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First Edition : 2022

 PREFACE

As the level of competition is increasing each and every day, students demand
for a better learning resource gets surged with each passing attempt. Junior
engineers recruited by Staff Selection commission abbreviated as SSC-JE has
raised their bar in terms of testing the students at various levels. Students need
to be well versed with fine details of technical as well as non-technical subjects
and same needs to be demonstrated before the examiner.
This book of Hydraulics comprises every requisite detail in concise and lucid
manner to help students for forming a mindset required for exams. Further, it
goes on to bridge the knowledge gap of students by including each and every
topic relevant for the exam. It also goes without saying that students were in
need of a reliable content and IES Master has designed an optimized study
resource as postal study package of SSC-JE competitive exam.
IES Master have designed the postal study program for SSC-JE with a motto for
students that “learn only which you can reproduce”. The sole objective is to
create a companion for students which will help in solidifying their basic concepts
and make them able to create a ladder for themselves for strengthening each
and every concept.
This masterpiece from IES Master’s Research & Development Team ensures that
your level of preparedness matches exactly to that required for the actual SSC-
JE exam. Thus far, and no further, the content of this book leaves no stone
unturned in its easy-to-understand language, optimized with fonts and layout
that your eyes will surely relish.

IES Master Publication

 Fluid Mechanics (FM)

Ch. No. Chapter Name Page

1. Properties of Fluid........................................... 001-017

2. Fluid Pressure and Measurement ................. 018-030

3. Hydrostatic Forces .......................................... 031-038

4. Buoyancy and Floatation ................................ 039-046
5. Liquid in Relative Equilibrium ....................... 047-057

6. Fluid Kinematics .............................................. 058-079

7. Fluid Dynamics................................................. 080-109
8. Weir and Notches ............................................ 110-125
9. Laminar Flow .................................................... 126-136
10. Turbulent Flow ................................................. 137-147
11. Boundary Layer Theory .................................. 148-160
12. Drag and Lift .................................................... 161-170
13. Dimensional Analysis and Model Studies ... 171-185
14. Pipe Flow .......................................................... 186-197
 Open Channel Flow (OCF)
15. Introduction to Open Channel Flow ............. 198-205
16. Uniform Flow .................................................... 206-212
17. Energy Depth .................................................... 213-219
18. Gradually Varied Flow ..................................... 220-238
19. Rapidly Varied Flow ........................................ 239-248
20. Unsteady Flow .................................................. 249-250

Hydraulic Machine (HM)

21. Hydroelectric Plants Overview....................... 251-255

22. Hydraulic Turbines ........................................... 256-267
23. Francis Turbine ................................................ 268-277
24. Kaplan and Propeller Turbine ........................ 278-280
25. Model Analysis ................................................. 281-284
26. Centrifugal Pumps ........................................... 285-303
27. Reciprocating Pumps ...................................... 304-308
 FLUID PRESSURE AND
MEASUREMENT

2.1 Fluid Pressure and 2.1 FLUID PRESSURE AND MEASUREMENT

Measurement
 Pressure is defined as normal force exerted by fluid per unit area.
2.2 Atmospheric Absolute,  Various units of pressure are;
Gauge and Vacuum
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 (1 N = 105 Dynes)
Pressure
1 MPa = 1 N/mm2 (1 Kg = 9.81 N)
2.3 Pressure at a Point 1 bar = 105 Pa (1 mm Head of Hg = 13.6 mm Head of water)
2.4 Pressure Measurement 1 atm = 101.325 kPa (Density of water = 1g/cc (or) 1000 Kg/m3)
Devices
Kgf
1 = 9.81 N/cm2 = 9.81 × 10000 N/m2 = 98100 N/m2
cm2
1 atm = 14.696 Psi (Pound per square inch)

2.2 ATMOSPHERIC ABSOLUTE, GAUGE & VACUUM

PRESSURE

2.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure

 Atmospheric pressure is caused by the gravitational attraction of the
planet on the atmospheric gases above the surface and is a function
of mass of planet, the radius of surface, the amount & composition
of gases and their vertical distribution in the atmosphere.

 It is modified by the planetary rotation, and local effects such as

wind velocity, density variation due to temperature and variation
in composition.
Patm at mean sea level = 101.323 kPa, 760 mm Hg or 10.3 m head of
water (Highest mean sea level pressure occurs in Siberia (105 kPa)
and lowest at the centre of tropical cyclone (87 kPa).)

 Atmospheric pressure at mean sea level (MSL) is called “Standard

atmospheric pressure” and atmospheric pressure at any other location
is called “Local atmospheric pressure”.

 Local atmospheric pressure is not constant. It depends on geographical

location of the place, its elevation above the sea level and also the
weather conditions.

 Local atmospheric pressure is measured using ‘Barometer’.

 Pressure head in terms of water = p  w .
CIVIL ENGINEERING FLUID PRESSURE AND MEASUREMNT 21

The following figure illustrates certain basic concepts

Water
A B C D E
H
Water
G P A = P B = P C = P D = P E =P H
F
PF  PG
Mercury

 As points A, B, C, D, E & H are located at same horizontal level, and if we can move from one point to
other while moving through same liquid, pressure at all points (A, B, C, D, E and H) are same.

 Although point F & G are located at same horizontal level, pressure at these two points are not same
because we cannot move from F to G while moving through the same liquid.

In Case of Gases

 For small to moderate change in elevation in gases, the variation of pressure is negligible because of their
low density. Hence pressure in a tank containing gas, can be considered to be uniform throughout.

2.3.2 Pascal’s Machine [Hydraulic Jack]

 Pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount. If force F
d2
is applied to the plunger, it increase the pressure throughout by F .
4

Plunger Ram
W
pa
x
dia = d pA = W dia = D
2 B
d
 = a=area 2
4 D
area =  = A
4

F D2 D2
The force on ram will be = × = F·
d2 4 d2
4

Illustration 1 :
A hydraulic press has a ram of 150mm and a plunger of 20mm diameter. Find the force required on the plunger
to lift a weight of 40KN.
If the plunger has a stroke of 0.4m and makes 30 strokes per minute, determine the rate at which the weight
is lifted per minute and the power required by the plunger. Assume no losses.
IES MASTER Publication
 34 FLUID MECHANICS CIVIL ENGINEERING

FR = Ah

IC.G
Centre of pressure (c.p), h* = h + , [as  = 90°]
Ah
Case III : Inclined Plane Surface

–
h
h*

Area = A
C.G
C.P

FR = Ax

IC.G sin2 
Centre of pressure (c.p), h* = h +
Ah

 Some Standard Results

bh * bh3 bh3
h A* = IGG = IOO =
G G 2 36 12
C.4 h
–
3
O O
b

D2 * D4
G G A* = IGG =
4 64

Circle

r
G G 4r D2   8  D4 D4
— A* = IGG =  –  IOO =
O O 3p
Semicircle
8  8 9  16 128

O
O

h
G
G
2h/5 2bh 8 16
A* = IGG = bh3 IOO = bh3
O O 3 175 105
Parabola
b

d G G
bd  bd3
A= IGG =
b 4 64
Ellipse

IES MASTER Publication

 36 FLUID MECHANICS CIVIL ENGINEERING

Solution :
Fw = Force on ACs
1.75  w  2 w
=  0.5  3
2
= 2.8125  w

(2  2 w  1.75 w )  0.5 
 x1 =   = 0.255 m.
(2 w  1.75 w )  3 
(2  12.2 w  2 w )  1.5 
 x2 =   = 0.9295 m
(12.2 w  2  w )  3 
FHg = Force on BC
2 w  12.2 w
= 1.5  3
2
= 31.95  w

 (1.75  2)   (2  12.2)  w 
Net Force, F =   w  0.5   3 +   1.5   3
 2   2 
=  2.8125  w + 31.95  w 

F = 34.7625 w ... (i)

Taking the moment about point A

31.95  w   0.9295  0.5   2.8125  w  0.255

 xp =
(34.7625  w )

 xp = 1.335 m.

Illustration 2 :

1m
2m
hP plate vertical
with central hole

2m 1m
CG
C.P

Find the magnitude of force on plate and its line of action.

Solution :
Force on plate = [Pressure at C.G of plate × Area of plate]
 2 2 
= 2 w   [(2)  (1) ]   4.71  w
4 

IES MASTER Publication

 44 FLUID MECHANICS CIVIL ENGINEERING

where I = MOI of the plan area at the level of liquid surface.

V = Volume of liquid displaced by the body.
As Irolling is less than Ipitching, we consider Irolling for calculation of BM.

l × b3
Irolling =
12

Note:  I for rolling is smaller than I for pitching, hence BM for rolling is smaller, than BM for pitching. Hence
metacentric height GM is smaller for rolling than pitching
 Hence, if the ship is safe in rolling then it will be safe in pitching.
 There are six degrees of freedom for ship as shown below :
Heaving
Yawing

Longitudinal axis
Swaying
ip
Sh

Pitching

Transverse axis

Rolling

Surging

4.2.2.2 Time Period of Oscillation

 A ship can be considered as a pendulum with centre of rotation as metacenter

2
 Time period, T =
WGM
I

I where I is about the axis of rotation

T = 2 (rolling or pitching)
WGM

 Comfort in ship is more when time period is large. Hence for greater comfort for a given I, GM should
be less. But small GM will decrease the stability of ship. Hence, without compromising on stability. if
comfort is to be increased, the size of the ship should be made larger so that moment of inertia I
increases and thus T (Time period) increases.

 For passenger ships, GM is less  Balance between stability and comfort is ensured.

 For cargo ship, GM is more  Stability is prime concern.

Illustation 1 :
A spherical object of 1.5 m diameter is completely immersed in a water reservoir and chained to the bottom.
If the chain has a tension of 5.30 kN. Find the weight of the object when it is taken out of the reservoir
into the air.

IES MASTER Publication

 72 FLUID MECHANICS CIVIL ENGINEERING

 v 
 dx 
d  x 
Hence, =
dt dx
 u 
 – dy 
d y 
= 
dt dy

d 1  d d 
 =  + 
dt 2  dt dt 

1  v u 
 z =  – 
2  x y 

1  u w 
Similarly, y =  – 
2  z x 

1  w v 
x =  – 
2  y z 

ˆ
i ˆj kˆ
1    1   1 


=
2 x y z
=
2 2

 × r = curl r

u v w

Note:  If angular velocity is zero, flow will be irrotational.

 For two dimensional flow in x-y plane, flow is irrotational if
v u
z = 0, i.e., x = y

 Rapidly converging or accelerating flow may be treated as irrotational. Large viscous flow is rotational.
 Merry-go-round or round about are analogous to rotational flow. Ferris wheel is analogous to irrotational flow

Merry go-round Ferris wheel

6.8 VORTICITY (  )

 It is measure of rotation or spin of fluid particle.

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 192 FLUID MECHANICS CIVIL ENGINEERING

Neglecting minor losses (and assuming ‘f ’ to be same)

fLQ2 fL1Q2 fL2Q2 fL3 Q2

= + +
12.1D5 12.1D15 12.1D25 12.1D35
Thus for equivalent pipe we have,

L L1 L2 L3
 + +
D 5
D15 D25 D35 If ‘f’ is assumed constant and minor losses are neglected.

2. When pipes connected in parallel.

Q3, 3, f3

Q 1 Q2, 2, f2 2 Q

Q1, 3 f2

Q, fe, De

Le

Neglecting minor losses we have

fe  e Q2 f1  × Q1 f2 × Q2 f3 × Q3
= = =
12.1De5 12.115 12.152 12.135

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

14.6 FLOW THROUGH SIPHON

 A closed conduit as arranged in figure, below which lifts the liquid to an elevation higher than its free
surface and then discharges it to a lower elevation is a siphon. It has certain limitations in its performance
due to low pressure that occur near the summit S.

0.5V2
2g S
hS
A TE
C
L V2 H
HG
L 2g
D
ZA
B

Above C & D : (–)ve pressure ZB

below C & D : (+)ve pressure

Applying energy equation between A and B,

ZA – ZB = hL = hf + minor losses.

f lV2 0.5V2 V2
H  + +
2gD 2g 2g
¯ ¯ ¯ ...(i)
Frictional entry exit
loss loss loss

IES MASTER Publication

 208 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW CIVIL ENGINEERING

2.3 VELOCITY OF UNIFORM FLOW

 In uniform flow since the velocity of flow does not change along the length of the channel, acceleration
is zero. Hence, the sum of the components of all the external forces in the direction of flow must be
equal to zero.

 For practical purposes, the flow in a natural channel may be assumed uniform under normal conditions,
i.e., if there are no flood flows or markedly varied flow caused by channel irregularities.
(1) Chezy equation

V = C RSf ... (1)

8g
C  Chezy constant = ; f = friction factor
f
For uniform flow, SF = S0 = bed slope
Where, V = Average velocity
R = Hydraulic radius of the channel section
S0 = Bed slope of the channel
As per Bazin’s formula
157.6
C = ; M = Bazin’s constant.
M
1.81 +
R
As per Ganguillet-Kutter

0.00155 1
23 + +
S n
C =
 0.00155  n
1 +  23 + .
 S  R
n = Roughness coefficient.
(2) Manning’s equation

1 2/3 1/2
V = R Sf ... (2)
n
R = Hydraulic radius of channel section,
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
By comparing (1) and (2)
1 1/6
C = R
n
Surface Characteristics Range of n

Lined Canals 0.011 to 0.016

Natural Channels 0.025 to 0.050

d1/6
50 ; where d (meter) is the particle size such that 50% of bed material is finer than
Note: Strickler Formula n = 50
0
21.10
d50.

IES MASTER Publication

CIVIL ENGINEERING GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW 223

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW PROFILES

 In a given channel yn and yc are two fixed depth if Q, n and S0 are fixed.
where, yn = Normal depth of flow
yc = Critical depth of flow
For wide rectangular channel
R = yn

1
Qn = (Byn )· yn2/3 · S0
n
3/5
 Q 
n
yn =  
 C
 B S0 
1. Hence for larger S0, yn will be smaller.
1/3
 q2 
yc =   (for unifrom flow)
 g
2. Critical depth of is independent of bed slope and depends only on cross-section of channels.
The two conclusion although derived for wide rectangular channel are valid for all types of channel.

1
Q = AR2/3Sc1/2
n
 There are 3 relations between yn and yc.
(1) yn > y c Mild slope 

(2) yn = yc Critical slope  Sustaining slope or positive slope

(3) yn < yc Steep slope 

 There are 2 relations when yn does not exists.

(1) S0 < 0 Adverse slope 
 Non-sustaining slopes
(2) S0 = 0 Horizontal slope. 
Based on above relations channel are classified into five cateogries.

Sl. Channel Symbol Characteristic Remark

No. category condition
1. Mild slope M y0 > yc Subcritical flow at normal depth

2. Steep slope S yc > y0 Supercritical flow at normal depth

3. Critical slope C yc = y 0 Critical flow at normal depth

4. Horizontal bed H S0 = 0 Cannot sustain uniform flow

5. Adverse slope A S0 < 0 Cannot sustain uniform flow

For each of the five cateogries, longitudinal sections can be drawn as lines representing the critical depth
and normal depth (if exist)

IES MASTER Publication

CIVIL ENGINEERING HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS 253

hL
Reservoir Surge tank
H
Turbine

This length of penstock is

relieved of the water This length of penstock should
hammer effect be made of thicker steel plates
to withstand the water hammer effect

 It is small reservoir fitted at some opening in a long penstock. It absorbs the sudden pressure rise due
to closing of valve when load on turbine is reduced thus eliminating water hammer effect.
 It reduces the length of penstock affected by water hammer effect.

7. Tail race: It is a waterway for carrying water discharged by the turbine to a suitable point where it
can be safely released in the river or can be stored for pumping back into reservoir
(as in case of pumped storage plant).

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

1. Based on availability of gross head
(a) High head plant: Head > 250 m
(b) Medium head plants: Head is from 30 m to 250 m
(c) Low head plants: Head is less than 30 m

2. Based on load capacity

(a) Base load plants
Power plants capable of substantially meeting the stipulated load i.e., (supplying fixed power) at 95%
of times are known as base-load plants.
 eg. Thermal power plants, hydropower plants with storage can also work as base load plants.
(b) Peak load plants
A peak-load plant works in conjunction with a base-load plant and takes care of the peak-load of the
power system. Storage type hydro plant, pumped storage plant and runoff river plant with pondage
works as peak load plant. This plant works only when power requirement is greater than the base load
during limited period

3. Based on function
(a) Run-off river plants
Run-of-River hydro plant (ROR) is a type of hydroelectric-generation plant where no storage or very
little storage (called pondage) is used.

IES MASTER Publication

 HYDRAULIC TURBINES

2.1 Introduction 2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 Head and efficiency  Hydraulic turbines are hydraulic machines which convert the hydraulic
of hydraulic turbine energy into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is further
converted into electrical energy by a generator.
2.3 Pelton wheel turbine

2.4 Runaway Speed (NR) 2.1.1 Classification of Hydraulic turbines

Turbine

Impulse Reaction
Turbine Turbine

Pelton wheel
Turbine Francis Kaplan & Propeller
Turbine Turbine
 Tangential flow
turbine  Mixed flow  Mixed flow
Head (H) > 400m
turbine turbine
Specific speed
Head (H) Head (H)
(Ns)  (8-30) (60m – 400m) (60m – 400m)
Specific speed Specific speed
(Ns)  (40-400) (Ns)  (40-400)

(a) According to the action of water on moving blade

(i) Impulse turbine
(ii) Reaction turbine

Impulse Turbine
 In case of impulse turbine, energy available at entrance to turbine
is in form of kinetic energy and water strikes the bucket with kinetic
energy causing an impact or impulse action.

 Throughout the movement of water through runner, Pressure remains

atmospheric and kinetic energy of water is extracted in the form of
runner power.
CIVIL ENGINEERING CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS 299

Q, 2H
Q H
Pump 1 Pump 2

 When pumps are connected in series,

Discharge remains same; Head increases
 If n = no. of pumps
Htotal = n × Hsingle pump ; Qtotal = Q

N Q
sp.speed =
(Hm sin gle pump )3/4

 Pumps in Parallel :
Collecting pipe

Q1 Q1 + Q2

Delivery
pipes
Q1 Q2

Suction
pipe
Pump-1 Suction
pipe Pump-2 Sump

Fig. Pumps in parallel

2Q, H
Q, H Q, H

Pump 1 Pump 2
Q Q

 When pumps are connected in parallel,

Head remains same, Discharge increases
If n = no. of pumps
Qtotal = n × Qsingle pump
Hm total = Hm one

6.10 SPECIFIC SPEED (NS)

It is the speed of a geometrically similar pump which would deliver, 1 m3 of liquid per second against a head
of 1 m.
By model analysis;

IES MASTER Publication