SSC-JE 2022

STAFF SELECTION COMMISION-JUNIOR ENGINEER

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THEORY BOOK WITH SOLVED EXAMPLES FOR COMPREHENSIVE UNDERSTANDING

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First Edition : 2022

 PREFACE
As the level of competition is increasing each and every day, students demand
for a better learning resource gets surged with each passing attempt. Junior
engineers recruited by Staff Selection commission abbreviated as SSC-JE has
raised their bar in terms of testing the students at various levels. Students need
to be well versed with fine details of technical as well as non-technical subjects
and same needs to be demonstrated before the examiner.
This book of Theory of Structures comprises every requisite detail in concise
and lucid manner to help students for forming a mindset required for exams.
Further, it goes on to bridge the knowledge gap of students by including each
and every topic relevant for the exam. It also goes without saying that students
were in need of a reliable content and IES Master has designed an optimized
study resource as postal study package of SSC-JE competitive exam.
IES Master has designed the postal study program for SSC-JE with a motto for
students that “learn only which you can reproduce”. The sole objective is to
create a companion for students which will help in solidifying their basic concepts
and make them able to create a ladder for themselves for strengthening each
and every concept.
This masterpiece from IES Master’s Research & Development Team ensures that
your level of preparedness matches exactly to that required for the actual SSC-
JE exam. Thus far, and no further, the content of this book leaves no stone
unturned in its easy-to-understand language, optimized with fonts and layout
that your eyes will surely relish.

IES Master Publication

CIVIL ENGINEEERING INTRODUCTION 29

A B
HA
MA
Span ()
RA

Maximum number ofreactions  3

 Determinate beam
equation ofstatic equilibrium= 3 
(2) Simply Supported Beam
A B

HA


RA RB

 If all the external reactions and member forces cannot be found by equations of static equilibrium alone,
the structure is called statically indeterminate.

Example :
1. Fixed beams:
A B
MA MB

HA HB

RA RB

Possible unknown Reactions  HA, RA, MA, HB, RB, MB  6 unknown reactions and equations of static
equilibrium are 3.
Hence indeterminate beam.
2. Propped Cantilever beam:

4 unknown reactions.

1.4 DEGREE OF STATIC INDETERMINACY (DS)

No. of unknown forces in members  Equations of static equilibrium
DS   – 
or at support reactions   available 
DS = DSi + DSe
DS = Total static indeterminacy
DSi = Degree of internal static indeterminacy

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 30 THEORY OF STRUCTURE CIVIL ENGINEEERING

DSe = Degree of external static indeterminacy

Total indeterminacy of a structure in excess of external indeterminacy is called internal indeterminacy.

External Indeterminacy (DSe)

Total no. of support  No. of equations of static equilibrium 
DSe   – 
reactions in the structure   available 
 DSe = R – 3 for Plane Structure
= R – 6 for Space Structure
where, R = No. of support reactions

Internal Indeterminacy (DSi)

 Even by knowing all the support reactions, if all the member forces cannot be calculated, internal
indeterminacy is said to exist.
DSi = DS – DSe
= Total indeterminacy – External indeterminacy

Degree of Static Indeterminacy for Frames

Frames are rigid jointed structures. (i.e., angle between two members do not change even after deformation
of structures) All the joints are made rigid by providing extra restraint R  . The structure is then cut to make
it, Open Tree like determinate structure.
DS = 3C – R for plane frame = 6C – R for space frame
C = No. of cuts to make structure determinate
R = no. of restraints applied to make all joints rigid.

Note: 1. Tree should have only one root.

2. Tree cannot have a closed looped branch.
3. None of the branches should fall off on cutting the structure.

Open Tree Like Structure

The structure is cut in such a way that each individual cut part looks like a tree as shown here.

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CIVIL ENGINEEERING INTRODUCTION 31

Root Not an open tree because of the two roots Not an open tree because of Looped branches

Not a proper way of cutting because this member can fall of Correct way of making cuts

1.5 RESTRAINING SUPPORT (FOR PLANE AND SPACE FRAME)

No. of support reactions  No. of support reactions 
No. of restraint required to make a support rigid =  for fixed support – 
  of actual support 

1.6 RESTRAINING MEMBER/JOINTS

Plane Frame (Joints having hinge)
No. of restraining moments required at a joint where m-members meet = (m – 1).
Space Frame (Joints having hinge)
No. of restraining moment required at a joint where m–members meet = 3(m – 1).

1.7 JUSTIFICATION FOR APPLYING (M–1) RESTRAINING MOMENT AT JOINT

HAVING HINGE IN 2D FRAME.
If the joint O had been rigid, rotation of one member with respect to other will be zero as shown in figure
below.
C
A C

Hing
A B 
O 

D B
D
However, with joint having hinge, OC, OB and OD will have rotation with respect to OA. To make these three
relative rotations zero, we need to apply 3-moments.
Thus for 4-members meeting at a joint, no. of restraining moments required = 3 = (4 – 1).
Hence, for m-members meeting at a joint, no. of restraining moments required = (m – 1).

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 32 THEORY OF STRUCTURE CIVIL ENGINEEERING

On similar lines, it can be shown that in space frame, each member has 3-rotations possible in 3-different
planes. Hence with respect to one member no. of rotations possible are
3 m – 3 = 3(m – 1)
To restrain these we need to apply 3(m – 1) moments.

 Hence no. of restraining moments required at joint with hinge in 3D-frame = 3(m – 1).

Example :
(Case-1)

No. of restraint required to be

added = 2. They are RH & M
RH restrains relative movement

Example :
(Case-2)

No. of restraint required to be added = 1

RH

Example :
(Case-3)

No. of restraint required to be added = 1

RV

Exercise 16:
One cut required

One restraint
applied
Solution:
 C = 1, R' = 1
 DS = 3C – R' = 3 – 1 = 2 (Total static indeterminacy)
DSe = 5 – 3 = 2 (External indeterminacy)
DSi = Di – DSe = 2 – 2 = 0 (internal indeterminacy)

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CIVIL ENGINEEERING INTRODUCTION 33

Exercise 17:
Restraint required to
Hinge make it rigid = 1

Cut required = 1

Restraint required = 1

Solution:
DS = 3C – R' = 3 × 1 – 2 = 1
DSe = 5 – 3 = 2
DSi = Di – DSe = 1 – 2 = –1

Exercise 18:

1 no. cut

1 no. cut

Restraint req. = 1 no. 1 no. = Restraint req.

Hinge
Restraint req. = 1 no.
2 no. = Restraint req.

Solution:
No. of restraint req. to make it rigid
= 1 + 1 + 1 + 2
= 5 = R'
No. of cut req. = 2 = C
DS = 3C – R'
= 3 × 2 – 5
= 1
But it is unstable, because displacement given to roller support will result in rigid body
movement of the structure.

Exercise 19:

Hinge

Solution:
No. of cut req. = 5
No. of restraint added to make it rigid = (4 – 1) = 3

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 34 THEORY OF STRUCTURE CIVIL ENGINEEERING

DS = 3 × 5 – 3 = 12

Exercise 20:

Res. req. = 1 Res. req. = 1

Solution:
No. of cut req. = 6
No. of restraint applied to make it rigid = 2
DS = 3 × 6 – 2 = 16

Static Indeterminacy for Beams (2D)

DS = Degree of static indeterminacy

No. of releases 
DS = No. of support    or
  No. of equations 

reactions  No. of addition  of static equilibrium
conditions 

Description No. of releases (or No. of addition conditions)

It is also called equation of condition (or equation of construction
General loading Vertical loading case with
case no horizontal force developed
1 1

1 0

1 1

2 1

2 1

 In case of beams with all supports at same level, if there are only vertical loading, horizontal reaction
will not develop. However, if supports are at different level the horizontal reaction may develop even
if loading is vertical.

Only two reactions Only one reaction

instead of three instead of two
 No. of equations of static equilibrium in case of vertical loading with no horizontal reaction is two
(FV = 0, M = 0) .

 In case of general loading, the no. of equations of static equilibrium equation is three

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CIVIL ENGINEEERING PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL &
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AXIAL STRESSES

True stress and true strain:

Area = A Area = A 0


0

A0 = Original area of specimen before loading

 0 = Original length of specimen before loading.

 Now load is gradually increased, then length and area get changed at every instant:
A = area of cross-section at any instant
 = length of specimen at that instant
P
engineering stress = A0

dl
engineering strian = l
0

P
True stress =
A
dl
True strain =
l

Engineering & True S-S Curve

Engineering stress-strain True stress-strain Fructure in

curve in compression curve in compression tension

True stress-strain
Stress

curve in tension

Engineering stress-strain
curve in tension
Fructure in tension

O
Strain
Fig. Comparison of tension and compression stress-strain diagram

 The results obtained from tensile and compressive test will yield essentially the same plot of true S-S surve
and engineering S-S curve for small value of strains.

 For large value of strains

In tension- true stress > eng. stress
In compression-true stress < eng. stress

 In practical cases we will use engineering stress-strain curve if stress is within proportional limit)

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 88 THEORY OF STRUCTURE CIVIL ENGINEEERING

 For finite increament of loading such that length changes form L0 to L,

L
dL L
True Strain (  t ) =  = ln
L0
L L0 L

 L = L0 + L

L
eng. strain    = L L0
0

L L0 + L  L 
t = l n L = ln L = ln  1 + 
L0 
0 0 
for tension  '+'ve
 t = l n 1    
for compression   '–'ve

and  t =  0 1 +    (assuming volume is constant)

Exercise 1: The volume of a tensile specimen is essentially constant while plastic deformation occurs. If the
initial diameter of the specimen is d1, then true strain will be when diameter is reduced to d-

d1 d d1 d
(a) l n (b) l n d (c) 2l n (d) 2l n d
d 1 d 1

Ans. (c)
Solution:
If volume is constant then

 2  2
d L = d L
4 4 1 0
2
L  d1 
L0 =  d 
2
L d 
Now t = ln = ln  1 
L0 d

d1
= 2ln
d

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Elasticity
The property of a material by virtue of which, it returns to its original dimensions during unloading is called
elasticity and the material is called elastic. If material is unloaded before elastic limit (B) is reached, the
unloading curve will follow the original curve. When material is unloaded before elastic limit, the original
dimension of the member is regained instantly
CIVIL ENGINEEERING PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL &
89
AXIAL STRESSES

 B 
B

d in g
i ng
L o ad

u n lo a

g
din

g
di n
L oa

lo a
Un
E

 
(a) linearly elastic material (b) non linearly elastic material

 The material with larger modulus of elasticity is said to be more elastic.

 If material is stressed beyond elastic limit and then unloaded, it will have a residual strain and the
unloading curve will be different from original loading curve. The unloading curve will be parallel to the
initial portion of the loading curve. (CQ is unloading curve)

Loading C

Elastic limit
B
Unloading

Dissipated
energy
Q
0

Permanent Elastic
set set

 Residual strain: These are the strains that remains in a solid material after the removal of original cause
of strains.

 Residual deformation of bar is called permanent set.

 Once permanent set is occured, then again if loading is applied (i.e. reloading), it will follow the
curve QC.

 During reloading material behaves as linearly elastic from Q to C.

 Thus, proportional limit is increased and ductility is reduced.

Plasticity: It is the ability of material to get moulded in new shape or to get permanently deformed i.e., inelastic
deformation.
Ductility: It is the ability of material to get stretched into wires or it is a measure of the amout by which a
material can be drawn out in tension between yielding and fracture point.
 i.e., degree of plastic deformation.
eg.: Steel is more ductile as compare to rubber, because rubber has negligible inelastic strain.
Malleability: Whereas ductility is the ability of a material to be drawn out in tension, malleability is the ability
of a material to be deformed or to get spread in different direction (in form of thin sheets) on the application
of compressive loads such as rolling pressing and hammering action.
eg.: Copper (Cu) is both ductile and malleable whereas lead (Pb) is extremely malleable but not ductile and soon
fractures under tension.
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 90 THEORY OF STRUCTURE CIVIL ENGINEEERING

Creep:
 If loading (within elastic limit or beyond elastic limit) is sustained, then with passage of
time material undergo some microstructural changes which lead to additional permanent deformation
(over and above instantaneous deformation due to applied load), these deformations are quantified as
creep.

 Alternatively creep is gradual increase of plastic strain with time at constant.

 Creep strain is due to prolonged duration loads i.e., dead loads or permanent loads.

 It depends on temperature level, stress level, time and type of laoding (static or dynamic).

 Most test for creep measurement are the constant tensile load type tests and by measuring deformation
with time we plot the creep curve.

C
E
Strain ()

F G
B
Permanent
A Plastic strain
0Elastic strain
0 Time, (t)

OA  elastic strain
AD  creep region. If member is unloaded at point E, the strain will follow path EFG.
Relaxation: As creep is increase in plastic strain under constant stress with time, similarly stress relaxation is
decrease in stress under prolonged constant strain.

 If bar is stretched to 0 stress in time t0 and thereafter left at that constant strain, then the stress will
go on reducing and ultimately becomes constant.
Stress

0

t0 Time

Fatigue
Deterioration of a material under repeated cycles of stress or strain resulting in progressive cracking that
eventually produces fracture is called Fatigue.
Tensile stresses are more prone to fatigue failure, because they lead to formation of crack.
Magnitude of load is less than the load that can be sustained statically.
Fatigue failure depends on magnitude of loading and number of cycles of loading.
High magnitude of stress (may be beyond elastic limit) will require less number of cycles whereas low magnitude
of stress will require more number of cycles to cause failure.
CIVIL ENGINEEERING PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL &
91
AXIAL STRESSES

Stress

Endurance for non-ferrous

Stress
limit metals
for ferrous
metals
No. of cycles of loading which No. of Cycle
causes fatigue failure.
Endurance limit is the stress level below which even large no of stress cycle cannot produce fatigue failure. For
1
structural steel endurance limit = × ultimate strength. For non-ferrous metals, there is no endurance limit.
2
 Various factors that affect fatigue failure are stress concentration (i.e., due to Notch), corrosion, residual
stress, size of specimen, surface finish etc.
Strain energy: For any deformable material work done by applied loads (gradually applied loads within elastic
limit) gets stored as strain energy in the material. i.e. external work done by loads equals to strain energy stored
in material.

 area = A0

P P

U  P  

Strain energy per unit volume or strain energy density:

U P 
u = volume   A  l     
0 0

u = 
Strain energy in material due to applied loads is equal to area under load deformation curve. Strain-energy per
unit volume is equal to area under stress-strain curve.

Resilience
 It is the property of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and after
unloading this energy is recovered. Hence greater the resilience more desirable is the material for spring
action.

 Area under load-deformation curve within elastic limit is called resilience.

 Area under load-deformation curve upto elastic limit is called proof resilience.

 The area under stress strain curve upto elastic limit is called modulus of resilience.
 Elastic limit
B
Area of shaded portion
= modulus of resilience

 For a linearly elastic material strain energy stored per unit volume
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 92 THEORY OF STRUCTURE CIVIL ENGINEEERING

1 y
= y ×
2 E

2y
= modulus of resilience where,  y = elastic limit.
2E

Toughness
 Ability to absorb mechanical energy upto failure is called toughness. It represents the ability to resist
fracture.

 Area under stress strain curve upto fracture is called modulus of toughness.

Fracture
F point

Area of shaded portion

= modulus of toughness

E
Strain energy stored upto fracture
 Modulus of toughness =
Volume of material

 Toughness is desirable against impact loading.

 For a material to be tough it must have both strength and ductility; often ductile materials are tougher than
brittle ones due to larger failure strain.

Hardness
Ability to resist scratch or abration or hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic
deformation. Surface hardness is measured by carrying out non-destructive indentation test. The higher the yield
stress, the higher is the hardness.

Tenacity
Property of metal to resist fracture when under the action of tensile load is called tenacity.

Same common tests to measure hardness and toughness

1. Hardness Test: Hardness testing is generally performed using test machines equipped with an indenter
which is forced into the test specimen over a certain amount of time and depth of indentation gives
hardness value. The common hardness tests are.
(a) Brinell hardness tests: A carbide ball indenter is used which leaves round remarks on the material.
(b) Rockwell hardness test: A diamond cone or steel ball indenter is used.
(c) Knoop hardness test: This test is microhardness test which is used on very small parts and materials
which are unable to be tested by the other methods. A diamond pyramid is used as an indenter.
(d) Vicker’s hardness test: A diamond pyramid is used as indenter. This test is performed in both
microhardness and macrohardness test.
2. Toughness test: Impact tests are generally used to measure toughness in which amount of energy absorbed
by a material during fracture is measured.
CIVIL ENGINEEERING PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL &
93
AXIAL STRESSES

(a) Charpy impact test: In this test, specimen is used as simply supported beam and a V-notch or U-notch
is made on one side of specimen and a weighted pendulum is dropped from a spcified height. The notch
face of the specimen is placed facing away from the pendulum. The energy absorbed by the material
can be inferred by comparing the difference in the height of the pendulum before and after fracture.
(b) Izod impact test: This test is similar to charpy impact test, the only difference is, specimen is placed
as cantilever beam.

VISCOELASTIC MATERIAL
Viscoelastic material have both viscous and elastic property and exibits time dependent strain.

 Viscoelastic materials have following property

(a) Creep occurs
(b) Stress relaxation occurs
(c) Hytersis is seen in stress strain curve

APPROXIMATE STRESS-STRAIN CURVES



Elasto-plastic with
Elasto-plastic 
strain hardening


Ideal fluid behaviour

Ideal rigid behaviour
Rigid plastic material 

SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN CURVE:

 Torsion test is carried out to find shear stress strain curve. (Pure torsion produces pure shear stress).

 The shape of curve will be similar to that of normal stress-strain curve.

Shear stress ()

(u)

(y) tan = Modulus of rigidity (G)


Shear strain ()
S-S Curve obtained from torsion test
y  yield strength in shear

y
y = (where,  y  yield strength of mild steel in tension test)
3

IES MASTER Publication