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Theoretical Phonetics of the English Language

1. Phonetics as a linguistic discipline and its branches. Phonetics at the intersection of linguistic studies.
“Phonetics” is of Greek origin. It’s a subject matter dealing with voice and sounds (roughly speaking).  Phonetics
studies

 The sound the sound system of the language. The Phonetic structure of the language consists of the
components:sequence
 Word stress
 Syllable structure
 Intonation
+Phonetics is the most fundamental branch of Linguistics. Neither Linguistic theory nor Linguistic practice can do
without Phonetics. That’s why Phonetics is an independent branch of Linguistics like Lexicology, Grammar or
Stylistics. And thus it claims to be of equal importance with them.

Modern phonetics has three main branches:

 Articulatory phonetics, which addresses the way sounds are made with the articulators,
 Acoustic phonetics, which addresses the acoustic results of different articulations, and.
 Auditory phonetics, which addresses the way listeners perceive and understand linguistic signals.

2. Phonological system of English. The hierarchy of phonological units. Phoneme as the smallest discrete
phonological unit and its functions.
Phonological system of English.

English contains 44 phonemes, 20 vowels and 24 consonants. Vowels are categorized into three types: short vowels,
long vowels and diphthongs. The number of short vowels is seven, and the number of long vowels is five, but the
number of diphthongs is eight.

The hierarchy of phonological units

The phonological hierarchy describes a series of increasingly smaller regions of a phonological utterance, each nested
within the next highest region. Different research traditions make use of slightly different hierarchies.

Phonological hierarchy is a ranking that organizes a stream of speech into levels of ascending size and complexity.

Here are the levels of the phonological hierarchy:

Units at one level of the hierarchy cluster together to form units of the next higher level. At each level, speech can be
segmented into units that have similar kinds of phonetic features.

Phoneme as the smallest discrete phonological unit and its functions.

 3. Basic methods of phonological analysis. Phonological rules. The system of phonological oppositions in
English. The distinctive features theory. The system of phonological oppositions. From the history of
phoneme theory. Schools of Phonology.
There are two main approaches to phonological analysis. Formally distributional approach practised by American
structuralists is focused on the position of the sound in the word, or its distribution. Semantic method attaches special
importance to meaning. It is widely used in this country.
The analysis is performed through the system of phonological oppositions. It is based on the following fundamental ph
onological rule! phonemes can distinguishthe meaning when opposed to one another in the same phonetic conte"t (day
- they, sheep – ship). So to establish the phonemic status of a sound it is necessary
tooppose one sound to some other sound in the same phonetic conte"t. This procedure is called commutation tes

PHONOLOGICAL RULES: Formalized general statements about the distribution of non-contrastive properties

of segments; they provide the phonetic information necessary for the pronunciation of utterances.

Types of phonological opposition

1. Single – if the members of the opposition differ in one articulatory feature.

pen – Ben (occlusive; labial; [p] fortis, [b] lenis)

2. Double – if there are two distinctive features, which are different.

pen – den (occlusive, [p] labial, [d] alveolar; [p] fortis, [d] lenis)

3. Triple/Multiple – there are three distinctive features.

pen – then ([p] occlusive, [ð] constrictive; [p] labial, [ð] interdental; [p] fortis, [ð] lenis)

To establish the system of phonemes of a language it is necessary to oppose sounds in all possible position (initial,
medial, final). But there are cases when the sounds can’t be used in the same position and can’t be opposed, e.g.:

[h] is never used in final position.

[ŋ] is never used in initial position.

These sounds are treated as different phonemes on the basis of native speaker’s knowledge and their phonetic
dissimilarity.

+There is another interesting case which is analyzed and explained by different schools of classical phonology. In
some cases different sounds occur in the same position and in the same phonetic context, but the meaning of the word
remains unchanged (калоши – галоши, letter [lɛtə] – letter [lɛdə]). They are called free variants. The existing of free
variance is explained by stylistic, regional and individual variations.

The central idea behind distinctive feature theory is the notion that contrasts between phonemes can be most
elegantly and insightfully described in terms of properties of segments rather than by treating segments as
alphabetic atoms.

In linguistics, a distinctive feature is the most basic unit of phonological structure that may be analyzed in
phonological theory.

Distinctive features are grouped into categories according to the natural classes of segments they describe: major class
features, laryngeal features, manner features, and place features. These feature categories in turn are further specified
on the basis of the phonetic properties of the segments in question.[For phonemes to be in a particular natural class,
they have to share the same distinctive features such as articulation and/or sound similar to each other. We can find
distinctive features between two words by finding the minimal pair between them. The minimal pair are when two
words sound the same, but they are different in definition because the pair has different phonemes from each other.
 4. English vowels and consonants. Problems of their phonological analysis and classification.
The English Language has 44 English sounds. They can be divided into two main categories: consonants and vowels.
A consonant sound is a sound where the airflow is stopped, either partially or completely, when the sound is uttered. 

In English, a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y are the vowel letters. The rest of the letters in the alphabet represent
consonants such as b, d, g, n, r, s, and t. some consonants produce more than one sound.

A vowel is a speech sound where the mouth is open and the tongue doesn’t touch the top of the mouth, the teeth, etc.
so that the flow of air is not limited. It is necessary to know that there is a difference between a vowel sound and a
vowel letter in the alphabet.

The English vowel sounds are written with letters in the English alphabet. All English words have vowel letters. They
are vowels in English: A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes Y.  Y is “sometimes” a vowel because the letter Y presents both
vowel and consonant sounds, like ‘fry’. 

A monophthong is simply a vowel. The word mono represents one and phthong represents a sound. This means that
monophthong represents one vowel sound in the word. If you notice the position of the tongue, the mouth will stay the
same when these words are uttered.

In English – /i:/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /u:/, /e/, /ə/, /ɜ:/, /ɔ:/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/ and /ɒ/  are 12 pure vowels or monophthongs. let’s check the
list of 12 pure vowel sounds with some examples

A diphthong is a mix of two vowel sounds or vowel letters, like the sounds /aɪ/ in pipe /paɪp/ or the letters ou in doubt.
The part ‘di’ represents two and the other part represents sounds. Although a diphthong has two different vowel
sounds, they stay within the same syllable or unit of sound. 

The best way to know if a word has a diphthong with two vowel sounds, or a monophthong, is to listen to how it
sounds when you say it out loud. If the vowel sound changes within the same syllable, it’s most certainly a diphthong.

A consonant is a sound that is produced by blocking air from flowing out of the mouth with the teeth, tongue, lips or
palate. Consonants may come alone or in clusters but have to be connected to a vowel to form a syllable.

English has 21 consonant letters, for 24 consonant sounds in most English accents:  H, J, K, L, M B, C, D, F, G, N, P,
Q, R, S, T, V, W, X,  Z and (sometimes Y). The letter ‘y’ produces a consonant sound if at the beginning of a word
‘yellow’ but a vowel sound if at the end of a word ‘sunny’. 
Consonant Digraphs

Digraphs are two letters that produce just one sound. These are the seven basic consonant digraphs; ch, ck, th, sh, ph,
ng, wh. Yet, some digraphs have more than one pronunciation.  ‘ghosts’ are some digraphs like ‘wr’ and ‘gn’  because
the first letter is not pronounced.

Example –

ch Makes the sound /t∫/ in Chair , /k/ in chorus and /sh/ in chute

ck which makes the sound  /k/ sound as in click

Consonant Blends

A consonant blend occurs when two or more consonants are blended together, yet each sound may be heard in the
blend. The most common beginning consonant blends include: pl, pr, sl, sm, sp and st, bl, br, cl, cr, dr, fr, tr, fl, gl, gr.
Blends can also appear at the end of words. 

Blends are most of the time categorized into r-blends, such as “br” and “cr”, s-blends, such as “sc” and “sk” and l-
blends, such as “bl” and “cl”. There are also blends that include three consonants. Popular three consonant blends
include str, spl, and spr.

Let’s check the list of two letters blends

Blends examples

Bl - which make the /bl/ sound as in blend and black

Br - which make the /br/ sound as in bread and brave

Consonant cluster - refers to two or more consonants positioned side by side in a word. They are also called
consonant blends. The longest possible cluster in English is three consonant sounds at the beginning. They can be up
to four consonants long at the end of the word.

Let’s check the list of consonant clusters examples:

Three-letter blends examples

Shr- which make the /ʃr/ sound as in shrimp

5. Syllable as a phonetic and phonological unit. The structure and types of syllables in English, their
graphical representation. Functions of the syllable. Syllable formation theories.
A syllable as a phonetic unit.

Though the basic phonological elements are phonemes, speech can be broken into minimal pronounceable units into
which sounds show tendency to group themselves. These smallest phonetic groups are generally given the name of
syllables. They form language units of greater magnitude, i.e. morphemes, words and phrases.
The syllable may be a single word (ex, chair, book), a part of a word (ex, mu-sic), a part of the gram. form of a word
(ex, la-ter).

The syllable can be analyzed from the acoustic, auditory, articulatory and functional point of view. The syllable may
be viewed in connection with its graphic representation.

ACOUSTICALLY AND AUDITORILLY syl. is characterised by the force of utterance, or accent, pitch of the voice,
sonority, length, i.e. by prosodic features. Acoustic properties of syl. are studied with the help of intonograph and
spectrograph. Auditorilly the syl. is the smallest unit of perception: the listener identifies the whole of the syl. and only
after that the sounds contained.

The ARTICULATORY energy which constitutes the syllable results from the combined actions of the power
resonator and abstracter mechanisms.

Phonologically the syl. is regarded and defined in terms of its structural and functional properties. Syl-s in writing are
called syllabographs and are closely connected with the morphemic structure of words.

A syllable can be formed by a vowel: (V); by a vowel and a consonant: (VC); by a consonant and a sonorant (CS).
The syllabic structure of words may be graphically represented by the letter V standing for a vowel and the letter C
standing for a consonant. The syllabic sonorant is represented by S.

V — types of syllable called uncovered open, oak

VC — uncovered closed, odd

+CVC —covered closed, note

CV —covered open, no.

There are a great number of variants in the syllabic structure which are formed by increasing the number of
consonants in the initial and final positions, as in:

+VCC (and, eggs, oaks), VCCC (ends, acts), CCV (blue, grow), CCCV (spray, stray), CVCC (cats, bolt), CVCCC
(facts, minds), CCVC (sleep, shrewd), CCVCC (stoves, flex), CCVCCC (clasps, sphinx), CCCVC (street, splash),
CCCVCC (splint, splashed), CCCVCCC (splints).

There are several theories which try to explain the mechanism of syllable formation and syllable division.

The sonority theory propounded by Otto Jespersen is widespread among foreign linguists. The term ‘sonority’ is
understood by Otto Jespersen as ‘the degree of perceptibility’.

All speech sounds have different inherent sonority. The most sonorous are open back vowels, the least sonorous are
the voiceless stops. Otto Jespersen classified all speech sounds according to seven levels of sonority:

(1) vowels;

(2) semi-vowels /j,w,/;

(3) sonorants /l,r,m,n,ƞ/;

(4)voiced fricatives /v, z,ʒ,/;

(5) voiced stops /b,d,g/;

+(6) voiceless fricatives /f,ѳ,s,ʃ,h/;

(7) voiceless stops /p,t,k/.

Prof. L.V.Shcherba put forward another theory of syllable formation and syllable division, which was further
developed by his followers and at present is known as the theory of muscular tension.

According to this theory a syllable is an arc of muscular tension, which is weak in the beginning and in the end and
strong in the middle. If a syllable consists of a vowel, its strength increases in the beginning, reaches the maximum at
the peak and then gradually decreases.

+Consonants within a syllable are characterized by different distribution of muscular tension. Prof. Shcherba
distinguishes the following types of consonants:

1) initially strong and finally weak, as in it, on, us;

2) finally strong and initially weak, as in may, tea, no;

3) double consonants (two similar sounds) which are strong at both ends and weak in the middle, as in good day,
misspell, etc.

6. Word stress as a component of the word phonetic structure and its functions. Acoustic and perceptual
cues to word accent. Types of word accents. Linguistically relevant degrees of word stress. Word
accentuation tendencies and basic word stress patterns in English.
Stress is a very important part in the phonetic structure of English, and it also has the function of distinguishing
meanings or part of speech in the words or phrases with the same phonemes. Intonation and rhythm in English are
based on stress, which are very important ways of expressing meanings.

accent, in phonetics, that property of a syllable which makes it stand out in an utterance relative to its neighbouring
syllables. Accent has various domains: the word, the phrase, and the sentence. Word accent (also called word stress, or
lexical stress) is part of the characteristic way in which a language is pronounced. Given a particular language system,
word accent may be fixed, or predictable (e.g., in French, where it occurs regularly at the end of words, or in Czech,
where it occurs initially), or it may be movable, as in English, which then leaves accent free to function to distinguish
one word from another that is identical segmentally (e.g., the noun permit versus the verb permit). Similarly, accent
can be used at the phrasal level to distinguish sequences identical at the segmental level (e.g., “light housekeeping”
versus “lighthouse keeping,” or “blackboard” versus “black board”). Finally, accent may be used at the sentence level
to draw attention to one part of the sentence rather than another (e.g., “What did you sign?” “I signed a contract to do
some light housekeeping.” versus “Who signed a contract?” “I signed a contract to do some light housekeeping.”).

Linguistically relevant degrees of word stress.

Instrumental analyses show that in a polysyllabic word there are as many degrees of stress as there are syllabic in it,
but it disagrees with human perception, because according to our experience there are short ?! syllables in a word.
This conflict may be solved in a simple way to pronounce a word or a syllable we have to make some effort , this
effort is registrar by machines as stress, what the human are perceives a stress, is:- the greatest degree of effort;

-is connected with the meaning of the word.

Ex. ‘Папа- тато –is perceived as a Russian word- father.

Па’па- is associated with either English or French.

До’рога – доро’га way-dear

And other stressed syllables are not perceived as language important. Usually scholars speak of three degrees of word
stress in English:

Strong stress- primary stress

Partial stress- secondary stress

And the so called unstressed syllables- have weak stress.

The first and the oldest of the English word accentuation tendencies is known as the recessive tendency and the
incidence of the main stress in accordance with it is called recessive. The recessive tendency consists in placing the
word-stress on the initial syllable. Recessive stress can be of two subtypes:

1) unrestricted recessive stress, falling on the first syllable (ex. 'father, 'mother etc.);

2) restricted recessive stress, falling on the root of words with a prefix, which lost its meaning (ex. be'gin, for'get,
a'mong, be'fore etc.).

The recessive tendency is characteristic of all Germanic languages. Throughout the whole historical development of
the English language this tendency has always been very strong. Thus, the stress in Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian
polysyllabic derivative words is constant due to the influence of the recessive tendency (ex. 'wonder, 'wonderful,
'wonderfully).

7. Intonation as the complex semantic unity of suprasegmental features. Different approaches to the
definition of intonation and its components. Speech melody, utterance stress, loudness, tempo and
pausation, rhythm, voice timbre as subsystems of intonation. Functions of intonation.
Intonation is a complex unity of these prosodic features of speech: melody (pitch of the voice); sentence stress;
temporal characteristics (duration, tempo, pausation); rhythm; timber (voice quality). The term "prosody" is widely
used in linguistic literature alongside with the term "intonation" but in the broad sense. Intonation organizes a
sentence, determines communicative types of sentences and clauses, divides sentences into intonation groups, gives
prominence to words and phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes. There are no sentences without a particular
intonation and we cannot express any meanings without it. Intonation can be described on the acoustic level (in terms
of its acoustic characteristics), on the perception level (in terms of the characteristics perceived by a human ear) and
on the linguistic level (in terms of meanings expressed by intonation). There exist different approaches to the
description of intonation and different definitions of this phenomenon. Intonation on the perception level is defined as
a complex, formed by significant variations of pitch, loudness and tempo (the rate of speech an pausation) closely
related. There are definitions that also include timbre, which is sometimes regarded as the fourth component of
intonation by some linguists (it shows the speaker‟s emotions, such as joy, sadness, irony, anger, indignation, etc.).

Speech melody is the changes in the pitch of the voice in connected speech. It makes the pitch component of
intonation.

Utterance stress is the greater prominence of one or more words among other words in the sentence. It makes the force
component of intonation.

Speech tempo is the relative speed of utterance which is measured by the rate of syllable successions and the number
and duration of pauses in a sentence. Variations in tempoprovide the temporal component of intonation.

Rhythm is a regular recurrence of stressed syllables.

The pitchparameters consist of the distinct variations in thedirection of the pitch, i.e. where the pitch goes distinctly up
or down,the pitch level and the pitch range.

The pitch direction. Not all stressed syllables are of equal importance. One of the syllables has a greater prominence
than the others and forms the nucleus of an intonation pattern. Formally the nucleus may be described as a strongly
stressed syllable which is generally the last stressed syllable of an intonation pattern which marks a significant change
of the pitch direction. The nuclear tone is the most important part of the intonation pattern. The inventory of nuclear
tones given by different scholars is different. Phoneticians single out from 4 to12 nuclear tones. The majority of them
agree that the following nuclear tones are most frequent: the Low Fall, the Low Rise, the High Fall, the High Rise, the
Fall-Rise, the Rise-Fall, the Mid-Level.

The attitudinal function. The most obvious role of intonation is to express our attitudes and emotions – to show shock
or surprise, pleasure or anger, interest or boredom, seriousness or sarcasm, and many others. We do this by tone.

The grammatical function. Intonation helps identify grammatical structures in speech, rather as punctuation does in
writing. We use intonation to mark the beginning and of grammatical units such as clause and sentence (the
demarcative function). We do this by tonality. We also use intonation to distinguish clause types, such as question vs.
statement, and to disambiguate various grammatically ambiguous structures (the syntactic function). We do this
mainly by tone.

The focusing (also called accentual or informational) function. Intonation helps to show what information in an
utterance is new and what is already known. We use it to bring some parts of the message into focus, and leave other
parts out of focus; to emphasis or highlight some parts and not others. We do this by tonicity and by the placement of
other accents. This is one of the most important functions of English intonation, and perhaps the function most readily
taught in the EFL classroom. We combine accentuation with the choice of tone to present some longer stretches of the
message as constituting the foreground of the picture we paint, while leaving other stretches as background. These are
pragmatic functions.

The discourse (or cohesive) function. Intonation signals how sequences of clauses and sentences go together in spoken
discourse, to contrast or to cohere. It functions like the division of writing text into sentences and paragraphs. It
enables us to signal whether or not we have come to the end of the point we are making; whether we want to keep
talking or are ready to give another speaker a turn.

The psychological function. Intonation helps us organize speech into units that are easy to perceive, memorize and
perform. We can all repeat and arbitrary string of three, four or five members, but not a string of ten – unless we split
them into two units or five. This is why we need tonality.
The indexical function. Just as with other pronunciation features, intonation may act as a marker of personal or social
identity. What makes mothers sound like mothers, lovers sound like lovers, lawyers sound like lawyers, clergymen
sound like clergymen, newsreaders sound like newsreaders, officials sound like officials? Partly, their characteristic
intonation.

8. Phonostylistics as a branch of phonetics. Extralinguistic factors causing phonetic modifications of

speech. Phonetic styles, the problem of their definition and classification.
The information about stylistic variations in learning, understanding and producing language is directly useful for the
design, execution and evaluation of teaching phonetics. The branch of phonetics most usually applied for such
information is phonostylistics. Phonostylistics is a rapidly developing and controversial field of study though a great
deal of research work has been done in it. It would not be accurate to say that phonostylistics is a new branch of
phonetics. It is rather a new way of looking at phonetic phenomena. Linguists were until recently not aware of this
way of analysis and awareness came only as a result of detailed analysis of spoken speech.

Phonetics studies the way phonetic means are used in this or that par-ticular situation which exercises the conditioning
influence of a set of fac-tors, which are referred to as extralinguistic. The aim of phonetics is to analyze all possible
kinds of spoken utterances with the main purpose of identifying the phonetic features, both segmental and
suprasegmental, which are restricted to certain kinds of contexts, to explain why such fea-tures have been used and to
classify them into categories, based upon a view of their function.

Style-forming and style-modifying factors:

Style forming factor is the aim or purpose of the utterance. The aim is the strategy of the speaker.

 the form of communication (monologue or dialogue);

 the speaker’s attitude to the situation (emotions, thoughts, etc);
 the degree of formality ( formal – informal);
 the degree of spontaneity or of preparedness, the speak-er’s educational background played a great role.
9. Dialectology and dialec tstudies.The linguistic atlas of England and the United States. National
pronunciation standards of English in the English-speaking countries.
Dialectology is a linguistic subdiscipline concerned with dialects. Its origin — apart from a few early glossaries and
dialect dictionaries — can be traced back to the early 19th c. historical and comparative linguistics.
In 1876 Georg Wenkersent postal questionnaires out over Northern Germany. These postal questionnaires contained a
list of sentences written in Standard German, which were then transcribed into the local dialect, reflecting dialectal
differences. Many studies proceeded from this, and over the next century dialect studies were carried out all over the
world.
During the Romantic era the ‘dialects of the common people,’ which were up to then held in low esteem, were
elevated to the position of ‘more original’ linguistic forms; the comparative method was used to reconstruct the earlier
stages of a language from its dialects.
In the investigation of general historical linguistic principles by the Neogrammarians, the dialects were even seen as
being superior to the written language, since it was here that ‘consistencies in sound formation’ were genuinely
apparent.
In geographical variation we have to distinguish two basic concepts:
1. Dialect (orvariety) is distinguished for its vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. In this sense, there are two
major varieties of English spoken in the English –speaking world: British English and American English. Such local
varieties as Lancashire or New York Brooklyn speech may be treated as “dialects”.
2. Accentis a type of pronunciation which can be found in the speech of any individual or the whole speech
community. We can speak of an American accent, a French accent, a Russian accent in English, and by that we mean
only the sounds of spoken language, i.e. vowels, consonants, stress, rhythm and intonation. Thus phonetics is mainly
concerned with accents of English, as spoken on different territories, in diverse groups, by particular individuals.

National standards are associated with radio and TV newsreaders, certain professional groups and public figures.
Regional standards are spoken by most educated people and they regional deviation from the standard. Local accents
are numerous; they can be urban and rural.
10.The orthoepic norm of English and its types. Phonetic changes in the present-day standard English.
Regional and social variants in the British English pronunciation.

Since the orthoepic norm is ever changing & developing, from time to time the pronouncing dictionaries have to be
revised & reset. E.g. in the (1937) edition of Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary by D.Jones the pr-ns of the
following words were indicated in such an order: “again” / ә'gein - ә' gen /, “national” - /næ әnәl, nәl, nl /. In the
(1956) edition the order is reversed: “again” / ә'gen - ә' gein /, “national” - /næ әnl, nәl, nl, nl, әnәl /
In connected speech the sound structures of words are modified under the influence of rhythm, tempo &utterance
stress. But the pronouncing dictionaries do not and cannot reflect all these variants.
Phonological change – changes in pronunciation can come in a variety of forms. Some changes merely affect the way
a single word is pronounced: older speakers across the UK tend to stress the first syllable in the word controversy, for
instance, while younger speakers increasingly place the main stress on the second syllable, controversy. In other cases,
the pronunciation of a particular vowel sound or consonant sound changes gradually across successive generations and
thus has an impact on a large group of words. A change in pronunciation might initially take place only in one
particular geographic location and remain local. Or it may over time spread nationally and thus affect all varieties of
English.

Regional Standards are smaller geographical divisions, which are the accents of educated people in a certain area:

Southern, Northern, Scottish and Northern Irish on the British Isles (the Welsh educated accent is confused either with
the Scottish or the Southern type);

Northern, Northern Midland, Southern Midland, Southern, Western in the USA.

Regional standards show a certain degree of regional deviation from the standard. In the UK people in the South-East
of the country are closest to RP since this area was the origin of the national standard.

Social variants in the British English pronunciation.

Cockney is probably the second most famous British accent. Cockney English refers to the accent or dialect of
English traditionally spoken by working-class Londoners.
Estuary English is an accent derived from London English which has achieved a status slightly similar to “General
American”.

West Country (Southwest British) refers to a large swath of accents heard in the South of England, starting about
fifty miles West of London and extending to the Welsh border.

 Rhoticity
 /aɪ/, as in guide or life, more precisely approaches [ɒɪ] or [ɑɪ]
 /aʊ/, as in house or cow, more precisely approaches [æy] or [ɐʏ]
 The trap-bath split's
Midlands English divides into East Midlands and West Midlands, but there are no much differences between them.

 The foot-strut merger

 is firmly rhotic
 In some areas, words like "roof" and "root" are pronounced with the FOOT vowel /ʊ/
Northern England English is a group of related dialects in cities like Manchester, Leeds, and Liverpool.

 The foot-stut merger

 Non-rhoticity
 do not have the trap–bath split
Geordie refers to both the people and dialect of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, in Northeast England.

 The foot-stut merger

 Non-rhoticity
 Yod-coalescence in both stressed and unstressed syllables
 T-glottalization
Welsh English refers to the dialects of English spoken in Wales by Welsh people.

 Usually non-rhotic.
 In northern accents, /l/ is frequently strongly velarised [ɫː]
 Some dialect words imported from the Welsh language.
Scottish English is spoken in the country of Scotland.

 Rhotic, with trilled or tapped r’s.

 Glottal stopping of the letter t when in between vowels.
has no /ʊ/, instead transferring Scots /u/
General Linguistics

1). Linguistics as a scientific study of language.

Linguistics is often called "the science of language," the study of the human capacity to communicate and organize thought using
different tools (the vocal tract for spoken languages, hands for sign languages, etc.) and involving different abstract and tactile
components.

Linguistics looks at:

  The general phenomenon of human language.
 Different families of languages (example: Germanic, including English, German, Dutch and Scandinavian, among
others).
 Specific languages (example: Arabic, Mandarin and French).
 Communicative codes or behaviors that are not so well defined (example: the language of recent immigrants, the ways by
which bilinguals choose one or another language in certain settings).
Linguistics is a human science—in fact, one of the foundational disciplines in the western intellectual tradition—and may be
compared with programs such as sociology, psychology or anthropology.
As with all human sciences, there are several sub-fields in linguistics:
 Phonetics (the study of how speech sounds are made)
 Phonology (how these sounds are organized)
 Morphology (how sounds are organized into units of meaning)
 Pragmatics (the relationship between language signs and language users)
 Semantics (the study of meanings themselves)
 Sociolinguistics (the interaction of language and people or collectives)
 Syntax (how units of meaning come together to create utterances)
The study of linguistics permits a person to better understand the world around her or him, as this world is constantly being
filtered through and organized by language.
2). Scope of linguistics.

The scope of Linguistics is vast as it is an expansive and complex field of study which includes various aspects of a language such
as phonetics, semantics, syntax, morphology, stylistics, amongst others. It is regarded as a descriptive field of study since it is
always changing as languages evolve and change.

In the centre of linguistics lies phonetics. Phonology, Grammar and Semantics are the core of linguistics around which the
branches like socio linguistics, psycho-linguistics, neurolinguistics, historical-linguistics etc. revolve.

• Phonetics is the study of human speech sound. It studies how speech sounds are articulated, transmitted and perceived.

• Phonology is the study of the systematic patterns in the sound system of a language.

• Morphology is the grammar of words. It studies how morphemes are combined to form words.

• Syntax examines the structure of the sentences. It is the grammar of forming sentences.

• Semantics deals with the meaning of words phrases and sentences.

• Pragmatics studies the hidden meaning of words, phrases and sentences.

• Socio-linguistics studies the relationship between language and society. It studies language as a social property.

• Psycho-linguistics studies the relation between language and psychology. It studies the psychological factors enabling humans to
acquire, use and understand language.

• Neuro-linguistics studies the language areas and structures in the brain.

• Historical-linguistics is the study of how languages evolve, die and revitalize.

3. Language and other types of communication

In many cases, the words “language” and “communication” are used interchangeably. We use either or both of them to mean
speaking person to person. However, there is a distinct dichotomy between the two terms— language vs. communication.

Language is a distinctly human activity that aids in the transmission of feelings and thoughts from one person to another. It is how
we express what we think or feel—through sounds and/or symbols (spoken or written words), signs, posture, and gestures that
convey a certain meaning.

Communication is described as, “an act of interchanging ideas, information, or messages from one person or place to another, via
words or signs which are understood to both parties.” It’s a crucial activity for any group of beings, because it is the means by
which members of the group cooperate together.

Communication can be classified as:

- Verbal
- Non-verbal
- Written
- Visual (charts, graphs, etc.)
Differences

Language is a system of communication that relies on verbal or non-verbal codes to transfer information. Communication is a way
of interchanging messages or information between two or more people, focusing on the message.

Language is a tool of communication. Communication is a process of transferring messages.

Language changes dynamically, as new words can be created. Communication is considered static, as its basic steps remain
unchanged.

The basics of communication do not change. However, new words are added to the dictionary of language almost daily.

4. Typology of language categories

+Genetic classification sets the similarity of languages on the ground of their common ancestor. Typological classification sets
the similarity of languages regardless from their affinity (родства), by common signs.

Genetic classification. By common ancestors languages divided into families, groups, subgroups and more little divisions.

F.e. Uzbek language – Turkic group – Uigur subgroup – Altaic family.

Russian language – Slavonic group – Eastern-Slavonic subgroup – Indo-European family – European branch.

English language – Germanic group – Western-germanic subgroup – Indo-European family.

Languages that possess genetic ties with one another belong to the same linguistic grouping, known as a language family. These
ties are established through use of the comparative method of linguistic analysis, which relies mainly on shared phonological
innovations as the test criteria. In linguistics, genetic relationship is the usual term for the relationship which exists between
languages that are members of the same language family (Indo-European languages (Europe, Southwest to South Asia); Sino-
Tibetan languages (East Asia); Niger-Congo languages (Sub-Saharan Africa); Afro-Asiatic languages (North Africa to Horn of
Africa, Southwest Asia)). Two languages are considered to be genetically related if one is descended from the other or if both are
descended from a common ancestor. For example, Italian is descended from Latin. Italian and Latin are therefore said to be
genetically related. Spanish is also descended from Latin. Therefore, Spanish and Italian are genetically related. Contact with
another language can result in influence by it. For example, English has been influenced by French, Persian has been influenced
by Arabic, and Japanese has been influenced by Chinese. However, this influence by definition does not constitute a genetic
relationship..

Typological classification (by Gumboldt (by morphological criteria)): analytic (isolating) languages: words consist of single
morphemes; most words consist only of a root. Mandarin Chinese, Vietnamese, Cantonese, Cambodian. Agglutinating
languages: words consist of a stem and one or more clearly identifiable affixes (Finnish, Hungarian, Estonian, Swahili, Turkish).
Inflectional (fusional) languages: words consist of stem and affixes which often mark several grammatical categories
simultaneously. Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Russian. Polysynthetic languages: words consist of long strings of stems and affixes,
which may translate as an entire English sentence. American Indian languages.

5.Basic concepts of linguosemiotics

It should be noted that in linguistics the concept of "linguosemiotics" (from the Latin lingua - language and semiotics) is
becoming increasingly relevant - a section of linguistics and semiotics that studies natural language in terms of its common and
distinctive features with other sign systems used in society . Another name is the sign theory of language "[1]. The object of
linguosemiotics are units and categories of language that form a sign system, the subject - the relationship of language signs with
realities and concepts (semantics), other language signs (syntax) and users (pragmatics), semiotic specifics of language units,
formation of texts and discourses, which are considered as special semiotic formations, and other problems. According to the
study of F. Batsevich [1] theoretical aspects of linguosemiotics were studied by L. Elmslev, A. Seshe, S. Balli, K. Buhler, E.
Benvenist, R. Jacobson, A. Martine, A. Greimas, R. Bart, U. Eco, J. Mukarzhovsky, K. Levi-Strauss, J. Lacan, J. Dili, O. Losev,
Y. Stepanov, Y. Lotman, V. Ivanov and others. In Ukraine, some ideas of linguosemiotics were developed in the works of N.
Andreychuk (semiotic manifestations of the linguistic and cultural space of Tudor England), S. Yermolenko (problems of iconic
language sign in terms of modeling reality), G. Pocheptsov (issues of language significance in terms of communication theory).
Selivanova (semiotic problems of the theory of cognitive onomasiology). Modern scholars consider linguosemiotics "a multi-
vector direction of linguistic research with a significant number of problems related to understanding language as an anthropic,
functional-communicative, cognitive and ethnoculturally oriented object" [1]. Thus, linguosemiotics deals with language signs.
Based on the semiotic functions of language signs, it is generally accepted that their classification [4, p. 94; 5, p. 390]: - language
signs, which are characterized by a differentiating function (eg, phoneme); - language signs in which the identifying function
prevails over the differentiating one (for example, grammatical morphemes, models of syntactic and semantic connections of
language units); - language signs, which are characterized by both differentiating and identifying functions (these are the so-called
"full signs" (actually signs) - words, phrases, sentences). Thus, the range of concepts and problems studied by the mentioned
scientific fields is quite wide due to the large number of scientific subsystems that try to cover as many qualities of the sign as
possible. That is why research in such areas is time consuming, although it does not diminish their importance for the formation of
people's consciousness and the rules of communication between them - both directly and on social networks.

6. Traditional linguistic paradigms

Scholarly paradigm is a system of views shared by many scholars within a certain period of time. The constituents of any
scholarly paradigm are: (a) the problem, or question; (b) the hypothesis, or hypothetical answer to the posed question; (c)
verification of this hypothesis

HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS

· Problem. The question asked by linguists was: “Why do different languages have structural similarities?

· Hypothesis. It was hypothesized that the structural similarities of languages resulted from the existence of their common source,
or ancestor.

· Objective. The linguistic analysis had to reveal this hypothetical ancestor – a proto-language that gradually disintegrated into
various kindred languages.

· Data. The analyzed data were represented by languages whose similar forms and meanings suggest kinship.

· Method. The method developed by historical linguistics is called the historical-comparative method. ‘Historical’ means that each
analyzed language is considered through history, back to its earlier stages that descend to the proto-language, i.e. languages are
studied diachronically. ‘Comparative’ means that languages are compared not only with one another, but also with their
reconstructed ancestor.

· Result. The historical studies of language resulted in: (i) historical grammars of particular languages; (ii) historical-comparative
grammars of two or more kindred languages that stem from the same ancestor; e.g. a historical-comparative grammar of Germanic
Languages

STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS

· Problem. The question posed by structural linguistics had been triggered by the works of Young Grammarians who said that the
changes of language through history were regular, or systematic.

(a) language is synchrony and diachrony; i.e. language does not change at a particular interval of time, and language changes
through long intervals of time;

(b) language is paradigmatics and syntagmatics; i.e. the units of language are related to one another in groups, or paradigms,
whose constituents have some common feature(s); the units of language are related to one another in syntagmas, or linear strings;

(c) language is a structure and a system; as a structure, language is represented by various types of (paradigmatic) links and
(syntagmatic) relations between its elements, which themselves are irrelevant; as a system, language is represented by both its
structure and its elements, which is this case are relevant: their nature is important for their structural links and relations.
Therefore, SYSTEM = elements + their structure;

(d) language in its broad sense is both language (an abstract system of signs that exists in synchrony and diachrony) and speech
(application of this system in actual interaction).

· Hypothesis. Finally, language was supposed to be a patterned system composed of interdependent elements rather than a
collection of unconnected elements. The considerations as to the patterns of language were formulated within the three schools of
structural linguistics: The Prague School, the Copenhagen School, and the American School of Descriptive Linguistics. The
Prague School considered the organization of language as grounded on the patterns of forms, meanings, and functions exposed
both synchronically and diachronically.

· Objective. Linguists aimed to describe the systems of contemporary languages, to write grammars for unwritten languages (the
languages of American Indians in particular), to develop the techniques of discovery procedure – a set of principles which would
enable a linguist to uncover the linguistic units of both familiar and unfamiliar languages.

· Data. The Prague School studied the systems of various European languages from the synchronic and diachronic standpoints.
The Copenhagen School explored the system of human language in general, irrespective of its development through time.

· Methods. All schools of structural linguistics contributed a lot to the development of linguistic methodologies. The analysis of
linguistic f o r m s employed (a) the method of distributional analysis, (b) the method of phonological and grammatical
oppositions, (c) the method of immediate constituents, and (d) the transformational method.

· Results. Due to diverse contributions of structuralism, grammar obtained the theories of phonology, morphology, word-
formation and syntax, while stylistics obtained the theory of functional styles. American scholars, Edward Sapier in particular,
advanced and developed the problem ‘language and culture’ which is being explored in contemporary anthropological linguistics.
GENERATIVE LINGUISTICS

· Problem. The problem evolved from the research done within the American School of Descriptive Linguistics. Having
described phonology and morphology of language, it attempted to extend the same methodologies to the description of syntax.

· Hypothesis. According to Chomsky’s hypothesis, language has a special mechanism for generating an unlimited number of
utterances out of a limited number of initial units. Anyone who knows some language must have internalized (retained in the
mind) a set of rules which specify the sequences permitted in this language, and prescribe the syntactic, or combinatory structures
of all languages. A mental grammar which consists of a set of statements, or rules that specify which sequences of a language are
possible, and which are impossible, is a generative grammar.

· Objective. The task of linguistics was to find out what rules specify creativity of language, and to describe language as an
‘internalized’ (mental) phenomenon.

· Data. Since, for Chomsky, the inborn ‘language faculty’ is one and the same for all humans, and all languages have a common
foundation, he maintained that the study of syntax of one language could be enough to shape an idea about the nature of language
in general. Thus, the analyzed data were the syntactic structures of English.

· Method. The syntactic structures were modeled with tree diagrams that demonstrated the nature of initial ‘deep (internalized)
structures’ and their ‘transformations’, or possible changes, which were further reflected in ‘surface (externalized) structures’ of
language.

· Result. The formal models used in syntactic analysis contributed to making linguistics a precise discipline bordering on formal
logic. Such formal models were applicable in computer technologies thus bringing together linguistics and computer science.

FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS

The paradigm is called ‘functional’ because it focuses on the most important functions of language – cognitive (language is used
to signify concepts in the mind), and communicative (language is used for human interaction). Hence, the paradigm splits into
cognitive linguistics and communicative linguistics.

Cognitive Linguistics

· Problem. Cognitive linguistics has appeared at the end of the 1980s as an alternative to generative linguistics . Generative
linguistics maintains that language exists in it s ‘internalized’ form in the mind. Therefore, one may ask HOW the mental
‘program’ that governs the language and its use relates to the general conceptual system intended for processing information about
the experienced world.

The observed forms of language arise from the interaction between conflicting constraints, and differs from other approaches,
which typically use rules rather than constraints.

7.COMMUNICATIVE LINGUISTICS
Problem Communicative linguistics (dates back to the 1950s) returned to the analysis of ‘speech’ excluded from linguistics by 
Ferdinand de Saussure. This return was stimulated by  generative linguistics. The  latter, concerned with the problem of ‘linguistic
competence’ (knowledge of  language) and  ‘linguistic performance’ (use of language in speech), enquired what a person must
know to speak some language. It was obvious that along with the language per se, one must know how it is used. The use
of language in human interaction is influenced by a number of factors. For communicative linguistics, these factors have become
the central issue.

Hypothesis

It was hypothesized that

(a) the meaning of a linguistic unit is influenced by the text in which it is used;

(b) the  text, or  message, is  influenced by  the  speaker, his/her communicative intention, his/her age, gender, societal status,
educational and cultural background;

(c) the  communicative intention of  the  speaker depends on the situation of speech. Objective Communicative linguistics aims to 
provide a  comprehensible account of  various factors that influence the use of language in communication. Data The analyzed
data vary with regard to the research objectives.

The data may be  represented by (a)  contextual meanings of various linguistic units, (b) speech acts, (c) texts, (d) discourses,
where a text is considered against the background of the situation of  speech and  the  characteristics of  the  speakers, and  (e)
discourse practices employed in  monocultural and multi-cultural interaction. Methods Communicative linguistics applies the 
methods of  contextual analysis, the  methods of  text and  discourse analysis, the  speech acts typology, the principles (maxims)
of cooperation and politeness, and  a  number of  other methodological devices relevant for particular data.
 Result Communicative Linguistics has created a  multifaceted theory of  linguistic communication which considers such topics:
(i) intention of messages — theory of speech acts; (ii) organization of messages — text linguistics; (iii) interpretation of  messages
— theory of interpretation; (iv) conveying messages / strategies of speech — general pragmatics; (v) human factor in 
communication — sociopragmatics.

* * * In contemporary linguistics, where all the above paradigms co-exist, there are no distinct borderlines in  between them:
one paradigm uses the  findings of another paradigm to account for the phenomena which it studies. For example, the methods
developed by structuralism are employed by cognitive linguistics at  the  first stages of  data analysis, and  historical linguistics
employs the  methods of  cognitive linguistics after applying its own methods. Linguistic fields and  linguistic paradigms converge
with one another and  with the  non-linguistic disciplines. Such convergence, characterizing co-existence of contemporary
linguistic paradigms, is compatible with what Michel Foucault calls ‘an  episteme’ a  coherent integration of  all links between
sciences in a particular epoch, with such links being exposed in  scholarly discourses. While a  scholarly paradigm focuses
on its ‘internal’ rules, an episteme is concerned with culturally and historically grounded orientations in cognizing the world.
For contemporary linguistics as an episteme, this orientation is anthropocentricity: cognizing a  man through language, and 
cognizing language through the studies of a man as its user — his biology, psychology, and sociology.

8. Basics of neuro- and cognitive linguistics

Neurolinguistics is the study of language functioning within the brain.

●It deals with the brain mechanisms that are the basis for the acquisition and use of human language.

●Neurolinguistics studies the biological and neural foundations of language.

●Neurolinguistic research is often based on data from atypical or impaired language and uses such data to understand properties
of human language.

More than two thousand years ago Hippocrates wrote:

«The brain is the messenger of the understanding and the organ whereby in an especial manner we acquire wisdom and
knowledge”

There are two specific areas of the brain responsible for specific aspects of language use:

Broca’s area and Wernike’s area play a crucial role in the use of language: they are dominant for language function. The two areas
are connected with each other. Wernike’s area can be considered the semantic-lexical pole of the language network while Broca’s
area can be considered its syntactic-phonological pole.

During listening, speech signals are passed by the ears to the auditory part of the brain, which processes the sounds and sends
the result to Wernike’s area for interpretation. During speech, Wernike’s area provides the ordinary vocabulary to Broca’s area,
which embeds this vocabulary into the required grammatical structure and then sends its instructions to the organs of speech.

Cognitive linguistics – a study of language in relation to human faculties of perception, categorization, memory, reasoning,
communication (discourse activity)

Cognitive linguistic models

perception-based

( figure - ground/ figure – a more prominent part/ the ground – the less prominent part)

categorization-based

(Category is a number of objects that are considered equivalent, e.g. a chair, a knife, a glass/

Categorization is the grouping of objects into classes

Categorization influences the selection of naming units, cf. war and conflict

Categorization-based cognitive models of language approaches

- classical (- have clear boundaries e.g. cat vs dog ; - binary oppositions)

- psychological

- vantage theoretic ( the focus is the prototype/ the dominant vantage – similarity to the focus/ the recessive vantage – difference
from the focus)
 memory-based

- Concept – is the meaning of word

- Linguistic approach : three groups of concepts

abstract: FRIENDSHIP, FREEDOM, PRIVACY, GENTLEMANLINESS, CRIME

concrete: SOUL, HEART, MIND, ENGLISH LANGUAGE, VAMPIRE, CRIMINAL

complex: SPATIAL ORIENTATION, ABILITY TO LIVE, COMMON SENSE

Psychological approach deeper concept is whatever psychological architecture supporting meanin

reasoning-based

Language as a means of reflecting the procedures performed by our mind/

Conceptual metaphor provides understanding for a more abstract concept (target domain) through a more concrete one (source
domain)

LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor

 Traveler – person leading a life

 Journey / motion (towards a destination) – leading a life with a purpose

 Destination – purpose of life

discourse-related

Discourse - is the language above the sentence level.

9. Sociolinguistics. Functioning of one language.

Sociolinguistics - Studies relationship between language and society.

Society is a group of people - drawn together for certain purpose(s)

A group must have at least two members but there is really no upper limit to group membership .

Sociolinguistics studies relationship between language and groups of speakers different in status and size: national, regional,
ideological, social, global in case of English

National level :

National language –associated with the formation of a nation

National groups are based on the concept of power.

Standardization and vitality

 Standardization – codification of a language

- translations of the Bible into English and German;

- establishment of printing in England;

- Johnson’s Dictionary of English (1755).

Vitality – a living community of speakers (cf. Latin)

Diglossia

 coexistence of two varieties of the same language

  The Greek language question: Ancient Greek spoken by Aristotle vs New (colloquial) Greek

Languages and ideological groups

democracy vs totalitarianism

patriotism vs nationalism

fascism vs Nazism

Social dialects

 originate among social groups

 occupation, education, income, racial or ethnic origin, cultural background, caste, religion, and so on.

Bilingualism is the phenomenon of speaking and understanding two languages

Multilingualism is the ability of an individual speaker or a community of speakers to communicate effectively in three
or more languages

10. Language variants: territorial, social, stylistic.

regional, social, occupational

The particular set of features, which identifies a language variety, does not represent the features of the language as a whole.
Variety features depend on the presence of certain factors in a social situation. Classifications of these factors vary, but we may
group them into two types according to most general dimensions: sociolinguistic and stylistic factors.

Sociolinguistic factors are connected with very broad situational constraints on language use. They chiefly identify the regional
and social varieties of the language. They are relatively permanent features of the spoken and written language, over which we
have comparatively little conscious control. We tend not to change our regional or social group way of speaking in every-day
communication and usually we are not aware of using it.

Stylistic factors relate to restrictions on language use that are much more narrowly constrained, and identify individual
preferences in usage (phraseology, special vocabulary, language of literature) or the varieties that are associated with occupational
groups (lawyers, journalists, scholars). These are features, over which we are able to exercise some degree of conscious control.

As David Crystal, a famous British linguist puts it, regional language variation of English provides a geographical answer to the
question 'Where are you from, in the English-speaking world?'

Social language variation provides an answer to a somewhat different question 'Who are you?' or 'What are you in the eyes of the
English-speaking society to which you belong?' (33, p. 393). Actually social variation provides several possible answers, because
people may acquire several identities as they participate in the social structure. One and the same person may belong to different
social groups and perform different social roles. A person may at the same time be described as 'a parent', 'a wife', 'an architect', 'a
feminist', 'a senior citizen', 'a member of Parliament', 'an amateur sculptor', 'a theatre-goer'; the possibffities may be endless.

Any of these identities can have consequences for the kind of language we use. Language more than anything else will testify to
our permanent and temporary roles in social life.

Some features of social variation lead to particular linguistic consequences. In many ways our pronunciation, choice of words and
constructions, general strategy of communication are defined by the age, sex and socio-economic aspects. Choice of occupation
has a less predictable influence, though in some contexts, e. g. medicine or law it can be highly distinctive.

Adopting a specific social role, such as making a congratulatory speech or conducting a panel talk, invariably entails a choice of
appropriate linguistic forms.

Across the world attitudes to social variation differ a lot. All countries display social stratification, though some have more clearly
defined boundaries than others and therefore more distinct features of class dialect. Britain is usually said to be linguistically more
class-conscious than other English-speaking countries.

For example, in England one accent has traditionally dominated over all others and the notion of respectable social standing is
usually associated with Received Pronunciation (RP), considered to be the 'prestige accent'.

However today with the breakdown of rigid divisions between social classes and the development of mass media RP is no longer
the prerogative of social elite. Today it is best described as an 'educated' accent which actually has several varieties. Most
educated people have developed an accent, which is a mixture of RP and various regional features that sometimes is called
'modified RP'.

This is one example that shows a general trend in modern English-regionally modified speech is no longer stigmatised as 'low', it
can even be an advantage, expressing such social values as solidarity and democracy. A pure RP accent, by contrast can even
evoke hostility, especially in those parts of Britain that have their own regional norms, e. g. Scotland and Wales.

Features of language that identify people's geographical or social origins, once established can hardly change over a short period
of time. It would be very difficult to change your accent if you move from one part of the country to another with a different
regional norm; it is equally difficult to transform the linguistic indicators of our social background (vocabulary and structural
expression).

Occupational varieties are not like that. Their linguistic features may be just as distinctive as regional or social features, but they
are only in temporary use. They 'go with the territory' - adopted as we begin work and given up as we finish it. People who cannot
stop 'talking shop' even when they are not at work are rather an exception to the rule.

+Any professional field could serve as an illustration of occupational linguistic identity. There are no class distinctions here.
Factory workers have to master a special glossary of technical terms and administrative vocabulary (seniority labels, term of
service, severance pay, fringe benefits, safety regulation) in order to carry out professional communication. To fulfil their tasks
they develop jargon and professional slang, which set them apart from outsiders. The more specialised the occupation and the
more senior or professional the position the more technical the language. Also, if an occupation has a long-lasting and firmly
established tradition it is likely to have its own linguistic rituals which its members accept as a criterion of proficiency. The highly
distinctive languages of law, government and religion provide the clearest cases, with their unique grammar, vocabulary, and
patterns of discourse. Of course, all occupations are linguistically distinctive to a certain degree. In some cases it involves only
special terms; in others it may be a combination of linguistic features on different levels as will be shown in the last section of this
chapter.

LEXICOLOGY

1.The internal structure of English words. Types of morphemes.

Words that can be decomposed into separate components, called morphemes, also contain internal structure (morphology).
Morphology – the internal structure of words

Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and forms a core part of linguistic study today.

There are two types of morphemes: free morphemes and bound morphemes.

Free morphemes can stand alone. Most words are free morphemes, like the words mentioned above: house, book, bed, light,
world, people and so on.

Bound morphemes, however, cannot stand alone. These include suffixes, like -s, -er, -ing, -est.

2. Word formation in English. Productivity in word formation.

There are four main kinds of word formation: prefixes, suffixes, conversion and compounds.

Prefixes

We add prefixes before the base or stem of a word.

Suffixes

We add suffixes after the base or stem of a word. The main purpose of a suffix is to show what class of word it is (e.g. noun or
adjective).

Conversion

Conversion involves the change of a word from one word class to another. For example, the verbs to email and to microwave are
formed from the nouns email and microwave:

Compounding

When we use compounding, we link together two or more bases to create a new word. Normally, the first item identifies a key
feature of the second word. For example, the two bases back and ache can combine to form the compound noun backache, and the
two bases post and card combine to form the compound noun postcard.
Compounds are found in all word classes. The most common types of compounds are: Nouns: car park, rock band

Adjectives: heartbreaking, sugar-free, airsick

Verbs: oven-bake, baby-sit, chain-smoke

Adverbs: good-naturedly, nevertheless

In linguistics, productivity is the degree to which native speakers of a language use a particular grammatical process,
especially in word formation. Word formation deals with the formation of new lexemes. A pattern is productive if it is repeatedly
used in language to produce further instances of the same type (e.g. the past-tense affix -ed in English is productive, in that any
new verb will be automatically assigned this past-tense form. For the English language, the key methods are derivation methods
such as stem composition, suffixation, back derivation and conversion. The most productive is the stem composition.

3. The English word: the problem of definition. Approaches to word meaning and types

of meaning.

Semantics (semasiology) is a branch of linguistics concerning the meaning of words and equivalents. It focuses on the relation
between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs and symbols, and what they stand for, their denotata.

Every word has two aspects: the outer aspect (its sound form) and the inner aspect (its meaning). Sound and meaning do
not always constitute a constant unit even in the same language. E.g. the word «temple» may denote «a part of a human
head» and «a large church» In such cases we have homonyms. One and the same word in different syntactical relations
can develop different meanings.

There are three classical theories of meaning:

-analytical or referential (F.de Saussure’s disciples)

Meaning is the relation between the object or phenomenon named and the name itself;

-notional or conceptual (Aristotle, John Locke, A.I. Smirnitskiy, etc.)

Meaning is a certain representation of an object / phenomenon / idea / relation in the mind;

-functional or contextual (L. Bloomfield)

Meaning is the situation in which a word is uttered, i.e. its context.

Types of meaning:

Word-meaning is not homogeneous but is made up of various components the combination and the interrelation of which
determine to a great extent the inner facet of the word.

Grammatical meaning is the meaning which unites words into big groups such as parts of speech or lexico-grammatical classes.
It is recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words, e.g. stones, apples, kids, thoughts have the grammatical
meaning of plurality.

Lexical meaning is the meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit; it is recurrent in all the forms of this word and in all the
possible distributions of these forms, e.g. the word-forms write, writes, wrote, writing, written have different grammatical
meanings of tense, person, aspect, but the same lexical meaning ‘to make letters or other symbols on a surface, especially with a
pen or pencil’.

4. Polysemy in English. The semantic structure of polysemantic words. Transference of

meaning. Homonymy.
Polysemy is characteristic of most words in many languages, however different they may be. But it is mere characteristic of the
English voc-ry as compared with Russian, due to the monosyllabic character of English and the predominance of root words. Only
few words in English have one meaning except terms (oxygen). All the other words in are polysemantic, i.e. have more than one
meaning. The tendency here works both ways. The more widely a word is used, the more meanings it has to have (to go – 70
meanings). Different meanings of a polysemantic word make up the lexical semantic structure of a word. The meanings
themselves are called the lexical semantic variants of a word. It’s not just a list of lexical semantic meanings. There is a special
correspondence between the meanings of one and the same word. The correlation between the meanings corresponds to one of the
same sound-form and forms a unity of meanings which is known as a semantic structure of a word.

Metaphor is the transference of name based on the association of similarity between two referents and thus is actually a hidden
comparison. Models of metaphorical transference:

-similarity of shape, e.g. the head of a cabbage, the nose of a plane etc;

- similarity of colour, e.g. orange for colour and fruit, black despair etc.;

-similarity of function, e.g. the wing of a plane, the hand of a clock etc.;

-similarity of age, e.g. a green man etc.;

-similarity of position, e.g. the leg of the table, the foot of a hill etc.;

-similarity of behaviour or qualities of animals, e.g. a bookworm, a pig, a rat etc.;

-similarity in temperature, e.g. cold reason, warm heart etc.;

-transition of proper names into common nouns, e.g. a Rockefeller, a Cinderella, a Judas, a Don Juan, an Adonis etc.

Metonymy is the transference of name based on the association of contiguity (суміжність). Models of metonymical transference:

-the part the whole (synecdoche), e.g. to be all ears;

+-the place people occupying it, e.g. The White House, The Pentagon;

-the material the object made from it, e.g. a glass, an iron;

-the container the thing contained, e.g. the kettle is boiling;

-a geographical name a common noun, e.g. madeira, bourbon, champagne, sardine, labrador;

-the instrument the agent, e.g. the best pens of the day;

-the sign the thing signified, e.g. gray hair ‘old age’;

-the symbol the thing symbolised, e.g. the crown ‘the monarchy’

The homonyms are words which can be meant to be the same according to their voice construction and pronunciation, yet
they are different in their meanings. The homonyms are also meant to be words which are different from their lexical meanings,
though they are identical according to their grammatical meanings.

5. Basic paradigmatic relations in English: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy,

meronymy. Lexical semantic fields.

Paradigmatic relations exist between units of the language system outside the strings where they co-occur. They are based on the
criteria of selection and distribution of linguistic elements. Paradigmatic relations determining the vocabulary system are based on
the interdependence of words within the vocabulary: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy.

F. de Saussure called paradigmatic relationships associative relationships, because they represent the relationship between
individual elements in specific environment.

It was the Danish linguist Louis Hjelmslev who replaced the term associative relations for paradigmatic relations.
Synonyms are two or more words belonging to the same part of speech and possessing a common denotative semantic
component, interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in sense, but differing in morphemic
composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning, connotations, style, valency and idiomatic use, e.g.

In linguistics, hyponymy is a semantic relation between a hyponym denoting a subtype and a hypernym or hyperonym denoting a
supertype.

Hyponymy is based on inclusion - the relation of words that can be described as 'the kind of relation. Thus, since a tulip is
a kind of flower,/lower is a kind of plant, etc., the words tulip, flower and plant are in a hyponymic relationship:

Hyponymy is the most efficient way of explaining meaning in a dictionary. The noun canary, for example, may be defined as 'a
finch that is characteristically green to yellow and is bred for song'. Finch is 'a songbird that is small and has a short
bill'. Songbird is 'a bird that utters a characteristic musical song'. And bird is 'an animal that is warmblooded, has feathers, wings,
and a bill, and usually can fly'. Summing up the definitions we may arrive to the following hierarchy.

In semantics, a meronym is a word that denotes a constituent part or a member of something. For example, apple is a
meronym of apple tree (sometimes written as apple<apple tree). This part-to-whole relationship is called meronymy. 

Related to the concept of hyponymy, but more loosely defined, is the notion of a lexical field. A lexical field denotes a segment of
reality symbolized by a set of related words. The words in a semantic field share a common semantic property. Most often, fields
are defined by subject matter, such as body parts, landforms, diseases, colors, foods, or kinship relations.

6. Syntagmatic relations in the English lexicon. "Free" word groups: features, types,

problems of collocability / combinability.

Syntagmatic relation defines the relationship between words that co-occur in the same sentence. It focuses on two main parts: how
the position and the word order affect the meaning of a sentence. 

The syntagmatic relation in this sentence explains:

 The word position and order: Paul + is roasting + a chicken

 The relationship between words gives a particular meaning to the sentence:

o It is a chicken that Paul is roasting, not something else.

o It is Paul who is roasting a chicken, not someone else.

Thus, the syntagmatic relation refers to a word's ability to combine with other words, and the syntagmatic dimension (syntagm)
always refers to the horizontal axis or linear aspect of a sentence.

The syntagmatic relation can also explain why specific words are often paired together (collocations), such as have + a party in
'We had a party on Saturday'. If you hear someone say, 'We made a party on Saturday', you'll probably cringe because make + a
party doesn't sound right.

7. Phraseological units in English: the problem of definition, features, classifications.

Phraseology is the branch of linguistics and mainly studies phraseological units in it.

PU - non-motivated or partially motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made
units; stability of the lex. Components.

According to the degree of idiomaticity phraseological units can be classified into three big groups: phraseological fusions
(сращения), phraseological unities (единства) and phraseological collocations (сочетания).

Phraseological fusions arc completely non-motivated word-groups. e.g. as mad as a hatter — ‘utterly mad’: white elephant — ‘an
expensive but useless thing*.
Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated as their meaning can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning of
the whole phraseological unit. e.g. to bend the knee — ’to submit to a stronger force, to obey submissively*: to wash one's dirty
linen in public — "to discuss or make public one’s quarrels’.

Phraseological collocations are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used
metaphorically, e.g. to meet the requirements, to attain success. In this group of phraseological units some substitutions are
possible which do not destroy the meaning of the metaphoric element, e.g. to meet the needs, to meet the demand, to meet the
necessity: to have success, to lose success. These substitutions are not synonymical and the meaning of the whole changes, while
the meaning of the verb meet and the noun success are kept intact.

+the characteristic features of phraseological units are: readymade reproduction, structural divisibility, morphological stability,
permanence of lexical composition, semantic unity, syntactic fixity.

There are a different types of classification according to different scholars:

L.P. Smith (1925):

- conjunction of similar ideas (fear and trembling);

- opposed ideas (more or less);

- alliteration (rack and ruin);

- rhymed (fair and square);

- repetition (more and more);

- comparisons showing popular beliefs or prejudices;

- common experiences.

Semantic (Vinogradov):

 fusions - completely non-motivated word-groups (as mad as a hatter – “utterly mad”; white elephant – “an expensive but
useless thing”);

 unities - partially non-motivated, meaning can be perceived thru the metaph. mean. of the whole PU (to bend the knee ‘to
obey submissively’; to wash one’s dirty linen in public ‘to discuss or make public one’s quarrels’);

 collocations - motivated, one component - its direct meaning, the other - metaph. (to meet the requirements, to attain
success); some substitutions are possible - don’t destroy the meaning of the metaphoric element (to meet the needs,
demand, necessity).

Degree of motivation:

- opaque idioms - high idiomaticity (on cloud nine)

- semi opaque (to pass the buck 'responsibility')

- transparent - figurative m. of literary senses (to see the light)

Structural mobility (Nunberg, Sag, Wasow):

 idiomatically combining expressions – allow syntactic mobility of the components; can be put them apart in the
sentence (lex. substitutions, diff. pronouns);

 idiomatic phrases – do not allow modifications (kick the bucket ‘die’, no passive: *My head was talked off).

Structural classification (Smirnitsky):

 one-top (one root morpheme) units:

a) units of the type to give up (verb + postposition): to art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to sandwich
in, etc.;
b) units of the type to be tired (remind the passive voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while
in the PV only prepositions «by» or «with» are): to be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc.

c) prepositional-nominal phraseological units (equivalents of prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs): in the course of = during, on

the nose = exactly.

 two-top units (two root morphemes):

a) attributive-nominal: a month of Sundays, grey matter; noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic; in partly
idiomatic units (phrasisms) sometimes the first component is idiomatic, (high road), in other cases the second component (first
night) or both components are idiomatic (red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot in the arm);

b) verbal-nominal: to read between the lines; the grammar centre - verb, the semantic centre - nominal comp. (to fall in love); can
be perfectly idiomatic as well: to burn one’s boats, to vote with one’s feet, to take to the cleaners’, etc.;

c) phraseological repetition/reiteration: now or never; can be built on antonyms (back and forth); often formed by means of
alliteration (as busy as a bee); equivalents of adv. or adj. and have no grammar centre; partly or perfectly idiomatic (cool as a
cucumber - partly), bread and butter - perfectly).

Structural classification:

 fixed

fixed regular - can’t be varied on the grammatical level;

fixed irregular - can be varied on the grammatical level (to have a bee in one’s bonnet - she has.., I have...);

variable - can be varied on the lexical level (to add fuel to the fire/flame, to mind one’s (own) business);

dialectal (BrE: to have a skeleton in the cupboard; AmE: to have a skeleton in the closet).

8. Words of native origin and the borrowed element in the English vocabulary.

A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old
English period.

Native words are further subdivided into the words of the Indo-European stock and those of the Common Germanic origin. The
words having cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages form the oldest layer. It has been noticed that
they readily fall into definite semantic groups. Among them we find terms of kinship (mother, father, son, daughter), names of
animals and birds (cat, wolf, goose), parts of human body (arm, eye). Some of the most frequent verbs belong to this word stock:
come, sit, stand. Most numerals are also of the Indo-European origin.

A bigger part of the native vocabulary consists of the words of the Common Germanic word stock. Such nouns as summer, winter,
rain, ice, hat; the verbs to bake, to buy, to make, to meet; the adjectives deaf, dead, deep are of the Common Germanic origin.
Most adverbs and pronouns also belong here.

Together with the words of the Common Indo-European stock the Common Germanic words form the bulk of the most frequent
elements used in any style of speech.

Characteristic Features of the Native Vocabulary

1. The words are monosyllabic: sun, wood, break.

2. They are polysemantic: hand – 1. Part of the human body. 2. Power, possession, by a responsibility.3. Influence. 4. Person from
whom news comes. 5. Skill in using one’s hands. 6. Person who does what is indicated by the context, performer. 7. Workman. 8.
Share in activity. 9. Pointer, indicator. 10. Position or direction. 11. Handwriting. 12. Signature. 13. Number of cards held by a
player. 14. Unit of measurement. 15. Applause by clapping.

3. They are characterised by high frequency.

4. Native words are usually found in set-expressions.

5. Verbs with post-positions are usually native: to look for, to look after.
6. They are characterised by a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency.

7. If words begin with wh, wr, tw, dw, sw, sh. th; if at the end they have dge, tch,nd, ld; if the roots have ng, aw, ew, ee, oo they
are native.

Borrowing words from other languages is characteristic of English throughout its history. More than two thirds of the English
vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish). Borrowed words are
different from native ones by their phonetic structure, by their morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms. It is
also characterisitic of borrowings to be non-motivated semantically.

English history is very rich in different types of contacts with other countries, that is why it is very rich in borrowings. The Roman
invasion, the adoption of Cristianity, Scandinavian and Norman conquests of the British Isles, the development of British
colonialism and trade and cultural relations served to increase immensely the English vocabulary. The majority of these
borrowings are fully assimilated in English in their pronunciation, grammar, spelling and can be hardly distinguished from native
words.

English continues to take in foreign words , but now the quantity of borrowings is not so abundunt as it was before. All the more
so, English now has become a «giving» language, it has become Lingva franca of the twentieth century.

Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria:

a) according to the aspect which is borrowed,

b) according to the degree of assimilation,

c) according to the language from which the word was borrowed.

(In this classification only the main languages from which words were borrowed into English are described, such as Latin, French,
Italian. Spanish, German and Russian.

9. Standard English and regional variation of the English lexicon.

In an English-speaking country, Standard English (SE) is the variety of English that has undergone substantial regularisation
and is associated with formal schooling, language assessment, and official print publications, such as public service
announcements and newspapers of record, etc. A dialect is a regional variation of a language - distinguished by distinctive
vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation. Any language with a large number of speakers and widespread distribution is bound to
form DIALECTS. A dialect is the vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation of a language. Dialects are standard and non-standard.
There are regional and dialectical variations of Standard English in both the United States and the United Kingdom. In the United
Kingdom, there are two dialects: Standard English and regional variation.

In the United States, there is Standard American English and somewhere between three and 24 regional variations. Social
scientists suggest that New England, Southern, and Western are the three main regional variations of English, but there are sub-
dialects within those variations that bring the number up to 24.

However, it's important to note that in both instances of British English and American English, it's impossible to determine the
exact amount of dialects because the language changes from one person to the next.

An accent is simply the way a person pronounces words within one's dialect. In the United Kingdom, Received Pronunciation is
the accent correlated to the standard English, although dozens of variations exist. Received Pronunciation is known as the 'Queen's
English.' Likewise, America has a standard accent, but tiny variations occur across the country.

10.Lexicography as a branch of linguistics. Types of dictionaries.

Lexicography is a brunch of applied linguistics which deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.

The object of study: the vocabulary of a language (cf. lexicology: diff. in degree of systematisation and completeness).

The aim: semantic, formal and functional description of all individual words.Dictionary - a book listing words of language with
their meanings and reference information.

Lexicology is a theory and lexicography is the practice of describing words.

Types of English dictionaries differ in the choice of items and information about them.

Encyclopaedic dict-s: concepts (objects and phenomena), their relation to other objects and phenomena.

Linguistic (or philological): lexical units and their linguistic properties.

The encyclopaedic dictionaries include items of designations such as: names of substances, diseases, plants and animals,
institutions, terms of science, some important events in history, geographical and biographical entries.

A linguistic dictionary is a book of words of a language, usually listed alphabetically, with definitions, pronunciations,
etymologies and other linguistic information or with their equivalents in another language (or other language).

American dictionaries include scientific, technical, geographical and bibliographical items. British dictionaries devote

maximum space to the linguistic properties of words.

Classifications:

1. According to the nature of word-list:

- general

- restricted dictionaries (terminological, phraseological, dialectal word-books, dictionaries of new words, etc.)

2. As to the information they provide:

- explanatory

- special dictionaries (only some characteristics)

* sphere of human activity (technical dictionaries)

* type of units (of idioms)

* relationships b/w units (of synonyms)

Associative dictionaries (the lexical entry is a stimulus word with a list of response words either in an alphabetical order or
according to their frequency).

3. As to the number of languages used (except for translation ones: mono-, bi-, multilingual

4. According to the medium used:

- paper d.

- computerized d.

* computerized versions of paper d.

* proper el. d.: for human use, machine d. for text processing (synt., sem., (pseudo-)morph., diphone, etc.)

Explanatory dictionaries provide info on all aspects of the lexical units entered: graphical, phonetic, grammatical, semantic,
stylistic, etymological, etc.

- diachronic

- synchronic

Translation (parallel) dictionaries - a list of vocabulary items in one language and their equivalents in (an)other language(s).

Phraseological dictionaries - idiomatic or colloquial phrases, proverbs and other, usually with illustrations.

Dictionaries of neologisms (neologism - <20 years). The new items are collected from the reading of newspaper, magazines and -
rarely - books.

Dictionaries of slang (substandard speech such as vulgarisms, jargonisms, taboo words, curse-words, colloquialisms).
Usage dictionaries (usage problems of all kind - for native speakers: the difference in meaning of synonyms, the proper
pronunciation, etc.)

Dictionaries of word frequency (frequency of occurrence of lexical units in speech for teaching purposes, the basic vocabulary,
for the machine translation systems to choose a better - more frequent - variant of a word).

Reverse dictionaries (the entry words are arranged in an alphabetical order starting with the final letter - e.g. for rhyming
purpose).

Pronouncing dictionaries (contemporary variation of pronunciation).

Etymological dictionaries.

Ideographic dictionaries.

Problems of dictionary compiling

Stages:

- collection of material

- selection of entries and their arrangement

- setting of each entry

1) selection of lexical units for inclusion

2) arrangement of entries (alphabetical, clusters, frequency)

3) setting of the entry (structure and content)

4) selection and arrangement of meanings (historical, empirical / actual / frequency, logical order)

+5) definition of meanings (encyclopaedic, descriptive, synonymous, cross-referential)

6) illustrative examples (quotes, corpus e.g.'s)

Theoretical Grammar of the English Language

1. Three models of linguistic description: semantic, syntactic and pragmatic. Systemic relations in language: paradigmatic
and syntagmatic relations.

According to the Bible: ‘In the beginning was the Word’. In fact, the word is considered to be
t h e central (but not the only) linguistic unit (одиниця) of language. Linguistic units (or in other words – signs) can go into three
types of relations:a)The relation between a unit and an object in the world around us (objective reality). E.g. the
word ‘table’refers to a definite piece of furniture. It may be not only an object but a process, state, quality, etc.This type of
meaning is called referential meaning of a unit. It is semantics that studies the referential meaning of
units. b)The relation between a unit and other units (inner relations between units). No unit can be usedindependently; it serves as
an element in the system of other units. This kind of meaning is called syntactic .Formal relation of units to one another is studied
by syntactics(or syntax).c)The relation between a unit and a person who uses it. As we know too well, when we are
saying something,we usually have some purpose in mind. We use the language as an instrument for our purpose
(e.g.). One and the same word or sentence may acquire different meanings in communication. This type of meaning is called
pragmatic . The study of the relationship between linguistic units and the users of those units is done by pragmatics . Thus
there are three models of linguistic description: semantic, syntactic and pragmatic. To illustrate the difference
between these different ways of linguistic analysis, let us consider the following sentence: Students are students

Lingual units stand to one another in two fundamental types of relations: syntagmatic and paradigmatic.
Syntagmatic relations are immediate linear relations betw'een units in a segmental sequence (string). E.g.: The spaceship was
launched without the help of a booster rocket.
In this sentence syntagmatically connected are the words and word-groups: “the spaceship", “was launched”, “the spaceship was
launched”... Morphemes within the words are also connected syntagmatically: space/ship, launch/ed. boost/er.
The combination of two words or word-groups one of which is modified by the other forms a unit which is referred to as a
syntactic “syntagma”. There are four main types of notional syntagmas:
predicative (the combination of a subject and a predicate); objective (the combination of a verb and its object); attributive (the
combination of a noun and its attribute); adverbial (the combination of a modified notional word, such as a verb, adjective, or
adverb, with its adverbial modifier).
The other type of relations, which are opposed to syntagmatic relations, are paradigmatic relations which exist between elements
of the language system outside the string where they co-occur. These relations and dependencies find their expression in the fact
that each lingual unit is included in a definite set based on different forma! and functional properties. In the domain of grammar
such sets realize grammatical numbers and cases, persons and tenses, gradations of modalities, sets of sentence-pattems.
Paradigmatic relations cannot be directly observed in utterances, that’s why they are called relations in the absence.
+Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations are not isolated from one another. Paradigmatic relations со-ечшые with syntagmatic
relations in such a way that some sort of syntagmatic connection is necessary for the realization of any paradigmatic scries. This is
revealed to the full in a classical grammatical paradigm where it presents a productive series of forms.
2. The word as the central unit of language. Grammatical meaning of the word. Types of grammatical meaning.

The word is the subject matter of Lexicology. The word may be described as a basic unit of language. The definition of the word
is one of the most difficult problems in Linguistics because any word has many different aspects. It is simultaneously a semantic,
grammatical and phonological unit. Accordingly the word may be defined as the basic unit of a given language resulting
from the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical
employment. This definition based on the definition of a word given by the eminent French linguist Arthur Meillet does not
permit us to distinguish words from phrases. We can accept the given definition adding that a word is the smallest significant
unit of a given language capable of functioning alone and characterized by positional mobility within a sentence,
morphological uninterruptability and semantic integrity. In Russian Linguistics it is the word but not the morpheme as in
American descriptive linguistics that is the basic unit of language and the basic unit of lexical articulation of the flow of the
speech. Thus, the word is a structural and semantic entity within the language system. The word is the basic unit of the language
system, the largest on the morphological level and the smallest on the syntactic level of linguistic analysis. As any language unit
the word is a two facet unit possessing both its outer form (sound form) and content (meaning) which is not created in speech but
used ready-maid. As the basic unit of language the word is characterized by independence or separateness (отдельность), as a
free standing item, and identity (тождество).
The word as an independent free standing language unit is distinguished in speech due to its ability to take on grammatical
inflections (грамматическая оформленнасть) which makes it different from the morpheme.
The structural integrity (цельная оформленнасть) of the word combined with the semantic integrity and morphological
uninterruptability (морфологическая непрерывность) makes the word different from word combinations.
The identity of the word manifests itself in the ability of a word to exist as a system and unity of all its forms (grammatical forms
creating its paradigm) and variants: lexical-semantic, morphological, phonetic and graphic.
The system showing a word in all its word forms is called its paradigm. The lexical meaning of a word is the same throughout the
paradigm, i.e. all the word forms of one and the same word are lexical identical while the grammatical meaning varies from one
form to another (give-gave-given-giving-gives; worker-workers-worker’s-workers’).
Besides the grammatical forms of the words (or word forms), words possess lexical varieties called variants of words (a word – a
polisemantic word in one of its meanings in which it is used in speech is described as a lexical-semantic variants. The term was
introduced by A.I. Smernitskiy; e.g. “to learn at school” – “to learn about smth”; man – мужчина/человек). Words may have
phonetic, graphic and morphological variants:
often – [Þfən]/[ Þftən] – phonetic variants
birdy/birdie – graphic variants
phonetic/phonetical – morphological variants
Thus, within the language system the word exists as a system and unity of all its forms and variants. The term lexeme may serve
to express the idea of the word as a system of its forms and variants.
Every word names a given referent and another one and this relationship creates the basis for establishing understanding in verbal
intercourse (общение). But because words mirror concepts through our perception of the world there’s no singleness in word-
thing correlations.
As reality becomes more complicated, it calls for more sophisticated means of nomination. In recent times Lexicology has
developed a more psycho-linguistic and ethno-cultural orientation aimed at looking into the actual reality of how lexical items
work.
The notion of ‘grammatical meaning’.
The word combines in its semantic structure two meanings – lexical and grammatical. Lexical meaning is the individual meaning
of the word (e.g. table). Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. For example, the class of nouns
has the grammatical meaning of thingness. If we take a noun (table) we may say that it possesses its individual lexical meaning (it
corresponds to a definite piece of furniture) and the grammatical meaning of thingness (this is the meaning of the whole class).
Besides, the noun ‘table’ has the grammatical meaning of a subclass – countableness. Any verb combines its individual lexical
meaning with the grammatical meaning of verbiality – the ability to denote actions or states. An adjective combines its individual
lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of the whole class of adjectives – qualitativeness – the ability to denote qualities.
Adverbs possess the grammatical meaning of adverbiality – the ability to denote quality of qualities.
There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning only. This can be
explained by the fact that they have no referents in the objective reality. All function words belong to this group – articles,
particles, prepositions, etc.
 Types of grammatical meaning.
The grammatical meaning may be explicit and implicit. The implicit grammatical meaning is not expressed formally (e.g. the
word table does not contain any hints in its form as to it being inanimate). The explicit grammatical meaning is always marked
morphologically – it has its marker. In the word cats the grammatical meaning of plurality is shown in the form of the
noun; cat’s – here the grammatical meaning of possessiveness is shown by the form ‘s; is asked – shows the explicit grammatical
meaning of passiveness.
The implicit grammatical meaning may be of two types – general and dependent. The general grammatical meaning is the
meaning of the whole word-class, of a part of speech (e.g. nouns – the general grammatical meaning of thingness).
The dependent grammatical meaning is the meaning of a subclass within the same part of speech. For instance, any verb
possesses the dependent grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity, terminativeness/non-terminativeness, stativeness/non-
stativeness; nouns have the dependent grammatical meaning of contableness/uncountableness and animateness/inanimateness. The
most important thing about the dependent grammatical meaning is that it influences the realization of grammatical categories
restricting them to a subclass. Thus the dependent grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness influences the
realization of the grammatical category of number as the number category is realized only within the subclass of countable nouns,
the grammatical meaning of animateness/inanimateness influences the realization of the grammatical category of case,
teminativeness/non-terminativeness - the category of tense, transitivity/intransitivity – the category of voice.
3. Grammatical categories, means of realization of grammatical categories. Opposition as the basis for realizing
grammatical categories, types of oppositions.

3. Grammatical categories.
Grammatical categories are made up by the unity of identical grammatical meanings that have the same form (e.g.
singular::plural). Due to dialectal unity of language and thought, grammatical categories correlate, on the one hand, with the
conceptual categories and, on the other hand, with the objective reality. It may be shown with the help of a triangle model:
It follows that we may define grammatical categories as references of the corresponding objective categories. For example, the
objective category of time finds its representation in the grammatical category of tense, the objective category of quantity finds
its representation in the grammatical category of number. Those grammatical categories that have references in the objective
reality are called referential grammatical categories. However, not all of the grammatical categories have references in the
objective reality, just a few of them do not correspond to anything in the objective reality.
They are called significational categories. To this type belong the categories of mood and degree. Speaking about the
grammatical category of mood we can say that it has modality as its conceptual correlate. It can be explained by the fact that it
does not refer to anything in the objective reality – it expresses the speaker’s attitude to what he says.
4. The notion of opposition.
Any grammatical category must be represented by at least two grammatical forms (e.g. the grammatical category of number –
singular and plural forms). The relation between two grammatical forms differing in meaning and external signs is
called opposition – book::books (unmarked member/marked member). All grammatical categories find their realization through
oppositions, e.g. the grammatical category of number is realized through the opposition singular::plural.
Taking all the above mentioned into consideration, we may define the grammatical category as the opposition between two
mutually exclusive form-classes (a form-class is a set of words with the same explicit grammatical meaning).
Means of realization of grammatical categories may be synthetic (near – nearer) and analytic (beautiful – more beautiful).
5. Transposition and neutralization of morphological forms.
In the process of communication grammatical categories may undergo the processes of transposition and neutralization.
+Transposition is the use of a linguistic unit in an unusual environment or in the function that is not characteristic of it (He is a
lion). In the sentence He is coming tomorrow the paradigmatic meaning of the continuous form is reduced and a new meaning
appears – that of a future action. Transposition always results in the neutralization of a paradigmatic meaning. Neutralization is
the reduction of the opposition to one of its members : custom :: customs – x :: customs; x :: spectacles
4. Lexical-grammatical word classes. The problem of word classification into parts of speech. Different approaches to the
parts of speech classification in English.

The parts of speech are classes of words, all the members of these classes having certain characteristics in common which
distinguish them from the members of other classes. The problem of word classification into parts of speech still remains one of
the most controversial problems in modern linguistics. The attitude of grammarians with regard to parts of speech and the basis of
their classification varied a good deal at different times. Only in English grammarians have been vacillating between 3 and 13
parts of speech. There are four approaches to the problem:
1. Classical (logical-inflectional)
2. Functional
3. Distributional
4. Complex
The classical parts of speech theory goes back to ancient times. It is based on Latin grammar. According to the Latin classification
of the parts of speech all words were divided dichotomically into declinable and indeclinable parts of speech. This system was
reproduced in the earliest English grammars. The first of these groups, declinable words, included nouns, pronouns, verbs and
participles, the second – indeclinable words – adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. The logical-inflectional
classification is quite successful for Latin or other languages with developed morphology and synthetic paradigms but it cannot be
applied to the English language because the principle of declinability/indeclinability is not relevant for analytical languages.
A new approach to the problem was introduced in the XIX century by Henry Sweet. He took into account the peculiarities of the
English language. This approach may be defined as functional. He resorted to the functional features of words and singled out
nominative units and particles. To nominative parts of speech belonged noun-words (noun, noun-pronoun, noun-numeral,
infinitive, gerund), adjective-words (adjective, adjective-pronoun, adjective-numeral, participles), verb (finite verb, verbals –
gerund, infinitive, participles), while adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection belonged to the group of particles.
However, though the criterion for classification was functional, Henry Sweet failed to break the tradition and classified words into
those having morphological forms and lacking morphological forms, in other words, declinable and indeclinable.
A distributional approach to the parts to the parts of speech classification can be illustrated by the classification introduced by
Charles Fries. He wanted to avoid the traditional terminology and establish a classification of words based on distributive analysis,
that is, the ability of words to combine with other words of different types. At the same time, the lexical meaning of words was
not taken into account. According to Charles Fries, the words in such sentences as 1. Woggles ugged diggles; 2. Uggs woggled
diggs; and 3. Woggs diggled uggles are quite evident structural signals, their position and combinability are enough to classify
them into three word-classes. In this way, he introduced four major classes of words and 15 form-classes. Let us see how it
worked. Three test frames formed the basis for his analysis:
It turned out that his four classes of words were practically the same as traditional nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. What is
really valuable in Charles Fries’ classification is his investigation of 15 groups of function words (form-classes) because he was
the first linguist to pay attention to some of their peculiarities.
All the classifications mentioned above appear to be one-sided because parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of only one
aspect of the word: either its meaning or its form, or its function.
In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated according to three criteria: semantic, formal and functional. This approach
may be defined as complex. The semantic criterion presupposes the grammatical meaning of the whole class of words (general
grammatical meaning). The formal criterion reveals paradigmatic properties: relevant grammatical categories, the form of the
words, their specific inflectional and derivational features. The functional criterion concerns the syntactic function of words in the
sentence and their combinability. Thus, when characterizing any part of speech we are to describe: a) its semantics; b) its
morphological features; c) its syntactic peculiarities.
The linguistic evidence drawn from our grammatical study makes it possible to divide all the words of the language into:
1. those denoting things, objects, notions, qualities, etc. – words with the corresponding references in the objective reality
– notional words;
2. those having no references of their own in the objective reality; most of them are used only as grammatical means to
form up and frame utterances – function words, or grammatical words.
It is commonly recognized that the notional parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, numerals, verbs, adjectives, adverbs; the
functional parts of speech are articles, particles, prepositions, conjunctions and modal words.
The division of language units into notion and function words reveals the interrelation of lexical and grammatical types of
meaning. In notional words the lexical meaning is predominant. In function words the grammatical meaning dominates over the
lexical one. However, in actual speech the border line between notional and function words is not always clear cut. Some notional
words develop the meanings peculiar to function words - e.g. seminotional words – to turn, to get, etc.
Notional words constitute the bulk of the existing word stock while function words constitute a smaller group of words. Although
the number of function words is limited (there are only about 50 of them in Modern English), they are the most frequently used
units.
Generally speaking, the problem of words’ classification into parts of speech is far from being solved. Some words cannot find
their proper place. The most striking example here is the class of adverbs. Some language analysts call it a ragbag, a
dustbin (Frank Palmer),
5. General characteristics of the noun as a part of speech. Grammatical categories of number and case. The problem of
the category of gender.

The noun is the central lexical unit of language. It is the main nominative unit of speech. As any other part of speech, the noun can
be characterised by three criteria: semantic (the meaning), morphological (the form and grammatical categories) and syntactical
(functions, distribution).
Semantic features of the noun. The noun possesses the grammatical meaning of thingness, substantiality. According to different
principles of classification, nouns fall into several subclasses:
According to the type of nomination they may be proper and common;
According to the form of existence they may be animate and inanimate. Animate nouns in their turn fall into human and
non-human.
According to their quantitative structure nouns can be countable and uncountable.
This set of subclasses cannot be put together into one table because of the different principles of classification.
Morphological features of the noun. In accordance with the morphological structure of the stems all nouns can be classified into:
simple, derived (stem + affix, affix + stem — thingness); compound (stem+ stem — armchair ) and composite (the Hague). The
noun has morphological categories of number and case. Some scholars admit the existence of the category of gender.
Syntactic features of the noun. The noun can be used in the sentence in all syntactic functions but predicate. Speaking about noun
combinability, we can say that it can go into right-hand and left-hand connections with practically all parts of speech. That is why
practically all parts of speech but the verb can act as noun determiners. However, the most common noun determiners are
considered to be articles, pronouns, numerals, adjectives and nouns themselves in the common and genitive case.
The category of number
The grammatical category of number is the linguistic representation of the objective category of quantity. The number category is
realized through the opposition of two form-classes: the plural form :: the singular form.
There are different approaches to defining the category of number. Thus, some scholars believe that the category of number in
English is restricted in its realization because of the dependent implicit grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness.
The category of number is realized only within subclass of countable nouns, i.e. nouns having numeric (discrete) structure.
Uncountable nouns have no category of number, for they have quantitative (indiscrete) structure. Two classes of uncountables can
be distinguished: singularia tantum (only singular) and pluralia tantum (only plural). M. Blokh, however, does not exclude the
singularia tantum subclass from the category of number. He calls such forms absolute singular forms comparable to the ‘common’
singular of countable nouns.
In Indo-European languages there are lots of nouns that don’t fit into the traditional definition of the category based on the notion
of quantity. A word can denote one object, but it has the plural form. Or a noun can denote more than one thing, but its form is
singular. There is a definition of the category of number that overcomes this inconsistency. It was worked out by prof. Isachenko.
According to him, the category of number denotes marked and unmarked discreteness (not quantity). A word in a singular form
denotes unmarked discreteness whether it is a book, or a sheep, or sheep. If an object is perceived as a discrete thing, it has the
form of the plural number. Thus, trousers and books are perceived as discrete object whereas a flock of sheep is seen as a whole.
This definition is powerful because it covers nearly all nouns while the traditional definition excludes many words.
The grammatical meaning of number may not coincide with the notional quantity: the noun in the singular does not necessarily
denote one object while the plural form may be used to denote one object consisting of several parts. The singular form may
denote:
oneness (individual separate object — a cat);
generalization (the meaning of the whole class — The cat is a domestic animal);
indiscreteness (or uncountableness - money, milk).
The plural form may denote:
the existence of several objects (cats);
the inner discreteness (, pluralia tantum,jeans).
To sum it up, all nouns may be subdivided into three groups:
The nouns in which the opposition of explicit discreteness/indiscreteness is expressed: cat::cats;
The nouns in which this opposition is not expressed explicitly but is revealed by syntactical and lexical correlation in the context.
There are two groups here: Singularia tantum. It covers different groups of nouns: proper names, abstract nouns, material nouns,
collective nouns;
Pluralia tantum. It covers the names of objects consisting of several parts (jeans), names of sciences (mathematics), names of
diseases, games, etc.
The nouns with homogenous number forms. The number opposition here is not expressed formally but is revealed only lexically
and syntactically in the context: e.g. Look! A sheep is eating grass. Look! The sheep are eating grass
The category of case.
Case expresses the relation of a word to another word in the word-group or sentence (my sister’s coat). The category of case
correlates with the objective category of possession. The case category in English is realized through the opposition: The
Common Case :: The Possessive Case (sister :: sister’s). However, in modern linguistics the term “genitive case” is used instead of
the “possessive case” because the meanings rendered by the “`s” sign are not only those of possession. The scope of meanings
rendered by the Genitive Case is the following :
Possessive Genitive : Mary’s father – Mary has a father,
Subjective Genitive: The doctor’s arrival – The doctor has arrived,
Objective Genitive : The man’s release – The man was released,
Adverbial Genitive : Two hour’s work – X worked for two hours,
Equation Genitive : a mile’s distance – the distance is a mile,Genitive of destination: children’s books – books for children,
Mixed Group: yesterday’s paper
Nick’s school cannot be reduced to one nucleus
John’s wor
To avoid confusion with the plural, the marker of the genitive case is represented in written form with an apostrophe. This fact
makes possible disengagement of –`s form from the noun to which it properly belongs. E.g.: The man I saw yesterday’s son,
where -`s is appended to the whole group (the so-called group genitive). It may even follow a word which normally does not
possess such a formant, as in somebody else’s book.
There are three cases: the Nominative, the Genitive, the Objective due to the existence of objective pronouns me, him, whom;
Case Grammar. Ch. Fillmore introduced syntactic-semantic classification of cases. They show relations in the so-called deep
structure of the sentence. According to him, verbs may stand to different relations to nouns. There are 6 cases:
Agentive Case (A) John opened the door;
Instrumental case (I) The key opened the door; John used the key to open the door;
Dative Case (D) John believed that he would win (the case of the animate being affected by the state of action identified by the
verb);
Factitive Case (F) The key was damaged ( the result of the action or state identified by the verb);
Locative Case (L) Chicago is windy;
Objective case (O) John stole the book.
In Indo-European languages the category of gender is presented with flexions. It is not based on sex distinction, but it is purely
grammatical.
According to some language analysts (B.Ilyish, F.Palmer, and E.Morokhovskaya), nouns have no category of gender in Modern
English. Prof. Ilyish states that not a single word in Modern English shows any peculiarities in its morphology due to its denoting
male or female being. Thus, the words husband and wife do not show any difference in their forms due to peculiarities of their
lexical meaning. The difference between such nouns as actor and actress is a purely lexical one. In other words, the category of
sex should not be confused with the category of gender, because sex is an objective biological category. It correlates with gender
only when sex differences of living beings are manifested in the language grammatically (e.g. tiger - tigress).
Gender distinctions in English are marked for a limited number of nouns. In present-day English there are some morphemes which
present differences between masculine and feminine (waiter — waitress, widow — widower). This distinction is not
grammatically universal. It is not characterized by a wide range of occurrences and by a grammatical level of abstraction. Only a
limited number of words are marked as belonging to masculine, feminine or neuter. The morpheme on which the distinction
between masculine and feminine is based in English is a word- building morpheme, not form-building.
Still, other scholars (M.Blokh, John Lyons) admit the existence of the category of gender. Prof. Blokh states that the existence of
the category of gender in Modern English can be proved by the correlation of nouns with personal pronouns of the third person
(he, she, it). Accordingly, there are three genders in English: the neuter (non-person) gender, the masculine gender, the feminine
gender.
6. General characteristics of the verb as a part of speech. Grammatical categories of the verb. The categories of voice,
aspect and tense. The problem of future tenses.

Morphological classifications
1. According to their stem-types all verbs fall into: simple (to play), sound- replacive (food - to feed, blood - to
bleed), stress-replacive (‘insult - to in’sult, ‘record - to re’cord), expanded - built with the help of suffixes and prefixes
(oversleep, undergo), composite - correspond to composite nouns (to blackmail), phrasal (to have a smoke, to take a
look).
2. According to the way of forming past tenses and Participle II verbs can be regular and irregular.
Lexical-morphological classification is based on the implicit grammatical meanings of the verb.
According to the implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity verbs fall into transitive and intransitive.
According to the implicit grammatical meaning of stativeness/non- stativeness verbs fall into stative and dynamic.
Dynamic verbs include:
1. activity verbs: beg, call, drink;
2. process verbs: grow, widen, narrow;
3. verbs of bodily sensations: hurt, itch;
4. transitional event verbs: die, fall;
5. momentary: hit, kick, nod.
Stative verbs include:
1. verbs of inert perception and cognition: adore, hate, love;
2. relational verbs: consist, cost, have, owe.
According to the implicit grammatical meaning of terminativeness/non- terminativeness verbs fall into terminative and durative.
This classification is closely connected with the categories of aspect and temporal correlation.
Syntactic classifications
According to the nature of predication (primary and secondary) all verbs fall into finite and non-finite.
Functional classification
According to their functional significance verbs can be notional (with the full lexical meaning), semi-notional (modal verbs, link-
verbs), auxiliaries. Auxiliaries are used in the strict order: modal, perfective, progressive, passive.
30. The category of tense
Time is an unlimited duration in which things are considered as happening in the past, present or future. Time stands for a concept
with which all mankind is familiar. Time is independent of language. Tense stands for a verb form used to express a time relation.
Time is the same to all mankind while tenses vary in different languages. Time can be expressed in language in two basic ways: 1)
lexically; 2) grammatically.
The category of tense is considered to be an immanent grammatical category which means that the finite verb form always
expresses time distinctions. The category of tense finds different interpretations with different scholars.
According to one view, there are only two tenses in English: past and present. Most British scholars do not recognize the existence
of future. It is considered to be a combination of the modal verb and an infinitive used to refer to future actions. The modal
verbs “shall” and “will” preserve their lexical meaning of “wish, volition”. In that case combinations of the modal verbs with
notional verbs should be regarded as free syntactical constructions, not as analytical structures. However, there are some examples
in which the notion of volition cannot be implied:
eg. He will die in a week.
I shall be twenty next Friday.
Provided that the situation is realistic, in these contexts lexical meanings of “shall” and “will” are not present. These elements
render only grammatical meanings, therefore they serve as auxiliaries and such combinations must be regarded as analytical
structures. So we have to recognize the existence of pure futurity in English.
In traditional linguistics grammatical time is often represented as a three- form category consisting of the “linear” past, present
and future forms. The meaning of the category of tense is the relation of the action expressed by a finite verb to the moment of
speaking. Present denotes coincidence, past denotes a prior action, future denotes a posterior action which follows the moment of
speaking.
The future-in-the-past does not find its place in the scheme based on the linear principle since it does not show any relation to the
moment of speaking, hence this system is considered to be deficient, not covering all lingual data. Those who deny the existence
of simple future in English consider future-in-the-past one of the mood forms. Those who recognize the existence of simple future
argue that it is used in the same situation when simple future is used, in subordinate clauses when the principal clause contains a
past form. So, this form is different only in one respect - it is dependent on the syntactic structure.
Voice
The form of the verb may show whether the agent expressed by the subject is the doer of the action or the recipient of the
action (John broke the vase - the vase was broken). The objective relations between the action and the subject or object of the
action find their expression in language as the grammatical category of voice. Therefore, the category of voice reflects the
objective relations between the action itself and the subject or object of the action:
The category of voice is realized through the opposition Active voice::Passive voice. The passive is marked both in meaning and
in form and the active as unmarked both in meaning and in form.
The realization of the voice category is restricted because of the implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity. In
accordance with this meaning, all English verbs should fall into transitive and intransitive. However, the classification turns out to
be more complex and comprises 6 groups:
1. Verbs used only transitively: to mark, to raise;
2. Verbs with the main transitive meaning: to see, to make, to build;
3. Verbs of intransitive meaning and secondary transitive meaning. A lot of intransitive verbs may develop a secondary
transitive meaning: They laughed me into agreement; He danced the girl out of the room;
4. Verbs of a double nature, neither of the meanings are the leading one, the verbs can be used both transitively and
intransitively: to drive home - to drive a car;
5. Verbs that are never used in the Passive Voice: to seem, to become;
6. Verbs that realize their passive meaning only in special contexts: to live, to sleep, to sit, to walk, to jump.
Three types of passive constructions can be differentiated: 1) direct primary passive; 2) indirect secondary passive; 3)
prepositional tertiary passive.
Some English verbs can admit only one object - the direct one: e.g. Mary saw him.
When such an object becomes the subject of a passive construction, the latter is called direct primary passive: e.g. He was seen by
Mary.
+There are many verbs in English that take two objects in the active construction (direct and indirect): e.g. I gave him a book. She
told the story to her sister.
THE CATEGORY OF ASPECT — grammatical category which reflects the inherent mode of the realisation of the
process irrespective of its timing.
The problem of category of aspect is determined by the fact that linguists don’t have unanimous opinion on this point.
Some of them (Kerm, Krazing, Poutman) see under this category “the indication towards the course of the action”. The typical
features of this indication are
the beginning of the action
the end of the action
the recurrence of the action
However according to this definition , aspect cannot been seen as grammatical category being characterized my lexical means.
The positive side of this point of view —attention to the aspect character of the verb, the possibility of defining processual limit.
As the result the division into limitive-non –limitive verbs
There are two tendencies towards the defining of the category of aspect.
1) tendency presented in foreign linguistics (two aspect oppositions )
—relatively the moment of speaking
+—relatively some other time points – centres taken in the past or future
2) tendency presented in Russian linguistics (the category of aspect is taken in the interrelation with the category of tense)
7. Basic language units of the syntactic level. Different approaches to the study of the sentence: traditional, IC analysis.
The utterance as a speech unit.

Syntactic unit is always a combination that has at least two constituents. The basic syntactic units are a word-group,
a clause, a sentence, and a text. Their main features are:
a) they are hierarchical units – the units of a lower level serve the building material for the units of a higher level;
b) as all language units the syntactic units are of two-fold nature:
c) they are of communicative and non-communicative nature – word-groups and clauses are of non-communicative
nature while sentences and texts are of communicative nature.
Syntactic meaning is the way in which separate word meanings are combined to produce meaningful word-groups
and sentences.  Green ideas sleep furiously.This sentence is quite correct grammatically. However it makes no sense
as it lacks syntactic meaning.
Syntactic formmay be described as the distributional formula of the unit (pattern). John hits the ball –N1 + V + N2.
Syntactic functionis the function of a unit on the basis of which it is included to a larger unit: in the word-group a
smart studentthe word ‘smart’ is in subordinate attributive relations to the head element. In traditional terms it is used
to denote syntactic function of a unit within the sentence (subject, predicate, etc.).
Syntactic positionis the position of an element. The order of constituents in syntactic units is of principal importance
in analytical languages. The syntactic position of an element may determine its relationship with the other elements of
the same unit: his broadback, abackdistrict, to goback,tobacksm.
All nominative parts of the sentence are syntagmatically connected, and the modificational relations between them can be
analyzed in a linear as well as in a hierarchical way (“immediate constituents” analysis, IC analysis), The structural pattern of the
sentence is determined by the valency of the verb-predicate; the verb functions as the central predicative organizer of the sentence
constituents. The subdivision of all notional sentence parts into obligatory and optional in accord with the valency of the verb-
predicate makes it possible to distinguish the category of “elementary sentence”: it is a sentence in which all the positions are
obligatory; in other words, an “elementary sentence” includes, besides the principal parts, only complementive modifiers.
Immediate constituents of the sentence. Ic analysis.
To grasp the real structure of the English sentence, one must understand not only words that occur but also the principles of their
arrangement. Each language has its own way of structural grouping. English has dichotomous phrase structure, which means that
the phrase in English can always be divided into two elements (constituents) until we get down to the single word. All groups of
words are arranged in levels. The name given by linguists to these different levels of relationship is immediate constituents.
Thus, one way of analyzing a sentence is to cut it to its immediate constituents, that is, to single out different levels of meaning:
T he old man saw a black dog there S
NP VP
Det NP VP D
A N V NP
Det NP
NP VP A N
It is obvious that dividing a sentence into ICs does not provide much information. Nevertheless, it can sometimes prove useful if
we want to account for the ambiguity of certain constructions. A classic example is the phrase old men and women which can be
interpreted in two different ways. Ambiguity of this kind is referred to as syntactic ambiguity. By providing IC analysis we can
make the two meanings clear:
o ld men and women old men and women
49. The paradigm of a simple sentence. Kernel and derived sentences. Syntactic processes.
50. The utterance. Informative structure of the utterance.
The utterance as opposed to the sentence is the unit of speech. Themain categories of the utterance from the point of view of its
informative structure are considered to be the theme and the rheme. They are the main components of the Functional Sentence
Perspective (FSP) – actual division of the sentence (most language analysts stick to the term “sentence” but actually they mean
“utterance”).
Informative structure of the utterance is one of the topics that still attract the attention of language analysts nowadays. It is well
recognized that the rheme marking devices are:
1. Position in the sentence. As a rule new information in English generally comes last: The cat ate the rat.
2. Intonation.
3. The use of the indefinite article. However, sometimes it is impossible (as in 1): A gentleman is waiting for you.
4. The use of ‘there is’, ‘there are’. There is a cat in the room.
5. The use of special devices, like ‘as for’, ‘but for’, etc.: As for him, I don’t know.
6. Inverted word order: Here comes the sun.
7. The use of emphatic constructions: It was the cat that ate the rat.
However, sometimes the most important information is not expressed formally: The cat ate the rat after all. The rheme here is
‘the rat’. At the same time there is very important information which is hidden or implicit: the cat was not supposed to do it, or – it
was hard for the cat to catch the rat, or – the cat is a vegetarian (this hidden information will depend on the context or situation). In
other words, we may say that this sentence contains two informative centres, or two rhemes – explicit and implicit.
8. Text Linguistics – modern approach to the text study. Textual integrative properties. Coherence, cohesion and deixis.
Text is the unit of the highest (supersyntactic) level. It can be defined as a sequence of sentences connected logically and
semantically which convey a complete message. The text is a language unit and it manifests itself in speech as discourse.
Textlinguistics is concerned with the analysis of formal and structural features of the text. Textual basic integrative properties can
be described with the help of the notions of coherence (цілісність), cohesion (формальна складність) and deixis.
The notion of coherence.
Coherence is a semantic or topical unity of the spoken or written text – that is, the sentences within the text are usually connected
by the same general topic. Generally speaking, a coherent text is the text that ‘sticks together’ as a whole unit. Coherence is
usually achieved by means of the theme and rheme progression. There exist various types of the theme and rheme progression,
e.g.
a ) T1 R1 Once there lived an old man.
T2 R2 The old man lived in a hut.
T3 R3 The hut was near a wood.
b ) T1 R1 Michael is a student.
T1 R2 He lives in Boston.
T1 R3 He has a cheap car.
c) T The general topic is Ukraine. Subtopics are its
climate, industry, population, etc.
T 1 R1 T2 R2 T3 R3
Naturally, in the process of text development different types of theme and rheme progression are combined.
The notion of cohesion. Text connecting devices.
Cohesion is a succession of spoken or written sentences. Sometimes the sentences may even not coincide topically. The
connection we want to draw between various parts of the text may be achieved by textual and lexical cohesion. Textual cohesion
may be achieved by formal markers which express conjunctive relations and serve as text connectors. Text connectors may be of
four different types:
a. additive – and, furthermore, similarly, in addition, etc.
b. adversative – but, however, on the other hand, in fact, anyway, after all, nevertheless, etc.
c. causal – so, consequently, for this reason, thus, etc.
d. temporal – then, after that, finally, at last, in the long run, etc.
The full list of text connectors is very long. Some of them do not possess direct equivalents in the Ukrainian language. At the
same time it is impossible to speak and write English naturally without knowing for sure when and how to use text connectors of
the English language.
Textual deictic markers.
As a linguistic term deixis means ‘identification by pointing’.
Much of the textual meaning can be understood by looking at linguistic markers that have a pointing function in a given context.
For example, consider the following note pinned on a professor’s door: “Sorry, I missed you. I’m in my other office. Back in an
hour.” Without knowing who the addressee is, what time the note was written, or the location of the other office, it is really hard
to make a precise information of the message. Those terms that we cannot interpret without an immediate context are called
deixis. Deictic terms are used to refer to ourselves, to others, and to objects in our environment. They are also used to locate
actions in a time frame relative to the present. Deictic terms can show social relationship – the social location of individuals in
relation to others. They may be used to locate parts of a text in relation to other parts.
Deictic expressions are typically pronouns, certain time and place adverbs (here, now, etc.), some verbs of motion (come/go), and
even tenses. In fact all languages have expressions that link a sentence to a time and space context and that help to determine
reference.
We can identify five major types of deictic markers – person, place, time, textual and social.
Person deixis refers to grammatical markers of communicant roles in a speech event. The first person is the speaker’s reference to
self; the second person is the speaker’s reference to addressee(s) and the third person is reference to others who are neither
speaker nor addressee.
Place deixis refers to how languages show the relationship between space and the location of the participants in the text: this, that,
here, there, in front of, at our place, etc.
Temporal deixis refers to the time relative to the time of speaking: now, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow, etc.
Textual deixis has to do with keeping track of reference in the unfolding text: in the following chapter, but, first, I’d like to
discuss, etc. Most of the text connectors discussed above belong to this group.
Social deixis is used to code social relationships between speakers and addressee or audience. Here belong honorifics, titles of
addresses and pronouns. There are two kinds of social deixis: relational and absolute. Absolute deictic markers are forms attached
to a social role: Your Honor, Mr.President, Your Grace, Madam, etc. Relational deictic markers locate persons in relation to the
speaker rather than by their roles in the society: my cousin, you, her, etc. In English, social deixis is not heavily coded in the
pronoun system. ‘You’ refers to both – singular and plural. As well as in the Ukrainian language, English possesses ‘a powerful
we’: We are happy to inform…, In this article we…
9. Pragmatic approach to analyzing speech: Speech Act theory. Classifications of speech acts by J. Austin, J. Searle, G.
Pocheptsov. Indirect speech acts.
To put it in other words, they are different speech acts. That is, speech acts are simply things people do through language – for
example, apologizing, instructing, menacing, explaining something, etc. The term ‘speech act’ was coined by the philosopher John
Austin and developed by another philosopher John Searle.
John Austin is the person who is usually credited with generating interest in what has since come to be known as pragmatics and
speech act theory. His ideas of language were set out in a series of lectures which he gave at Oxford University. These lectures
were later published under the title “How to do things with words”. His first step was to show that some utterances are not
statements or questions but actions. He reached this conclusion through an analysis of what he termed‘performative verbs’. Let
us consider the following sentences:
I pronounce you man and wife  I declare war on France  I name this ship The Albatros  I bet you 5 dollars it will rain  I
apologize
The peculiar thing about these sentences, according to J.Austin, is that they are not used to say ordescribe things, but rather
actively to do things. After you have declared war on France or pronounced somebody husband and wife the situation has
changed. That is why J.Austin termed them as performatives and contrasted them to statements (he called them constatives).
Thus by pronouncing a performative utterance the speaker is performing an action. The performative utterance, however, can
really change things only under certain circumstances. J.Austin specified the circumstances required for their success as felicity
conditions. In order to declare war you must be someone who has the right to do it. Only a priest (or a person with corresponding
power) can make a couple a husband ad wife. Besides, it must be done before witnesses and the couple getting married must sign
the register.
Performatives may be explicit and implicit. Let us compare the sentences:
I promise I will come tomorrow – I will come tomorrow;  I swear I love you – I love you.
On any occasion the action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts (a three-fold distinction):
1. locutionary act – producing a meaningful linguistic expression, uttering a sentence. If you have difficulty with actually
forming the sounds and words to create a meaningful utterance (because you are a foreigner or tongue-tied) then you
might fail to produce a locutionary act: it often happens when we learn a foreign language.
2. illocutionary act – we form an utterance with some kind of function on mind, with a definite communicative intention
or illocutionary force. The notion of illocutionary force is basic for pragmatics.
3. perlocutionary act – the effect the utterance has on the hearer. Perlocutionary effect may be verbal or non-verbal.
E.g. I’ve bought a car – Great! It’s cold here – and you close the window.
2. Classifications of speech acts. Indirect speech acts.
It was John Searle, who studied under J.Austin at Oxford, who proposed a detailed classification of speech acts. His speech act
classification has had a great impact on linguistics. It includes five major classes of speech acts: declarations, representatives,
expressives, directives and commissives:

s – speaker, x -
Speech act type Direction of fit
situation
Declarations  E.g. I pronounce you man and wife. You’re words change the
S causes X
fired. world
Representatives  E.g. It was a warm sunny day. John is a make words fit
S believes X
liar. the world
Expressives  E.g. I’m really sorry. Happy birthday! make words fit
S feels X
(statements of pleasure, joy, sorrow, etc.) the world
Directives  E.g. Don’t touch that (commands, orders, make the world
S wants X
suggestions) fit words
Commissives  E.g. I’ll be back (promises, threats, make the world
S intends X
pledges – what we intend to do) fit words
J.Searle can also be merited for introducing a theory of indirect speech acts. Indirect speech acts are cases in which one speech
act is performed indirectly, by way of performing another: Can you pass me the salt? Though the sentence is interrogative, it is
conventionally used to mark a request – we cannot just answer “yes” or “no”. According to modern point of view such utterances
contain two illocutionary forces, with one of them dominating.
Another classification of speech acts was introduced by G.Potcheptsov. It is based on purely linguistic principles. The main
criterion for pragmatic classification of utterances is the way of expressing communicative intention. This classification includes
six basic speech acts:+constatives, promissives, menacives, performatives, directives and questions.
10. The study of language in use – Discourse Analysis. Communicative maxims by P. Grice. Conversational and
conventional implicatures.

Discourse analysis – the study of language in use.

Text as a unit of the highest level manifests itself as discourse in verbal communication. Therefore actual text in use may be
defined as discourse. Discourses are formed by sequence of utterances. It is obvious that many utterances taken by themselves are
ambiguous. They can become clear only within a discourse. Utterances interpretation, or discourse analysis, involves a variety of
processes, grammatical and pragmatic. By pragmatic processes we mean the processes used to bridge up the gap between the
semantic representations of sentences and the interpretation of utterances in context. Quite often, the sentence may be ambiguous:
His soup is not hot enough
The hearer must not only recover the semantic representation of the sentence uttered, but decide who the referential
expression he refers to, whether the ambiguous word hot means very warm orspicy, whether the vague expression his food refers
to the food he cooked, the food he brought, the food he served, the food he is eating, etc.
Besides, utterances have not only propositional content but illocutionary force, and ambiguities may arise at this level:
You’re not leaving
The hearer must not only recover its explicit propositional content, but also decide whether it is a statement, a question or an
order. Furthermore, utterances have not only explicit content but also implicit import:
A: Would you like some coffee?  B: Coffee would keep me awake.
The hearer (A) must recover the implication that B does not want any coffee (or, in some circumstances, that he does).
2. Maxims of conversation.
Understanding the meaning of a discourse requires knowing a lot of things. There are times when people say (or write) exactly
what they mean, but generally they are not totally explicit. They manage to convey far more than their words mean, or even
something quite different from the meaning of their words. It was Paul Grice who attempted to explain how, by means of shared
rules or conventions, language users manage to understand one another. He introduced guidelines necessary for the efficient and
effective conversation. He defined these guidelines as Cooperative Principle. Cooperative Principle presupposes that
conversation is governed by four basic rules,Maxims of Conversation. There are four of them:
1. The Maxim of Quality   Do not say what you believe to be false  Do not say for what you lack adequate evidence  2. The
Maxim of Quantity  Make your contribution as informative as required  Do not make your contribution more informative than is
required  3. The Maxim of Relevance  Be relevant  4. The Maxim of Manner  Be clear  Be orderly
3. Implicatures of discourse.
Communicative maxims make it possible to generate inferences which are defined asconversational
implicatures and conventional implicatures. Conversational implicatures aresuch components of an utterance that are not
expressed semantically but are understood by communicants in the process of communication: Was it you who broke the
cup? This question presupposes: Someone has broken the cup. If you did not do that your normal reaction would be:What
cup?, while the answer I didn’t do that shows that you know about the fact. Conversational implicatures are universal, they do not
depend on the language used. The second type of implicatures, conventional implicatures, are derived from a definite lexical or
grammatical structure of an utterance: I saw only John (conventional implicature – I didn’t see anyone else), Even Bill is smarter
than you (Everybody is smarter than John, John is stupid).
4. Implicatures and indirectness.
Both kinds of implicatures are of great interest for discourse analysis. When there is a mismatch between the expressed meaning
and the implied meaning we deal with indirectness. Indirectness is a universal phenomenon: it occurs in all natural languages. Let
us see how conversational implicatures arise from Maxims of Conversation and thus create indirectness.
A). In the following example Polonius is talking to Hamlet:  Polonius: What do you read, My Lord?  Hamlet: Words, words,
words.
In this dialogue Hamlet deliberately gives less information than is required by the situation and so flouts the Maxim of Quantity.
At the same time he deliberately fails to help Polonius to achieve his goals, thereby flouting the Maxim of Relevance. The Maxim
of Quantity is also flouted when we say:Law is law, woman is woman, students are students. This makes us look for what these
utterances really mean.
B). In the utterance You’re being too smart! the Maxim of Quality is flouted and the hearer is made to look for a covert sense.
Similarly, the same maxim is flouted with metaphors. If I say: He is made of iron, I am either non-cooperative or I want to convey
something different.
C). The Maxim of Relevance can also be responsible for producing a wide range of standard implicatures:  A: Can you tell me the
time?  B: The bell has gone.
It is only on the basis of assuming the relevance of B’s response that we can understand it as an answer to A’s question.
D). A number of different kinds of inference arise if we assume that the Maxim of Manner is being observed. The utterance The
lone ranger rode into the sunset and jumped on his horse violates our expectation that events are recounted in the order in which
they happen because the Maxim of Manner is flouted.
One more explanation of the fact why people are so often indirect in conveying what they mean was put forward by Geoffrey
Leech in his book “Principles of Pragmatics”. He introduces the Politeness Principle which runs as follows: Minimize the
expression of impolite beliefs; Maximize the expression of polite beliefs. According to G.Leech, the Politeness Principle is as
valid as Cooperative Principle because it helps to explain why people do not always observe Maxims of Conversation. Quite often
we are indirect in what we say because we want to minimize the expression of impoliteness:
A: Would you like to go to the theatre?  B: I have an exam tomorrow.  B is saying ‘no’, but indirectly, in order to be polite.
V. Stylistics of the English Language

1. Stylistics as a linguistic discipline. Object and subject-matter of stylistics.

The word ‘stylistics’ is derived from ‘style’ which originates from the Latin ‘stylus/stilus’

1. a slender pointed writing instrument (a small stick with a pointed end) used by the ancient Greeks and Romans as they
scratched letters on wax-covered plates
The scope of problems stylistics is to solve is up to discussion at the present day.

Stylistics is a linguistic discipline which studies nominative and communicative language units and the principles according to
which the units of all language levels are selected for achieving a certain pragmatic aim in different communicative situations.

The subject-matter of stylistics can be outlined as the study of the nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices, on the one
hand, and, on the other, the study of each style of language as classified, its aim, its structure, its characteristic features and the
effect it produces, as well as its interrelation with other styles of language.

Branches in stylistic: Linguistic Stylistics, Literary Stylistics, Corpus Stylistics, Feminist Stylistics, Film Stylistics, Functionalist
Stylistics, Historical Stylistics, Multimodal Stylistics

We do stylistics to

-enrich our ways of thinking about language by shedding light on the language system, as well as learning the ‘rules’ of language
(stylistics often explores texts where those rules are bent);

-acquire the skills of adequate comprehension and accurate interpretation of texts used in different spheres of human
communication (mass media, editorials, brief news, analytical articles, scientific prose, poetry, drama, etc.)

2. Key concepts of stylistics: style; individual style; norm; context.

Style is a distinctive way of using language for some purpose and to some effect (P. Verdonk)

Individual style – a writer’s individual manner of using language means to achieve the effect he desires. Can be recognized by
peculiar combination of language means and SD.

It is next to impossible to work out universal language norms because each functional style has its own regulations: “I ain’t got no
news” is considered normal in colloquial style.

+Norm – set of language rules which are considered to be the most standard and correct in a certain epoch and a certain society.

Types of norm: language norm

stylistic norm

ethic/ecological norm

Each style of language has its own variant and the invariant of the written variety of the language. The norm is the regulator,
which controls a set of variants and the borders of variations. The notion form: form is a term, which refers to the recognizable
shape of a text.

Linguistic context refers to the context within the discourse, that is, the relationship between the words, phrases, sentences and
even paragraphs.

3. Foregrounding, major types of foregrounding.

Foregrounding is - a stylistic device that includes the principles of formal textual organization that focus the reader’s attention on
some certain fragments of the message.

- a stylistic device that draws attention to itself by defamilarization from everyday speech.
The term is borrowed from art criticism which distinguishes between the foreground and the background of a painting.

2 ways of producing foregrounding:

- parallelism: unexpected regularity, “more of the same”

- deviation: unexpected irregularity

These are relative concepts, because something can only be unexpectedly regular or irregular within a particular context.
Types of foregrounding:

- convergence: combination or accumulation of stylistic devices promoting the same idea (e.g. “and heaved, and heaved,
still unrestingly heaved the black sea, as its vast tides were a conscience” – simile, repetition, inversion)
- coupling: semantically relevant appearance of equivalent elements in equivalent position. Coupling is based on the
affinity of elements that occupy similar positions throughout the text. The affinity may be different in nature: phonetic,
structural, semantic. Phonetic affinity is provided by the phonetic stylistic devices (alliteration, assonance, paronomasia),
as well as such prosodic features as rhyme, rhythm and meter. Syntactical affinity is achieved by all kinds of parallelism
and syntactical repetition – anadiplosis, anaphora, framing, chiasmus, epiphora, etc. Semantic coupling is demonstrated
by the use of synonyms and antonyms, both direct and contextual, root repetition, paraphrase, sustained metaphor,
semantic fields, recurrence of images, connotations or symbols.
-defeated expectancy: some element of the text receives prominence due to an interruption in the pattern of predictability. (e.g.
“Miss Fairfax, ever since I met you I have admired you more than any girl … I have met … since I met you.” (O. Wilde)

4. The theory of image. Image structure, types of images.

Image – a speech fragment that contains image-bearing information.

- any word expression that imparts picturesqueness and vividness.

In verbal art imagery is embodied in words used in a figurative way to attain a higher artistic expressiveness.

Unlike the words in literal expressions which denote, or say directly what they mean according to common verbal practice or
dictionary usage, words in figurative expressions connote, or acquire additional layers of meaning in a particular context.

Thus, the literal (dictionary, logical) meaning is the one easily restored irrespective of the context, while the figurative
(contextual) meaning is the one materialised in the given context.

So, the verbal image is a pen-picture of a thing, person or idea expressed in a figurative way, i.e. by words used in their contextual
meaning. Images – due to their frequent use

- often become recognized symbols.

Linguistic figurativeness or linguistic imagery can be found in various lexical lingual means that are termed either tropes, or
lexical stylistic devices.

A trope can be defined as a sort of transfer based on the interplay of lexical meanings of a word that results in establishing
connections between different or even opposite notions or things, which are understood to have some similarity in the given
context

.NB! Imagery can be created by lexical SD’s only.

The rest of stylistic devices (morphological and syntactical, phonetic, graphic) do not create imagery, but serve as intensifiers:
they can add some logical, emotive, expressive information to the utterance.

In rhetoric the verbal image is described as a complex phenomenon, a double picture generated by linguistic means, which
is based on the co-presence of two thoughts of different things active together:

the direct thought – the tenor (T).

the figurative thought – the vehicle (V).

E.g. She (T) is a bird of passage (V).The tenor is the subject of thought, while the vehicle is the concept of a thing, person or an
abstract notion with which the tenor is compared or identified.

As I.V. Arnold points out, the structure of a verbal image also includes:

the ground of comparison (G) — the similar feature of Т and V;

the relation (R) between Т and V;

the type of identification/comparison or, simply, the type of a trope.

Images may be:

general (macroimages), e.g. ‘The Moon and Sixpence’ by W.S. Maugham

individual (microimages), e.g. that great ocean of deep depression. (Priestley)

I.R. Galperin divides images into three categories:

visual, e.g. It was a feast of colour. (Maugham)

aural (acoustic), e.g. He sprang to the machine, which was now going pocketa- pocketa-queep-pocketa-queep. (Thurber)

relational, e.g. a man of figures, a man of great dignity. (Priestley)

5. Style and meaning. Meaning from a stylistic point of view. Types of connotations.
Word meaning - constant relations between the object (as a referent or an idea about a referent), the notion named and the name
itself: its sound form and contents, or the reflection of the object or notion in our mind. (V.I. Shakhovsky)

Grammatical – refers our mind to relations between words or to some forms of words or constructions bearing upon their
structural functions in the language-as-a-system. (Galperin)

Lexical – refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon, or thing of objective reality, whether real or imaginary. Can be
denotative and connotative.

Denotative represents the most important aspect of communication because it refers to the notional basis of information conveyed
by the speaker to the listener; establishes correlation between the name (word) and the object, phenomenon, process or
qualification of concrete reality or thought as such, which is detonated by the word;

Connotative – refers to socio-cultural and personal associations of the sign Conveys information about the situation and the
participants of communication; Does not exist independently of denotation but simultaneously with it

Сonnotative meaning may be of 4 types

- functional stylistic meaning which is the result of the constant usage of the word in definite speech spheres: foe, maiden
– in poetry, chap – colloquial.
- evaluative meaning which bears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through the evaluation of the denotate: e.g. The
concept “dwelling” is represented:slum, house, building, barrack, hut, mansion, palace, etc.

- emotive meaning which expresses the speaker’s emotional attitude to the denotate (chit, puppet, jade) e.g. “She sounds a
bit of a swine”, the boy said. Oh! Hell! Damn! Bloody!

- expressive meaning which does not refer to directly to things or phenomena of the objective reality, but to the feelings
and emotions of the speaker; aims at intensification of the meaning – both emotional and logical; it either increases or
decreases the expressiveness of the language. e.g. pig-headed – ‘very stubborn and obstinate’ (speaking of a man –
cockerel, bully, buck)

6. Phonetic and graphical stylistic means in English.

Phonetic stylistic means in English.

The most powerful expressive means (EM) of any language are phonetic. Pitch, melody, stress, sounds, pausation, drawling,
whispering, a sing-song manner of speech are very effective EM. These EM are studied by phonetics. Stylistics observes the
nature of EM and their capacity of becoming stylistic devices (SD). The phonetic SD are alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia,
rhyme, rhythm.

Alliteration is a phonetic SD which consists in the repetition of similar consonants in close succession to express a definite
feeling, to contribute something to the general effect of the message.
Assonance is a phonetic SD which consists in the repetition of similar vowels in close succession with the purpose to create a
strong emotional effect.

Cf. This tuneful peal will still ring on. /Th. Moore/

The repetition of the sound /1/ in this line renders the musical effect too.

Onomatopoeia is a phonetic SD which consists in imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder), by people (sighing,
laughter, patter of feet), by animals, by things, etc. This SD expresses a definite feeling or state of mind.

Rhyme is a phonetic SD which consists in the repetition of identical or similar sound combinations of words. The rhymes may be
arranged in couplets (aa), in triplets (aaa), in cross rhymes (abab) and in framing (abba).

Rhythm as a phonetic SD consists in regular periodicity of long / short, stressed / unstressed, high / low segments of speech. It
brings order into me utterance. Rhythm intensifies the emotion (enumeration, repetition, parallel construction, etc.).

Graphical stylistic means in English.

They serve to convey in the written form the effects which in the oral type of speech are expressed by intonation and stresses. We
refer here the emphatic use of the punctuation and deliberate change of the spelling of a word.

Graphon is the intentional vacation of the graphical shape of a word (word combination) used to reflect its authentic
pronunciation. Graphons indicate irregularities, carelessness of pronunciation, foreign accent.

Temporary: tender age, intoxication, ignorance of the discussed things. Permanent: social, territorial, educational factors.

Pure Graphical Stylistic Devices

Multiplication: laaarge, r-r-ruin Hyphonation: I en-vy her Capitalization: I Love him

The use of italics, the use of punctuation: I Love him!!! And the use Typical resection (загл.

(it’s like summary)

Is a rather common means of indicating stress and other changes in prosodic elements, includes:

1. italics, 
2. bold type,
3. h-y-p-h-e-n-a-t-i-o-n,
4. spacing o u t, 
5. mmmmmultiplication
6. and CAPITALIZATION.

The most frequently used one is the exclamation mark!

Emphatic punctuation is used in many stylistic devices, but it can also be used in utterances which contain none:

And there – drinking at the bar – was – Robert!

Serves to convey exaggerated articulation:

7. la-a-arge...
8. I des-pise you!

7. Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary: neutral, literary, colloquial words.

The word-stock of any language may be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet
independent. Then the word-stock of the English language may be divided into three main layers (strata): the literary layer
(stratum), the neutral layer, and the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups. Each
subgroup has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property which unites the different groups
within the layer is called its aspect.
(IN CASE SHE ASKS, BELOW THE DIAGRAM WITH THE SUBGROUPS)

The aspect of the literary layer is its bookish character, which makes the layer more or less stable.

The aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character, which makes it unstable, fleeting.

The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human
activity. This makes the layer the most stable of all.

The classification given by I.R. Galperin reflects to a great extent the mobility of the lexical system so characteristic of the
English language at its present stage of development.

The vocabulary has been divided here into two basic groups: standard and non-standard vocabulary.

Neutral words form the bulk of the English Vocabulary and are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are
the main source of synonymy and polysemy. Unlike all other groups, neutral words don’t have a special stylistic colouring and are
devoid of emotional meaning.

The literary vocabulary consists of the following subgroups of words:

1. common literary words;

2. terms and learned ['lə:nid] words;
3. poetic words;
4. archaic words;
5. barbarisms and foreign words;
6. literary coinages and nonce-words.

The colloquial vocabulary includes the following groups of words:

1. common colloquial words;

2. slang;
3. jargonisms;
4. professionalisms;
5. dialectal words;
6. vulgar words;
7. colloquial coinages.

The difference between the colloquial, neutral and literary words

8. General overview of the English syntactic stylistic means.

1.2 Classification of stylistic syntactic means

I. R. Galperin, in its essence, classifies stylistic devices as syntactic, phraseological, lexical and frenetic. Stylistic syntactic devices
include: inversion, isolation, ellipse, silence, improperly direct speech, indirectly - direct speech, questions in a narrative text,
rhetorical question, litote, parallel constructions, chiasm, repetitions, buildup, retardation, antithesis, addition (comulation ), multi-
union and non-union [Galperin, 2003. 44].

V.A. Kukharenko emphasizes stylistic syntactic devices: inversion, rhetorical question, ellipse, suspense, repetitions, parallel
constructions, chiasm, polyunion, non-union, aposiopesis [Efimov, 1996. 41].
One of the main classifications of sentences in syntax is the classification according to the purpose of the statement into
interrogative, declarative, exclamatory and imperative sentences. Proposals are divided into affirmative and negative ones. Each
of these categories has formal and negative features. Each can, in turn, meet in the meaning of any of the others, acquiring more
modal or emotional special meaning, expressiveness or stylistic coloring.

Transposition is the use of syntactic structures in non-native or denotative meanings and with additional connotations.

Syntactic transposition refers to the implicative forms of changes in the nuclear sentence. According to Yu.M. Skrebnev,
implication is the use of visual content unusual for a language unit, functional enrichment of the content plan of a language unit
[Skrebnev, 1971, 85].

I. V. Arnold presents stylistic syntactic means, such as: inversion, rhetorical question, litote, repetitions, polyunion, asyndeton,
aposiopesis, parallel constructions, ellipsis, default [Arnold, 2002. 217].

9. General overview of the English semasiological stylistic means.

Semasiology - is a linguistic science which studies the meaning of language units of different levels (words, word combinations,
utterances, texts) a part of stylistics which investigates stylistic phenomena in the sphere of semantics, i.e. in the sphere of
meanings, regardless of the form of linguistic units. It investigates the rules and laws of shifts of meanings; the patterns according
to which the meanings are shifted or various combinations of meaning.

different means of secondary nomination which are based on the usage of existing words and words combinations to denote new
notions or to give new names to the already known objects.

Semasiology is a linguistic science which studies the meaning of language units of different levels (words, word combinations,
utterances, texts) (O. Morokhovsky). Stylistic semasiology is a branch of semasiology that studies meanings, semantic changes
and semantic relations within words and word-combinations that are used as EM and SD (O. Morokhovsky).

In the process of human development new notions appear.

However there exists a tendency to economy of language means which leads to secondary nomination.Secondary nomination is
the use of existing words or word-combinations for denoting new or existing concepts.Human conceptual system plays a central
role in defining everyday realities. Since communication is based on the same conceptual system that we use thinking and acting,
any language is an important source of evidence for what that system is like.
1 Figures of quantity are based on comparison of 2 objects having some quantitative similarities
sizesdimensionsageshape, etc.
-Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon
Hyperbole can be expressed by all notional parts of speechThe most typical cases of expression are: by pronouns, by numerical
nouns, by adverbs of timeIn Ukrainian the ways of expression are as follows: by pronouns, by numerical nouns, by intensifying
adverbs, by adverbs of time, place
Hyperbole may be the final effect of other stylistic devices: metaphor, similie, irony
Hyperbole mounts the expressiveness of speech
- MEIOSIS This figure of quantity is opposite in meaning to hyperbole
Meiosis is a deliberate diminution of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon
Meiosis underlines insignificance of such qualities of objects and phenomena as their size, volume, distance, time, shape, etc.The
domain of meiosis is colloquial speechMeiosis makes speech expressive
- Litotes is a specific variant of meiosis
Litotes has a peculiar syntactic structureIt is a combination of the negative particle "not" and a word with negative meaning or a
negative prefixSuch a combination makes positive sense
Litotes is used in all functional styles of English
Litotes extenuates positive qualities of objects or phenomenaIt makes statements and judgments sound delicate and diplomaticIt
also expresses irony
2. Metonymy is transference of a name of one object to another object
Metonymic transference of names is based upon the principle of contiguity of the two objectsMetonymy is expressed by nouns,
less frequently ‒ by substantivized numeralsThe syntactic functions and positions of metonymic words are those of the subject,
object and predicative
Metonymy may be lexical and contextual (genuine)
Lexical metonymy is a source of creating new words or new meaningsLexical metonymy is devoid of stylistic
informationContextual metonymy is the result of unexpected substitution of one word for another in speechIt is fresh and
expressiveStylistic metonymy builds up imagery, points out this or another feature of the object described, etc.
SYNECDOCHE This variety of metonymy is realized in two variants.
The first variant is naming the whole object by mentioning part of itThe second variant of synecdoche is using the name of the
whole object to denote a constituent part of this object
PERIPHRASISThis variety of metonymy is the replacement of a direct name of a thing or phenomenon by the description of
some quality of this thing or phenomenonPeriphrasis intensifies a certain feature of the object describedIt stands close to
metonymy because it is one more way to rename objects
There are such types of periphrasis as logical and figurative
Logical periphrasis is based upon one of the inherent properties of the objectFigurative periphrasis is based upon metaphor or
metonymyPeriphrasis performs a cognitive function: it deepens our knowledge of the objective world

EUPHEMISMIt is a word or word-combination which is used to replace an unpleasantly sounding word or word-
combinationEuphemism might be viewed as periphrasis: they have the same mechanism of formationStrictly speaking,
euphemisms are not stylistic devices but expressive means of language: most of them are registered in dictionaries
Euphemisms may be classified according to the spheres of their application and grouped the following way:Religious
euphemismsMoral euphemismsMedical euphemismsPolitical euphemismsEuphemisms make speech more polite, delicate,
acceptable in a certain situation
Metaphor is the second figure of quality
Metaphor is the result of transference of the name of one object to another objectHowever, metaphoric transference is of different
nature: it is based upon similarity of the objects (not contiguity)

Epithets proper are subjective and evaluating, mostly metaphorical

These qualities make epithets expressive

Epithets may be classified on the basis of their semantic and structural properties
Semantically, epithets fall into two groups: epithets associated with the nouns modified and epithets not associated with the nouns
modifiedAssociated epithets point out typical features of the objects which they describeSuch typical features are implied by the
meaning of the nouns themselves

As for their structural composition, epithets are divided into simple, compound, phrasal and clausal
Simple epithets are ordinary adjectivesCompound epithets are expressed by compound adjectivesPhrasal epithets are expressed by
word-combinations of quotation typeClausal epithets are expressed by sentences
ANTONOMASIA
This variety of metaphor is based upon the principle of identification of human beings with things which surround themPeople
may be identified with other people, with animals, with inanimate objects and natural phenomena
When the speaker resorts to antonomasia, he creates the so-called "talking names" which aim at depicting certain traits of human
character: moral and psychological features, peculiarities of behaviour, outlook, etc.
PERSONIFICATIONWhen the speaker ascribes human behaviour, thoughts and actions to inanimate objects, he resorts to the
stylistic device of personification
ALLEGORY Factually, allegory is antonomasia
The only difference between them lies in their usage: the domain of allegory is not a sentence but the whole text (a logically
completed narration of facts or events)There are allegoric tales and fables, stories and novels
IRONY
This figure of quality is realized when the speaker intentionally breaks the principle of sincerity of speechIronically used words
acquire meanings opposite to their primary language meanings: ironical good means bad, enough means not enough, pleased
means displeased, etc.
Though irony is a contextual stylistic device, there exist words and word-combinations which convey ironical meaning out of
context
In order to help the addressee decode irony the speaker often resorts to appropriate intonation and gesturesIrony is generally used
to convey a negative meaning or emotion: irritation, regret, dissatisfaction, disappointment, displeasure, etc

10. The problem of functional styles in English.

Functional Stylisticsis a part of Stylistics studying different styles of language, their linguistic peculiarities and functions, or to be
more exact, its attention is centred on the message in its correlation (*connection of cause and effect) with the communicative
situation.

Language means, chosen and used in every functional style, depend on several factors. The most important among them is the
purpose of communication. A language stylecan be defined asasystem of coordinative, interrelated and interconditioned language
means, aimed at fulfilling a specific function of communication and ensuring a definite effect.

Functional styles(FSs) are the subsystems of language, each having its specific features (phonetic, lexical and grammatical),
determined by the condition of communication in various spheres of human activity
FSs should be distinguished from the varieties of language. The written and the oral varieties of language are merely forms of
communication which depend on the situation in which the communication is maintained (i.e. on the presence or absence of the
interlocutor), whereas FSs are patterns of the written variety aimed at securing a desired purpose of communication.

The Classification of Functional Styles

The English literary language has evolved (*developed gradually by a long and continuous progress) a number of FSs easily
distinguishable one from another. Theyare nothomogeneousandfall into several variants. The classification of FSs is one of the
most disputable and difficult problems in Stylistics. The reasons for it are as follows:

FSs are historically changeable categories;

The boundary lines between FSs are not clearly cut;

The criteria of classification of FSs have not been defined yet.

Each FS is a relatively stable system at given stage in the language development, but it changes in the course of time, and
sometimes considerably. The development of each style is predetermined by:

the changes in the norms of Standard English;

the changes of social conditions;

the progress of science and the development of cultural life in the country.

The boundary lines between FSs are rather vague, because some FSs have common features. For example, the oratory style has
much in common with thepublicistic style; while the latter has many similar features with thescientific prosestyle. Up to now the
criteria of FS classification remains disputable. The majority of linguists speak about five FSs: the belles-lettresstyle, embracing
all genres of emotive prose; the style ofofficial documents; thescientific prosestyle; thepublicisticstyle; thenewspaperstyle.

A Brief Outline of Functional Styles

The Belles-lettres Style. It is the style of creative literature. It is the richest register of communication. Alongside with its own
language means, it makes wide use of elements of other FSs. Its functions areinformative,persuasive,and aesthetic.The form of
presentation in the Belles-lettres style is meaningful and carries additional information. There are three substyles:emotive
prose,poetryanddrama.

The Style of Official Documents. The main function is to define the condition, binding two parties in some undertaking to reach
an agreement between them. These parties may be: the state and a citizen, or a citizen and a citizen, two or more enterprises
(business correspondence or contract); two or more governments (pacts, treaties, etc); a person in authority and a subordinate
(orders, regulation instructions), etc.

This style is the most conservative in its structure and vocabulary used. Its forms are strictly regulated lexically and
grammatically. The most remarkable features are:

Absence of emotiveness and subjective modality;

The use of words in their logical meaning;

A set of terms, clichés, set-expressions symbols and abbreviation.

The Scientific Prose Style. It is characteristic of a professional style. The main function is to prove some hypothesis to create
new concepts, to explain internal laws of development and links between phenomena. This style is marked by laconism, clarity
and logical cohesion. The most remarkable features are:

The abundance of terms denoting objects, phenomena or processes of a particular branch of science or technology;

The vocabulary used bears its direct referential meaning (i.e. no emotiveness);

Sentence patterns are of three types: postulatory,argumentativeandformulative;

Frequent use of quotations and references;

The use of foot-notes (примечания);

The use of passive constructions and clichés.

The Publicistic Style. It became a separate style in the 18thcentury and falls into three varieties, each having its own distinctive
features. They are:

Oratory and speeches(oratorical substyle, radio and TV commentary);

Essay(moral, philosophical, literary);

Journalisticarticles(political, social, economic) in newspapers and magazines.

The general aim of this style is:

To constantly and deeply influence public opinion;

To convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one;

To cause them to accept the given viewpoint not only through logical argumentation but through emotional appeal as well.

The Newspaper Style. It dates from the 17thcentury. Not all printed matter found in the newspaper comes under newspaper style,
as the modern newspaper carries material of extremely diverse character. Its main functions are: to inform and instruct the reader
and to give the evaluation of the events described.

To draw the readers’ attention to the news certain graphic means are used by publishers: space ordering and types of print.
Newspaper style is abundant in dates, names of countries, institutions and individuals. Its main substyles are:brief news
items,advertisements and announcements,headlinesandeditorials

Германістика
1. Principal Features of Germanic Languages (Word Stress in Indo-European and Common Germanic; Common
Germanic Vowel Shift, Common Germanic Fracture; Indo-European and Germanic Ablaut; Grimm’s Law; Verner’s Law;
Rhotacism.)

- Principal Features of Germanic Languages:

Stress falls on the initial syllables(root syllables) of a word. Change of vowels(Germanic Vowel Shift) and changes of consonant
( Grimm’s Law and Verner’s Law). Strong and weak declension of adjectives and verb.
-Word Stress in Indo-European and Common Germanic:
In IE were two kinds of stress – musical and dynamic. In Germanic language only dynamic stress is preserved. In IE stress was
free and movable, in PG and OE it became fixed upon the first syllable primarily.
In PG there was a tendency to adopt a uniform position for the stress on a word, by putting it on the 1st syllable. The tendency in
PG to stabilize the accent on the first syllable, together with the adoption of a predominantly stress type of accent, had profound
consequences. Due to the difference in the force of articulation the stressed and unstressed syllables underwent widely different
changes: accented syllables were pronounced with great distinction and precision, while unaccented became less distinct and were
weakened and lost. Since the stress was fixed on the root, the weakening and loss of sounds mainly affected the suffixes and
endings. Many endings merged with the suffixes, were weakened and dropped.
- Common Germanic Vowel Shift, Common Germanic Fracture:
Vowel Shift - The main characteristic feature in the Germanic langs is the treatment of the Indo-European short vowels o and a
and long ā and ō. IE short o and a appear as short a in Germanic langs. E. G.: Ночь – Nacht. IE long ā and ō appear as long ō in
Germanic. As result there was neither a short o nor a long ā in Germanic langs.
The quality of stressed vowel is in some cases dependent on a following sound – fracture (also called breaking). It’s about the
pair e and i and the pair u and o.
Germanic Fracture -In GLs the quality of a stressed vowel in some cases depended on the type of the sound that followed. This
dependence is reflected in the notion of fracture. The fracture concerns two pairs of vowels: /e/ & /i/, /u/ & /o/. In Goth the
distribution of /e/ & /i/, /u/ & /o/ was influenced by the following consonants. Before /r/, /h/, /hw/ i→e, u→o
(Umlaut (Germanic fracture)- Another phenomenon common for all Germanic languages was the tendency of phonetic
assimilation of the root vowel to the vowel of the ending, the so-сalled Umlaut, or mutation. In certain phonetic conditions,
namely before the nasal [n] and before [i] or [j] in the next syllable, the short [e], [i] and [u] remained or became close (i.e.
appeared as [i] and [u]), while in the absence of these conditions the more open allophones were used: [e] and [o], respectively.
For example: Goth harjis OE here ‘army’/ Goth dōmjan OE dēman ‘deem’)
I-Umlaut (I-Mutation) – is a kind of partial regressive assimilation of root vowel caused by I or J of the following syllable and
resulting in fronting and narrowing of the root vowel. /a/, /o/, /u/ change into /e/,/e/,/y/ if the following vowel is /i/or /j/. Later i,
and j disappeared or changed to e. (dailjan – delan)
*a> æ> e / *o> oe> e 
*a> æ / *u> y:
*o> e / *u> y
U-Umlaut (Back Mutationor Velar Mutation) - The short front vowels a(æ), e, i were diphthongized when the back vowels a, o
, u were present in the following syllable.
a (æ)> ea OE saro> searu / e> eo, OE efor> eofor / i> io, OE sifon> siofon
OE breaking(fracture) – is the diphthongization of short vowels before sonorant clusters.
e>eo / a(schwa) > ea / i>io>eo ( seh- seoh; herza-heorte)
-followed by r, l, h + consonant
-h in the final position ( *ærm – earm (рука); *æhta ® eahta (восемь); æld ® eald (старый)
- Indo-European and Germanic Ablaut:
The vowels played an important part in the grammar of Proto-Indo-European, because of the way they alternated in related forms
(as in Modern English sing, sang, sung), and this system descended to Proto-Germanic. There were several series of vowels that
alternated in this way. Each member of such a series is called a grade (ступінь), and the whole phenomenon is known as
gradation or ablaut.
Ablaut is an independent vowel intergange unconnected with any phonetic condition; different vowels appear in the same
environment,surrounded by the same sound. There are two types of Ablaut: quantitative and qualitative,
- The rise of ablaut is partly connected with the movement of z stress: In PIE the accent was free, in Germanic it was retracted to
the initial syllable of voice
- Ablaut was inherited by PG from PIE.
- The Germanic l-ges employed both types of Ablaut – Qualitative and Quantitative.
- In the Germanic languages it was most consistently used in building the principal forms of the verbs.
Types of ablaut:
- quantitative - altenation of short & long vowels; (IE e>zero, o>zero, short e> long e, short o> long o) Gr. pater- patros(gen.)
Lat. sedo – sedi ( Germ. e>zero, a > zero, short e > long e, short a > long o) OE ber – beron
- qualitative- the vowels differ in quality- change of front vowels into back; The qualitative ablaut is the alteration of different
vowels mainly the vowels e/a or e/o. ( IE  e>o) везу-возити; нести-ноша. (Germ.  i/e > a, i>u ) Got. drigkan- dragk
?- qualitative – qualitative ( IE  e>  o>  zero.) Рус. беру- сбор-брать; ( Germ.  i/e > a, a >long o) OHG beran – barn- giburt; OE
faran – for – foron – faren
There are 5 classes of ablaut:
I: i: - ai – i – i
II: iu – au –u – u
III: i – a – u – u
IV: i – a – ē – u
V: i - a – ē – i.
- Grimm’s Law:
Also called First Consonant Shift.
The essence of Grimm’s law is that the quality of some sounds (namely plosives) changed in all Germanic languages while the
place of their formation remained unchanged. Thus, voiced aspirated plosives lost their aspiration and changed into pure voiced
plosives, voiced plosives became voiceless plosives and voiceless plosives turned into voiceless fricatives. ( Voiceless plosives –
voiceless fricatives. Voiced plosives – voiceless plosives. Voiced aspirated plosives – voiced plosives.)
ACT I. IE voiceless plosives – CG voiceless fricatives
p>f   L pater         Gt fadar
t>Þ   L tres           Angl three
k>h   L noctem    Gt nahts
ACT II. IE voiced plosives – CG voiceless plosives
 b>p  R слабый   Gt slepan
 d>t   R два          Angl two
 g>k  R иго           Angl yoke
ACT III. IE voiced aspirated plosives – CG voiced plosives 
 bh>b   Sanscr bhrātar    Gt broÞar
 dh>d   R мед                 OE medu
gh>g   L hostis              Gt gast
- Verner’s Law. Rhotacism:
Verner’s Law - voiceless fricatives *f, *þ, *s, *h, *hʷ, when immediately following an unstressed syllable in the same word,
underwent voicing and became respectively the fricatives *b, *d, *z, *g, *gʷ;
Rhotacism - one more consonant(voiceless fricative) is affected by V.L. If the preceding vowel is unstressed, “s” in Germanic l-
ges becomes voiced and changes into “z”, and changer into “r”.
s > z > r (OE: wesan – wæs – wæron – weron; OE: ceas - ceosan – curon)(NE was, Germ war).

2. Indo-European, Common Germanic and classical Old English phonemic systems compared.

All the Germanic Languages of the past and present have common linguistic features that are not shared by other groups of
languages in the Indo-European family (Slavonic group, Romance group, etc.). These features are characteristic of the
Germanic group only. They appeared during the period of the Proto-Germanic Language, before it split into a certain
number of the Germanic languages. First of all we are going to discuss the common Germanic phonetic features.
Word Stress/Accent
Indo-European (Non-Germanic) Proto-Germanic

1. free stress (movable, i.e. can appear in any 1. fixed stress (can’t move either in form- or
part of a word (root, prefix, suffix)); word-building and is usually placed on root or
prefix);

2. pitch stress (musical) 2. dynamic stress (force, breath stress)

E.g.: русский E.g.: German English

б`елый `Liebe `white

белизн`а `lieben `whiteness

белов`атый `lieberhaft `whitish

бел`ить ge`liebt `whitewash

The Proto-Germanic type of stress led to the formation of the following peculiarities of the Germanic languages as compared
to non-Germanic Indo-European languages:
 phonetic– as a result of the fixed position of the stress the unstressed syllables were becoming weaker and
weaker, they got less distinct and neutral sounds (such as “schwa”) appeared;
 morphological – as a result of the fact that the stress was fixed on the root and the syllables following the root
were always unstressed and weak, many Germanic languages began to lose suffixes and grammatical endings and
became ANALYTICAL LANGUAGES.
E.g.: Old English (OE) [`sunu]
Middle English (ME) [`sunə]
New English (NE) [`sun]
Modern English (ModE) [`sΛn] (the word “son”)
Vowels
Vowels undergo different types of changes:
1. Qualitative change – affects the quality of a sound (e.g. [o  Λ]).
2. Quantitative change – affects the length of a sound (e.g. [i  i:]).
3. Dependent/positional change – a change that occurs in certain position or in certain phonetic conditions (e.g. bit_
– bite [bit  bait]).
4. Independent/spontaneous change – affects a certain sound in all positions irrespective of phonetic conditions and
serves to distinguish a grammatical phenomenon (ablaut) (more about it in Lecture 4).
Main tendencies in Vowel Changes in the Germanic Languages:
1. Short vowels  become neutralized.
2. Long vowels  become short and more open.
 become diphthongized and more closed.
Proto-Germanic Vowel System:

Short Vowels i e a o u
Long Vowels i: e: a: o: u:
Some vowel correspondences between Germanic and on-Germanic Languages:
Sound Non-Germanic Germanic
 Correspondence Latin Русский English German Swedish

[a:  o:] mater мать mother - moder

[o  a] nox ночь - Nacht natt

[e  i] ventus ветер wind Wind vind

[u  o] sunus сын son Sohn son

Consonants
The comparison of the Germanic and non-Germanic languages within the Indo-European family reveals regular
correspondences between German and non-German consonants.
First Consonant Shift (Grimm’s Law) – in the 19th Jacob Grimm, a German scholar, discovered the existence of regular
correspondence between Indo-European (IE) and German consonants and subdivided them into 3 groups:

Consonant Examples
Correspondences Old Modern
№
Non- German
German Non-German
IE PG German (English,
(OE) (Italian, рус.)
(Latin) German)

[bh,dh,gh]  [b, d, g] bhrāta (Hind

brōþor брат brother,  Bruder
aspirated non-aspirated )
1 voiced stops voiced stops
rudhira(Hind) rēad - red

hostis giest гость guest, Gast

[b, d, g]  [p, t, k] labare pōl болото pool,  Pfuhl

voiced stops voiceless
stops/plosives dieci,  десят
2 decem tīen ten
ь

genu cnēo ginocchio knee,  Knie

[p, t, k]  [f, , h] pedis fōt piedi foot, Fuß

voiceless voiceless
3 stops/plosives fricatives tres þrēo tre, три three

cordis heort cuore heart, Herz

Verner’s Law – Carl Verner, a Danish scholar (19th c.), explained the consonant correspondences as a gradual historical
process (a change takes place in the course of time):
Consonant Correspondences Latin OE ModE

1. [p, t, k]  [f, , h]  [v, ð/d, g] septem seofen seven

voiceless voiceless voiced
stops/ fricatives fricatives pater fæđer father
plosives
socrus swaiho(Gothic) Schwager(Germ)

2. Rhotacism
ausis (Lithuanian) Auso  (Gothic) ear, Ohr (Germ)
[s]  [z]  [r]
P.S.: these processes usually happened on condition that the consonants were situated between vowels and if preceded by
an unstressed vowel.
Modern Examples: seethe – sodden, death – dead, was – were.
Second Consonant Shift – happened in the 9th c. in Old High German and today we can observe it comparing English and
German:
Consonant Correspondences English German

1. [t]  [ts] two zwei


[s] water Wasser

2. []  [d] three drei

3. [d]  [t] daughter Tochter

 4. [k]  [h] make machen

3. The Old English Vowel System. Phonological Processes in OE and their Traces in Modern English. Development of
Vowels in Unstressed Syllables in OE, ME, Early New English.

- The Old English Vowel System. Phonological Processes in OE and their Traces in Modern English:
(OE Breaking, Velar Umlaut, I-Umlaut, Palatal Diphthongization).
Comparing OE system of vowels with IE and Protogermanic we can arrive at a conclusion that the system of vowels in OE
changed: in IE there were 10 monophthongs, in PG – 8, in OE – 15. If we compare PG diphthongs with OE, it could possible to
say that in OE all the diphthongs are new. At least so the 8 diphtongs look at first sight. New phonemes appeared due to different
phonetic processes. Some of them were reflected in PG: the Common Germanic Fracture and The Common Germanic Vowel
Shift. Other processes: i-Umlaut, splitting, breaking, palatal mutation before x’, diphthongization due to initial palatal consonant,
back mutation, contraction.
• Breaking (the process of formation of a short diphthong from a simple short vowel when it is followed by a specific consonant
cluster: hard>heard, arm>earm, half>healf, erl>eorl) - (преломление) – diphthongization of short vowels ‘a’, ‘e’ before the
clusters: ‘r+ con.’, ‘l + con.’, ‘ h+ con., final ‘ h’: ærm – earm, herte – heorte, selh – seolh;
• Palatal mutation (i-umlaut – back sound o or a changes its quality if there is a front sound in the next syllable: sandian>sendan;
ofstian>efstan)
• Back mutation (the syllable that influenced the preceding vowel contained a back vowel o or u: hira>hiora, herot>heorot) =
velar mutation( change into diphthong)
-Diphthongization due to initial palatal consonant (in OE after palatal consonants sk’, k’, j: skal>sceal) ( vowel-diphthongs)
- Development of Vowels in Unstressed Syllables in OE, ME, Early New English:
In OE: any voel can be found in unstressed ending: singan, sunu (a,u unstressed)
In Middle Engl: vowels of instressed endings have been levelled under a neutral vowel)somth like shwa), represented by the letter
e: sunu--->sune
In Modern English unstressed vowel sounds are lost in endings/
Rejection of u in two-syllabic words after stressed vowels (sceapu>sceap)

4. Noun declensions in OE. Types of stems.

The strong declension includes nouns with vocalic stems (-a-,-o-,-i-,-u-) and the weak comprises only n-stems. There is also the
root-stem declension and some minor declensions (r-stem, s-stem, -nd-stems). Depending on the character of the sound in the
stem-building suffix the stems can also be looked upon as vocalic and consonantal. The vowel a-system declension is the most
widely spread and proved to be the most stable in the history. The root stem declension stands separately from all others: the
inflections were joined not to the suffix but to the root.
Strong Declension:
a-stem nouns characterized by the different endings in the Nominative and the Accusative plural (-as for the masculine and –u for
the neuter).( earn,word,hus)
o-stem- fem+ ending u; ( caru, scamu)
i-stem- can be in all 3 gender; (mere, sife)
o-u-stem may be im masc and fem ( sunu, hand)
Weal declension:
n-stem all gender ( wita, sunne)
root stems – the noun that never had a stem suffix ( wimman)
r-stem – masc and fem ( dohtor, swestor)
s-stem all neuter

5.The Categories of the OE Adjective and their further development.

Forms of the OE adjective express:

- the categories of gender – masculine, neuter and feminine;
- number – the singular and the plural;
- and case – nominative, genitive, dative, accusative and  partly instrumental.
The adj in OE was a fully declinable part of speech. It has 2 number, 3 gtnder, 4 cases.
The category.of adj are dependable upon the nouns. The adj. had 2 types of declensions: strong and weak. Strong adj. had more
endings opposed to each other , so these adj. supported the nouns by their specific forms, helping the latter  to render  the relations
in the phrase in a “stronger” way, therefore they are called strong. Weak declension was characterized by the ending –en. Most
adj. could be declined according to both declensions. Some adj. also changed their forms in accordance with the category of
Degrees of comparison.
There were 2 was of declining Adjectives – the Definite and the Indefinite declension. The adjective followed the Definite
declension mainly if the noun if modified had another attribute – a demonstrative pronoun, and they were declined as Indefinite
otherwise. The gram suffixed – forms of cases mainly coincided with those of nouns with the stem originally ending in a vowel or
–n, yet in some cases we find pronominal suffixes.
The difference between the Indefinite and Definite declension is shown by the zero ending for the former and the ending –e for the
latter, but only in the Singular. The forms of the Definite and the Indefinite declension in the Plural have similar endings.
The adjective has lost its case-system altogether. There remain only a few traces of the number distinction and the distinction
between the strong and weak declension. The comparative and the superlative degrees are formed with the suffixes –er, -est
respectively. The mutated forms still occur, but the vowel may already be leveled on the pattern of the positive form. The
suppletive forms of comparison remain the same, with corresponding phonetic changes.
Strong – a, o – stem
Weak – n-stem

6. The Morphological classification of the OE Verbs (strong, weak, preterite-present and anomalous verbs).

The majority of OE verbs fell into two great divisions: the strong verbs and the weak verbs. Besides these two main groups
there were a few others which will be treated under the general heading of "minor" groups. The main difference between the
strong and weak verbs lay in the means of forming the principal parts, or the "stems" of the verb.The following chart gives a
general idea of the morphological classification of OE verbs.
The strong verbs formed their stems by means of vowel gradation (ablaut) in the root and by adding certain suffixes. The strong
verbs had four stems, as they distinguished two stems in the past tense – one for the 1st and 3rd person singular, indicative mood,
the other – for the other past tense forms, indicative and subjunctive.
Weak verbs formed their Past and Participle II by means of the dental suffix –d- or –t-. Have only three basic forms which are
differed in the ending of the Infinitive, the sonority of the suffix, and the sounds preceding the suffix.
Minor groups of verbs differed from the weak and strong verbs but were not homogeneous either. Some of them combined certain
features of the strong and weak verbs in a peculiar way ("preterite-present" verbs); 
The Preterite-Present verbs are of the specific character in the verb system of OE. There were 12 preterite-present verbs. Irregular
verbs . there are 4 verbs in OE listed as irregular b͞eon/wesan ( be ), ᴣan (go), do͞n (do) and willan ( will). The first  2 differ  from
all other  verbs in their forms are derived from different roots, that is their system is based on suppletivity
Among all the paradigmatic forms of strong verbs there are four basic forms: 1) the Infinitive, 2) the Past singular, 3) the Past
Plural and 4) Participle Ⅱ
Anomalous verbs - These verbs show many irregularities, and tend to be old words. They are sometimes called "basic" verbs,
because they are fundamental components of the language. Some of them are historically a blend of two or more different
Germanic verbs. There are only five: bēon, wesan, dōn, gān and willan.

7. The Linguistic consequences of the Scandinavian Invasion.

• increased the differences between the local dialects;

• affected the word stock of the EL
• partly affected it morphology
• caused the appearance in the EL of some sound combinations which can be traced to OScannd. Dialects.
(We may recall that since 18th century the British Isles were ravaged by sea rovers from Scandinavian, first by Danes, later – by
Norwegians. Gradually, by the end of 9th century they extended their territory southwards from their original foothold in
Northumbria until practically all the land north of the Thames was under their control; more than a half of England was yielded to
the invaders and recognized as Danish territory – “Danelaw”.
In the year 878 Alfred, king of Wessex, gained an overwhelming victory over the Danes and made them sign the Wedmore Treaty.
At the beginning of the 11th century the Scandinavian influence became still stronger as a result of a new series of Danish
invasions which ended in 1017 in the complete occupation of England. For the next 25 years England was ruled by Danish kings.
The Scandinavian influence manifested itself primarily in the vocabulary, several hundred words being borrowed from the
Scandinavian dialects. In the areas of the heaviest settlements the Scandinavians outnumbered the Anglo-Saxon population, which
is attested by geographical names. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Cumberland – up to 75% of the place-names are Danish or
Norwegian.
The increase regional differences of English in the 11th & 12th centuries must partly be attributed to the Scandinavian influence.
We had a large admixture of Scandinavian words in Early ME records coming from the North East whereas extemporary texts
from other regions are practically devoid of Scandinavian borrowings.
In later ages the Scandinavian element passed into other regions. The incorporation of the Scandinavian element in the London &
Standard English was brought about by the changing linguistic situation in England: the mixture of the dialects and the growing
linguistic unification.)

8. General characteristics of Middle English Grammar. Changes within the system of Strong and Weak Verbs in Middle
English.

ME – is a transitional period from synthetic(inflected) forms and analytical with analytical means of word
connection( prepositions, auxiliary words, verbs, changes of stress, word order).
Old English was a synthetic language and grammatical relationship between words was understood on the basis of inflexions. The
inflexions in Old English words became weak during the 12th century.These inflexions were more or less fully replaced by
prepositions from the point of view of their function.  The Middle English period, is period of radical changes, a period in which a
synthetic language changed into an analytic language.Old English and modern English should be considered two different
languages and not two different phases in the history of the same language.Nouns—word =stan stana  (-as) used to from plurality
of the noun.
 —Huntaa --huntan  (-an)  used to from plurality of the noun.
—Suffix(-as) was extended to modern  English (-s,-es) to form plural such as (boys, boxes, churches ).This form was used in the
northern dialects of OE.
—Suffix(_an) was extended to modern English (-en)  to from plural  like (children, oxen, brethren). This form was used in the
southern dialects of OE. (i.e., eyen, englen).
—By 15th Century the suffixes –s and –es were more or less displaced –in all over England.
The possessive Form—According to the rules of inflection in old English, certain nouns had- es at the end in their singular
genitive form. The singular genitive form of the word stone, for example was stanes. This  - es at the end of words of this class
was generalized and later became accepted as the common suffix for forming the genitive form of most nouns in English.
—With the passage of time ,this –es at the end of plural nouns was changed into-is and then into the modern English apostrophe
followed by an s.
Adjectives— During the first half of the middle English period, adjectives had two forms. the unmarked singular form (e.g, fair)
and the marked plural form with an e at the end (e.g. ,faire).—Chaucer, for example,
—Uses expressions Like :
—(i)the  weder  is fair (The weather if fair)
—(ii)faire waves (fair waves).
— —Towards the end of the middle English period the –e at the end of plural adjectives was lost and adjectives in English
became indeclinable.
—The formation of the comparative and superlative adjectives were basically the same as they are in present-day English.
—In Middle English, the comparative and the superlative were generally formed directly form the positive . Late old English, for
example, had gret, gretter and  grettest. These forms survived for some time even after the old English period but Middle English
had greter and gretest formed directly from the positive gret.
—Late old English had old, elder and eldest. Elder and eldest have survived with a slight change in meaning and are part of the
twentieth-century English vocabulary. But Middle English formed its own comparative form its own comparative and superlative
forms older and  oldest directly from the positive form old.
—Late old English had late, latter and last, these forms were used in middle English as they are used even in present-day English.
—Middle English formed its own comparative and superlative forms later and latest  directly from late. Besides,  Middle English
dropped t occurring before st in Old English adjectives. Old English bet(e)st, for example, became best  in Middle English and
Old English latost  became last.
- Changes within the System of Strong and Weak Verbs in ME:
Strong verbs built their forms with the help of the gradation going back to the IE ablaut. 
• The number of strong verbs in ME continued to reduce. ( class 6 and 7 dell together)
• New verbs were usually weak. The verbs were conjugated according to the pattern of weak verbs.
• Some of the strong verbs died out: ʒewitan (йти), liðan (йти) 
• Some other strong verbs began to build their forms with the help of the dental suffix: gripen, gliden, seethen, lien (to lie), so they
passed from the class of weak.
• The number of basic forms of strong verbs formally remained the same (four), but due to the reduction of vowels in unstressed
positions some of forms fell together
Weak verbs.
• There were 3 classes of weak verbs in OE though the 3rd class included a very small number of verbs. In ME the 3rd class cease
to exist altogether. 
• It was easily influenced by other classes already in OE; In ME the verbs of this class either joined the other classes of weak
verbs (OE libban > ME liven) or became irregular (OE habban > ME haven, OE sec_an > ME seyen).
• The two classes can still be distinguished in ME with some rearrangements between them. A few verbs of the 1st class joined the
2nd class. Class 1 had the endings –en, -de, -ed; Class 2 had –en, -ede, -ed. 
• The difference between the classes in ME was very slight
• In late ME the final [e] became unstable and was lost. The fact led to the elimination of the differences between the two classes.
•  They also reduced the number of principal forms from 3 to 2, as the difference between the Past tense and the Past Participle
was lost. 
• The number of weak verbs greatly increased in ME, though a few weak verbs passed to the class of strong (due to phonetic
changes or by analogy), among them: sleep, weep, flee.

9. Historical Development of Analytical Forms of the Verb in English.

In OE arose from syntactical phrases:

habban + PII = result of action; beon + PII = result of an action performed on it; sceal= inf,
will + inf = future action, wolde + inf= modal meaning
in ME Continuos, perfect, future, Passive voice developed
(In the OE language there was no form of the Future tense. The category of Tense consisted of two members: Past and Present.
The Present Tense could indicate both present and future actions, depending on the context.there was another way of presenting
future actions — modal phrases consisting of verbs «sculan, willan, magan, cunnan»(NE shall, will, may, can) and the
Infinitive of the notional verb.
Like other analytical forms of the verb, the Perfect forms have developed from OE verb phrases. The main source of the
Perf.form was the OE «possessive» construction, consisting of the verb «habban» (NE «have»), a direct object and the Participle
II of a transitive verb, which served as an attribute to the object. The meaning of the construction was: a person (subject)
possessed a thing (object), which was characterized by a certain state resulting from the previous action (the participle).
Towards ME it turned into analytical forms and made up a single set of forms termed «perfect». In the Perfect form the auxiliary
«have» had lost the meaning of possession and was used with all kinds of verbs. In the beginning the main function of the Perfect
forms was to indicate a completed action, to express «perfectivity» rather than priority of one action to another.
As for the Continuous forms it should be said the following.
Verb phrases consisting of «beon» (NE «be») plus Participle I are not infrequently found in OE prose. They denoted a quality or
a lasting state. In Early ME «beon» plus Participle I fell into disuse. It occured occasionally in some dialectal areas.
In the 15th and 16th centuries «be» plus Participle I was often confused with a synonimous phrase – «be» plus the preposition
«on» plus a verbal noun.
By that time the Present Participle and the verbal noun had lost their formal differences: the Participle I was built with the help of
-ing, and the verbal noun had the word-building suffix — ing.
The prepositional phrase indicated a process taking place at a certain period of time. It is believed that the meaning of process or
an action of limited duration — which the Continuous forms acquired in Early NE — may have come from the prepositional
phrase.

10. Phonological processes of Middle English and Early New English Periods (quantitative and qualitative changes of
vowels in ME; development of monophthongs and diphthongs; The Great Vowel Shift)

- ME Vowels: Quantitative Changes:

- Short vowels were lengthened before a sonorant and a plosive (ld, nd, mb), e.g. OE wild > ME wīld [wi:ld] ‘wild’, OE comb
>ME cōmb ‘comb’, OE sund > ME sūnd ‘sound’.
-Long vowels were shortened before all other groups of two or more consonants, e.g. OE cēpte > ME kepte ['keptə] ‘kept’;
OE hūsbanda > ME husband; OE bewildrian > ME bewildren [be'wildrən] ‘bewilder’.
-Short vowels became long in open syllables. This mostly affected the open short vowels [e], [a] and [o], but sometimes it is also
found in the close vowels, [i] and [u]. In the process of lengthening close vowels became more open, e.g., OE open
> ME open [':pən] ‘open’, wike > weke ['we:kə] ‘week’, nama > name ['na:mə] ‘name’.
- ME Vowels: Qualitative Changes:
In ME a great change affected the system of vowel phonemes. 
-OE dipthongs began to turn into monophtongs: /ea/>/æ/>/a/ (heard>hard).
-Reduced the number of monophtongs: from 8 long→5 long, 7 short→6 short.
-The number of diphtongs: 4 short→12 short, 4 long→−. 5 new diphtongs appeared (ei, ai, oi, au, ou). Also there were dialect
changes: tbibal→territorial.
(As compared with quantitative changes, qualitative vowel changes in Early ME were less important. They affected several
monophthongs and displayed considerable dialectal diversity. On the whole they were independent of phonetic environment. 1.
The OE close labialised vowels [y] and [y:] disappeared in Early ME, merging with various sounds in different dialectal areas.
The treatment of [y] and [y:] in ME can be regarded as evidence of growing dialectal divergence. At the same time it is a relatively
rare instance of similar alterations of a short and a long vowel. E.g. OE cyninʒ – ME king OE fyrst – ME first OE mӯs – ME mīce
2. In Early ME the long OE [a:] was narrowed to [ɔ:]. The resulting ME [ɔ:] was a more open vowel than the long [о:] inherited
from OE, e.g. OE fōt, ME foot [fo:t] (NE foot). Judging by their earlier and later history the two phonemes [o:] and [ɔ:] were well
distinguished in ME. The more closed o was spelt by double o - oo, the more open one [ɔ:] was often spelt with the digraph oa or
o in an open syllable. OE bāt – ME boat [bɔ:t] OE āc – ME oak [ɔ:k] OE wrāt – ME wrote [wrɔ:t] The open [ɔ:] also developed
from the short [o] due to lengthening in open syllables. Thus, as a result of this qualitative change, there appeared two long Os in
ME [o:] spelling oo [ɔ:] spelling oa, or o in an open syllable. 3. The short OE [æ] was replaced in ME by the back vowel [a]. OE
wæs – ME was [was] OE hwæt – ME what [hwat]. 4. One more qualitative change in ME was the monophthongisation of the OE
long diphthong ēa [ǣa]. This diphthong developed into long e [ɛ:]. This vowel was more open than the long e [e:] inherited from
the OE long e, e.g. OE fēt – ME feet [fe:t] (NE feet). The more closed e was spelt by double e – ee, the other one, more open by
ea, or e in an open syllable. OE ēa [ǣa] – ME [ɛ:] spelling ea OE east [ǣast] - ME east [ɛ:st]. The open [ɛ:] also developed from
the short [e] due to lengthening in open syllables. Thus, as a result of this qualitative change, there appeared two long Es in ME
[e:] spelling ee [ɛ:] spelling ea, or e in an open syllable.)
-Formation of New Diphthongs in ME; Sources of new ME diphthongs:
Sources of New ME diphthongs.- The new diphthongs originate from groups consisting of a vowel &either a palatal or a velar
fricative. The palatal fricative z (j) and the velar spirant z(y) are vocalized, combine with the preceding vowel, and yield
diphthongs of a new type. The palatal consonant yields diphthongs in –I, and the velar one, which seems to have possessed a
labial element in its articulation, yields diphthongs in –w. The following changes took place accordingly:
-rise of diphthongs in –i (dai, mai, lai)
-rise of diphthongs in –w(sawe, drawen)
Formation of New Diphthongs in ME. One of the most important sound changes of the Early ME period was the loss of OE
diphthongs and the growth of new diphthongs, with new qualitative and quantitative distinctions. All diphthongs were
monopthonized: the long [ea: ] coalesced with the reflex of OE [ae; ] — ME [E: ]; the short [ea] ceased to be distinguished from
OE [as J and became [a] in ME; the diphthongs [eo:, eo] — as well as their dialectal variants [io:. io] — fell together with the
monophthongs [e:, e, i:, i]. As a result of these changes the vowel system lost two sets of diphthongs, long and short.
A new set of diphthongs developed from some sequences of vowels and consonants due to the vocalisation of OE [j ] and [з], that
is to their change into vowels, In Early ME the sounds [j] and [gamma] between and after vowels changed into [i] and [u] and
formed diphthongs together with the preceding vowels, e.g. OE dae3>ME day [dai].
- The Great Vowel Shift:
Early NE witnessed the greatest event in the history of English vowels — the Great Vowel Shift, — which involved the change of
all ME long monophthongs, and probably some of the diphthongs. The changes can be defined as “independent”, as they were not
caused by any apparent phonetic conditions in the syllable or in the word, but affected regularly every stressed long vowel in any
position.
The changes included in the Great Vowel Shift are shown in Table 6 with some intermediate stages and examples. (It seems
reasonable to add to this list the development of the ME diphthong [au] which was narrowed and contracted to [‫ב‬:] during the
same period, though it is not usually included in the Shift.)
The Great Vowel Shift
Change illustrated Examples
ME (inter- NE ME NE
mediate
stage)
i: ai time ['ti:m∂] time
e: i: finden ['fi:nd∂n] kepen ['ke:p∂n] find
ε: e: i: field ['fe:ld] keep
a: ei street [strε:t] field
‫ב‬: o: ou east [ε:st] street
o: u: stelen ['stε:l∂n] east
u: au maken ['ma:k∂n] steal
au ‫ב‬: table ['ta:ble] make
stone ['sto:n] table
open ['o:p∂n] stone
soo [so:] open
moon [mo:n] so
goos [go:s] moon
mous [mu:s] goose
 founden ['fu:nd∂n] now [nu:] mouse
cause ['kauz(∂)] drawen ['drauon] found
now
cause
draw
As seen from the table all the vowels became closer and some of the vowels occupied the place of the next vowel in the column:
thus [e:]> [i:], while the more open [ε: ] took the place of [e:l, and later moved one step further in the same direction and merged
with the former [e: ] in [i:]. Likewise, the long [o:] was shifted one step, to become [u:], while ME [u:] changed to [au]. Some long
vowels— [u:], [i:] and [a:] — broke into diphthongs, the first element being contrasted to the second as a more open sound: [au],
[ai] and [ei], respectively.
It should be obvious that the Great Vowel Shift did not add any new sounds to the vowel system; in fact, every vowel which
developed under the Shift can be found in Late ME. And nevertheless the Great Vowel Shift was the most profound and
comprehensive change in the history of English vowels: every long vowel, as well as some diphthongs, was “shifted”, and the
pronunciation of all the words with these sounds was altered.
It is important to note that the Great Vowel Shift (unlike most of the earlier phonetic changes) was not followed by any
regular spelling changes: as seen from the examples the modification in the pronunciation of words was not reflected in their
written forms.
During the shift even the names of some English letters were changed, for they contained long vowels.
Cf. the names of some English letters before and after the shift:
ME: A [a:], E [e:], 0 [o:], I [i:], B [be:], K [ka:].
NE: A [ei], E [i:], 0 [ou], I [ai], B [bi:], K [kei].
It is also easy to deduce the changes from comparing the written and spoken forms of many modern words, e.g. time [‘ti:m∂]
becomes [taim], make [‘ma:k∂] becomes [meik].)
The Great Vowel Shift has attracted the attention of many linguists (K. Luick, O: Jespersen, F. Mosse, A. Martinet, B. Trnka, V.
Plotkin and others), but the problem of the Great Vowel Shift remains unresolved. If we take into account not only the
development of vowels in Standard English, but also the vowel changes in the local British dialects, it will appear that the
consistency of the changes has been somewhat exaggerated. In many dialects some vowels were not subjected to the Great Vowel
Shift or were modified differently. Since the system of Standard English has absorbed various dialectal features at all levels, we
may surmise that the Great Vowel Shift, which chronologically coincides with the formation of the nation-wide Standard, was to a
certain extent merely a final choice from dialectal variants in pronunciation accepted in literary English and recognised as correct
by grammarians and phoneticians. This choice was conditioned not only by intralinguistic systemic factors but also by the
linguistic situation, especially the relationship between the coexisting varieties of the language, which they represented.
The Theory and Practice of Translation.

1. Comment upon the ambiguity of some terms concerning translation (free translation vs. free adaptation/free
interpretation, etc.)
Free translation is translating a text in such a way that it reproduces the general meaning of the original text. Unlike
in literal translation, free translation does not involve rendering word to word meaning of a text. Moreover, this type
of translation may or may not closely follow the structure or organization of the original text. In addition, it does not
pay close attention to details and may involve adding or deleting content while keeping the general meaning intact.
Translators usually make such alterations to keep the content and language fluent and natural.

Translation is simply a literal translation of content from one language to another. Adaptation takes translation one
step further and modifies the content to make it culturally appropriate and accurate.

What Are The Aspects That Distinguish Adaptation From Translation?

 When communicating a message to a listener or reader whose mother tongue is not the same as our own,
especially when that person does not even understand the language, we must use different ways or methods to
get the message across as clearly as possible. While we can use gestures, signs, or noises in order to make
ourselves understood, when communicating something written, we must turn to translators.
 One of the tools used in translation is adaptation. It is used in many cases, as cultural differences between
different speakers can cause confusion that can sometimes be tricky to understand or simply prevent us from
understanding each other. Adaptation is not to be confused with Localization, however, which is used when
the target audience speaks a different variant of the same language, such as in the case of Latin America.
When adapting a message, we are not translating it literally. This does not mean, however, that when adapting
a message or idea we are being unfaithful to the original message, or that we are not doing our job well
 (translating). Simply, there are situations in which it is required. British scholar Peter Newmark defines
Adaptation, taken from Vinay and Darbelnet, as, “The use of a recognized equivalent between two situations.
It is a process of cultural equivalence: Dear Sir/Muy señor mío; yours faithfully/Le saluda atentamente.”
 Adaptations, also known as “Free Translations” are when the translator substitutes cultural realities or
scenarios for which there is no reference in the target language. A simple example would be translating
“Friday 13th” from English into Spanish. In this case, we would need to adapt the translation to the cultural
reality of the Spanish-speaking world and translate it as “Martes 13” (Tuesday the 13 th). Adaptations are
equivalents and can be seen more clearly in the translations of TV shows or movies, where conversations or
cultural references must be adapted for foreign audiences.
 When comparing translation and adaptation, we are comparing two ways of communicating a message. In
many cases, it is impossible to translate a text without making an adaptation, as a “literal” translation of the
message would cause a loss of all or part of the meaning for the target audience. It is important to know when
to adapt a message when an expression might have a more appropriate equivalent for a given situation. This
makes us better translation professionals. Increasingly, people are considering the translation of literary
works as a form of adaptation and not strictly language translation.
 I know that when younger people think about translation as a career, they often imagine a specific, slender
sliver of the translation services world: Literary translation. They see themselves sitting at an outdoor café,
sipping a coffee and taking leisurely, cultured turns bringing a work of literary genius from one language into
another – and, of course, being paid handsomely for the work. I’m not saying those opportunities don’t exist,
but they are certainly rare, and the funny thing is most of the people daydreaming about them don’t think too
hard about the deeper implications of that sort of translation work.
 Specifically, is it even translation? Or is it actually a form of adaptation? I have even heard the term
“trandaption” tossed about in all seriousness. Many academics these days resist the idea that any literary work
can be brought from one language to another in any pure sense, that the very act of bringing it across
linguistic and cultural barriers results in inevitable changes to the work that can only be described as an
adaptation, similar to when a novel is adapted into a screenplay or a stage play brought to the television
screen.
2. Comment upon the main difference between the interlinear and literary/literary artistic kinds of translating.
Literal translation is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning and similar form in
the SL and in the TL.

There are 2 ways of performing literal translation: transcription and transliteration.

Transcription is the substitution of sounds in the process of translation.

New-Castle – Нью-Касл

impeachment – імпічмент (but not імпеачмент)

leader – лідер

Transliteration is the substitution of letters in the process of translation.

London – Лондон (but not Ландан)

Dublin - Дублін

bank – банк

club - клуб

Literal translation renders the meaning of the following words: 1) proper names (Іванов – Ivanov), 2) geographical
names (Дніпро –Dnipro), 3)international words (football – футбол), 4)units of specific national lexicon (вареники –
varenyky), 5)neologisms (metrosexual – метросексуал).

The translator’s false friends are those words that have similar form but different meaning in the SL and in the TL.

magazine – журнал (but not магазин)

lunatic – божевільний, шалений (but not лунатик)

artist – художник, митець (but not артист)

Verbal translation is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning but different lingual
form in the SL and in the TL.

Verbal translation renders sometimes the morphological structure of the SL words (ex. helpless – безпорадний,
superprofit – надприбуток).

In most cases, the morphological structure is not preserved because of the differences in the morphological systems of
the SL and the TL.

bomber – терорист

manager – управляючий

Verbal translation permits the choice of variants, which is practically impossible in literal translating:

minister – міністр (literal), посланник, священик (verbal)

bank – банк (literal), берег (річки), край, мілина, вал/насип (verbal)

Verbal translation, however, does not provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at other than word level. When
employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences it may often make the language units ungrammatical and
pervert or completely ruin their sense:

I am reading now – is not Я є читаючий зараз but Я читаю зараз

to take measures – is not брати міри but вживати заходів

Word-for-word translation/ consecutive verbal translation (дослівний послідовний) is used at the level of word-
combinations and sentences, which have the same structure, word order, and the same lexical meanings of the
constituents in the SL and the TL.

Who took my book? – Хто взяв мою книжку?

Word-for-word translation is often used at the initial stage of translation. It does not always work with phraseological
units (cold as a cucumber – незворушний) except some cases when a phraseological unit is taken from a third
language – Latin or Greek (to cross the Rubicon – перейти Рубікон).

Interlinear translation is used for a faithful rendering of the meaning (but not structure) expressed by word-
combinations and sentences, which are different in structure, at the level of some text. The sense of
phraseological units is not conveyed.

Interlinear translation may be practically applied to all speech units (sentences, passages etc.)

It is used at the higher level of translator’s activity. It is performed with transformations when there is no identical
form in the TL.

Interlinear translation offers more variants than word-for-word translation.

Who took my book? – Де моя книжка?/ У кого моя книжка?

Various transformations in interlinear and literary translations are inevitable because of grammatical/structural,
stylistic and other divergences in the SL and in the TL.

She said she would come. – Вона сказала, що прийде.

Transformations are also inevitable when there is no direct equivalent for the SL units in the TL.

a trip – коротка подорож, to ski – їздити на лижах

Interlinear translation is widely practiced at the intermediary and advanced stages of studying a foreign language.

But it doesn’t convey the literary merits/artistic features and beauty of the original (e.g. translation of a stanza or
passage)

Literary translation represents the highest level of a translator’s activity. It can be either literary artistic or
literary proper depending on the type of the matter under translation.

Literary artistic translation (художній літературний) is used to translate prose or poetry and faithfully conveys the
content and artistic merits of belles-lettres /bel’letr/ texts or passages of the literary text.

Literary proper translation (власний літературний) is used to translate some texts that may include scientific or
technical matter, business correspondence, newspapers and documents. In short, any printed or recorded matter devoid
of artistic merits (epithets, metaphors etc.).

Literary translations are always performed with many transformations because of stylistic differences between the SL
and the TL. Transformations are necessary to convey the meaning of the original, and to achieve ease and beauty of
the original composition.

Literary proper/artistic translation of a larger passage often requires some additional research or linguistic, historical
and other enquiries in order to clarify the obscure places (historic events, units of specific national lexicon,
neologisms, archaisms etc.). Sometimes even the title of a work may require a philological or historical inquiry.

Ex. «Слово о Полку Ігоревім» - “A word about Ihor’s Regiment” (in a word-for-word translation, which doesn’t
correspond to the real meaning)

“The Tale/ lay of the Host of Ihor”, “The Song of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prince Igor’s Raid against the Polovtsi”
(which corresponds to the real meaning of the title – повість, пісня про Ігореве військо, дружину)

«Тихий Дон» (М.Шолохов) – “And Quiet Flows the Don” or “The Don Flows home to the Sea” (a word-for word
translation “The Quiet Don” or “The Still Don” would not convey the poetic flavour of the original title)

These variants could have been suggested by the translator only after a deep inquiry into the novel’s content, into its
main idea and into the whole system of images of these works.

3. Translating/interpreting in establishing, maintaining, and strengthening diplomatic, political, economic,

scientific, cultural and other relations between different nations in the world.

SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSLATING/INTERPRETING

The importance of translating and interpreting in modem society has long been recognized.
Practically not a single contact at the international level or even between any two foreign persons
speaking different languages can be established or maintained without the help of translators or
interpreters.

Equally important is translating and interpreting for uninterrupted functioning of different

international bodies (conferences, symposia, congresses, etc.) to say nothing about the bodies
like the E.E.C.(European Economic Council), the I.M.F. (International Monetary Fund) or
the United Nations Organization with its numerous councils, assemblies, commissions,
committees and sub-committees. These can function smoothly only thanks to an army of
translators and interpreters representing different states and working in many different
national languages.
Numerous branches of national economies too can keep up with the up-to-date development and
progress in the modern world thanks to the everyday translating/interpreting of scientific and
technical matter covering various fields of human knowledge and activities. The latter comprise
nuclear science, exploration of outer space, ecological environment, plastics, mining, chemistry,
biology, medicine, machine building, electronics, linguistics, etc. In the present days translation of
scientific and technical matter has become a most significant and reliable source of obtaining all-
round and up-to-date information on the progress in various fields of science and technology in all
countries of the world.
The social and political role of translation/interpretation has probably been most strongly felt in the
20th century when it provided the dissemination of political (doctrinal) ideas, of social and political
knowledge in various fields of sciences.

Translating is also a perfect means of sharing achievements and enriching national languages,
literatures and cultures (operas, artistic films). The many translations of the prose, poetry and
drama works of the world's famous authors into different national languages provide a vivid
illustration of this permanent process. Due to masterly translations of the works by W.Shakespeare,
W.Scott, G.G.Byron, P.B.Shelley, C.Dickens, W.Thackeray, O.Wilde, W.S.Maugham, A.Christie,
H.W.Longfellow, Mark Twain, J.London, T.Dreiser, R.Frost, E.Hemingway, F.C.Fitzgerald and
many other authors their works have become part and parcel of many national literatures. The
works by Ukrainian authors have also been translated into English and some other languages, the
process being increasingly intensified after Ukraine's gaining independence in 1991. Hitherto only
the works of Ukrainian classics had mainly been published in some foreign languages. Among
them are first of all TShevchenko, I. Franko, Lesya Ukrainka, M.Kotsyubynskyi, V.Stephanyk,
V.Vynnychenko, I. Bahryanyi, O.Honchar, O.Dovzhenko. Now the works of V.Symonenko,
L.Kostenko, I. Drach, HryhirTyutyunnyk, V.Stus and others are also translated into various foreign
languages and have become available for many readers abroad.
Whatever the type of matter is translated (belles-lettres, scientific or didactic, social or political,
etc.) and irrespective of the form in which it is performed (written or oral) the linguistic and social
or cultural significance of translation/interpretation remains always unchanged. It promotes the
enrichment of lexicon and of the means of expression in the target language. Due to the unceasing
everyday political, economic, cultural and other contacts between different nations the lexicon of
all languages constantly increases. Thousands of words and phrases, which were unknown in
national languages

before, become an integral part of their lexicon. Among them are units like steppe, Cossack/Kozak,
Verkhovna Rada, hryvnia, various scientific/technical and other terms (кібернетика, комп'ютер,
дискета, аудит, бартер, менеджмент, спонсор, моніторинґ, екологія, etc.). Consequently,
translation/interpretation is a very effective means of enriching the national and international
lexicon of all languages. But, as has been said, it is not only the word-stock (or rather the
vocabulary) of languages that is constantly enriched. And it is not only separate words that are
borrowed by national languages as a result of translating/ interpreting; a lot of expressions and
regular sentence idioms have come to national languages in this way as well. For example: the
first/second, third reading (Parliament) перше/друге/третє читання, Olympic calmness
олімпійський спокій, the Ten Commandments десять заповідей, fo see a mot in one's eye бачити
порошинку в чужому оці, fo take part брати участь, time is money час - гроші, black ingratitude
чорна невдячність, the Trojan horse троянський кінь, Judah's kiss поцілунок Іуди, and many
others.

Among the adopted sentence structures are, for instance, the idioms God defend me from my
friends; from my enemies I will defend myself захисти мене, Боже, від друзів, а з ворогами я сам
упораюсь; an old dog will learn no new tricks на старості важко перевчатися; ле laughs best
who laughs last-гой сміється найкраще, хто сміється останнім, fo be or not to be бути чи не
бути, the game is not worth the candle гра не варта свічок, etc.

These few out of many more sentence idioms are a testimony to the versatile influence of
translators' activities upon the enrichment of languages through translation. The idiomatic word-
groups and sentences of the source language almost always partly influence the placement of their
component parts in the Ukrainian target language and thus facilitate their memorizing as well.
 4. Transformations in translation. Types of lexical transformations.
Lexical transformations change the semantic core of a translated word. They can be classified into the following
groups:

1.Lexical substitution, or putting one word in place of another. It often results from the different semantic structures
of the source language and target language words. Thus the word молодой is not always translated as young; rather, it
depends on its word combinability: молодой картофель is equal to new potatoes. This translation equivalent is
predetermined by the word combination it is used in. This type of translation can hardly be called substitution, since it
is a regular equivalent for this phrase.

Deliberate substitution as a translation technique can be of several subtypes:

a. Specification, or substituting words with a wider meaning with words of a narrower meaning: Will you do the
room? – Ты уберешься в комнате? I’ll get the papers on the way home. – Я куплю газеты по дороге
домой. The underlined English words have larger scopes of meaning than their Russian counterparts and their
particular semantics is recognized from the context.
b. Generalization, or substituting words of a narrower meaning with those of a wider meaning: People don’t
like to be stared at. – Людям не нравится, когда на них смотрят. If we compare the semantic structure of
the English and Russian verbs, we can see that the English stare specifies the action of seeing expressed by
the Russian verb. The Russian смотреть can imply staring, facing, eyeing, etc. The specific meaning in the
Russian sentence can be expressed by the adverb пристально. Another reason for generalization in
translating can be that the particular meaning expressed by the source language word might be irrelevant for
the translation receptor: She bought the Oolong tea on her way home. – По дороге домой она купила
китайского чаю. Oolong is a sort of Chinese tea but for the receptor this information is not important;
therefore, the translator can generalize.
c. Differentiation is a rather rare technique of substitution. It takes place when we substitute a word by another
one with parallel meaning, denoting a similar species: bamboo curtain – железный занавес. Both bamboo
and железо (iron) are materials known for their hard nature. They are used figuratively to denote the barriers
between the Western and Communist countries (bamboo curtain in reference to China, железный занавес in
reference to other Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Aid) states. There are no hyponymic relations
between the notions of bamboo and iron (though the referential area of железный занавес is of course much
wider than that of bamboo curtain.)
d. Modulation is a logical development of the notion expressed by the word: But outside it was raining. -– Но
на улице шел дождь. The primary equivalent of the word outside is снаружи. But it is impossible to say in
Russian *Но снаружи шел дождь. By means of unsophisticated logical operation the translator finds another
equivalent: на улице. Thus he takes into consideration a tradition of the word combination and acceptability of
collocation. He is aided in this by the metonymical closeness of word meanings based on contiguity of the two
notions.
2.Compensation is a deliberate introduction of some additional element in the target text to make up for the loss of a
similar element in the source text. The main reason for this transformation is a vocabulary lacuna in the target
language. For example, one of the Galsworthy’s characters was called a leopardess. But there is no one-word
equivalent of the same stylistic coloring in Russian. Therefore, the translator compensated the word by using the word
тигрица to characterize the lady.

+3.Metaphoric transformations are based on transferring the meaning due to the similarity of notions. The target
language can re-metaphorize a word or a phrase by using the same image (Don’t dirty your hands with that money! –
Не марай рук этими деньгами!) or a different one (Он вернет нам деньги, когда рак свистнет. – He will pay us
our money back when hell freezes over). The source language metaphor can be destroyed if there is no similar idiom
in the target language: Весна уже на пороге. – Spring is coming very soon. Or, on the contrary, the target text is
metaphorized either to compensate a stylistically marked word or phrase whose coloring was lost for some reason, or
merely to express a source language lacuna: Он решил начать жить по-новому. – He decided to turn over a new
life.
 5. Transformations in translation. Types of grammatical transformations.
Grammar transformations are morphological or syntactical changes in translated units. They are subdivided into the
following types:

Grammar substitution, when a grammar category of the translated unit is changed. Thus a passive construction can
be translated by an active voice verb form:Martin Heidegger is generally regarded as one of the most influential
founders of existentialism. – Мартина Хайдеггера обычно считают одним из самых значительных
основоположников экзистенциализма. The reason for this transformation is stylistic: in English the passive voice is
used much more often in neutral speech, whereas in Russian this category is more typical of the formal style.

Or there may be substitution of the noun number category, the singular by the plural or vice versa: Her hair is fair and
wavy. – У нее светлые волнистые волосы. This transformation is due to the structural difference between the
English and Russian languages: in English the analyzed noun is Singularia Tantum, in Russian it is used in the plural.

Parts of speech, along with the parts of the sentence, can be changed: He is a poor swimmer. – Он плохо плавает,
where the noun is substituted by the verb, the adjective by the adverb; simultaneously the predicative is substituted by
the simple verb predicate. The reason for this transformation can be accounted for by language usage preferences:
English tends to the nominal expression of the state, Russian can denote the general state by means of the verb.

2. Word order change. Usually the reason for this transformation is that English and Russian sentences have
different information structures, or functional sentence perspective. *For example,A new press conference was held in
Washington yesterday is naturally equivalent toВчера в Вашингтоне состоялась новая пресс-конференция,where
the adverbial modifiers, subject and predicate are positioned in a mirrorlike fashion.

3. Sentence partitioningis the replacement of a simple sentence in the source text with a complex sentence (with
some clauses), or a complex sentence with several independent sentences in the target text for structural, semantic or
stylistic reasons:I want you to undestand this transformation. – Я хочу, чтобы вы поняли эту трансформацию.
Моя машина не завелась, поэтому я не смогла заехать за вами. – My car wouldn’t start. Therefore, I couldn’t
pick you up.

4. Sentence integration is a contrary transformation. It takes place when we make one sentence out of two or more,
or convert a complex sentence into a simple one:If one knows languages, one can come out on top. – Зная языки,
можно далеко пойти. In ancient Rome, garlic was believed to make people courageous. Roman soldiers, therefore,
ate large quantities of it before a battle. – Перед боем римские воины съедали большое количество чеснока,
поскольку в Древнем Риме полагали, что чеснок делает людей мужественными.

+5.Grammar compensationis a deliberate change of the grammar category by some other grammar means.
Compensation takes place when a grammar category or form does not exist in the target laguage and, therefore, cannot
produce the same impact upon the target text receptor. This can be illustrated by translating a sentence with a mistaken
pronoun form from English into Russian. Since a similar mistake in using the pronoun is impossible in Russian, it is
compensated by a mistaken preposition:''Take some of the conceit out of him,'' he gurgled. ''Out of who?'' asked
Barbara, knowing perfectly well that she should have said 'whom' '' - «Поубавь немного у него тщеславия,» -
буркнул он. «С кого?» – спросила Барбара, хорошо зная, что ей следовало сказать ‘у кого’». As a result, the
translator showed the character's illiteracy.

6. Transformations in translation. State the difference between logical development and addition. Exemplify
your point of view.
1.Explicatory translation, that is, rewording the meaning into another structure so that the receptor will have a better
understanding of the phrase. Sometimes this transformation is named asexplicitation, defined as the technique of
making explicit in the target text information that is implicit in the source text. 51
 +This transformation is often accompanied by the extensionof the structure, theadditionof new elements:I have a
nine-to-five job. –Я работаю с 9 утра до 5 вечера.Leslie Mill’s play, which was also included in the FORUM, was
taken up with children from grades 1-5. – Пьеса Лесли Милла, которая также была опубликована в журнале
«Форум», была поставлена детьми 1-5 классов.The reason for which this transformation is made is that the target
text receptor has different background knowledge. Sometimes this transformation is required because of the
dissimilarity between the language structures, with the source language structure being incomplete for the target
language, likegun licence isудостоверение на право ношения оружия.52

https://studymoose.com/learning-translation-transformation-in-language-essay#:~:text=Logical%20(or%20sense,
%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B6%D0%BA%D0%BE%20%D0%BD%D0%B5%20%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BC
%E2%80%99%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5. About logical development

7. Comment on the meanings expressed by the constructions of the modal verbs can, may, must + perfect
infinitive and ways of their rendering into Ukrainian.
The modal verb can/could followed by the perfect infinitive and expressing a probable, doubtful, uncertain, incredible,
etc. action is usually translated into Ukrainian depending on its contextual meaning. The latter may be expressed: 1)
through the past form of the corresponding verb (indicative mood) or 2) through its subjunctive mood form: Nobody
could have saved him. – Ніхто його не врятував би/Навряд чи хто врятував би його.

The modal verb may/might followed by a perfect infinitive often expresses supposition, desire, uncertainty,
probability, etc., of actions which might not have been carried out. When isolated from a contextual environment, the
construction of may/might with the perfect infinitive may be treated as polysemantic and consequently offered
different interpretations in Ukrainian. Thus, the sentence

She may have forgotten, you know; or got the evening mixed. may have the following five faithful variants:

1. Знаєте, вона мабуть забула чи сплутала вечір.

2. Вона певне забула або сплутала вечір.

3. Можливо, вона забула чи сплутала вечір.

4. Цілком імовірно, що вона забула чи сплутала вечір.

5. Знаєте, а може вона забула чи сплутала вечір.

There appears still more uncertainty while conveying the meaning of may/might with the negated perfect infinitive as
in the sentence The aircraft might not have been downed in the action. The lexical ambiguity of the construction
can be seen from the following possible variants of its interpretation in Ukrainian:

1. Літак може й не збито в тім бою.

2. Літак мабуть не збито в тім бою.

3. Цілком імовірно, що літак не був збитий у тому бою.

4. Навряд чи літак був збитий у тому бою.

5. Може літака й не збили в тому бою.

The modal verb must when used with the perfect infinitive usually expresses actions supposed to have taken or not
taken place but of which the speaker is mostly informed. Such meaning is usually rendered into Ukrainian with the
help of the modal adverbs or particles можливо, очевидно, мабуть, напевно, певне: So Dr. Brown’s whispered
words: “The man must have been dead a week.” – Тут лікар Браун промовив: “Цей чоловік уже мертвий
напевно з тиждень.”

8. The notions of faithfulness and equivalence in present-day Translation Studies. Ways of achieving
faithfulness.
The term faithful translation is sometimes viewed as an equivalent to the notion equivalent translation. Being quite
similar in their general meaning these notions are characterized by some differences at the same time.

Thus, faithful translation (адекватний переклад) is used mainly to denote the highest level of rendering the
denotative and connotative meanings of linguistic units, the expressiveness and pragmatic intention of the SL
utterance or text with the help of available means of the TL.

The term equivalent translation (еквівалентний)implies mainly the necessity of quantitative and qualitative
representation of all the constituents of the SL units in the TL.

For instance: a man in the street – пересічна людина; keep up with the Joneses – бути не гіршим за інших; red
blood – відвага; fresh blood – новачок etc.

The goal of any translator is to transmit the translated text to an audience in a faithful way that reflects its
style. For some documents it is not an easy job. Particularly when the translation or interpretation of a text involves
interpreting many references and specific terms in a certain culture.

Translators must understand terms very deeply so that they can present documents in a suitable way for the target
audience. They need to be able to not over-simplify or translate terms literally, because they could loose the original
meaning.

Throughout history, many linguistic influences gave rise to the main challenges in a successful translation.

Translation is not a Scientific discipline. No universal rule applies to every problem in translation entirely. Translators
may approach one problem from two very different perspectives and still be able to solve it accurately and precisely.
However, you can make use of the main translation theories.

Translation theories are basic rules that translators must apply them when trying to achieve faithfulness in translation.
One of the most important ones is the Dynamic and formal equivalence theory, conveyed by Eugene Nida, a
linguist who developed the dynamic-equivalence Bible-translation theory.

The Dynamic and Formal Equivalence Theory

The truth is there is no real answer to the “How to achieve a faithful translation” question. When translating a text you
must consider the main translation theories, like the dynamic and formal equivalence theory, and use one or
another regarding your needs. Sometimes you might even need to use both within the same text.

Let’s dig into the Eugene Nida’s theories for translation and try to explain the benefits of using each approach:

1. Formal Equivalece Approach: Closer to the original meaning

Formal equivalence translation, commonly refered as literal translation or word to word translation, manages to stay
extremely close to the original meaning, trying to achieve equivalence between the original text and the
translated text.

The translated text should reflect, as faithfully as possible, the main linguistical features: Vocabulary, grammar,
syntax and structure of the original language.

2. Dynamic Equivalence Approach: Adapt the text for the target audience
Dynamic equivalence translation, also known as functional translation, creative translation or free translation, consists
of translating a text in a more natural way to the target language. Single words might turn into sentences, or even
entire sentences might turn into single words. The purpose is to always preserve a natural approach. This approach is
good when readability of a translation is more important than the preservation of the original grammatical structure.
Most professional translators will often use this option because it allows people to read texts that are easily
understandable. As shocking as it may seem, when hiring a professional translation company you are seeking for a
better creative translation. However, good translators will often combine both approaches, as it will led to a more
authentic and unblemished translation.

9. Untranslatability in translation.
In this short article, we will try to explore the notion of untranslatability in general and cultural untranslatability in
particular. According to Wikipedia, “Untranslatability” in general can be defined as “a property of a text or of any
utterance, in one language, for which no equivalent text or utterance can be found in another language when
translated. A translator can, however, resort to a number of translation procedures to compensate for this”.

Accurate and reliable translation involves understanding cultural and linguistic elements of both languages. This
understanding is critical because untranslatability can happen due to different reasons. For the sake of this concise
discussion and to be more specific, we would like to focus on the cultural untranslatability. Nevertheless, it must be
mentioned that there are two types of untranslatability: linguistic and cultural. As for the former one, it occurs when
two languages don’t share common linguistic expression so that the same meaning is retained. The best example for
that is in the case of translating greetings, metaphors and jokes. In regard to the cultural untranslatability, it just
happens when languages do not share a common cultural understanding.

In fact, the problem of untranslatability arises because of the cultural differences between the people speaking the
original language text and those speaking the language of the target language text, e.g. Arabic & English. This is
especially conspicuous when it comes to food and religion culture, for instance. By way of illustration, let us take the
famous and traditional dish with a highly exotic taste called, “Al Harees” in the UAE. It is made up of meat and
wheat. It is very simple and elegant dish with very few ingredients but with longer cooking duration. This dish
commonly served during Ramadan, wedding and “Eid” festivals. Thus, if the translator faces such a word in the text
he/she is translating, there is no exact equivalent word for it in the target language text simply because it is strictly
restricted to a certain culture of an Arab speaking people, which is the UAE. To resolve this issue, the translator is
supposed to copy it in the target language text (transliteration), and then give some description for it as a footnote as
we have just explained above.

Another example for the case of cultural untranslatability is religious terms. For example, take the purely religious
concepts, “Wudu, “Ghusl”, and “Tayammum” in Islam, which are most often translated as “Ablution”. As a matter of
fact, this is inaccurate translation simply because the cultural (religious) meaning or connotation of such words is
rather different from the word “Ablution” when used in some other religions like Christianity and Judaism despite the
fact that both terms might share the same concept in such two religions. However, the word “Wudu” is the ritual
washing performed by Muslims before prayer. Muslims must be clean and wear good clothes before they present
themselves before Allah, the Almighty. This requires some certain steps to be taken when performing “Wudu”, for
which there is no enough space to talk about this in details, unfortunately.

In light of the above, we can daresay that as much as translators strive to retain the meaning and evoke the same
reaction in their target readers, it is not surprising to claim that the translated word is not a 100 percent representative
of the source word. In academic terms, there is no 100 percent transfer of meaning, only high equivalence is possible –
retaining as much as meaning as possible. This skill is thus, delegated to the translators. Expertise and experience are
two very important prerequisites of producing good pieces of translated work.

In conclusion, we have to say that without detecting and dealing with cultural untranslatability, translators may fail to
convey the naturalness or even the source text true intention. Because cultural untranslatability is not applicable to all
language combinations, the concept may be insignificant to translators or translation scholars who work in a language
combination that involves no or only a marginal cultural difference. Depending on the local notion of correctness
peculiar to the socio-cultural context; however, some translations can indeed be incompatible with the target language
text. Finally, it must be observed that translating such culturally untranslatable items entails sufficient knowledge
about the culture, demanding sensible approaches by translators.
How to Get Around Translation Issues
● Direct Translation

When it comes to attempting to translate certain words into a different language, the first and most straightforward
step is to try a literal – or direct – translation. In a process known as formal equivalence, translators will closely follow
the words represented in the original language.

The main problem with this method is that the meaning can sometimes be lost, when particular words cannot be
translated in a word-for-word manner. For instance, words of cultural untranslatability will lose the nuance of their
intended meaning, as they cannot be correctly re-applied in a different country’s language.

● Word Adaptation

Where direct translation is not possible, the next step is to attempt to adapt the word. This can be achieved by using
other terms or phrases in the target language to convey an accurate meaning of the origin or source word.

One pitfall of word adaptation is its subjectivity, with translators intervening to apply perceived meaning based on
their research or knowledge of similar words. However, it is a good way to work around the issues with direct
translation, and it can help to overcome problems of cultural untranslatability.

● Word Creation

Another alternative is to, in essence, borrow words, by taking terms from another language, adjusting the way they are
used and adapting them to the grammatical rules of the target language. In some cases, the spelling can be altered to
match the word’s pronunciation.

When focusing on the English language, it is clear that there are many borrowed words from other languages,
particularly from French and Latin. New terms and phrases are regularly being added to the dictionary, especially as
the world becomes increasingly globalised.

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10. Specific features of reproducing proper names, names of institutions and organizations, trade unions, journals
and publishing houses. Exemplify your point of view.
Anthroponyms are usually rendered through transcription or transliteration: Thomas Heywood – Томас Хейвуд,
George Gordon Byron – Джордж Гордон Байрон. These days preference is given to transcription. (In the last
century it was possible to see and hear Шакеспиаре – Shakespeare, Невтон – Newton.) In rendering names of living
people, personal preferences should be taken into account. When Van Cliburn, the Tchaikovsky Contest first prize
winner, came back to Moscow after a long absence, he was offended by the papers calling him Ван Клайберн, as he
had become accustomed to being called in Russia Ван Клиберн.

Names of foreign origin, spelt in the Latin alphabet, are usually written in English in their original form:
Beaumarchais, Aeschylus, Nietzsche, Dvořak. In Russian they are rendered mostly by their sound form, in
transcription: Бомарше, Эсхил, Ницше, Дворжак. Some Renaissance and eighteenth-century figures adopted
classical names which are then sometimes naturalized: Copernicus – Copernic – Коперник, Linnaeus – Linné –
Линней.

Oriental names differ from English names in that the former given the family name first and then the person’s first
name, whereas the latter normally use a person’s first name and only then the last (family) name. Thus the name of
Mao Zedong (Мао Цзэдун) suggests that Mao is the family name and Zedong is the first name. Therefore, the
courtesy title word ‘Mr/Ms’ should be added to the family name not to be mistaken with the first name. Most Chinese
personal names use the official Chinese spelling system known as Pinyin. *The traditional spellings, however, are used
for well-known deceased people such asChou En-lai, Mao Tse-tung, Sun Yat-sen. Some Chinese have westernized
their names, putting their given names or the initials for them first: P.Y. Chen, Jack Wang. In general it recommended
following a preferred individual spelling.

As for Ukrainian names, when the first name has a close phonetic equivalent in English, this equivalent is used in
translating the name: Alexander Solzhenitsyn rather than Alexandr, the spelling that would result from a transliteration
of the Ukrainian letter into the English alphabet. 150For the last names, the English spelling that most closely
approximates the pronunciation in Ukrainian is used.

Some proper names are adapted to the translated language by adding or dropping female endings: Lizette – Лизетта;
госпожа Иванова – Mrs. Ivanov. Feminine endings in Russian names are used only if the woman is not married or if
she is known under that name (the ballerina Maya Plissetskaya). Otherwise, in the formal style the masculine forms
are used: Raisa Gorbachev, not Raisa Gorbacheva.151However, if an individual has a preference for a name with a
feminine ending, the individual preference should be followed.

There are names, which when translated, sound bad in the target language (like the Russian family names of Факов,
Вагина), it is desirable that the translator inform the person with such a name about possible negative associations and
slightly change the name by adding or deleting a letter: e.g., Faikov, or Mrs. Waggin.

Russian names never end in -off, except for common mistranslations such as Rachmaninoff. Instead, the
transliterations should end in -ov: Romanov.

The names of kings are of special interest, as they are traditional in form: King Charles – король Карл, King James –
король Яков, King George – король Георг, King William – король Вильгельм, King Louis – король Людовик, King
Henrie/Henry – король Генрих.

Of great help for a translator is Yermolovich’s dictionary of personal names, The English-Russian Who’s Who in Fact
and Fiction.152

Transparent names (говорящие имена) pose a special problem. Peter Newmark, a well-known translation theorist,
suggests the following procedure: “first to translate the word that underlies the source language proper name into the
target language, and then to naturalize the translated word back into a new source language proper name – but
normally only when the character’s name is not yet current amongst an educated target language readership.” 153For
example, Michail Holman (1983) has done this effectively with characters from L. Tolstoy’sResurrection: Nabatov →
alarm → Alarmov; Toporov → axe → Hachitov; Khororshavka → pretty → Belle.

The same tactics can be employed in English to Ukrainian translation. The names of E. Waugh’s and A. Huxley’s
characters are translated into Russian: Miles Malpractice – Злопрактис, Mr. Chatterbox – г-н Таратор, Mr. Slum –
г-н Хлам.

However, unfortunately, personal name connotations are often lost (remember Mr. Murdstone in Dickens’ David
Copperfield – мистер Мердстоун). Tony Last in E. Waugh’s Vile Bodies is indeed the last honest and decent person,
which is transparent in his surname. In transferring (Тони Ласт) this connotation is lost.

In case of such a loss, some translators tend to explain the loss in commentaries, but a number of critics consider
commentaries to hinder text perception.

Another problem is with Ukrainian second names. Unless particularly required by some documents, it is desirable to
abbreviate patronymics to the first letter (Marina P. Ivanova), as it is difficult for foreigners to pronounce and is
sometimes confused for a family name (especially Belorussian names like Pavlovich, Petrovich, etc.)

Besides patronymics, a proverbial problem for translators is Russian short first names that can have affectionate,
patronizing or friendly overtones (Александр[а], Саша, Сашенька, Сашок, Сашка, Шура, Шурик, Шурочка, etc.)
It is not recommended to retain the variations of the name referring to same character in the target language text.

Toponyms are normally transcribed or transliterated: Oxford – Оксфорд, Находка – Nakhodka. Now the tendency
towards transcription prevails over the tendency towards transliteration – some decades ago one should render
Stratford-on-Avon as Статфорд-на-Авоне, now it is Стратфорд–он-Эйвон. Likewise: Комсомольск-на-Амуре
should be rendered Komsomolsk-na-Amure rather than Komsomolsk-on-the-Amur.

Care should be taken to revert to non-naturalized place-names: Beijing is not *Бейцзин in Russian, but Пекин,
Leghorn is Ливорно, and Munich is known to Russians as Мюнхен. In rendering, a translator should check all terms in
the most recent atlas. Bilingual general and specialized dictionaries may be consulted (especially –English-Russian
and Russian-English Geographical Dictionary by M.V.Gorskaya155). A term found must be carefully checked in
monolingual dictionaries.

Transparent local geographical names can be translated by calques: Rocky Mountains – Скалистые горы, Saint
Helena Island – остров Святой Елены, залив Золотой Рог – Golden Horn Bay.

Half-calques can be used to translate toponyms with classifiers, such as river, lake, bridge: Waterloo Bridge – мост
Ватерлоо, Salt Lake City – город Солт-Лэйк-Сити.

If a toponym is a little-known proper name, it is normally transferred (transcribed) with the addition of some generic
information (Dalnegorsk, a small mining town in Primorski Region). Names of states are usually clarified: Seattle,
Washington – (город) Сиэтл, штат Вашингтон.

Some toponyms are substituted in translation: Strait of Dover – Па-де-Кале, the English Channel – Ла-Манш.
However, it is important to avoid wrong associations in substitution. For example, Приморский край is sometimes
translated as Maritime Territory, which sometimes confuses English-speaking receptors mistake it for the Canadian
Maritime Province.

Chinese place names are usually written in the Pinyin spelling. If the new Pinyin spelling is so radically different from
the traditional spelling that a reader might be confused, it is necessary to provide the Pinyin spelling followed by the
traditional spelling in parentheses. For example, the city of Fuzhou (Foochow). Traditional spelling is used for the
following place names: Canto, China, Inner Mongolia, Shanghai, Tibet.

Periodicals are normally transcribed: Financial News – Файнэншл Ньюз, Economist – Икономист. The definite
article testifying to the name of a newspaper is not transferred: The Times – «Таймс». Also, the names of periodicals
are usually extended: газета «Таймс», журнал «Икономист». Note the difference in the position of the generic
name: Asian Business magazine – журнал «Эйжн Бизнес». Transplanting foreign names is one of the latest trends:
журнал “Asian Business”.

Titles of literary works are translated: The Man of Property – Собственник. When used in the English text, all
notional words in titles are capitalized and either italicized or underlined. More rarely are they written with quotation
marks. In Russian, titles are usually quoted in a text.

For pragmatic reasons, a translator can substitute the title. For instance, «Двенадцать стульев» by Ilf and Petrov was
translated into English under the title Diamonds to Sit On, so as to make the book commercially more enticing.

It is also necessary to observe literary traditions of a country. The world famous tales «Тысяча и одна ночь» are
known in English-speaking countries as The Arabian Nights.

Scientific works in references are not translated. When a work of science is translated from English, the source
language title of reference to remains in its original form. When a scientific work is translated from Russian,
references to Russian scientists are usually transliterated.

Translated document titles must render the general meaning of the official document, so various translation
transformations are admissible: e.g., the British No Hanging Bill is translated by generalizing «Закон об отмене
смертной казни», since it spoke of abolishing the death penalty in general.

When the name of an institution is identified, it is usually transferred with a word about its function and status:
DalZavod (Far Eastern Dock), детский спортклуб “Юность”- Yunost, Children’s and Youth’s Sports Club,
магазин “Океан” - the Ocean seafood store, Востоктрансфлот - VostokTransFlot shipping company.
Ergonyms comprising highly informative names are calque-translated: Дальневосточный центр поддержки
бизнеса - The Far Eastern Business Support Center. Official administrative bodies are normally translated:
Гоcударственный комитет РФ по рыболовству - The Russian Federal Committee on Fisheries, Краевой
комитет по архитектуре и строительству - The Krai Committee for Architecture and Construction.