Pressure (P):

If F be the normal force acting on a surface of area A in contact with liquid,then

pressure exerted by liquid on this surface is: P =F / A
Units : N /m2 or Pascal (S.I.) and Dyne/cm2 (C.G.S.)
[F] [MLT 2 ] -2
Dimension [P] = = =[ML-1T ]
[A] [L2 ]
:
Atmospheric pressure:Its value on the surface of the earth at sea level is nearly
1.01*10 5N/ m2 or Pascal in S.I. other practical units of pressure are atmosphere,
bar and torr (mm of Hg)
1atm = 1.01 *10 5Pa = 1.01bar = 760 torr
dF
Fluid Pressure at aPoint: dp=
dA
Density ( ):
In a fluid, at a point, density is defined as: Mass/volume
In case of homogenous isotropic substance, it has no directional properties, so is
a scalar.
It has dimensions [ML-3] and S.I. unit kg/m3 while C.G.S. unit g/ccwith
1g / cc = 10 3kg / m 3

Density of body = Density of substance

Densit of body
Relative density or specific gravity which is defined RD
Density of water
as:
Specific Weight ( w):
It is defined as the weight per unit volume.
Specific weight =Weight= m.g
Volume Volume

Specific Gravity or Relative Density(s):

It is the ratio of specific weight of fluid to the specific weight of a standard fluid.
Standard fluid is water in case of liquid and H2 or air in case of gas.

Specific gravity= or or

Where, Specific weight , and

Density of water specific

2
Specific Volume ( v):
Specific volume of liquid is defined as volume per unit mass. It is also defined as the
reciprocal of specific density.
Specific volume =1/Density

Where = Shear Stress, = Co-efficient of viscosity or absolute viscosity

= Rate of angular deformation or rate of change of shear strain

Dynamic Viscosity and kinematic viscosity

Dynamic Viscosity- Resistance offered by fluid to flow
Units are Ns/m2 or Kg/ms
1 poise= 0.1 Ns/m2

Kinematic Viscosity =

1 Stoke= c.m2/s = 10-4 m2/s

Bulk Modulus
Bulk modulus K=

=
Where K= Bulk modulus of elasticity, = Density and V= Specific volume
Surface Tension
The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon known as surface
tension
Unit N/m
Pressure inside drop P =

Pressure inside bubble P=

Pressure inside jet P=
Where d= Diameter of drop, P= Gauge pressure and = Surface tension
Capillary Action

Height of water in capillary tube-

=rise in capillary = Surface tension of water

D= Diameter of tube
=Angle of contact between liquid and material
=<90o for water and glass and >90o for mercury and glass
Absolute Pressure
Pabs Patm Pgauge
Pabs Patm Pvac

Hydrostatic law

Manometers
Piezometers

pA gh
 U-Tube Manometer
PA s1 gh1 sm gh h2 gs2 PB
Where s1,s2 and sm are density of fluids in
manometer

Hydrostatic Forces on submerged bodies

Vertical Planes
Total Force
Center of Pressure

Horizontal Surface
Total Force
Center of Pressure
 Forces on Inclined surface Ftotal ghC .G A
Centre of pressure

Curved Surface
FR Fh 2 Fv 2
Fv
tan
Fh
Vertical component of force Fv
Weight of the liquid supported by
the curved surface over it up to the
free liquid surface

Horizontal component of force

Fh
Total pressure force on the vertical
projected area of the curved
surface

Completely submerged and floating at the interface of two liquids

FB 1 gV1 2 gV2
Where V1 and V2 are volumes

Body floating in a liquid

FB 2 V2
Principal of floatation

If the body weight is equal to the buoyant force, the body will float

Mg W FB gV

Condition of stability

Fully submerged body

Stable Equilibrium: G below B
Unstable Equilibrium: G above B
Neutral Equilibrium: G coincides with B

Floating body
Stable Equilibrium: M above G
Unstable Equilibrium: M below G
Neutral Equilibrium: M coincides with G

Metacentric height (GM)

Metacentre radius (BM)

I
BM
V
Metacentric Height (GM)

GM BM BG
I
GM BG
V
 Where I= Second moment area about body surface vertical axis
V = Volume of water displaced
Time period of transverse oscillation of floating body
KG
T 2 KG= Least radius of gyration, GM=Meta- Centric Height
gGM
Continuity Equation

A,V are cross-section area of the flow and Velocity of flow respectively
For incompressible flow =constant so

Generalized differential Continuity Equation

Where u,v and w are the velocities in x,y,and z direction respectively

For steady incompressible two dimensional flow, =constant and

Velocity and Acceleration of Fluid Particle

Acceleration in X-direction

Acceleration in Y-direction

Acceleration in Y-direction

For steady flow =

Note- Local Acceleration due to increase in rate of velocity with respect to time at a point and
convective acceleration due to rate of change of position ( =
Rotational fluid

Vortex flow
Free Vortex V*r=Constant

Forced Vortex V=r and

Velocity potential
If is the velocity function, then

, v= ,
Polar direction
,

Stream Function
If is the Stream function , then

, v=
Equipotential line
Condition for Equipotential line

So

Line of constant stream function

Condition for constant stream function d 0

Relation between stream function and velocity potential function

Equation of motion

Where,
Gravity force
Pressure force
Viscosity force
Turbulance force
Compressibility force
When Compressibility force is negligible

is negligible
is Navier- Stokes equation of motion
When flow is assumed to be ideal,

Where,
= Pressure head

= Potential head
= Kinetic head

Venturimeter

Where,
=Co-efficient of venturimeter which is <1
= Area of cross section, h= Head
Orifice meter

Vena contracta
 Discharge where,

= area of cross section before vena contracta

=Area of orifice

Pitot Tube

Where is co-efficient of velocity

Value of given by differential

where

where S >
are realtive density of
manometric fluid and fluid flowing

Momentum Equation
F.dt= d(mv) known as impulse- momentum equation
Force exerted on flowing fluid by a bend pipe
If then net force acting on a fluid

Resultant force
Viscous flow
To be viscous flow Reynold number should be less than 2000
<2000

Where, v=velocity of flow, = viscosity of flow, D= Diameter of piper and = Density of fluid

Flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe

 Velocity

Shear stress

Ratio of maximum to average velocity

Drop of pressure in given length

Also called Hagen Poiseuille Equation

Here =average velocity,
Flow of viscous fluid between two parallel plates

Velocity

Shear Stress
Ratio of maximum to average velocity

Drop of pressure in given length Where t is the thickness

Kinetic energy correction factor

For laminar flow =2 and for turbulent flow =1.33

Momentum correction factor

For laminar flow =1.33 and for turbulent flow =1.20

Loss of head due to friction in viscous flow
 Where f= friction co-efficient

For laminar flow

For turbulent flow, coefficient of friction

i = Loss of head per unit length of pipe=

m = Hydraulic mean depth

Mean velocity of flow m =

Minor losses in pipe

Loss of head due to sudden enlargement

Loss of head due to sudden contraction

or when =0.65

Loss of head due to entrance

Loss due to exit pipe

Loss due to obstruction

Losses due to bend

where k depends on bending of pipe

Hydraulic gradient and Total Energy line

H.G.L=Pressure head+datum head
T.G.L= Pressure head+datum head+Kinetic Head
Flow through pipes in series or compound pipes

Major loss = Head loss due to friction in each pipe

While, minor loss = Entrance loss + Expansion loss +

Contraction loss + Exit loss

Flow will remain constant

Equivalent pipe in series pipe

Power Transmission through pipes

= loss due to friction

Efficency of power transmission
=

Condition for maximum transmission of power

and
Dimensional analysis:
Quantity Symbol Dimensio
ns
Mass m M
Length l L
Time t T
Temperature T
Velocity u LT -1
 Acceleration a LT -2

Momentum/Impulse mv MLT -1
Force F MLT -2
Energy - Work W ML 2T -2
Power P ML 2T -3
Moment of Force M ML 2T -2
Angular momentum - ML 2T -1
Angle M 0L 0T 0
Angular Velocity T -1
Angular acceleration T -2
Area A L2
Volume V L3
First Moment of Area Ar L3
Second Moment of Area I L4
Density ML -3
Specific heat- Cp L 2 T -2 -1
Constant
Pressure
Elastic Modulus E ML -1T -2
Flexural Rigidity EI ML 3T -2
Shear Modulus G ML -1T -2
Torsional rigidity GJ ML 3T -2
Stiffness k MT -2
Angular stiffness ML 2T -2
Flexibiity 1/k M -1T 2
Vorticity - T -1
Circulation - L 2T -1
Viscosity ML -1T -1
Kinematic Viscosity L 2T -1
Diffusivity - L 2T -1
Friction coefficient M 0L 0T 0
Restitution coefficient M 0L 0T 0
Specific heat- Cv
Constant volume L 2 T-2 -1
Dimensionless number
(Re)
=

(Eu)

(We)

Mach number (M)

=
Velocity distribution for turbulent flow in pipe

Where = Shear or friction velocity, Y=distance from pipe wall, =Density

Displacement Thickness (

U=Stream Velocity, u=Velocity of fluid at the element, = boundary layer thickness

Momentum Thickness

Energy Thickness (
Drag force on a flat plate due to boundary layer

Know as Von Karman momentum integral equation

Drag force on plate obtained by where, b if thickness of plate

Local ( and average co-efficient of drag

Boundary condition for the velocity profile

At y=0, u=0
At y= , u=U
Saparation of boundary layer

Force exerted by jet on plate

Force exerted by jet = mass of fluid striking per sec *
change in velocity =
)*(V 0)
)2

Force exerted by jet on inclined plate

Fn 2

Force component in X-direction = Fn

Force component in Y-direction = Fn

Force exerted by jet on curved plate

Fx V(V+V cos
Fy (0-V sin )

Force exerted by jet on curved plate , moving with some velocity

Fx V-u)( (V-u)+ (V-u)
Fy (V-u)(0-(V-u) sin )
Forced exerted by a jet on a hinged plate

Hydraulic Efficiency

Mechanical Efficiency

Volumetric Efficiency

Overall Efficiency Hydraulic Efficiency * Mechanical Efficiency

Work done by Pelton turbine
Work where are whirl velocity
Hydraulic Efficiency
Hydraulic Efficiency

When blade velocity= (inlet velocity of jet)/2 then,

Maximum efficiency

Degree of reaction

Specific Speed

For turbine where P= power, H= head and N= number of rotation

Dimensionless Specific speed

Turbine Specific Speed Specific Speed

(S.I) (M.K.S)

Pelton 8.5 to 30 10 to 35

Pelton with two jets 30 to 51 35 to 60

Francis 51 to 255 60 to 300

Kaplan and propeller 255 to 860 300 to 1000

For Pumps, where Q is discharge

Unit quantities
Unit speed (Nu):

Unit Power (Pu):

Unit discharge (Qu):

Model laws of turbine
Net Positive suction Head in pump
NPSH= Pressure head + Static head - Vapor pressure head of your product Friction head loss