure 3) Ti substrate is considered
as elastic-plastic isotropic and undergo ductile mode failure
4) Three abrasive grains are sufficient to explain the material
removal process and 5) Both the tool and abrasive particles
do not undergo wear. 6) The aspect of tool wear is not
The CFRP composites consist of the carbon fiber
reinforcements inside a polymer matrix. Considering the two
phases involved, CFRP material could primarily undergo
two different failure modes – matrix failure and fiber failure
[40]. CFRP could also be subject to inter-laminar failure
commonly referred to as delamination. Moreover, the
(1) damage in CFRP is initiated without any significant plastic
deformation, and hence plasticity can be neglected while
modeling CFRP [43]. Among the several theories that
explain the composite failures, Hashin criterion is the most
widely used theory for CFRP failure [40]. Hashin criterion
takes into account four distinct failure modes for the CFRP
composites which are fiber tension, fiber compression,
matrix tension, and matrix compression as expressed by [41]
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎11 ≥ 0
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎11 2 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎12 2 + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎13 2
� � +
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆12 2 (2)
≥1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
= �
<1 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
412 Sagil James et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 34 (2019) 408–417
James, S., Panchal, S., / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 5

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎11 < 0

𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎11 2
� � 3. Results and Discussion
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
≥1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (3)
= � The results of the finite element simulation of μUSM
<1 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
process on CFRP and Ti substrates using WC tool for a
vibration frequency of 20 KHz, the amplitude of 2 μm and
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎22 + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎33 > 0 feed rate of 5 μm/s are shown in Figures 5a and 5b
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎22 2 + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎33 2 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎23 2 + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎22 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎33 respectively. The color bar used in these figures represent the
+ damage value ranging from 0 to 1. From the figures, it is
𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆23 2 observed that the CFRP substrate undergo more damage than
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎12 2 + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎13 2 Ti substrate during the machining process. CFRP substrate
+ (4)
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆12 2 undergoes damage in brittle mode through microchipping
≥1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 and microcracking. The material removal in Ti substrate
= �
<1 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 happens in ductile mode through plastic deformation. It is
also observed that the cavity produced on Ti is uneven
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎22 + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎33 < 0 compared to that of CFRP. The following sections describe
2
𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎22 + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎33 (𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎22 + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎33 )2 (5) the effects of critical process parameters including vibration
�� � − 1� � �+ +
2𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆23 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 4𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆23 2 amplitude, feed rate, and tool material on the cavity depth
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎23 2 + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎22 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎33 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎12 2 + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎13 2
+ = and cutting force during the μUSM process. The machined
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆23 2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆12 2
surface topography is not analyzed in this study.
≥1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
�
<1 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

where σij is the stress components, subscripts T and C are the

tensile and compressive strengths of the laminate, XT and YT
are the allowable tensile strengths, XC and YC are the
allowable compressive strengths, and S12, S13, and S23 are the
allowable shear strengths. The input values for Hashin
criterion damage parameters used in this study are listed in
Table 4 [44].
Table 4: Damage Parameters of CFRP Material
XT YT XC YC S12 S23

2720 MPa 111 1690 MPa 214 115 40

MPa MPa MPa MPa

(a)

Failure Criteria for Ti Substrate

In this study, the failure of Ti substrate during the μUSM

process is modeled according to Cockcroft-Latham criterion.
This criterion is generally applicable for ductile fracture and
considers the fact that failure occurs when the plastic work
per unit volume exceeds a critical value [45]. While this
theory is primarily applied to tensile tests, it has also been
extended for applications involving compression, shearing
and fatigue-based failures [45]. Cockcroft-Latham damage
indicator is a post-processing value used in MSC Marc to
indicate a possible damage area [39]. The normalized
Cockcroft-Latham failure criterion can be expressed as

𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
� 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀̅̇𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≥ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (6)
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎�
(b)
Figure 5. Finite element simulation model of μUSM process showing
where 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 is the maximum principal stress, 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎� is the damage on a) CFRP substrate and b) Ti substrate
effective von Mises stress, 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀̅̇ is the effective plastic strain rate
and C is the material constant threshold for damage. The 3.1. Variation in Cavity Depth with Time during the μUSM
value of material constant threshold C, used in this study for process
Ti failure is 0.61 [46, 47].
During the μUSM process, the material removal happens
due to the impact of the abrasive grain on the substrate
 Sagil James et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 34 (2019) 408–417 413
6 James, S., Panchal, S.,/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000

surface. The cavity depth is measured to analyse the extent

of material removal from the substrates during the machining
process. In this study, the cavity depth is defined as the
vertical distance from the entrance of the cavity (the surface
which has not been machined) to the bottom of the cavity.
The variation in cavity depth with respect to time during the
μUSM process on CFRP and Ti substrates is shown in Figure
6. This study uses a WC tool with a vibration amplitude of 2
μm, the feed rate of 5 μm/s and simulation during of 250 μs.
From the figure, it can be seen that the initial impact happens
after a duration of approximately 40 μs. It is due to the initial
machining gap provided at the start of the simulation. The
figure suggests that during the μUSM process, the cavity Figure 6. Variation in cavity depth during μUSM process on CFRP and Ti
depth on CFRP substrate is larger than that on the Ti substrates
substrate. Figures 7a and 7b show the magnified view of the
cavity depth obtained during the μUSM process on CFRP
and Ti substrates respectively. The larger cavity depth on
CFRP can be explained by the fact that it undergoes brittle
mode failure giving rise to microchipping and microcracking
resulting in increased material removal.

The relatively lower cavity depth on Ti substrate is

attributed to the material removal mechanism involved in the
process. The Ti substrate undergoes plastic deformation in
ductile mode. The plastic deformation phase during the
ductile mode machining is characterized by microplowing,
microcutting and occasionally microcracking mechanisms.
As the abrasive particles interact with the Ti surface with
energy exceeding the yield point, the substrate material starts
to undergo plastic deformation through microplowing. The
microplowing mechanism causes the material to pile-up
(a)
causing an uneven surface. The subsequent hammerings of
the tool on the abrasive particles cause deeper penetration
and microcutting of the Ti material. As the microcutting
progresses over the time the materials are removed in the
form of microchips from the substrate. It should be noted that
not all impacts of tool results in material removal from the Ti
substrate as the energy of these impact could only cause
elastic deformations. The elastic deformations are
characterized by either no wear, adhesion of abrasive
particles on the surface as well as rebounding of the
deformed surface as the tool moves away from the substrate
surface. Also, during both microplowing and microcutting
regimes, the plastically deforming Ti material offers
significant resistance to the penetrating abrasive particles and
the tool. The combination of these effects causes lesser
material removal from the substrate and results in shallow
cavity formation. If the abrasives are penetrated further into (b)
the bulk of the substrate, the microcutting mechanism Figure 7. Cavity machined (magnified view) during μUSM process on a)
changes to the microcracking mechanism. However, the CFRP substrate and b) Ti substrate
duration of the present simulation study is limited to the
microplowing and microcutting regimes.
3.2 Variation in Cutting Force with Time during the μUSM
process

During the μUSM process, the abrasive particles could

have two different forms of interactions with the substrate –
a) non-contact mode and contact mode. During the non-
contact mode, the abrasive particles are in the suspended
state at the time of tool strike. The particles gain kinetic
energy and impact the substrate surface with high velocity
resulting in material removal. The contact mode considers
414 Sagil James et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 34 (2019) 408–417
James, S., Panchal, S., / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
the abrasive particles are resting on the substrate surface
while the vibrating tool intermittently hammers them. The
hammering action of the abrasive particles results in the
penetration into the bulk of the substrate. The present
simulation study considers the abrasive particles in
suspended state initially. However, as the simulation begins
the particles settles on the substrate surface due to the force
of gravity. It means that the abrasive-substrate interaction in
this study would be primarily in contact mode where the tool
repeatedly hammers the particles. The intermittent
hammering of the tool on the abrasive particles resting on the
substrate surface results in the generation of a positive
pulsating cutting force in each cycle of ultrasonic vibration.
Cutting force is a hugely significant factor in any
machining process which affects the machining performance,
quality of machining and tool wear. The problem of tool wear
is further escalated at micron scale since even small wear can
considerably affect the machining accuracy. It is understood
that the cutting force during the μUSM process is much lower
than that during conventional micromachining processes
such as micro-drilling. It is because during the μUSM
process the tool does not directly contact the substrate.
Nevertheless, cutting force affects the machining quality and
tool life during the μUSM process. In this study, the cutting
force is defined as the maximum value of the magnitude of
the normal force acting on the substrate during the μUSM
process. The variation in cutting force with respect to time
during the μUSM process on CFRP and Ti substrates is
shown in Figure 8. The study uses WC tool with an
amplitude of 2 μm, the feed rate of 5 μm/s and simulation
during of 250 μs. From the figure, it can be seen that the
cutting forces follow a pulsating pattern during the
machining process. The tool impacts the workpiece for a
total of 5 times during the simulation. The cutting force
acting on CFRP substrate is lower than that on Ti substrate.
This can be explained as follows. The material removal of
CFRP happens in brittle mode due to microchipping
followed by microcrack formation. The material is chipped
off the surface as the cutting force exceeds the critical limit
based on the Hashin failure criterion. The chipping of the
brittle material followed by microcrack growth gradually
decreases the resistance of the substrate against the tool. This
in turn reduces the cutting force during the μUSM process on
CFRP substrate. Moreover, the cutting forces tends to be
minimal (almost zero) on CFRP when the tool is away from
the abrasive particle. This is due to the periodic removal of
CFRP material due to microchipping.
During the μUSM process on Ti substrate, the material
removal happens in ductile mode due to plastic deformation.
As the tool strikes intermittently, the abrasive particles
penetrate into the bulk of the titanium substrate causing
microplowing and microcutting. However, due to the ductile
behaviour of Ti along with its superior fracture toughness,
the abrasive grain is deflected off the surface resulting in
material displacement with minimal removal. Further, the
plasticity of the Ti material resists the growth of microcracks.
Consequently, a higher cutting force is generated as the
substrate material opposes the tool motion. The higher
cutting forces result in the reduced surface finish during the
μUSM process on Ti. It is also noted that the cutting forces
7
on successive peaks increases during machining. It suggests
that the material could be subject to work hardening which
could favor microchip formation. Additionally, the Ti
material shows a positive cutting force even when the tool is
away from the abrasive. It can be attributed to the fact that
the Ti material continues to interact with the abrasive
particles while undergoing plastic deformation and material
flow.
Figure 8. Variation in cutting force during μUSM Process on CFRP and Ti
substrates
3.3 Effect of Vibration Amplitude during the μUSM process
During the µUSM process, the tool attached to the
sonotrode vibrating at ultrasonic frequency transmits
ultrasonic energy to the abrasive particles. This energy is
further transferred to the substrate and is used for material
removal. The ultrasonic energy is directly proportional to the
amplitude of vibration. Thus amplitude is a critical factor
affecting the material removal process during the µUSM
process. For studying the effect of amplitude on machining
force, the µUSM process is simulated for various amplitudes
while maintaining a feed rate of 5 µm/s and a duration of 250
µs.
Figure 9 shows the effect of amplitude on cavity depth
during the µUSM process of CFRP and Ti substrates. It is
observed that with the increase in amplitude, the cavity depth
increases. It can be explained by the fact that as the amplitude
increases, the corresponding ultrasonic energy transmitted to
the substrate increases resulting in more material removal. It
is seen that the cavity depth in CFRP is more than that in Ti
for the same amplitude. It is noted that the CFRP material
shows a significant increase (average 65%) in cavity depth
for increasing amplitudes. However, a similar trend is not
observed in Ti material in which there is only minimal
increase (average 45%) in cavity depths. The significant
increase in cavity depths in CFRP with increasing amplitudes
suggests that it is easier to machine brittle materials at higher
amplitudes using µUSM process. For ductile materials, the
increased ultrasonic energy corresponding to higher
amplitudes is mostly wasted in plastic deformation and
ductile flow phenomena. It results in only minimal increase
in cavity depth for Ti substrate.
Figure 10 shows the variation in cutting force with
respect to varying amplitude. From the figure, it is seen that
the cutting force increases with increase in the amplitude. It
is because higher amplitudes transfer more ultrasonic energy
 Sagil James et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 34 (2019) 408–417
8 James, S., Panchal, S.,/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
to the abrasive particles, which results in higher cutting force
during the µUSM process. It is also seen from the figure that
the relative increase in cutting force is higher in the case of
Ti compared to that of CFRP. It suggests that machining at
higher amplitudes is not recommended for Ti materials as the
cutting force increases significantly resulting in higher tool
wear and shortened tool life.
Figure 9. Effect of amplitude of vibration on cavity depth during μUSM
process on CFRP and Ti substrates
Figure 10. Effect of amplitude of vibration on cutting force during
μUSM process on CFRP and Ti substrates
3.4 Effect of Feed Rate during the μUSM process
Feed rate is a significant parameter influencing the
machining performance during the µUSM process. In this
study, the effect of feed rate on cavity depth and cutting force
is analyzed by maintaining a constant amplitude of 2 µm and
a simulation duration of 250 µs. During each simulation, a
constant feed rate is provided to the substrate in the positive
Y-axis direction. The feed rate values used for this study are
5 µm/s, 10 µm/s, and 15 µm/s. Figure 11 shows the variation
in cavity depth with respect to different feed rates used
during the µUSM process. It is seen that the cavity depths
increase with an increase in feed rate. It is because as the feed
rate increases, the velocity between the tool and substrate
increases. It results in higher cutting force during the
machining process resulting in increased material removal.
Figure 12 shows the variation in cutting forces during
the µUSM process of CFRP and Ti substrates for different
feed rates. It is seen that the relative increase in cutting force
for increasing feed rate is significantly higher (30% or more)
in Ti substrate compared with CFRP substrate. Moreover,
higher cutting forces result in poor surface finish and reduced
tool life. This suggests that machining of Ti substrate should
be performed at a lower feed rate. However, machining of
CFRP at higher feed rate does not increase the cutting forces
415
significantly (less than 10%). This would mean that CFRP
substrate can be machined efficiently at higher values of feed
rate.
Figure 11. Effect of feed rate on cavity depth during μUSM process on
CFRP and Ti substrates
Figure 12. Effect of feed rate on cutting force during μUSM process on
CFRP and Ti substrates
4. Comparison between Experimental and Simulation
Results
From the simulation results, it is seen that the tool
material has a significant influence on the material removal
process during the µUSM process of CFRP/Ti stacks.
According to the simulation study, the cutting force on both
CFRP and Ti during the µUSM process using the WC tool is
lower than that while using the Cu tool. It suggests that the
corresponding cavity depth and the material removal are
higher for WC tool compared to the Cu tool. The
experimental studies on the µUSM process of CFRP/Ti
stacks showed that the Material Removal Rate (MRR) is
higher in the case of WC tool compared to the Cu tool as
shown in Figure 13. The experimental observations are thus
consistent with the present simulation results. It should be
noted that the experimentation involves multiple impacts of
several irregularly shaped particles in comparison to the
simulation study which only has multiple impacts of three
spherical abrasive particles. Both the experimentation and
simulation results suggest that the material removal is faster
using WC tool compared to the Cu tool. The validation of the
micron scale cutting forces observed in the simulation is
beyond the scope of this study.
416 Sagil James et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 34 (2019) 408–417
James, S., Panchal, S., / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
Figure 13. Comparison of MRR during µUSM process of CFRP/Ti stack
using WC and Cu tools [34]
5. Conclusion
This study reports the Finite Element (FE) Analysis on
micromachining of hybrid composite stacks using Micro
Ultrasonic Machining (µUSM) process. The materials used
for the hybrid composite stack in this study are Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) and Titanium (Ti). The effects
of critical process parameters including the amplitude of
vibration, feed force and tool material on the cavity depth,
and cutting forces are studied. The major conclusion that can
be drawn from this study are as follows:
a) During the µUSM process, the CFRP substrate
undergoes more machining than Ti substrate. The
CFRP substrate undergoes damage in brittle mode
through microchipping and microcracking. The Ti
substrate undergoes plastic deformation in ductile
mode through microplowing and microcutting
mechanisms. Moreover, the cavities produced on Ti
is uneven compared that of CFRP.
b) Study on cavity depth suggested that the cavity
depth on CFRP substrate is larger than that on the
Ti substrate. It is inferred that the plastic
deformation of the Ti material offers more
resistance to the tool motion, preventing abrasive
penetration into the bulk of the substrate.
c) Study on cutting forces showed that the generation
of positive pulsating cutting forces in each cycle of
ultrasonic vibration. The cutting force acting on
CFRP substrate is lower than that on Ti substrate.
The higher cutting forces on Ti is attributed to its
ductile behavior and superior fracture toughness,
causing increased resistance to the tool motion. The
cutting force on CFRP gradually decreases due to
microchipping and microcracking of the material.
d) The study on the effects of the amplitude of
vibration showed that the cavity depth increases
with the increase in amplitude. CFRP material
shows a significant increase in cavity depth for
increasing amplitudes compared to Ti. It is inferred
that machining of brittle materials is easier at higher
amplitudes using µUSM process. Higher amplitude
machining is not recommended for ductile materials
such as Ti as the cutting force increases
significantly resulting in higher tool wear and
shortened tool life.
e) Study on effects of feed rate suggested that the
relative increase in cutting force for increasing feed
9
rate is significantly higher in Ti substrate compared
with CFRP substrate. It suggests that machining of
Ti substrate should be performed at a lower feed
rate. However, machining of CFRP at higher feed
rate does not increase the cutting forces
significantly, and thus CFRP substrate can be
machined efficiently at higher feed rates.
f) Both the experimentation and simulation results
suggest that the material removal is more using WC
tool compared to the Cu tool.
The findings of this study would be instrumental in
advancing the applications of the USM process in modern
manufacturing industries.
Acknowledgment
We would like to thank the College of Engineering and
Computer Science at California State University Fullerton
for the financial support for this research. We also like to
thank MSC Software Corporation for providing software
support for this research.
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