Geochemistry of Placer Gold - A Case Study of The Witwatersrand Deposits

13.
17 Geochemistry of Placer Gold – A Case Study of the Witwatersrand

Deposits
L Robb, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
C Hayward, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
ã 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
13.17.1 Introduction 433

13.17.2 Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold 433
13.17.3 Gold Abundances 434
13.17.4 Gold Compounds and Minerals 435
13.17.5 Aqueous Geochemistry of Gold at 25 ˚C 435
13.17.6 Gold in Surficial Environments 436
13.17.6.1 Gold Morphology in Placer Deposits 436
13.17.6.2 Compositional Changes in the Surficial Environment 437
13.17.6.3 Composition of Alluvial and Eluvial Gold Compared to Its Source Characteristics 440
13.17.7 Witwatersrand Gold – A Case Study 441
13.17.7.1 Introduction 441
13.17.7.2 Geological Background 441
13.17.7.3 Formation of the Ore Deposits 444
13.17.7.4 Chemical Composition of Witwatersrand Gold 445
13.17.7.4.1 The nature of the available data 445
13.17.7.4.2 Variation of gold chemistry within the Central Rand Group 448
13.17.7.5 The Origins of Witwatersrand Gold 456
13.17.7.5.1 Gold chemistry and implications for the modified placer and hydrothermal models 456
13.17.7.5.2 Potential gold source regions 456
13.17.8 Conclusions 458
Acknowledgments 458
References 458
13.17.1 Introduction mining industry at the present time, it is possible, under ideal
conditions, to viably extract gold from deposits that have ore
Gold is a metal that has been sought after and treasured since grades as low as 1–2 ppm.
ancient times, possibly because certain of its properties, such as This chapter briefly reviews the physical and chemical prop-
density, workability, color, luster, durability, and scarcity, in- erties of gold, with an emphasis on its abundances, mineralogy,
spire a sense of value and desire. Although originally used and low-temperature aqueous chemistry. The focus of the chap-
ornamentally and as a medium of exchange, it now has a ter is alluvial gold and to this end it presents a detailed case study
variety of additional uses that range from jewelry to a wide of the nature and geochemistry of gold in the Witwatersrand
range of medical and electronic applications – however, the Basin, South Africa. The latter is undoubtedly the world’s great-
majority of the 165 000 tons of gold that has been mined est gold repository, having produced over 1600 Moz of gold,
over the history of mankind is held in storage as an investment which is some 30% of all the gold ever mined. The nature and
and as a hedge against monetary uncertainty. origin of gold in the Witwatersrand Basin is a complex issue and
The abundance of gold in the sun is thought, from solar one in which the contrasting roles of placer and hydrothermal
spectral studies, to be about 0.04 ppm (Puddephatt, 1978). processes have been much debated. This review discusses the
Iron meteorites are enriched in siderophilic elements and con- controversial aspects of Witwatersrand metallogeny from the
tain an average of about 1.15 ppm Au. The average crustal perspective of gold geochemistry.
abundance of gold (i.e., the gold Clarke) is at least 3 orders
of magnitude lower and is considered to be between about
1.3 ppb (Candela, 2003) and 3 ppb (Rudnick and Fountain,
1995; Wedepohl, 1995). In certain parts of the Earth’s crust, 13.17.2 Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold
gold is concentrated during the formation of ore deposits that,
although variable in terms of genesis and location, typically Gold is a strongly siderophilic metal, occurring essentially in its
have average Au abundances in the range of 1–10 ppm. This native form or as an alloy, but it is also moderately chalcophi-
means that ore-forming processes are capable of enriching gold lic, as reflected in its occurrence as a variety of telluride min-
in the Earth’s crust by factors of 1000–10 000 times. Given the erals. It is a Group IB element, with atomic number 79 and
technological acumen and fiscal regimes that apply to the atomic weight 196.9665. A summary of selected chemical and
Treatise on Geochemistry 2nd Edition http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.01119-0 433

434 Geochemistry of Placer Gold – A Case Study of the Witwatersrand Deposits
Table 1 Chemical and physical properties of gold Table 2 Gold abundances
Atomic number: 79 Au (ppb)

Atomic weight: 196.9665 Range Average
Electron configuration: [Xe]6s14f145d10
Density (g cm1): 19.32 Meteorites
Specific gravity (at 20 C): 18.88 Carbonaceous chondrites 100–230 170
Lattice structure: face-centered cubic Chondrites (L group) 110–330 180
´
Lattice constant (Å): 4.080 Chondrites (H group) 150–300 220
Oxidation states: 1, 3 Irons 67–3710 1150
Melting point (K): 1337.59 Tektites 4.1
Boiling point (K): 3081 Lunar rocks
Atomic radius (pm): 142 Apollo 11 basalt 0.23
Atomic volume (cm mol1): 10.2 Apollo 12 basalt 0.042
Covalent radius (pm): 134 Apollo 11/12 breccias 1.7
Ionic radius: 85 (þ3e) 137 (þ1e) Lunar regolith 2.5
Specific heat (@20 C J g1 K1): 0.129 Igneous rocks
Heat of fusion (kJ mol1): 12.68 Granodiorite (Coastal/Transverse ranges) 0.1–5.2 1.3
Heat of evaporation (kJ mol1): 365 Gabbro (S. California batholith) 0.7–11.6 4.4
Pauling negativity number: 2.54 Rhyolite (Oregon, California) 0.1–1.9 0.5
First ionizing energy (kJ mol1): 889.3 Basalt (Hawaii) 0.5–6.6 2.5
Tensile strength (annealed at 573 K) (Mpa): 123.6–137.3 Sedimentary rocks
Thermal conductivity at 273 K (W m1 K1): 311.4 Sandstone (Colorado Plateau) 10–200 52
Electrical resistivity at 273 K (ohm.cm): 2.05 105 Mudstone (Colorado Plateau) 10–460 142
Monoisotopic in nature: 197Au Limestone (Colorado Plateau) 10–60 22
Seawater
Source: Marsden J and House I (2006) The Chemistry of Gold Extraction. Littleton, CO: Mid-ocean water 0.0038–0.027 0.011
Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. Nearshore water 0.015–0.508 0.139
Fresh surface water
Colorado streams 0.001–0.081 0.022
physical properties of gold is presented in Table 1. Pure gold Groundwater
has a distinctive yellow color, although it assumes a variety of Geothermal (Kyushu) 0.0–2.2 0.53
lighter and darker shades when alloyed with different metals. It
reflects infrared radiation, is very malleable and ductile, and is Source: Wedepohl (1978).
a good conductor of electricity and heat, all properties that
contribute to its usefulness. In natural environments, it is Gold is monoisotopic in nature (197Au), with the nucleus
chemically inert to most reagents and is essentially not affected of its only stable isotope containing 79 protons and 118 neu-
by exposure to air – it may, however, be dissolved in halide- or trons. Neutron-deficient isotopes of gold can be synthesized in
sulfide-bearing aqueous solutions, which explains why it is an accelerator by bombarding a variety of lighter atoms with
concentrated in certain surficial environments as well as at positively charged particles. Gold isotopes with mass numbers
higher temperatures and pressures deeper in the Earth’s crust. 177–183 are short-lived (less than 50 s) and are alpha-
Gold is particularly soluble in the presence of oxidized cyanide emitters; those with mass numbers 185–196 are progressively
(CN)-bearing aqueous solutions, a fact that is key to one of longer-lived and decay essentially by electron capture and
the most widely used metallurgical extraction techniques for gamma radiation (or positron emission). Neutron-heavy gold
gold ores. Gold is one of the most dense natural substances isotopes are prepared by neutron capture and decay by beta
known and its melting point has been accurately determined emission and gamma radiation over the space of minutes to
(Table 1), serving as a calibration point for the International seconds. An exception is 198Au, which is formed in an energet-
Temperature Scale (ITS). ically favorable reaction by bombarding 197Au with neutrons –
Gold occurs principally in oxidation states I and III in the 198Au isotope has a half-life of 2.7 days and is used in
nature, although states II and V are also known, but less com- radiotherapy and as a tracer.
monly (Puddephatt, 1978). Auþ has a closed-shell electronic
configuration so that most gold(I) complexes are diamagnetic,
typically exhibit linear stereochemistry, and may be cationic, 13.17.3 Gold Abundances
neutral, or anionic (e.g., [AuCl2]). Gold(III) complexes are
common and are characterized by a low-spin 5d8 electron The abundances of gold in the inner silicate planets of the solar
configuration, typically exhibiting four coordinate square- system vary significantly as a function of zone or depth. The
planar stereochemistry – examples include [AuCl4] and [Au strongly siderophilic nature of gold (and the platinum group
(NH3)4]3þ. Gold(II) complexes are uncommon but probably elements (PGE)) dictates that the noble metal should be com-
exist transiently in redox reactions between the more stable I prehensively partitioned into the core of the inner planets
and III oxidation states (Puddephatt, 1978). Gold(V) com- (Holzheid et al., 2000). This assertion is supported by mea-
plexes are also uncommon, but compounds such as [AuF6] sured gold abundances in iron meteorites that are 2–3 orders
and AuF5 have been prepared and are strong oxidizing agents of magnitude greater than in any other meteorite type or
(Puddephatt, 1978). planetary portion (Table 2). Iron meteorites can contain up
Geochemistry of Placer Gold – A Case Study of the Witwatersrand Deposits 435
to 3700 ppb Au, with an average of 1150 ppb – values that are Table 3 Gold minerals
akin to those of terrestrial ore deposits. Chondritic meteorites
are also enriched in gold relative to terrestrial rocks and typi- wt% Au
cally contain 100–200 ppb Au. Lunar basalt and regolith, by Alloys
contrast, contain much lower gold contents, typically in the Electrum (Au,Ag) 45–80
range 0.2–2 ppb. Porpezite (Au,Pd) 90–95
Typical gold abundances in the Earth’s crust are 2–3 orders Rhodite (Au,Rh) 57–66
of magnitude lower than in iron or chondritic meteorites. In Auricupride (Au,Cu)
igneous rocks, the more mafic end-members tend to have the Aurosmiride (Ir,Os,Au) 19.3
highest gold abundances, ranging from 2.5 to 4.4 ppb Intermetallic compounds
(Table 2). Felsic rocks typically have lower average gold abun- Gold amalgam Au2Hg3 34.2–41.6
Maldonite Au2Bi 64.5–65.1
dances, in the range of 0.5–1.4 ppb. Sedimentary rocks have
Aurostibite AuSb2 43.5–50.9
slightly higher gold contents – pelitic rocks, for example, can
Tellurides
contain an order of magnitude more gold than normal igneous Calaverite AuTe2 39.2–42.8
rocks, with abundances in the range of 10–460 ppb. This Krennerite Au4AgTe16 30.7–43.9
enrichment reflects either the ability of gold to concentrate Sylvanite AuAgTe4 24.25–29.99
colloidally on clay particles or the affinity between Au and Petzite Ag3AuTe2 19.0–25.2
S in rocks that contain diagenetic sulfide minerals such as Hessite Ag2Te 4.73
pyrite or marcasite. Montbrayite Au2Te3 38.6–44.3
Natural waters contain very low abundances of gold (typi- Kostovite CuAuTe4 25.2
cally 0.001–0.14 ppb Au), which reflects its very low solubility Complex minerals
Nagyagite Au(Pb,Sb,Fe)8(S,Te)11 7.4–10.2
in weakly electrolytic aqueous solutions. Attempts in the 1920s,
Aurobismuthinite (Bi,Au,Ag)5S6 12.3
by the German chemist Fritz Haber, to extract gold commer-
cially from seawater failed mainly because of an overestimation Source: Marsden J and House I (2006) The Chemistry of Gold Extraction. Littleton,
of gold concentrations in seawater and a poor understanding CO: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc
of the nature of the gold species present. Highly acidic, volcanic
aqueous emanations, by contrast, can contain higher gold
concentrations (up to 2 ppb Au; Table 2), and geothermal the best known are calaverite, sylvanite, and krennerite
fluids are commonly implicated in the formation of epither- (Table 3), good specimens of which are derived from the
mal gold deposits (see Chapters 13.1 and 13.2). Other hydro- Cripple Creek district in Colorado.
thermal solutions at higher temperatures and pressures may
have greater gold solubilities, as discussed in Chapter 13.2.
13.17.5 Aqueous Geochemistry of Gold at 25 ˚C
13.17.4 Gold Compounds and Minerals The chemistry of gold (and silver) in aqueous solutions at low
temperatures (25 C), as well as at higher temperatures appli-
A wide range of gold compounds, with a variety of uses, have cable to hydrothermal processes, is now relatively well studied
been synthesized in the laboratory. They include halogen com- (see Chapters 13.1 and 13.2); as well as Gammons and
pounds, fluorides (AuF3; AuF5), chlorides (AuCl; [AuCl3]2), Williams-Jones, 1995; Hayashi and Ohmoto, 1991; Krupp
bromides (AuBr; [AuBr3]2), and iodides (AuI; AuI3), as well and Weiser, 1992; Pan and Wood, 1994; Seward, 1973, 1976,
as oxides (Au2O3), sulfides (Au2S; Au2S3), and selenides (AuSe; 1991; Shenberger and Barnes, 1989; Zotov et al., 1986, 1991).
Au2Se3). The low-temperature geochemistry of gold is applicable to the
As a mineral in nature, gold crystallizes in the cubic system, concentration of gold in surficial environments and is briefly
forming octahedral and dodecahedral crystals – it is, however, discussed in the following section.
very seldom pure and is usually alloyed with silver as well as a The reasons for the nonreactive nature of gold in the ab-
number of minor metals such as copper, arsenic, mercury, and sence of coordinating ligands are demonstrated in Figure 1.
the PGE. Gold and silver are completely miscible even at low The oxidized forms of gold exist at redox potentials above the
temperatures, and as a result, the most common gold mineral condition where water is oxidized to oxygen so that under
in nature is the Au–Ag alloy electrum, in which the proportion most ambient conditions any oxidized gold species are reduced
of silver is typically between 20 and 55%. Other gold minerals to gold metal. In the absence of coordinating ligands, there-
occurring in ore-forming environments (Table 3) include fore, gold will remain nonreactive even in the presence of
both alloys and intermetallic compounds (with defined strong acids or alkalis.
stoichiometries) that form where other metals are also conc- Increased solubility of gold will occur in the presence of a
entrated, such as the PGE (porpezite and rhodite), copper suitable ligand, with the stability of soluble gold complexes
(auricupride), bismuth (maldonite), and antimony (auros- depending on the strength of the oxidizing agent and the
tibite). Au–Bi and Au–Sb associations are well known from magnitude of the relevant standard potentials. Gold(I) at
deposits such as, respectively, Renco (Zimbabwe) and Consol- high temperatures will, for example, form stable complexes
idated Murchison (South Africa). The most common complex with the halides, in particular chlorine. Both gold(I) and gold
gold minerals in nature, however, are the tellurides, of which (III) are regarded as ‘soft’ Lewis acids and prefer bonding with
several are known from a variety of gold deposits worldwide; soft polarizable ligands.
3.0 Williams-Jones, 1995). Figure 2 illustrates the variation in

electrum compositions as a function of temperatures applica-
AuO2 ble to the hydrothermal regime for the conditions where gold
and silver are in solution as a bisulfide complex (Figure 2(a))
and as a chloride complex (Figure 2(b)).
Au3+
Similar information can be applied to the surficial
2.0 environment, and Figure 2(c) shows the contrasting solubilities
Au(OH)3
of electrum where Au and Ag are transported as a chloride
HAuO 32− complex. The high solubility of AgCl2 in an acidic, oxidized
Eh (v)
environment predicts that silver will be preferentially leached
Au relative to gold from the margins of electrum grains residing in
certain alluvial or eluvial settings. In anoxic environments, or in
1.0
the pre-oxyatmoinversion geologic past (>2.5 Ga ago), how-
O2 /H ever, it is conceivable that the differential leaching of Ag relative
2O
to gold may not have been as evident (Krupp and Weiser, 1992).
This feature may, for example, explain the high Ag contents of
Witwatersrand gold (see the succeeding text).
Au(CN)2- Precipitation of gold in nature can occur by many different
0 Cyanide
processes, all of which are related to lowering the solubility, or
leaching
destabilizing, the gold complex in aqueous solution; these
H2 O processes include changing the pressure, temperature, pH, or
/H Zinc
2
precipitation Eh of the host fluid. In metallurgical processes, for example,
highly stable gold complexes (such as the Au-cyanide complex)
−1.0 are effectively reduced to metallic gold by the addition of a
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 species of lower reduction potential (such as zinc or alumin-
pH um; Figure 1).
Figure 1 Potential versus pH equilibrium diagram for the system
Au–H2O at 25 C. Also shown are the stability limits of an Au-chloride and
Au-cyanide complex and an indication of the Eh and pH conditions under 13.17.6 Gold in Surficial Environments
which metallurgical cyanide leaching of gold and its precipitation by
zinc occur. After Puddephatt RJ (1978) The Chemistry of Gold. Amsterdam: Once eroded and liberated from its primary source, gold is
Elsevier; Marsden J and House I (2006) The Chemistry of Gold Extraction. subjected to a variety of physical and chemical processes that
Littleton, CO: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. modify its shape and composition, in addition to further con-
centrating it into a variety of sites in both eluvial and alluvial
settings. It is the latter settings that host placer gold deposits.
In nature, it is appropriate to consider the relative solubil- Extant placer deposits are very seldom mined on a large scale at
ities and complexing agents applicable to Au and Ag together, present because of the detrimental environmental effects asso-
since the two metals are invariably alloyed in both surficial and ciated with extracting gravel in or adjacent to active fluvial
higher temperature hydrothermal environments (Gammons systems, although such deposits did form an important source
and Williams-Jones, 1995; Krupp and Weiser, 1992). Although of gold even in the recent past (viz., Siberia and the California
a wide variety of complexing agents most certainly apply to the and Yukon gold rushes of the nineteenth century). Paleoplacer
solubilization of Au and Ag in nature, two in particular – deposits that formed in the geologic past and are now buried to
chloride and bisulfide ligands – appear to be the most widely considerable depths, such as those hosted in the late Archean
implicated. For both gold and silver, the AuCl2 and AgCl2 Witwatersrand Basin of South Africa and the Paleoproterozoic
complexes, respectively, are stable and soluble under acidic Tarkwa Basin of Ghana, however, remain very important pro-
(low pH) and oxidizing conditions, with the Ag-chloride com- ducers of gold even today.
plex being significantly more stable than the gold equivalent.
Under progressively more neutral and reducing conditions, Au
13.17.6.1 Gold Morphology in Placer Deposits
and Ag solubilities are largely controlled by the presence of
bisulfide ligands and both metals can be solubilized in the Gold that precipitates from hot aqueous hydrothermal solutions
presence of reduced sulfur, as Me(HS)2 or Me(HS)0 com- tends to be crystalline and may form octahedral or dodecahedral
plexes (where Me is either Au or Ag). crystals, or equant to dendritic forms, as illustrated in the rare
The contrasting solubilities of Au and Ag in natural envi- image of a skeletal gold crystal in a quartz vein cutting Witwa-
ronments mean that the composition of electrum (i.e., its Au/ tersrand sediments of the Central Rand goldfield (Figure 3(a))
Ag ratio or gold fineness – the latter term defined in the or the authigenic gold grain seen as an electron microscopic
following section) will vary as a function of the physicochem- image in Figure 3(b). Subsequent to erosion, primary gold
ical conditions under which it is formed and preserved. The crystals are subjected to mechanical abrasion and become pro-
solubility and speciation data now available for Au and Ag gressively flattened and rounded as they are transported as
render it possible to predict electrum compositions as a func- detrital grains in a fluvial system (Figure 3(c) and 3(d)). Based
tion of variables such as temperature and pH (Gammons and on a detailed study of placer gold grains from the Klondike,
1.0
0.01
0.8 Au/Ag = 10
0.001
XAu in electrum 0.6
1.0 0.0001
0.4
0.1
Au/Ag = 0.00001
0.2
0.01
0.0
100 200 300 400 100 200 300 400
(a) T (⬚C) (b) T (⬚C)
−12
Silv
er
Log Au,
−13
molal
−14
−22
−15 ld
Go
−23
−24
Log Ag,
molal
−25
Ag100 Au100
(c) mol%
Figure 2 (a) Calculated variations in electrum composition (Au/Ag ratio) as a function of temperature for a fluid in which both Au and Ag are dissolved
as a bisulfide complex. (b) Calculated variations in electrum composition (Au/Ag ratio) as a function of temperature for a fluid in which both Au and Ag
are dissolved as a chloride complex. Both (a) and (b) reproduced from Gammons CH and Williams-Jones AE (1995) Hydrothermal geochemistry of
electrum: Thermodynamic constraints. Economic Geology 90: 420–432. (c) Solubility of electrum as a function of composition (at 25 C, 1 bar, pH 6,
log(fO2) ¼ 60, and chloride activity ¼ 0.01 molal. Reproduced from Krupp RE and Weiser T (1992) On the stability of gold-silver alloys in the
weathering environment. Mineralium Deposita 27: 268–275.
Yukon, Knight et al. (1999a) developed an empirical classifica- high fineness or a rim of pure gold (Knight et al., 1999a,b).
tion based on relative roundness and flatness as well as particle In the Klondike, the high-fineness rim is progressively better
outline (the latter defined as varying from equant and elongate developed the more distal the gold grain is from its source,
to complex and branched). Gold morphology has also been suggesting that compositional zonation is caused by progres-
used as a guide to transport distances of particles in a fluvial sive leaching of metals such as Ag, Cu, and Hg from the
system – in the Klondike, flatness increases rapidly and grains margins of the grain. In Otago, New Zealand, however, chem-
become discoid within 5 km of the source and most gold grains ical zonation in detrital gold grains is more complex and
appear to have been derived from sources that are within 30 km appears to accompany an increase in grain size – cores are
of the placer deposit. Gold nuggets from Witwatersrand con- overgrown by at least two zones, an inner zone of intermediate
glomerates and from a modern placer deposit in Guyana are fineness and an outer, high-fineness zone (Youngson and
shown in Figure 3(b) and 3(d), respectively. Craw, 1995). In contrast to the Klondike, the latter examples
are considered to reflect precipitation of authigenic gold onto
existing detrital grains rather than a leaching process, although
13.17.6.2 Compositional Changes in the Surficial
it is noted that leached, pure gold rims can also occur.
Environment
It is well known that gold is concentrated in the upper
A detailed study of individual detrital gold grains derived from sections of laterite weathering zones in many parts of the
placer deposits has shown that they are characterized by a world, including Brazil, West Africa, and Western Australia
compositional zonation that is almost always defined by a (Nahon et al., 1992). In the Yilgarn Craton of Western
100 m
(a) (b)
(c) (d) 20kv 011kx 909 m 18231
Figure 3 Gold morphologies in the Witwatersrand Basin and in modern placer environments: (a) Skeletal crystal of hydrothermal gold in a quartz vein
from the Van Dyk Mine, east of Johannesburg, Witwatersrand Basin (crystal is approximately 0.5 cm long). Photograph courtesy of Mark Hudson.
(b) Scanning electron microphotograph of a detrital gold nugget from the Vaal Reef, Klerksdorp goldfield, Witwatersrand Basin. (c) Scanning electron
microphotograph of crystalline gold from Basal Reef, Welkom goldfield, Witwatersrand Basin (bar scale is 300 mm). (d) Scanning electron
microphotograph of a gold nugget from a present-day placer deposit in Guyana. Photographs in (b), (c), and (d) all courtesy of Professor W.E.L. Minter.
Australia, for example, the recovery of gold from lateritic pro- 1984). With increasing depth, groundwater pH tends to in-
files is a major activity and some spectacular nuggets, occasion- crease (i.e., becomes more alkaline) and the fluids become
ally over 1 kg in mass, have been found. Whereas the primary reduced as the ferric/ferrous ratio decreases. The process of
source of gold in these environments is high in silver, the gold lateritization is controlled essentially by hydrolysis as ground-
that is concentrated in lateritic profiles has been chemically waters react with the regolith and iron is oxidized. Chemical
purified, indicating that differential mobilization and decou- reactions include the breakdown of any sulfide mineral phases
pling of Au and Ag takes place in the weathering zone. and the formation of goethite in the ferruginous pedolith.
It is only under certain conditions in the near-surface envi- Experimental work (Cloke and Kelly, 1964; Mann, 1984)
ronment that Au and Ag can be mobilized. Actual measure- indicates that at low pH and high Eh, and in the presence of
ments of near-surface groundwaters in lateritic environments Cl ions, gold in the surficial environment can readily be
indicate that aqueous solutions are relatively acidic (pH < 5), put into solution as the AuCl4 complex. Substantial Au dis-
are oxidizing, and in Western Australia, have low to moderate solution only occurs, however, at relatively high Eh when Fe2þ
salinities because of a marine influence on rainfall (Mann, is completely oxidized in the presence of free oxygen. By
contrast, silver will go into solution more readily as AgCl (the purity gold (Figure 4 inset (b)), suggesting that the latter
most stable complex) and also as AgCl2 or AgCl32. Accord- metal is rapidly reprecipitated as goethite forms, whereas silver
ingly, particles of Au–Ag alloy in the surficial environment will remains in solution and is transported away. This is explained
be more likely to be leached of their Ag over a broader range of by the fact that high gold solubilities are maintained only at
conditions. high Eh and that the metal will precipitate with only a slight
A model for gold concentration in laterites is shown in decrease in Eh under mildly reducing conditions, as described
Figure 4 and is discussed in the following section in terms of by the following reaction:
gold- and silver-chloride speciation as well as the likely Eh–pH
conditions of a typical lateritic profile. Using these constraints, AuCl4 þ 3Fe2þ þ 6H2 O , Au þ 3FeOOH þ 4Cl þ 9Hþ
it is apparent that primary gold (or, more likely, Au–Ag alloy)
particles in the near-surface regolith above the water table will A decrease in AuCl4 solubility and the resulting precipita-
be readily dissolved in the acidic, oxygenated, and moderately tion of gold is, therefore, promoted by interaction of the
saline groundwaters prevailing in this environment. Mann fluid with a more reducing regolith in which Fe2þ and Mn2þ
(1984) has shown that the breakdown of the particle and contents are higher with increasing depth in the profile and
dissolution of Au and Ag actually takes place by replacement below the water table. Redox reactions, therefore, control the
of the alloy by an iron oxyhydroxide phase (such as goethite). precipitation of gold in this environment and explain its asso-
The goethite itself, however, contains tiny particles of high- ciation with minerals such as goethite.
(b)
Iron oxyhydroxide
Peripheral replacement halo,
(a)
void containing gold
Higher purity gold rim (Ag depleted)
(Ag depleted) Iron
oxyhydroxide
Primary
Au–Ag
alloy
AgCl
Dissolution of Au, Ag O2 O2 Water table
AgCl Low pH
Pedolith High Eh
AgCl
Reprecipitation of Au
rce
AuCl 4−
ou
ld s
go
Saprolith
n-
vei
z
art
Fe2+ Fe2+ Fe2+

Felsic
Qu
Mafic Neutral pH
Low Eh
Bedrock
Figure 4 Schematic profile showing the nature and characteristics of gold and silver redistribution in a typical lateritic profile. The inset diagram
shows two mechanisms whereby a primary Au–Ag alloy particle could be broken down during lateritization and silver preferentially removed. Modified
from Mann AW (1984) Mobility of gold and silver in lateritic weathering profiles: Some observations from Western Australia. Economic Geology 79:
38–49; Nahon DB, Boulange DB, and Colin F (1992) Metallogeny of weathering: An introduction. In: Martini IP and Chesworth W (eds.) Weathering,
Soils and Paleosols, Developments in Earth Surface Processes, vol. 2, pp. 445–471. Amsterdam: Elsevier B.V. Reproduced from Robb LJ (2005)
Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Primary Au–Ag alloy particles that are not closely associated Hg-depleted in certain geographic locations or have evolved
with an iron or manganese oxyhydroxide tend to show a paragenetically by the precipitation of metals from progres-
preferential depletion in silver around their edges and the sively more Au-depleted ore fluids over time. Placer gold grains
formation of gold halos of higher purity (Figure 4 inset (a)). in the Klondike can be matched to primary sources that occur
Such features are either a product of silver diffusion from the within 10–30 km of the sites of alluvial concentration. The
outer margins of the particle or congruent dissolution of the mismatch between placer gold resources (and production)
entire alloy and in situ reprecipitation of the gold. and the much smaller amounts of gold apparently hosted in
subjacent primary deposits points to the efficiency of mechan-
ical sedimentation as a mechanism of concentration and the
13.17.6.3 Composition of Alluvial and Eluvial Gold
longevity of processes that give rise to accumulations of placer
Compared to Its Source Characteristics
deposits.
Direct comparison of gold compositions in alluvial (or eluvial) A detailed study of gold compositions from alluvial, eluvial,
deposits with those of their purported sources is difficult, and and lode gold settings in the Mazowe greenstone belt of
very few studies have succeeded in matching placer gold with Zimbabwe has also revealed some interesting observations
its source or documenting the differences that exist between the (Naden et al., 1994; Styles et al., 1995). A plot of Ag versus
two environments. In many prominent alluvial gold districts, it Au (Figure 5(a)) reveals a good inverse correlation, with the
has proven difficult to identify an actual, or even perceived, primary lode gold grains having Ag contents typically between
primary source of gold that will adequately accommodate the 5 and 10 wt% and occupying an intermediate compositional
known gold resources of the adjacent placer deposits – in the range relative to the alluvial and soil-hosted gold grains. Allu-
Klondike, for example, placer gold resources far outweigh those vial grains typically exhibit higher Ag contents and lower fine-
of primary lode gold deposits in the region (Chapman et al., ness than the putative source gold, whereas soil-hosted gold
2010a,b; Mortensen et al., 2005). The problem is far more acute exhibited the highest fineness and lowest Ag contents of the
in the Witwatersrand Basin where an apparently inadequate dataset. This suggests that soil-hosted gold has perhaps been
source of gold is one of the reasons why the hydrothermal leached of its silver and that it is, therefore, the pedogenic
model remains as one option for the origin of gold in addition environment where significant chemical changes take place.
to the modified placer model (see the following section). Alluvial gold, with its higher silver and lower gold contents
The silver and mercury contents of gold have been used (relative to the putative source) appears to reflect processes that
with some success in the characterization of gold and in the have either added silver or removed gold from these grains.
identification of possible source deposits. In the Klondike This would suggest that Mazowe alluvial gold either lacks a
district (Chapman et al., 2010a,b), placer gold can be subdi- high-fineness gold rim or that, if it was there, it has now been
vided into at least three compositional categories, namely, removed by mechanical abrasion or additional leaching.
an Au–Ag alloy subtype with no Hg, an Au–Ag–Hg alloy The silver versus mercury plot (Figure 5(b)) shows that two
subtype, and an Au–Ag–Hg alloy subtype with low Ag. These of the lode gold deposits at Mazowe, Osceola and Puzzle, are
placer gold grain types can be directly matched with small distinct in terms of both their Ag and Hg contents and that
metamorphogenic primary vein-related deposits that are either these two elements can be used to fingerprint gold and its
Ag vs. Au (Mazowe Belt, Zimbabwe)

25
Osceola
Puzzle
Alluvial
Soil
20
Ag vs. Hg (Mazowe Belt, Zimbabwe)
25
Osceola
Puzzle
15 Alluvial
20 Soil
Ag (wt%)
15
Ag (wt%)
10
10
5
5
0
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105
Hg (wt%)
(a) Au (wt%) (b)
Figure 5 (a) Au versus Ag plot and (b) Ag versus Hg plot, for individual gold grains from various settings in the Mazowe greenstone belt, Zimbabwe
(data from Naden et al., 1994; Styles et al., 1995). Osceola and Puzzle are two small mesothermal lode gold deposits; alluvial samples are from streams
close to the Osceola deposit, whereas soil samples were collected from two trenches between 0.5 and 2.8 m deep in the Mazowe area.
environment of formation. Alluvial gold exhibits a fairly re- relevance beyond the goldfields and their economic value,
stricted range of Hg contents, much more akin to an Osceola- providing clues to the understanding of Archean atmospheric
like source than to a Puzzle-like source. This is consistent with and tectonic evolution and the origin of life.
the fact that most of the alluvial samples selected earlier were
derived from close to the Osceola Mine. Soil-hosted gold ex-
13.17.7.2 Geological Background
hibits greater variability in its Hg contents, including some
anomalously high values (>1wt%), the origin of which is not Gold mineralization is hosted by the Archean Witwatersrand
certain at this stage. Basin (Figure 6), within the well-preserved sedimentary se-
quences of the Central Rand Group (CRG) and, to a lesser
extent, the West Rand Group (WRG) (Figure 7(a)). More
13.17.7 Witwatersrand Gold – A Case Study than 90% of the gold is located within conglomerate units
of the CRG, which are commonly referred to as ‘reefs’
13.17.7.1 Introduction
(Figure 7(b)). The CRG developed in a foreland setting during
The Witwatersrand goldfields have produced around 50 kt of the collision between the Kaapvaal craton and Zimbabwe cra-
gold since exploitation on a commercial scale began in 1886 – ton between approximately 3.07 and 2.71 Ga (Armstrong
some 30% of all the gold extracted by mankind – and represent et al., 1991). Overlying the >3.12 Ga granite–greenstone base-
the largest concentration of gold known on Earth. In addition, ment of the Witwatersrand Basin are the bimodal volcanics of
over 150 kt of U3O8 has been extracted (Pretorius, 1986). the Dominion Group, deposited between 3086 and 3074 Ma
Knowledge of the chemical composition of the gold has had (Armstrong et al., 1991; Figure 7(a)) and interpreted to have
an important impact on the understanding of ore formation formed in a continental rifting setting. Negative topography
mechanisms, the understanding of which is becoming increas- formed over a wide area following the end of Dominion age
ingly pertinent to the search for new economic reserves. The activity either through thermal collapse or in the early stages
gold ores and the mechanisms of their formation have of foreland basin development during the onset of collision
N
elt
km opo B
G a Limp
0 200 2.6–2.0
ani
Giy
Pietersburg
b urg
block ters on
Pie chis
Mur
nt
eame
rchis on lin
zim bi-Mu on
Thaba Bar
bert
Kraaipan
1.9
Ga
Kh
Amalia
eis
Be
Kimberley
lt
block Swaziland
block
<2.6 Ga cover
Witwatersrand
Ventersdorp Supergroup ~ 2.7 Ga

Supergroup
Central Rand Group ~ 2.8 Ga

1.2– West Rand/Dominion Groups ~ 2.9/3.1 Ga
1.0 G
a Na Pongola Supergroup ~ 2.9 Ga
maq
ua-N
atal >2.8 Ga Granitoid
Belt
>2.8 Ga Greenstone
Figure 6 Archean sedimentary basins and granite–greenstone terrains of the Kaapvaal craton. Modified from Schmitz MD, Bowring SA, de Wit MJ, and
Gartz V (2004) Subduction and terrane collision stabilize the western Kaapvaal craton tectosphere 2.9 billion years ago. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 222: 363–376; Frimmel HE (2005) Archaean atmospheric evolution: Evidence from the Witwatersrand gold fields, South Africa. Earth-Science
Reviews 70: 1–46.
Johannesburg
South Africa West Wits East

Rand
8 Central Evander
5
4 Rand 10
6 7 9
West
Rand
Klerksdorp
3
South 27⬚S
Vredefort
Venterskroon Dome Rand
0 50 N
km
2
1 Goldfield 2 Sampled mine
28⬚ S Bushveld Igneous Complex

Welkom
Central Rand Group
West Rand Group
Vredefort Dome
Basement and cover
(undifferentiated)
27⬚ E Fault
(a)
Metres West
Rand Reef
3000 Conglomerate
West
Wits VCR Central
(Carletonville) Rand Sandstone
Welkom Klerksdorp
Shale
VCR VCR VCR Lava
2000 Mondeor East
Turffontein
subgroup
Rand
Elsburg
Central Rand Group
Elsburg A
Kimberley
Booysens Kimberley South
Krugersdorp Basal/Steyn Evander
Luipaardsvlei
Rand
1000 Randfontein
Vaal
Johannesburg
subgroup
Livingstone
Livingstone Kimberley
Main Johnstone Livingstone Livingstone
Middelvlei Johnstone Johnstone
Commonage Carbon Leader
Blyvooruitzicht Commonage Main Main
0
(b)
Figure 7 (a) Simplified geologic map showing the subcrop of the West Rand Group (WRG) and Central Rand Group (CRG), locations of goldfields and
mines referred to in the text (numbered as follows: (1) Loraine; (2) Target; (3) and (4) Driefontein/East Driefontein/West Driefontein; (5) and (6) Placer
Dome; (7), (8), and (9) Leslie; (10) Kinross). Modified from Pretorius DA (1986) The goldfields of the Witwatersrand Basin. In: Mineral Deposits of Southern
Africa, vol. I, pp. 489–494. Johannesburg: Geological Society of South Africa; Hayward CL, Reimold WU, Gibson RL, and Robb LJ (2005) Gold
mineralization within the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa: Evidence for a modified placer origin, and the role of the Vredefort impact event. In: McDonald I,
Boyce AJ, Butler IB, Herrington RJ, and Polya DA (eds.) Mineral Deposits and Earth Evolution, Geological Society Special Publication 248, pp. 31–58.
London: Geological Society of London. (b) Simplified stratigraphy of the CRG from the datum of the contact with the WRG showing the main
lithological divisions and auriferous ‘reefs’ referred to in the text. Modified from Robb LJ and Robb VM (1998) Gold in the Witwatersrand Basin. In: Wilson
MGC and Anhauser CR (eds.) The Mineral Resources of South Africa, Council for Geoscience Handbook, vol. 16, pp. 294–349. Pretoria: Council for
Geoscience.
between the cratons (e.g., Armstrong et al., 1991; McCarthy, ground mostly to the north and west of the basin margin. The
1994; Robb et al., 1991). Into the resulting basin and over an CRG is unconformably covered by the Ventersdorp Contact
unconformity representing approximately 100 Ma were depos- Reef (VCR) (Figure 8(b)) and the extensively developed tho-
ited the argillaceous and sandy sediments of the WRG in an leiitic flood basalts of the Klipriviersberg Group between 2714
epicontinental environment that evolved to a shallow marine and 2704 Ma (Armstrong et al., 1991).
shelf (e.g., Frimmel and Minter, 2002; Phillips and Law, 2000; The tectonic regime changed from compressional to ex-
Robb and Robb, 1998). Compressional tectonics fragmented tensional following the Klipriviersberg volcanism. Into the
the basement into a series of discrete blocks (McCarthy, 1994), resulting Transvaal Basin were deposited the Chuniespoort
resulting in a series of topographically restricted regions within Group dolomites and later the Pretoria Group siliciclastics
the original broader extent of the basin and into which the between 2.6 and 2.16 Ga (Eriksson et al., 2001). Regional
CRG was deposited from approximately 2.9 Ga. The CRG is a greenschist burial metamorphism of the Witwatersrand
mature clastic sequence comprising sands and gravels with Supergroup occurred at 2.55–2.58 Ga (Frimmel, 1994,
only minor argillaceous units, deposited in a fluvio-deltaic 1997b; Gartz and Frimmel, 1999; Robb et al., 1996) and
environment (Figure 8(a)), with sediment sources in higher 2.3–2.2 Ga (Frimmel, 1994; Robb et al., 1996). Granite
Source area
VCR-type
Old land surface conglomerates
Vaal Reef-type
conglomerates
Tidal flats
Shale
Unconformity
Leader Reef-type
conglomerates Quartz arenites
Quartzwacke and conglomerates
(a)
Terrace slope
Terrace
Channel
VCR
(b)
Figure 8 (a) Composite schematic illustration of the main environments of deposition of CRG conglomerates. (b) Schematic illustration of the
formation environment of the Ventersdorp Contact Reef (VCR). Reproduced from Robb LJ and Robb VM (1998) Gold in the Witwatersrand Basin. In:
Wilson MGC and Anhauser CR (eds.) The Mineral Resources of South Africa, Council for Geoscience Handbook, vol.16, pp. 294–349. Pretoria: Council
for Geoscience.
bodies around the margins of the preserved Witwatersrand the modified placer and hydrothermal models remain debated at
Basin, emplaced in three ‘magmatic cycles’ between 3500 and the time of writing. The modified placer model, through the
2700 Ma (Anhaeusser and Robb, 1981), played a key role in the balance of a wide range of evidence, is now supported by most
uplift of the Witwatersrand Basin’s hinterland and supplied sig- researchers and mine geologists as best explaining the occur-
nificant proportions of the detritus that comprise the CRG. These rence, distribution, and characteristics of the majority of the
granitic intrusions have highly variable uranium contents, with gold and other minerals within the bulk of the CRG.
uranium at higher concentrations in progressively later intru- In the modified placer model (Figure 11), some gold,
sions (Robb et al., 1990a,b). uraninite, some pyrite, and other heavy minerals (such as
Emplacement of the Bushveld Igneous Complex into the zircon, chromite, and rare diamond), derived by eroding
central area of the Transvaal Basin occurred at approximately granite–greenstone source regions to the north and west of
2.06–2.05 Ga (Walraven and Hattingh, 1993; Walraven et al., the Witwatersrand Basin, were deposited mainly in conglom-
1990). The intrusion elevated crustal geotherms to around erates laid down in a fluvio-deltaic environment. Deposition
35–40 C km1 and caused regional greenschist metamorphism occurred under reducing atmospheric conditions (e.g.,
of the Witwatersrand metasediments (Gibson and Stevens, Frimmel, 2005), with metals subsequently remobilized by
1998). Finally, a major bolide impact, now exposed as the fluids produced during burial and episodic metamorphism
Vredefort impact structure, occurred at 2023 4 Ma (Gibson of Witwatersrand sediments (Figure 11). The enigmatic hy-
et al., 1997; Kamo et al., 1996) in the geographic center of drocarbons that occur within the CRG conglomerates and are
the surviving Witwatersrand Basin, which is probably ulti- intimately associated with many of the highest grade gold and
mately responsible for the current extent of preservation of the uranium ores are considered to have been derived from
remnant basin (Gibson and Reimold, 1999; Hayward et al., within the Witwatersrand Basin and to represent the remains
2005; McCarthy et al., 1990). The impact caused a further of primitive, single-cellular organisms that underwent cata-
regional greenschist event and very extensive brittle deformation genesis and were mobilized as petroleum products (Gray
throughout the CRG but was limited in its effects on gold et al., 1998; Spangenberg and Frimmel, 2001). The modified
distribution in the areas where the goldfields are now located placer model recognizes an initial control on gold concentration
(Hayward et al., 2005). in the CRG by placer-forming processes and an origin of all or
some of the gold as detrital particles, with substantial modifica-
tion of primary ore textures by one or more basinal fluid circula-
13.17.7.3 Formation of the Ore Deposits
tion events and remobilization of gold and other metals on a
Competing explanations for the origins of the gold and forma- localized scale. The model derives robust support from the un-
tion of the ores arose soon after the commencement of com- equivocal sedimentological control on the distribution of the
mercial mining in 1886, defining debates and controversies heavy mineral suite (including gold, uraninite, pyrite, chromite,
that have endured to this day. The details of this largely aca- and zircon; Figure 12), the heterogeneity of gold composition
demic debate, of little practical importance in daily operations (discussed in detail in the following section), and the ages of
for most of the history of mining of the CRG, are now becom- detrital minerals (such as zircon, pyrite, and gold), which exceed
ing increasingly pertinent to the search for extensions to the those of their host rocks (e.g., Barton et al., 1989; Kirk et al., 2001;
known high-grade mineralized horizons. Of special signifi- Kositcin and Krapez, 2004; Robb et al., 1990a,b).
cance to such endeavors is the degree to which gold deport- The hydrothermal model argues for the introduction of gold,
ment within the CRG is controlled by primary Archean uranium, carbon, and sulfide minerals by widespread circula-
sedimentary environments and processes, and the extent to tion of structurally controlled, basin-wide, intrabasinally and/or
which later events have modified the original abundance, min- extrabasinally derived fluid(s) within the coarse clastic units, via
eralogical associations, and stratigraphic distribution of the large-scale fracture networks associated with postburial (and
gold. Throughout the pages of many hundreds of scientific possibly also earlier, CRG-age) thrust faulting (e.g., Barnicoat
articles, this debate has seen consensus swing between various et al., 1997; Jolley et al., 1999; Phillips, 1993; Phillips and Law,
ore formation models. 2000; Phillips and Myers, 1989) (Figure 13). Pyrite is inter-
Excluding those models, such as direct precipitation from preted to have formed through the sulfidation of preexisting
seawater (de Launay, 1896), which appear unacceptable today, iron oxides (e.g., Myers et al., 1993). This model explains the
three have remained widely and extensively debated since the late authigenic textures and mineralogical associations of gold
nineteenth century. These are the ‘placer’ model (e.g., Becker, within the context of the basin-wide alteration that has occurred
1898; Gregory, 1907; Hallbauer and Utter, 1977; Mellor, 1916; as a result of repeated regional metamorphic events, which have
Minter, 1999), the ‘modified placer’ model (e.g., Frimmel, raised temperatures to around 300–350 C (e.g., Gibson et al.,
1997a; Frimmel and Minter, 2002; Hayward et al., 2005; Robb 1997; Hayward et al., 2005; Phillips and Myers, 1989). Multiple
et al., 1996; Young, 1917), and the ‘hydrothermal’ model (e.g., fluid circulation events are proposed by most supporters of the
Barnicoat et al., 1997; Davidson, 1965; Hatch and Chalmers, model, e.g.,Phillips and Law (2000), who propose transport of
1895; Jolley et al., 1999; Phillips and Law, 2000; Phillips et al., uranium from altered granites in oxidizing, meteorically derived
1987). At the root of the controversy is the apparent paradox that fluids (thus requiring an oxidizing late Archean atmosphere)
gold, with predominantly authigenic morphologies and miner- along CRG-age fractures around the basin margin. Migration
alogical associations (Figure 9) suggestive of a hydrothermal of hydrocarbons during postburial metamorphism created re-
origin, is concentrated in sedimentary trap sites and is closely ducing environments in which uraninite and later, gold from a
associated with other heavy minerals (Figure 10(b) and 10(c)), separate fluid, could precipitate. A single fluid circulation lead-
the latter features being best explained by placer formation. Only ing to U and Au precipitation via reduction in proximity to
Au
Rut Chl
Zircon
Au Qtz +
Au Po Musc
Uran
Chl
Au
Au+Po
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Chl Po
Au Au
Au
Au
Gal
Po Alt.
Uran
Au
(e) (f) (g) (h)
Figure 9 Examples of mineralogical and textural associations of gold in the CRG. Scale bar in all images is 100 mm long. (a) Kimberley Reef, Leslie
Mine (Evander). Gold pyrrhotite in fractures within quartz and zircon. Reflected þ transmitted light. (b) VCR, E. Driefontein Mine (W. Wits). Gold plus
pyrrhotite in chlorite overgrowing fragments of brittly-deformed pyrites. Reflected light. (c) Carbon Leader Reef, E. Driefontein Mine (W. Wits), gold
interstitial between detrital quartz grains. Reflected þ transmitted light. (d) Kimberley Reef, Leslie Mine (Evander), gold with chlorite overgrowing
corroded fragments of brittly-deformed pyrites. Reflected þ transmitted light. (e) Carbon Leader Reef, E. Driefontein Mine (W. Wits), gold and chlorite
overgrowing and infilling corroded fragments of brittly-deformed pyrite. Reflected light. (f) Carbon Leader Reef, E. Driefontein Mine (W. Wits), gold with
galena infilling fractures in pyrite and crosscutting earlier pyrrhotite-filled fractures. Reflected light. (g) Elsburg B Reef, Target Mine (Welkom), gold and
chlorite within cracks in brittly-deformed pyrite. (h) Elsburg B Reef, Target Mine (Welkom), gold with altered uraninite between brittly-deformed rounded
and subhedral pyrites and overgrown by euhedral pyrite. Po, pyrrhotite; Rut, rutile; Chl, chlorite; Qtz, quartz; Musc, muscovite; Uran, uraninite; Gal,
galena. Reproduced from Hayward CL, Reimold WU, Gibson RL, and Robb LJ (2005) Gold mineralization within the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa:
Evidence for a modified placer origin, and the role of the Vredefort impact event. In: McDonald I, Boyce AJ, Butler IB, Herrington RJ, and Polya DA (eds.)
Mineral Deposits and Earth Evolution, Geological Society Special Publication 248, pp. 31–58. London: Geological Society of London.
hydrocarbons is proposed by Barnicoat et al. (1997). Possible hydrothermal model, key objections remain the source(s) and
fluid origins are the same as those suggested for the modified volume of the auriferous fluid required to produce the quanti-
placer model of mineralization: metamorphic alteration of the ties of gold present (e.g., Phillips and Law, 2000), the lack of the
Dominion Group volcanics and WRG shales (Phillips, 1993; universal structural control on gold and uranium mineralization
Phillips and Law, 2000), in addition to potential meteoric and within the CRG, and the inability of the model to accommodate
magmatic contributions (Fox and Winkler, 1997; Phillips and features such as the age, distribution, and textural and chemical
Law, 2000). heterogeneities exhibited by the heavy mineral suite, including
One of the main reasons for the persistence of the Witwa- gold, pyrite, uraninite, and zircon.
tersrand debate is that each of the two main models attempts to The Witwatersrand debate continues and will not be resolved
impose universal applicability to a series of deposits that are, in in this volume. Nevertheless, the current balance of opinion has
detail, not uniform. While the bulk of the ores are generally shifted toward the modified placer model and the data that are
believed to be best explained via remobilization of originally presented in the following section as a case study should conse-
detrital deposits by relatively small volumes of rock-buffered quently be viewed as reflecting the gold geochemistry of origi-
fluids (e.g., Frimmel and Gartz, 1997; Hayward et al., 2005), nally detrital particles, a proportion of which have been
there are locations where the occurrence of gold and other modified by local remobilization and recrystallization.
components has been structurally controlled and where high
fluid/rock ratios are invoked to explain alteration patterns. The
13.17.7.4 Chemical Composition of Witwatersrand Gold
longevity of the depositional history of the Witwatersrand
Basin together with its complex, episodic postdepositional evo- 13.17.7.4.1 The nature of the available data
lution effectively precludes the possibility of identical processes Investigations of the chemical composition of gold from the
affecting the entire volume of the auriferous sediments. In the Witwatersrand mines date from the early twentieth century
case of the modified placer model, a critical difficulty is the (e.g., Lane Carter, 1902; see Saager, 1969 for a historical sum-
volume of source-rock erosion required to generate the quanti- mary). Much of the vast amount of chemical data on the gold
ties of gold present within the CRG (Hutchinson and Viljoen, was gathered as a part of the mining operation to value de-
1988; Phillips et al., 1987; Robb and Meyer, 1990). For the posits, to monitor grade, and to fine-tune the metallurgical
(b)
(a)
(a) Quartz veins in Elsburg B Reef, Placer

Dome Mine, West Wits goldfield
(b) Rounded detrital pyrite in basal lag,

Leslie Mine, Evander goldfield
(c) Euhedral authigenic pyrite (upper arrow)

and rounded detrital pyrites (lower arrow)
Leslie Mine, Evander goldfield (c)
Figure 10 Photographs of selected auriferous Witwatersrand conglomerates. (a) Elsburg B Reef, Placer Dome Mine, West Wits goldfield.
(b) Kimberley Reef, Leslie Mine, Evander goldfield. (c) Kimberley Reef, Leslie Mine, Evander goldfield. Photographs by C Hayward.
extraction process. There are relatively few studies reporting Gehlen and Hallbauer, 1984) or wavelength dispersive X-ray
actual chemical compositions so that the overall dataset spectroscopy (WDS) (Hayward et al., 2005). With the excep-
(Table 4, Figure 14) is dominated by, and inevitably biased tion of Reid et al. (1988), who discussed in detail the analysis
toward, certain goldfields and reefs. Nevertheless, sufficient of gold by WDS (see also Frimmel and Gartz, 1997), little
data exist to enable detailed explanations of ore deposit for- information is available on analytical settings or instrumental
mation and evolution. conditions. Hg concentrations are not reported in studies using
The gold mined from the CRG contains significant and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), which cannot dif-
variable concentrations of two metals, namely, silver (4 to ferentiate between the similar energies of Au and Hg X-rays (Au
>20 wt%) and mercury (<0.2–6 wt%) (Table 4, Figure 14), La ¼ 9.7130 keV, Hg La ¼ 9.9890 keV). Several of the pub-
in addition to a number of minor metals, including Sc, V, Fe, lished studies report average compositions measured in con-
Co, Ni, Cu, Co, As, Mo, Sn, Sb, Te, Zr, the rare earth elements, centrates of gold grains from samples of varying volume (Reid
Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Pb, Bi, and Th, all usually present in trace amounts et al., 1988; Von Gehlen, 1983) or averages of analyses from
(Hallbauer, 1986; Kirk et al., 2001; Strasheim and Jackson, analyses of individual grains (some of the data in Oberthür
1971). Certain of these metals are interpreted as having been and Saager, 1986). The range of concentrations of the elements
alloyed with gold (Hallbauer, 1986), whereas others have been represented in these studies (Figure 14) will therefore be lower
observed as minute inclusions within the gold (Frimmel et al., than that actually present among populations of individual
1993). Measured concentrations of Re and Os, of <40ppb and gold grains.
1000–10 000 ppb, respectively, enable direct dating of the gold Many studies report analyses of gold grains separated from
by the Re–Os method (Kirk et al., 2001, 2002). their silicate matrix (Table 4), analyzed either individually or
Direct comparison of all published gold compositions is as averaged values of all grains separated from a single rock
difficult except in broad terms because of the range of analyt- sample. In other studies, the data are assays from individual
ical methods and different sampling methodologies and types rock samples or packages of related auriferous units. What is
of samples used (Table 4). For example, mercury contents from commonly reported is not the absolute abundance, but
Carbon Leader samples analyzed by atomic absorption spec- ‘fineness’ (F), which measures gold purity relative to its princi-
troscopy (AAS) (Oberthür and Saager, 1986) provide values pal contaminant, silver (Fisher, 1945):
significantly higher than the broadly similar ranges produced
by neutron activation analysis (Erasmus et al., 1980; Von F ¼ ½Au=ðAu þ AgÞ 1000
Quartz
Allogenic
pebble
phase
Pyrite (detrital)
Uraninite (detrital) Gold (detrital)
(a)
Pyrite
(authigenic)
Early stage
remobilization
(b)
and
hydrocarbon
circulation
Bitumen
nodules
Quartz vein
(hydrocarbon-
bearing fluid
inclusions)
Bitumen seams
(c)
Quartz vein Chalcopyrite
(with base-metal
sulphides)
Galena
Late stage
remobilization
(c.2000 Ma)
Gold
(authigenic)
Sphalerite
Gold
Gold
(d)
Figure 11 Schematic representation of the modified placer formation model for the Witwatersrand Basin. Modified from Robb LJ and Robb VM
(1998) Gold in the Witwatersrand Basin. In: Wilson MGC and Anhauser CR (eds.) The Mineral Resources of South Africa, Council for Geoscience
Handbook, vol. 16, pp. 294–349. Pretoria: Council for Geoscience.
This value is sometimes referred to as ‘true fineness’ (FT). In electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) (Frimmel et al., 1993;
studies using EDS, apparent fineness is reported as: Frimmel and Gartz, 1997; Hayward et al., 2005; Oberthür and
Saager, 1986; Von Gehlen, 1983) (Table 4).
Different studies of the same or similar locations within
F ¼ ½ðAu þ HgÞ=ðAu þ Ag þ HgÞ 1000
individual auriferous units have produced apparently contra-
because EDS analyses are unable to resolve Au and Hg X-rays dictory data – an example is the VCR at Driefontein Mine, West
(Oberthür and Saager, 1986). Excluded from consideration Wits goldfield, where Frimmel and Gartz (1997) reported min-
in this review are studies reporting apparent fineness, which is imal variation in gold composition between samples com-
calculated from whole-rock analysis, because of the possibility pared to Hayward et al. (2005), who found significant
of the inclusion of excess silver carried in Ag minerals, or sub- variation. This is a reflection of the chemical diversity of the
stitutionally in minerals such as galena. The use of fineness gold rather than of the validity or methodologies of the two
data and the averaging of populations of gold grains is highly studies and a good illustration of the geochemical complexity
effective within the context of day-to-day mining operations of the Witwatersrand deposits.
but is insensitive to small changes in gold chemistry that are The size, number, and geographic and stratigraphic distri-
relevant to detailed considerations of ore deposit formation bution of samples used in the various studies impact on the
models. conclusions drawn about gold chemistry and their relevance to
A smaller group of investigators have looked in detail at the ore genesis at the basin-wide scale. Most studies focus on an
gold chemistry of individual gold grains, either removed from individual mine or on one or more conglomerate units within
their silicate matrix by acid digestion (Oberthür and Saager, a single goldfield (e.g., Oberthür and Saager, 1986; Reid et al.,
1986; Reid et al., 1988), or in situ in polished samples, using 1988), with a smaller number covering larger geographic and
In no study has any correlation between Ag and Hg abun-

High Au dances been observed, and none has reported a correlation
High U between gold composition and paragenetic relationships
within the host rock (e.g., Frimmel and Gartz, 1997; Hayward
Mean pebble
et al., 2005; Oberthür and Saager, 1986). In this regard, it is
isopleth
Mean
noted that some chemically distinct gold is associated with
vector chlorite and quartz, respectively, in Figure 7(a) and 7(b) of
Frimmel and Gartz (1997) and that these correlate, respec-
tively, with the high Ag and lower Hg groups of Figure 14(a).
Other than two early investigations (Prentice, 1939; Young,
1917), there is no study that has identified a relationship
between gold grain size and Ag/Au. The absence of Ag-depleted
rims in the gold grains of the CRG has been noted by several
Basal/S
authors (e.g., Utter, 1979). Such syn-transport chemical zona-

tion would not have developed under the reducing atmo-
te
spheric conditions considered to have been prevalent during

yn entr
CRG deposition (e.g., Frimmel, 2005) nor would it have

survived chemical homogenization as a result of elevated crustal
y
temperatures during the successive regional greenschist meta-

front
20 mm morphic events that have affected the CRG from approximately

2500 Ma (Czamanske et al., 1973; Robb and Meyer, 1995).
30 mm
40 mm 13.17.7.4.2.1 Witwatersrand gold compositions at the deposit
level – the km scale
N The silver and mercury contents of gold within the CRG vary
widely as shown in Figure 14(a), which presents data from eight
3 km
published studies of gold chemistry within different reefs from a
variety of locations – these data are also grouped by goldfield
Figure 12 Association of gold and uranium with depositional (Figure 14(b)) and by reef (Figure 14(c)). Also shown in
channels and mean pebble size isopleths, Basal Reef, Welkom goldfield. Figure 14 are data from various greenstone belts close to the
Modified from Minter WEL, Hill WCN, Kidger RJ, Kingsley CS, and currently preserved extent of the Witwatersrand Basin as well as
Snowden PA (1986) The Welkom Goldfield. In: Mineral Deposits of examples from Zimbabwe. A clear geographically defined varia-
Southern Africa, vol. I, pp. 497–539. Johannesburg: Geological Society of tion in gold chemistry is evident within the CRG (Hayward et al.,
South Africa.
2005; Figure 14(b)). It is summarized as follows:
stratigraphic intervals within the CRG (Frimmel and Gartz, 1. Gold from the Evander goldfield has high Ag and low Hg.
1997; Hallbauer, 1986; Hayward et al., 2005). The results of 2. Gold from the Welkom goldfield has variable Ag and
the various studies strongly suggest that the volume of samples mostly low Hg.
used and the total volume of the CRG from which these 3. Gold from the Klerksdorp goldfield has low Ag and var-
samples were derived have some impact on the interpretations iable Hg.
of gold origin(s) and ore formation because of the variety and 4. Gold from the West Wits goldfield has mostly low Ag and
complexity of the various gold deposits within the CRG. variable Hg, except for the Elsburg B Reef and portions of
the VCR.
5. From the limited data available, gold from the West Rand
13.17.7.4.2 Variation of gold chemistry within the Central
goldfield appears to have low Ag and variable Hg.
Rand Group
6. Chemically distinct subgroups exist within goldfields.
The chemistry of gold with respect to geographic and strati-
7. There are small but significant outliers within the data from
graphic distribution within the CRG is complex and appears to
each goldfield and reef.
be characterized by a series of overlapping patterns with respect
8. No gold contains high concentrations of both Ag and Hg.
to geography and stratigraphy, depending upon the scale – that
is, the volume of CRG – being considered (Figures 14–16). In certain geographically related locations, relatively re-
There is a notable increase in the observed chemical heteroge- stricted ranges of gold chemistry variation appear to have
neity of gold with increasing volume of the CRG represented persisted over long periods of time, with gold from a single
by a suite of samples – that is, the chemical heterogeneity of goldfield maintaining relatively similar chemical characteris-
gold present within 1 mm3 of CRG <1 cm3 <1 m3 <1 km3 tics throughout significant stratigraphic intervals. Samples of
(Frimmel and Gartz, 1997; Hayward et al., 2005; Oberthür the Carbon Leader, Middelvlei, and VCR reefs from the East
and Saager, 1986). The variation in composition of Witwaters- Driefontein Mine, West Wits goldfield, maintain similar com-
rand gold is described in the following section and discussed in positional ranges – namely, low Ag and variable Hg – over a
relation to ore deposit formation models in the concluding stratigraphic interval of some 1500 m, representing a pro-
section. Because of the scarcity of data for elements other than longed period of deposition. In the Welkom goldfield, gold
Ag and Hg, only these are considered in detail here. from both the Basal Reef and VCR, separated by some 500 m of
NW SE
Thermal subsidence
(a) Dominion rifting
NW SE
Heavy mineral
Erosion concentration
Hot (Fe, Ti)
radiogenic
basement
window
Oil
Greenschist
Hydrocarbon generation
facies
(b)
NW SE
greenschist
Sub-
Klipriviersberg lavas
mineralization
Gold
Overpressured sediments
Greenschist
Brittle–ductile
transition
Amphibolite
H2O CO2
Devolatilization
H2S Au
Deep crust /
(c) mantle
Figure 13 Schematic representation of the hydrothermal ore deposit formation model for Witwatersrand Basin. Reproduced from Phillips GN and Law
JDM (2000) Witwatersrand gold fields: Geology, genesis and exploration. Reviews in Economic Geology 13: 439–500.
Table 4 Gold chemistry and gold isotope studies
Goldfield Unit Analytical Separate In situ Data reported Mineralization References

method fineness, Au, Ag, Hg model preference
Gold chemistry studies

W. Wits Basal Assay F MP Von Rahden
VCR (1965)
Welkom Basal WDS þ Fire Yes F MP Saager (1969)
Assay
Klerksdorp VCR EDS Yes F MP Utter (1979)
Elsburgs
Gold Estates
‘C’
MB3
MB4
Vaal
MB5
Livingstone-Johnstone
Commonage
Welkom Elsburg B WDS Yes Ag, Hg MP Von Gehlen
Steyn (1983)
W. Wits Carbon Leader EDS þ AAS Yes MP Oberthür and
Saager (1986)
Klerksdorp Vaal WDS Yes Au, Ag, Hg MP Reid et al. (1988)
Klerksdorp VCR WDS Yes Au, Ag, Hg MP Frimmel and
Gartz (1997)
W. Wits VCR
W. Wits VCR WDS Yes Ag, Hg MP Hayward et al.
Middelvlei (2005)
Carbon Leader
Evander Kimberly
Welkom Elsburg A
Elsburg B
Goldfield Unit Analytical Ore Rock Mineralization model References

method separate sample preference
Gold isotope studies

W. Wits Elsburg NTIMS Yes MP Kirk et al. (2001)
A þ VCR
Klerksdorp Vaal Yes
Klerksdorp Vaal ICP-MS Yes MP Schaefer et al. (2010)
stratigraphy, is characterized by low Ag contents, suggesting Driefontein mines (with the exception of some VCR) generally
that this is a feature of the region as a whole. Limited data are has low Ag þ variable Hg. The adjacent, eastern section of the
available from the West Rand goldfield (Figure 14(b)), making West Rand goldfield at Westonaria has gold in both the VCR and
generalizations suspect – however, it is noted that these fall Elsburg B Reefs that overlaps the compositional range of the
within the ranges of the adjacent West Wits and Klerksdorp Evander goldfield, with high Ag þ low Hg. Finally, in the
goldfields, with some overlap with the high-Hg extreme of the Welkom goldfield, there are significant differences between the
Welkom goldfield. Two analyses of West Rand VCR from the compositions of the stratigraphically adjacent Elsburg A and
Westonaria (Placer Dome) Mine (Hayward et al., 2005; Elsburg B reefs with, respectively, higher and lower Hg at similar
Figure 14(c)) have high Ag and low Hg and plot close to Ag concentrations – a smaller group of analyses have higher Hg
gold derived from Evander and the West Wits line. and, respectively, lower and higher Ag. The Steyn/Basal Reef at
Closer scrutiny reveals that within individual goldfields, and Welkom has lower Ag than most of the gold from the Elsburg
in neighboring areas of adjacent goldfields, other patterns may reefs within the goldfield. Gold from the Elsburg B Reef at
be discerned. Gold within the Kimberley Reef – the only unit Westonaria, West Rand goldfield, is chemically distinct from
exploited in the Evander goldfield – forms three distinct group- that mined from the same reef in the Welkom goldfield.
ings: a high Ag þ high Hg group, a low Ag þ low Hg group from The VCR exhibits the widest range of Ag and Hg contents, over-
Kinross Mine, and an intermediate Ag þ low Hg group domi- lapping almost the entire range of compositions exhibited
nated by gold from Leslie Mine. Some of the gold from Kinross by CRG gold present in other, stratigraphically older, levels
falls within the range of values characterizing Leslie gold. Within (Figure 14(c)). The VCR nevertheless displays some similarities
the West Wits goldfield, gold from East Driefontein and West with certain of the patterns identified earlier, such as the
25
20
a
15
Ag (wt%)
c
10
d
5
b
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Hg (wt%)
Placer Dome VCR (W. Rand) Placer Dome Elsburg B (W. Rand) E. Driefontein VCR (W. Wits) E. Driefontein Middelvlei (W. Wits)
E. Driefontein Carbon Leader (W.Wits) Doornfontein Carbon Leader (W.Wits) Target Elsburg A (Welkom) Target Elsburg B (Welkom)
Kinross Kimberly (Evander) Leslie Kimberly (Evander) W. Rand Consolidated Elsburg (W. Rand)
Worcester (Barberton) Consort (Barberton) Clutha (Barberton) Lily (Barberton) Abelskop (Amalia)
Kalahari (Kraaipan) Globe and Phoenix (Zimbabwe) (Data from Hayward and Robb, unpublished)
a W. Driefontein (W. Wits) VCR (Frimmel and Gartz, 1997) b Vaal (Klerksdorp) (Reid et al., 1988) c Driefontein (W. Wits) VCR (Frimmel and Gartz, 1997)
d VCR (Klerksdorp) sample VHG183C (Frimmel and Gartz, 1997) Lorraine Elsburg B (Welkom) (von Gehlen, 1983) Kloof (W. Wits) VCR (von Gehlen, 1983)
Barberton vein-type Au (von Gehlen, 1983) VCR (W.Rand) (von Gehlen, 1983) Carbon Leader (W. Wits) (Oberthür and Saager, 1986)
VCR (Klerksdorp) sample VGH183B (Frimmel and Gartz, 1997) VCR (Klerksdorp) sample a (Frimmel and Gartz, 1997)
VCR (Klerksdorp) sample b (Frimmel and Gartz, 1997) Basal (Welkom) (Frimmel et al., 1993) Carbon Leader (Hallbauer, 1986) Basal (Steyn) (Hallbauer, 1986)
Vaal (Klerksdorp) Hallbauer, 1986) Lorain B Reef (Welkom) (Hallbauer, 1986) Loraine Elsburg (Welkom) (Hallbauer, 1986)
E Driefontein (W. Wits) VCR (Hallbauer,) 1986) Kloof (W. Wits) VCR (Hallbauer, 1986) Libanon (W. Rand) VCR (Hallbauer, 1986)
(a)
25
Welkom
West Rand
20 West Wits
a Klerksdorp
Evander
Greenstones
15
Ag (wt%)
c
10
d
5
b
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
(b) Hg (wt%)
Figure 14 (a) Silver and mercury contents of gold from CRG reefs and some greenstone units. (b) CRG silver and mercury contents of gold grouped by
goldfield. (c) CRG silver and mercury contents of gold grouped by reef.
25
VCR Kimberly
Elsburg A Middelvlei
20 a Elsburg B Carbon Leader
Elsburg (undiff.) Basal/Steyn
Vaal Greenstones
15
Ag (wt%)
c
10
5 d
b
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
(c) Hg (wt%)
Figure 14 (Continued)
separation between the eastern West Wits and western West A weak relationship between concentration of Hg or Ag and
Rand goldfields; however, this is based on limited data. stratigraphic depth has been noted in several studies and is
interpreted to reflect postdepositional thermal gradients
13.17.7.4.2.2 Witwatersrand gold compositions within individual (Hargraves, 1963; Oberthür and Saager, 1986; Reid et al.,
mines/deposits – the km–10 m scale 1988). A down-dip increase in Hg content of gold was found
A number of workers (Frimmel, 1997a; Frimmel and Gartz, to exist in the Carbon Leader Reef from five mines of the West
1997; Hayward et al., 2005; Oberthür and Saager, 1986; Reid Wits goldfield (Oberthür and Saager, 1986) that was considered
et al., 1988; Utter, 1979) have noted significant composi- to be related to the enhanced mobility of Hg at higher temper-
tional differences in gold from samples at 10 to 100 m sepa- atures and higher Hg concentrations through amalgamation
ration and within individual reefs, including the Carbon with gold. Such a model does not easily account for varia-
Leader, Vaal, Commonage, Elsburg, Kimberly, and VCR. In tions within individual thin sections of the Carbon Leader
general, the degree of variation increases with increasing in which ranges of Hg of almost 3 wt% are observed
distance between sample sites. Two conglomerate units with (Hayward et al., 2005). By contrast, results of a study of the
a stratigraphic separation of only 35 cm from a single panel of Vaal Reef throughout the Klerksdorp goldfield (Reid et al.,
the VCR at East Driefontein Mine, West Wits goldfield, have 1988) show an apparent down-dip decrease in Hg concen-
distinct and nonoverlapping ranges of gold composition with tration. No correlation between Ag/Au and sample depth was
an average difference of 1 wt% Ag and 0.35 wt% Hg identified within the Basal Reef, Welkom goldfield (Saager,
(Hayward et al., 2005). A third sample collected 300 m 1969), or the VCR and Main Reef, West Wits goldfield (Von
away from an adjacent panel had gold with a compositional Rahden, 1965).
range distinct from that of either of the other samples such
that, collectively, these three samples varied by 3 wt% in Ag
and 0.5 wt% in Hg (Hayward et al., 2005). By contrast, 13.17.7.4.2.3 Witwatersrand gold compositions within individual
Frimmel and Gartz (1997), also studying gold from the hand specimens – the m–10 cm scale
VCR but in a different part of the Driefontein Mine, found a Various investigators have reported significant variability
high degree of chemical homogeneity among their samples. in gold grain composition – up to wt% level – within single
Fineness values from four mines of the West Wits goldfield hand specimens (Frimmel and Gartz, 1997; Hayward et al.,
showed significant variations irregularly distributed with respect 2005; Reid et al., 1988; von Gehlen, 1983). In others, compo-
to location (Oberthür and Saager, 1986; von Rahden 1965). sitional uniformity is reported (Saager, 1969; Schidlowski
Schidlowski (1968) and Saager (1969) found a high degree 1968). Normally distributed variations in fineness with very
of uniformity in fineness throughout large areas of the Basal narrow ranges of values have been reported from individual
Reef in the Welkom goldfield. Such uniformity appears, how- gold particle concentrates from the Carbon Leader Reef
ever, not to be generally representative of the CRG, as most (Oberthür and Saager, 1986), although there is a wide range
studies report significant heterogeneity within individual reefs in both Ag and Hg contents among the 23 gold particle con-
at this scale. centrates measured in this study.
D Ag (wt%)
3
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
D Hg (wt%)
West Wits West Wits (VCR, VHG163B & C)*

Evander West Wits (VCR, a & b )*
Welkom Frimmel and Gartz (1997)
(a)
0.7
0.6
0.5
d Ag (wt%)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
d Hg (wt%)
West Wits VCR 4 West Wits Elsburg B 6

West Wits VCR 5 West Wits Middelvlei 1
West Wits VCR 7 Welkom Elsburg B 6
West Wits Carbon Leader 1b
West Wits Carbon Leader 4b & 4c
Evander (Leslie) Kimberley 2
Evander (Kinross) Kimberley 2
Evander (Kinross) Kimberley 3c & 4a
(b)
Figure 15 (a) Variation in silver and mercury contents of all analyzed gold individual thin sections. (b) Variation in silver and mercury contents of
individual gold grains. The thin section number is indicated at the end of each entry in the legend. Reproduced from Hayward CL, Reimold WU, Gibson
RL, and Robb LJ (2005) Gold mineralization within the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa: Evidence for a modified placer origin, and the role of the
Vredefort impact event. In: McDonald I, Boyce AJ, Butler IB, Herrington RJ, and Polya DA (eds.) Mineral Deposits and Earth Evolution, Geological Society
Special Publication 248, pp. 31–58. London: Geological Society of London.
E. Driefontein VCR thin section 4
6.8
Ag (wt%) 6.6
2
6.4
6.2 1
6
1.6 1.7 1.8
(a) Hg (wt%) 3
E. Driefontein VCR thin section 5
5.7
3
2
5.5
Ag (wt%)
5.3
5.1
1.9 2 2.1
(b) Hg (wt%)
E. Driefontein Carbon Leader sections 1a & 1b

6.6
9 2
Area of main Sample
1a 14 3
6.4 7 diagram
9
Ag (wt%)
5 6
6.2 0 1 2 3 4 13
7
10 8
6
12
11
2 2.5 3 3.5
(c) Hg (wt%)
Key to 1 4 7 10 13 16
occurrence 2 5 8 11 14
numbers
3 6 9 12 15
Figure 16 (Continued)
E. Driefontein Carbon Leader thin section 4b
6.4
6
15 16 5
6.2
Ag (wt%)
1
7 2
6
14
5.8 13
1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
(d) Hg (wt%) 9 10
Kinross Kimberley Reef thin sections 3 & 4
Area of main
20
diagram
21
18 4
16 Sample 3 1
2
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3
Ag (wt%)
20
3
5
19
7 6
8
18
1 1.1 1.2
(e) Hg (wt%)
Kinross Kimberley Reef thin section 2

13.2
13 5
4
1
12.8
Ag (wt%)
14
12.6 Area of main
12 diagram
12.4 10 2
8
12.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.67 0.72 0.77 0.82
(f) Hg (wt%)
Figure 16 Locations of gold occurrences in thin sections and the silver and mercury contents for each occurrence. Black rings enclosing groups
of points on the chemical plots indicate groups of analyses from single grains of gold. Occurrences of gold are marked on the images of the thin sections
by circled numbers. The black arrow adjacent to the images of the thin sections indicates vertically ‘up’ on the sample. Thin sections are all of the order
of 4–5.5 cm in height. Reproduced from Hayward CL, Reimold WU, Gibson RL, and Robb LJ (2005) Gold mineralization within the Witwatersrand Basin,
South Africa: Evidence for a modified placer origin, and the role of the Vredefort impact event. In: McDonald I, Boyce AJ, Butler IB, Herrington RJ,
and Polya DA (eds.) Mineral Deposits and Earth Evolution, Geological Society Special Publication 248, pp. 31–58. London: Geological Society of London.
13.17.7.4.2.4 Witwatersrand gold compositions within individual 13.17.7.5 The Origins of Witwatersrand Gold
thin sections – the cm scale
The chemical variability of gold at different scales within the CRG
Variations in the Ag and Hg content of gold within single thin
is of critical importance to models seeking to explain the origin(s)
sections (DAg and DHg, Hayward et al., 2005; Figures 15(a) and
of the gold in the Witwatersrand Basin. A detailed understanding
16(a)), at up to wt% levels, have been reported from many
of the formation of Witwatersrand ores is no longer only of
different goldfields and stratigraphic levels by Frimmel and
academic interest and is becoming increasingly important as
Gartz (1997) and Hayward et al. (2005). Values of DAg
mining seeks to exploit ever more economically marginal and
and DHg vary between 0.5–5 and 0.2–5 wt%, respectively
technically difficult areas of the CRG. The origin(s) of gold in the
(Figure 15(a)), and can be similar to the values recorded from
CRG reflects a multifaceted problem that encompasses Archean
entire hand specimens. In many thin sections, the majority of
crustal and atmospheric evolution as well as sedimentary,
grains often form one or more clusters with DAg and DHg of
metamorphic, and hydrothermal processes.
around 0.4–0.8 and 0.2–0.5 wt%, respectively, but commonly
with individual gold grains having distinct compositions that do
not overlap those of all other grains in the section (Figure 16). In 13.17.7.5.1 Gold chemistry and implications for the
all reefs and at all locations sampled, Hayward et al. (2005) found modified placer and hydrothermal models
outliers beyond the main cluster(s) of compositions, with differ- Gold chemistry and its variability have important implications
ences of up to 4 wt% Ag and 2.2 wt% Hg from the Carbon Leader, for the two competing mineralization models. The modified
West Wits goldfield (Figure 16(c)), and from the Kimberley Reef, placer model, where gold is derived by eroding varied and
Evander goldfield (Figure 16(e) and 16(f)). The VCR of the West evolving source regions over extended periods of time, predicts
Wits goldfield shows the least tendency toward variation at this that gold chemistry within the CRG should reflect the chemical
scale (Figure 16(a) and 16(b)), although Frimmel and Gartz diversity of gold within the source rocks and assumes that
(1997) found DAg and DHg of around 5 wt% in VCR samples chemical homogenization via wholesale dissolution and
from a similar part of the same goldfield. This emphasizes the fact remobilization of gold by large volumes of fluid has not oc-
that gold compositions vary over relatively short distances within curred. At the scale of mines and goldfields (Figure 14(b)), the
the CRG and highlights the dangers of drawing too broad a set of chemical variation in the gold represents primarily the compo-
conclusions from single published datasets. sition of the gold in source region(s) contributing detritus to
the CRG in different parts of the Witwatersrand Basin. Gold
chemistry would vary from location to location within the
13.17.7.4.2.5 Witwatersrand gold compositions within individual basin, reflecting erosion of different source rocks around
gold grains – the micron scale the basin margin, the distribution of fluvial systems, and/or
Individual gold grains from most of the CRG exhibit high de- erosional reworking of earlier sequences within the basin. Gold
grees of chemical uniformity (Frimmel, 1997a; Frimmel and chemistry could also vary within a single part of the basin
Gartz, 1997; Oberthür and Saager, 1986; Reid et al., 1988; von as the nature of the source region evolved with ongoing uplift
Gehlen, 1983). An exception to this is gold in late quartz veins and erosion.
within the VCR, Klerksdorp goldfield, which exhibits significant The hydrothermal model suggests deposition of gold by a
intragrain geochemical heterogeneity with ranges of Au >2 wt% single pulse of fluid derived from an extra- and/or an intra-
and Ag around 1.5–2 wt% (Frimmel and Gartz, 1997). Compo- basinal source. This model would be consistent with a more
sitional variation from a few hundred ppm in Ag and Hg up to restricted range in gold composition, and one governed by a
5000 ppm Ag and over 1000 ppm Hg was noted in multiple relatively uniform arenaceous rock buffer and limited to specific
analyses of single gold grains by Hayward et al. (2005) structural and stratigraphic fluid pathways. The origin of the
(Figure 15(b)). These variations are all in excess of the 1% fluid(s) responsible for the transport of metals cannot be
precision of EPMA and are considered, therefore, to represent easily identified and remains speculative (Phillips and Law,
meaningful intragrain variations (dAg and dHg, Hayward et al., 2000). Limited data gathered from fluid inclusions and from
2005). Backscattered electron imagery and X-ray maps of gold the geometries of faults and thrusts within the auriferous
grains did not reveal the presence of any discrete, chemically units have identified metal-carrying fluids (e.g., Drennan
distinct segregations within the gold grains analyzed (Hayward, and Robb, 2006) as well as fluid transport pathways. Most
unpublished data). Interpretation of these variations is prob- of these fluids are attributed to an in situ basinal origin
lematic as experimental studies of diffusion in gold grains through prograde metamorphic reactions, with additional
(Czamanske et al., 1973) indicate that discrete areas of Ag components of meteoric and possibly magmatic fluids also
within Au homogenize at temperatures of around 300 C and possible (e.g., Jolley et al., 1999; Phillips and Myers, 1989).
within a period of between 0.05 and 8.5 Ma (Frimmel and Such fluids are unlikely to be able to explain either the mass
Gartz, 1997). Since the Witwatersrand Basin underwent a suc- of gold or the totality of its variable morphologies, chemical
cession of metamorphic overprints with peak temperatures that compositions, and paragenetic settings.
exceeded 300 C, compositional heterogeneities recorded at mi-
cron and greater scales within single grains should not be 13.17.7.5.2 Potential gold source regions
expected. It is noteworthy that gold from greenstone hosts also The source of huge quantities of gold, whether in particulate
shows significant values of dAg, with total ranges in composi- form for the modified placer model or in accessible, dissolv-
tion of up to 1.6 wt% for Ag. Most analyses within single grains able form for the hydrothermal model, remains one of the
fall within dAg values of 0.5–0.8 wt%, which are still chemically fundamental enigmas related to any consideration of Wit-
significant within the errors of the analysis. watersrand ore genesis (e.g., Hutchinson and Viljoen, 1988;
Phillips and Law, 2000; Robb and Meyer, 1990). Nothing 1982, 1984; Klemd et al., 1986; Robb and Meyer, 1990,
now remains of the original provenance that supplied the 1995). The granites have elevated gold contents (average of
detrital fill to the Witwatersrand Basin, obliging researchers 15 ppb and upto 28 ppb – Klemd and Hallbauer, 1987; Robb
to consider subjacent mineralized rocks in areas such as the and Meyer, 1990) compared with unaltered equivalents and
Murchison, Amalia, Kraaipan, and Barberton greenstone are considered to represent an additional fertile component of
belts and associated hydrothermally altered granites the Witwatersrand Basin hinterland, the high-level parts of
(Klemd and Hallbauer, 1987; Robb and Meyer, 1990; which may also have hosted epithermal gold mineralization.
Saager and Muff, 1986; Figure 6), as analogues of the actual In this regard, it is pertinent to note that the 2785 Ma
source rocks. From these areas, there are relatively few data Gaborone granite complex and the associated rhyolite-
on gold composition and much of what is available does not dominated Kanye Formation also occur within the Witwaters-
provide unequivocal matches with gold compositions rand provenance and remain enigmas in terms of their roles as
known from the CRG (Von Gehlen, 1983; Figure 14(a)). source rocks (Moore et al., 1993). Analyses of gold from hy-
As noted earlier, it can be difficult to match modern placer drothermally altered granites are similar to those of gold
deposits, whose mode of formation is in no doubt, with within the CRG (Von Gehlen and Hallbauer, 1984). The hy-
potential gold sources on the basis of gold chemical compo- drothermally altered granites in the Witwatersrand provenance
sition (Mortensen et al., 2005). are also likely to be the principal source of the uraninite within
The granite–greenstone source areas to the Witwatersrand the CRG (Meyer et al., 1986; Robb et al., 1990a,b, 1992).
Basin have been subjected to an extended and complex pre- Features such as variable detrital mineral contents, varia-
history so that any gold concentrations in these rocks are tions in detrital mineral compositions and isotopic ages, and
likely to reflect a variety of mineralization processes that variable Au/U ratios within the auriferous reefs of the CRG
include intrusion-related, meso- and epithermal, and placer have been used to argue for differences in source-rock type
and pedogenic processes. Gold derived from an Archean and location. For the compact, rounded pyrites within the
granite–greenstone terrane is, therefore, unlikely to exhibit a CRG, widely considered to be detrital in origin, large ranges
narrow chemical ‘signature.’ Furthermore, the range of com- in values of d33S, d34S, and d56Fe and in trace element contents
positions of gold from likely Archean sources is not (Ni, Co, and As) point to heterogeneous populations
completely known. Some examples are included in Figure 14 (Hofmann et al., 2009; Koglin et al., 2010; Meyer et al.,
and these illustrate the type of variation possible. Some green- 1990). Ratios of Co/Ni and Mo/Ni in these pyrites reflect
stones for which data are available, such as the Zimbabwean mixed granite–greenstone sources, with high Co/Ni and low
and Barberton greenstone belts, are paleogeographically Au, suggesting an ultimate hydrothermal origin for these allo-
unfeasible as contributors of detritus to the CRG (see discus- genic grains (Koglin et al., 2010). The lack of correlation be-
sion in the following section). These data nevertheless permit tween iron and sulfur isotopic values and trace element
insights into chemical variability of greenstone gold sources. compositions, including Ni and Au, is also considered to re-
For example, the fineness of gold grains in mines exploiting flect source-related heterogeneities rather than mobilization of
greenstone belts in southern Zimbabwe varies between 743 trace metals during regional greenschist metamorphism
and 960, with individual mines producing ranges of fineness (Hofmann et al., 2009). Variable Os concentrations in gold
from less than 100 to more than 300 owing to zonation and pyrite from different reefs (Kirk et al., 2002) may also be
within the individual ore bodies (e.g., Eales, 1961). These inherited from diverse environments of formation. Isotopic
limited data, together with the data presented in Figure 14, ages of 3.5–3.0 Ga obtained from compact rounded pyrites
argue in favor of heterogeneous primary gold compositions (Kirk et al., 2001) confirm their detrital origin and match
within the source rocks of the CRG. those obtained from gold and zircon.
The geological diversity of the remnants of Archean base- Sources of allogenic pyrite in the Witwatersrand sediments,
ment in the vicinity of the Witwatersrand Basin and the ex- as suggested by d33S, d34S, and d56Fe values, are interpreted to
tended (>200 My) duration of sedimentation indicate an include magmatic and high-temperature metamorphic source
evolving hinterland comprising several magmatic and tectonic rocks for Dominion Reef and Welkom goldfield pyrites, sed-
cycles that provided multiple sources of detritus to both the imentary and high-temperature igneous or hydrothermal
WRG and CRG (Robb and Meyer, 1990). This is the best way to sources for pyrites from the Kimberley Reef at Evander, and
account for the sedimentological and mineralogical variability a sedimentary source for pyrites from the VCR, West Wits
of the Witwatersrand sequences and the nature of variation in goldfield (Hofmann et al., 2009). Sulfidation of original
gold chemistry. The main geographic and stratigraphic controls iron oxides, as advocated by the hydrothermal model
on CRG gold chemistry (Hayward et al., 2005; Figure 14) are (Barnicoat et al., 1997; Myers et al., 1993), is inconsistent
also consistent with other lines of evidence indicating that with these observations as it would have produced a narrower
the detrital mineral suite was derived from a heterogeneous range of sulfur and iron isotopic values within such pyrites.
and evolving source region. Re–Os isotope dating of gold, Although replacement of silicate grains by pyrite and forma-
for example, yields ages of 3.2–2.9 Ga (Kirk et al., 2001, tion of authigenic pyrite overgrowths on rounded detrital
2002), in agreement with detrital zircon ages from the CRG grains are commonly seen in the CRG, the diversity of chem-
(e.g., Kositcin and Krapez, 2004; Robb et al., 1990a,b) and ical and isotopic compositions of pyrite does not support the
with the interpreted tectonomagmatic evolution of the region occurrence of widespread sulfidation by large volumes of
(Armstrong et al., 1991; McCarthy, 1994; Robb et al., 1991). widely circulating fluids.
Hydrothermally altered granites are widely distributed to The origin of quartz pebbles has been assigned to granites,
the north and west of the Witwatersrand Basin (Hallbauer, pegmatites, and hydrothermal veins on the basis of d18O
(Vennemann et al., 1992) and cathodoluminescence (CL) placer environments, has provided an inventory of several
(Vollbrecht et al., 2002) studies. Interpretation of the quartz thousand known and economically viable gold deposits
CL colors, which are related to the origin of the mineral around the world. Of these, there are at least 3500 hydrother-
(Zinkernagel, 1978), indicates a diversity of sources in the mal gold deposits currently known, which, if exploited from
Witwatersrand hinterland as well as geographic constraints to the upper 1 km of the Earth’s crust, would be capable of
the different sources. Thus, felsic plutons, porphyries, and/or supplying the global demand for gold for the next 200 years
pegmatites are considered to be dominant in the Klerksdorp (Kesler and Wilkinson, 2010). Global gold resource figures are,
goldfield metasediments – cherts and clastics being highest in however, skewed by the prodigious concentrations in the Wit-
the Evander goldfield, with the West Wits and Welkom fields watersrand goldfields of South Africa, which, although mature
being characterized by quartz from more heterogeneous and in a state of declining production, remain an anomaly that
sources (Vollbrecht et al., 2002). Contrary to the widespread is unique in the Earth’s crust.
belief that hydrothermal vein quartz is an important compo- The chemical composition of the gold within the CRG of
nent of the quartz clast assemblage, the CL evidence suggests the Witwatersrand Basin and the nature of its variability at
only minor contributions from such sources. This raises ques- scales from km to mm provide some of the strongest evidence
tions regarding the contribution of gold from erosion of green- supporting the origin of the Witwatersrand gold deposits as a
stone belt-related, vein quartz-hosted gold (Hutchinson and series of variable hydrothermally modified placers. Isotopic
Viljoen, 1988; Vennemann et al., 1992; Viljoen et al., 1970; data from the gold agrees with the ages derived from detrital
Vollbrecht et al., 2002), although gold chemistry from such pyrites and zircons and indicates an age greater than CRG
sources is compatible with some CRG gold chemistries (see the deposition. Variation in chemical composition of the gold
previous section and Figure 14). The relatively minor detrital suggests derivation from multiple evolving source regions
mineral assemblage reflecting greenstone belt source rocks related to sedimentologically controlled deposition, which
(such as chromite and magnetite) is perhaps suggestive of the matches patterns observed within uraninite, pyrite, gold,
premise that the latter rock suite has been overrepresented in chromite, and other members of the CRG heavy mineral
the Witwatersrand hinterland. suite. Both the chemical and isotopic data from CRG gold are
The heterogeneous nature of VCR gold chemistry (Figure 14 consistent with models for the tectonomagmatic evolution of
(c)) probably reflects an enhanced reworking of underlying the Witwatersrand Basin from 3 Ga onward. The occurrences of
strata, the host conglomerate occupying as it does a stratigraphic gold within coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rocks, and the
position on a regional unconformity that overlies much of the scale of variation in its chemistry throughout the CRG, point
CRG and representing up to 2500 m of erosion of CRG sedi- to the origin of gold from a variable but fertile and geolo-
ments (Rust, 1994). This is a very plausible explanation for the gically diverse provenance, with subsequent recrystallization
observed near-total overlap by the VCR of Ag and Hg contents occurring over small distances of not more than millimeters
measured from CRG gold from all areas and stratigraphic levels to at most meters and without significant modification of
of the goldfields. Preservation of distinct chemical compositions the chemical signatures inherited from the original sediment
of gold from depositional units in close stratigraphic or spatial source regions.
proximity, together with the significant influence of primary
sedimentological features on gold distribution within the VCR
(e.g., Antrobus et al., 1986; Schweitzer et al., 1994), suggests
that remobilization of gold in fluids has had a limited impact
Acknowledgments
on gold chemistry, even in a reef that is known to be intensely
The authors thank Michael Meyer, Bob Foster, and Carl
altered. Investigations have found VCR gold with both low and
Anhauesser for their critical comments during the prepara-
large DAg and DHg values (Frimmel and Gartz, 1997; Hayward
tion of the manuscript. Lawrie Minter generously made
et al., 2005; Figure 15(a)), which is likely to reflect localized
available microphotographs of gold nuggets from his collec-
variation in both the primary detrital grain chemistries and
tion. Diagrams were drawn by Dave Sansom and Chris
the magnitude of the effects of fluids.
Hayward.
13.17.8 Conclusions
References
Despite the perception of its rarity and nonreactive chemical Anhaeusser CR (1986) Archaen gold mineralization in the Barberton Mountain Land.
nature, gold has been concentrated in innumerable locations In: Anhaeusser CR and Maske S (eds.) Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, vol. I,
at or beneath the Earth’s surface. Its strongly siderophilic char- pp. 113–154. Johannesburg: Geological Society of South Africa.
acter suggests that it should not be present in ore-grade quan- Anhaeusser CR and Robb LJ (1981) Magmatic cycles and the evolution of the Archaen
granitic crust in the eastern Transvaal and Swaziland. Special Publication of the
tities in the Earth’s crust – yet its ability to dissolve, particularly
Geological Society of Australia 7: 457–467.
in the presence of chloride and bisulfide ligand-bearing aque- Antrobus ESA, Brink WCJ, Brink MC, et al. (1986) The Klerksdorp Goldfield.
ous solutions, provides a mechanism whereby gold (usually In: Anhaeusser CR and Maske S (eds.) Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, vol. I,
together with silver) is concentrated and focused in geologic pp. 549–598. Johannesburg: Geological Society of South Africa.
trap sites that are now relatively easily detected and exploited. Armstrong RA, Compston W, Retief EA, Williams IS, and Wleke HJ (1991) Zircon ion
microprobe studies bearing on the age and evolution of the Witwatersrand triad.
The combination, over geologic time, of hydrothermal ore- Precambrian Research 53: 243–266.
forming processes beneath the surface, and the further concen- Barnicoat AC, Henderson IHC, Knope RJ, et al. (1997) Hydrothermal gold mineralization
tration of gold at or close to the surface in pedogenic and in the Witwatersrand basin. Nature 386: 820–824.
Barton ES, Compston W, Williams IS, Bristow JW, Hallbauer DK, and Smith CB Gay NC (1963) A review of the geochemical characteristics of gold in ore deposits.
(1989) Provenance ages of the gold-bearing Witwatersrand Supergroup: Economic Geology Research Unit Information Circular No. 12. Johannesburg:
Constraints from ion-microprobe U–Pb ages of detrital grains. Economic Geology University of the Witwatersrand.
84: 2012–2019. Gibson RL, Armstrong RA, and Reimold WU (1997) The age and thermal evolution of
Becker GF (1898) Auriferous conglomerate of the Transvaal. American Journal of the Vredefort impact structure: A single-grain U–Pb zircon study. Geochimica et
Science, Fourth Series V: 193–208. Cosmochimica Acta 61: 1531–1540.
Candela PA (2003) Ores in the Earth’s crust. In: Holland HD and Turekian KK (eds.) Gibson RL and Reimold WU (1999) The significance of the Vredefort Dome for the
Treatise on Geochemistry, Vol. 3, pp. 411–431. Oxford: Elsevier. thermal and structural evolution of the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa.
Chapman RJ, Mortensen JK, Crawford EC, and Lebarge W (2010a) Microchemical Mineralogy and Petrology 66: 5–23.
studies of placer and lode gold in the Klondike District, Yukon, Canada: 1. Evidence Gibson RL and Stevens G (1998) Regional metamorphism due to anorogenic
for a small, gold-rich, orogenic hydrothermal system in the Bonanza and Eldorado intracratonic magmatism. In: Treloar PJ and O’Brien PJ (eds.) What Drives
Creek area. Economic Geology 105: 1369–1392. Metamorphism and Metamorphic Reactions? Geological Society Special
Chapman RJ, Mortensen JK, Crawford EC, and Lebarge W (2010b) Microchemical Publication 138, pp. 121–135. London: The Geological Society of London.
studies of placer and lode gold in the Klondike District, Yukon, Canada: 2. Constraints on Gray GD, Lawrence SR, Kenyon K, and Cornford C (1998) Nature and origin of carbon
the nature and location of regional lode sources. Economic Geology 105: 1393–1410. in the Archaen Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa. Journal of the Geological Society
Cloke PL and Kelly WC (1964) Solubility of gold under inorganic supergene conditions. 155: 29–59.
Economic Geology 59: 259–270. Gregory JW (1907) The origin of gold in the Rand banket. Institute of Mining and
Craw D, Youngson JH, and Leckie DA (2005) Transport and concentration of detrital Metallurgy Transactions 17: 2–41.
gold in foreland basins. Ore Geology Reviews 28: 417–430. Hallbauer DK (1975) Plant origin of the Witwatersrand carbon. Minerals Science and
Czamanske GK, Desborough GA, and Goff FE (1973) Annealing history limits for Engineering 7: 111–113.
inhomogeneous, native gold grains as determined from Au–Ag diffusion rates. Hallbauer DK (1982) A review of some aspects of the geochemistry and mineralogy of
Economic Geology 68: 1275–1288. the Witwatersrand gold deposits. In: Gled HW (ed.) Proceedings of the 12th CMMI
Davidson CF (1965) The mode of origin of banket ore-bodies. Transactions of the Congress, pp. 957–964. Johannesburg: South African Institute of Mining and
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy 74: 319–338. Metallurgy.
De Launay L (1896) Les Mines d’Or du Transvaal. Paris: Baureay and Co. Hallbauer DK (1984) Archaen granitic sources for the detrital mineral assemblage in
Drennan GR and Robb LJ (2006) The nature of hydrocarbons and related fluids in the Witwatersrand conglomerates. In: Geocongress ’84, pp. 53–56 (Abstract).
Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa: Their role in metal distribution. GSA Special Potchefstroom: Geological Society of South Africa.
Papers 405: 353–385. Hallbauer DK (1986) The mineralogy and geochemistry of Witwatersrand pyrite, gold,
Dyer BD, Krumbein WE, and Mossman DJ (1988) Nature and origin of stratiform uranium and carbonaceous matter. In: Anhaeusser CR and Maske S (eds.) Mineral
kerogen seams in the lower Proterozoic Witwatersrand-type palaeoplacers – the Deposits of Southern Africa. Johannesburg: Geological Society of South Africa.
case for biogenicity. Geomicrobiology Journal 6: 33–47. Hallbauer DK and Utter T (1977) Geochemical and morphological characteristics of gold
Eales HV (1961) Fineness of gold in some Rhodesian mines. Transactions of the particles from recent river deposits and the fossil placers of the Witwatersrand.
Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers 70: 49–73. Mineralium Deposita 12: 293–306.
Erasmus CS, Sellschop JPF, Hallbauer DK, and Novak E (1980) An investigation of the Hargraves RB (1963) Silver-gold ratios in some Witwatersrand conglomerates.
impurities in native gold by neutron-activation analysis NIM Report No. 2052. Economic Geology 58: 952–970.
Randburg: National Institute for Metallurgy. Hatch FH and Chalmers JA (1895) The Gold Mines of the Rand: Being a Description of
Eriksson PG, Altermann W, Catuneanu O, Van de Merwe R, and Bimby AJ (2001) Major the Mining Industry of the Witwatersrand, South African Republic. London:
influences on the evolution of the 2.67-2.1 Ga Transvaal basin, Kapvaal craton. Macmillan and Co.
Sedimentary Geology 141–142: 205–231. Hayashi K and Ohmoto H (1991) Solubility of gold in NaCl- and H2S-bearing aqueous
Fisher NH (1945) The fineness of gold with special reference to the Morobe Goldfield, solutions at 250 C to 350 C. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 55: 2111–2126.
New Guinea. Economic Geology 40(449–495): 537–563. Hayward CL, Reimold WU, Gibson RL, and Robb LJ (2005) Gold mineralization within
Fox NPC and Winkler KS (1997) Hydrothermal alteration of the Witwatersrand Basin. the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa: Evidence for a modified placer origin, and the
In: Hendry JP, Carey PF, Parnell J, Ruffell AH, and Worden RH (eds.) Geofluids II role of the Vredefort impact event. In: McDonald I, Boyce AJ, Butler IB,
’97: Contributions to the Second international Conference on Fluid Evolution, Herrington RJ, and Polya DA (eds.) Mineral Deposits and Earth Evolution.
Migration and Interaction in Sedimentary Basins and Orogenic Belts, pp. 440–443. Geological Society Special Publication 248: pp. 31–58. London: The Geological
Belfast: The Queen’s University of Belfast. Society of London.
Frimmel HE (1994) Metamorphism of Witwatersrand gold. Exploration and Mining Henckle J, Schweitzer JK, and Horsch H (1990) The identification of provenance-related
Geology 3: 357–370. facies by geochemical methods on a portion of the Vaal Reef, Klerksdorp Goldfield.
Frimmel HE (1997a) Detrital origin of hydrothermal Witwatersrand gold – a review. South African Journal of Geology 93: 601–610.
Terra Nova 9: 192–197. Hoefs J and Schidlowski M (1967) Carbon isotope composition of carbonaceous matter
Frimmel HE (1997b) Chlorite thermometry in the Witwatersrand Basin: Constraints on from the Precambrian of the Witwatersrand system. Science 155: 1096–1097.
the Palaeoproterozoic geotherm in the Kaapvaal Basin, South Africa. Journal of Hofmann A, Bekker A, Rouxel O, Rumble D, and Master S (2009) Multiple sulphur and
Geology 105: 601–615. iron isotope composition of detrital pyrite in Archaen sedimentary rocks: A new tool
Frimmel HE (2005) Archaean atmospheric evolution: Evidence from the Witwatersrand for provenance analysis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 286: 436–445.
gold fields, South Africa. Earth-Science Reviews 70: 1–46. Holzheid A, Sylvester P, O’Neill HStC, Rubie DC, and Palme H (2000) Evidence for a late
Frimmel HE and Gartz VH (1997) Witwatersrand gold particle chemistry matches model chondritic veneer in the Earth’s mantle from high-pressure partitioning of palladium
of metamorphosed, hydrothermally altered placer deposits. Mineralium Deposita and platinum. Nature 406: 396–399.
32: 523–530. Hutchinson RW and Viljoen RP (1988) Re-evaluation of gold source in Witwatersrand
Frimmel HE, Le Roex AP, Knight J, and Minter WEL (1993) A case study of ores. South African Journal of Geology 91: 157–173.
postdepositional alteration of the Witwatersrand Basal Reef placer. Economic Jolley SJ, Henderson ICH, Barnicoat AC, and Fox NPC (1999) Thrust-fracture network
Geology 88: 249–265. and hydrothermal gold mineralization: Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa.
Frimmel HE and Minter WEL (2002) Recent developments concerning the geological In: McKaffrey KJW, Lonegan L, and Wilkinson JJ (eds.) Fractures, Fluid Flow and
history and genesis of the Witwatersrand gold deposits, South Africa. Society of Mineralization. Geological Society Special Publication 155: pp. 153–165. London:
Economic Geologists, Special Publication 9: 17–45. The Geological Society of London.
Frimmel HE, Zeh A, Lehrmann D, Hallbauer D, and Frank W (2009) Geochemical and Kamo SL, Reimold WU, Krogh TE, and Colliston WP (1996) A 2.023 Ga age for the
geochronological constraints on the nature of the immediate basement next to the Vredefort impact event and a first report of shock metamorphosed zircons in
Mesoarchaen auriferous Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa. Journal of Petrology pseudotachylitic breccias and granophyre. Earth and Planetary Science Letters
50: 2187–2220. 144: 369–387.
Gammons CH and Williams-Jones AE (1995) Hydrothermal geochemistry of electrum: Kesler SE and Wilkinson BH (2010) Global hydrothermal gold resources for the next
Thermodynamic constraints. Economic Geology 90: 420–432. millennium. Society of Economic Geologists, Special Publication 15: 5–18.
Gartz VH and Frimmel HE (1999) Complex metasomatism of an Archean placer in the Kirk J, Ruiz J, Chesley J, Titley S, and Walshe J (2001) A detrital model for the origin of
Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa; the Ventersdorp contact reef; a hydrothermal gold and sulphides in the Witwatersrand basin based on Re-Os isotopes.
aquifer? Economic Geology 94: 689–706. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 65: 2149–2159.
Kirk J, Ruiz J, Chesley J, Walshe J, and England G (2002) A major Archaen gold- Mortensen JM, Chapman R, LeBarge W, and Jackson L (2005) Application of placer
and crust-forming event in the Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa. Science and lode gold geochemistry to gold exploration in western Yukon. In: Esmond DS,
297: 1856–1858. Lewis LL, and Bradshaw GD (eds.) Yukon Exploration and Geology 2004,
Klemd R and Hallbauer DK (1987) Hydrothermally altered peraluminous Archaen pp. 205–212. Whitehorse, YT: Yukon Geological Survey.
granites as a provenance model for Witwatersrand sediments. Mineralium Deposita Mossman DJ, Minter WEL, Dutkiewicz A, et al. (2008) The indigenous origin of
22: 227–235. Witwatersrand “carbon” Precambrian Research 164: 173–186.
Klemd R, Hallbauer DK, and Barton JM (1986) Styles of hydrothermal alteration in Myers RE, Zhou T, and Phillips GN (1993) Sulphidation in the Witwatersrand
granitoid rocks along the Witwatersrand Basin. Geological Society of South Africa: Goldfields: Evidence from the Middelvlei Reef. Mineralogical Magazine
Geocongress ’86, Johannesburg, pp. 353–357. 57: 395–405.
Klemd R, Wulbers A, Hallbauer DK, and Barton JM Jr. (1994) Evidence for the origin of Naden J, Styles MT, and Henney PJ (1994) Characterization of gold from Zimbabwe:
hydrothermal alteration in granitoids after Witwatersrand deposition, South Africa. Part 1. Bedrock gold, BGS Technical Report WC/94/51. Nottingham: British
Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 41: 131–140. Geological Survey.
Knight JB, Morison SR, and Mortensen JK (1999) The relationship between placer Nahon DB, Boulange DB, and Colin F (1992) Metallogeny of weathering: An
gold particle shape, rimming and distance of fluvial transport as exemplified by gold introduction. In: Martini IP and Chesworth W (eds.) Weathering, Soils and
from the Klondike district, Yukon Territory, Canada. Economic Geology Paleosols. Developments in Earth Surface Processes, vol. 2, pp. 445–471.
94: 635–648. Amsterdam: Elsevier B.V.
Knight JB, Mortensen JK, and Morison SR (1999) Lode and placer gold in the Klondike Oberthür T and Saager R (1986) Silver and mercury in gold particles from the
District, Yukon Territory, Canada: Implications for the nature and genesis of Proterozoic Witwatersrand placer deposits of South Africa: Metallogenic and
Klondike placer and lode gold deposits. Economic Geology 94: 649–664. geochemical implications. Economic Geology 81: 20–31.
Koglin N, Frimmel HE, Minter WEL, and Bratz H (2010) Trace-element characteristics of Pan P and Wood SA (1994) Solubility of Pt and Pd sulfides and Au metal in aqueous
different pyrite types in Mesoarchaen and Palaeoproterozoic placer deposits. bisulfide solutions. II. Results at 200 C to 350 C saturated vapor pressure.
Mineralium Deposita 45: 259–280. Mineralium Deposita 29: 373–390.
Kositcin N and Krapez B (2004) Relationship between detrital zircon age-spectra and the Phillips GN (1993) Metamorphic fluids and gold. Mineralogical Magazine 57:
tectonic evolution of the Late Archaen Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa. 365–374.
Precambrian Research 129: 141–168. Phillips GN and Law JDM (2000) Witwatersrand gold fields: Geology, genesis and
Krupp RE and Weiser T (1992) On the stability of gold-silver alloys in the weathering exploration. Reviews in Economic Geology 13: 439–500.
environment. Mineralium Deposita 27: 268–275. Phillips GN, Meyers RE, and Palmer JA (1989) Comment and Reply on “Problems with
Lane Carter T (1902) Notes of valuing a gold mine. Metallurgical and Mining Society of the placer model for Witwatersrand gold” Geology 17: 91–93.
South Africa Journal 3: 81–104. Phillips GH and Myers RE (1989) Witwatersrand goldfield, Part II. An origin for
Loen JS (1992) Mass balance constraints on gold placers: Possible solutions to ‘source Witwatersrand gold during metamorphism and associated alteration. In: Keays RR,
area problems’. Economic Geology 87: 1624–1634. Ramsay WRH, and Groves DI (eds.) The Geology of Gold Deposits: The Perspective
Mann AW (1984) Mobility of gold and silver in lateritic weathering profiles: Some in 1988. Economic Geology Monograph, vol. 6, pp. 598–608. Littleton, CO: Society
observations from Western Australia. Economic Geology 79: 38–49. of Economic Geologists.
Marsden J and House I (2006) The Chemistry of Gold Extraction. Littleton, CO: Society Phillips GN, Myers RE, and Palmer JA (1987) Problems with the placer model for
for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc. Witwatersrand gold. Geology 15: 1027–1030.
McCarthy TS (1994) The tectono-sedimentary evolution of the Witwatersrand Basin with Prentice TK (1939) Precious metal constituents of Witwatersrand ores. In: Associated
special reference to its influence on the occurrence and character of the Ventersdorp Scientific and Technical Societies of South Africa Annual Proceedings 1939–1940,
Contact Reef – A review. South African Journal of Geology 97: 247–259. pp. 17–41.
McCarthy TS, Stanistreet I, and Robb LJ (1990) Geological studies related to the origin Pretorius DA (1976) Gold and uranium in quartz-pebble conglomerates. In: Skinner BJ
of the Witwatersrand Basin and its mineralization – an introduction and a strategy (ed.) Economic Geology 75th Anniversary Volume, pp. 117–138. Lancaster, PA:
for research and exploration. South African Journal of Geology 93: 1–4. Economic Geology Publishing Company.
Mellor ET (1916) The conglomerates of the Witwatersrand. Transactions of the Institute Pretorius DA (1986) The goldfields of the Witwatersrand Basin. Mineral Deposits of
of Mining and Metallurgy 25: 226–348. Southern Africa, vol. I, pp. 489–494. Johannesburg: Geological Society of
Meyer FM, Robb LJ, and Anhaeusser CR (1986) U and Th contents of Archaean South Africa.
granitoids from the Barberton Mountain Land, South Africa. Precambrian Research Pretorius DA (1994) From Paardekraal to Langlaagte: The search for gold in South
33: 303–321. Africa: 1852–1886. Economic Geology Research Unit Information Circular No. 274.
Meyer FM, Robb LJ, Oberthür T, Saager R, and Stupp HD (1990) Cobalt, nickel and Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand.
gold in pyrite from primary gold deposits and Witwatersrand reefs. South African Puddephatt RJ (1978) The Chemistry of Gold. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Journal of Geology 93: 70–82. Reid AM, Le Roex AP, and Minter WEL (1988) Composition of gold grains in the Vaal
Meyer FM, Robb LJ, Reimold WU, and DeBruiyn H (1994) Contrasting high- and Placer, Klerksdorp, South Africa. Mineralium Deposita 23: 211–217.
low-Ca granites in the Barberton Mountain land, southern Africa. Lithos 32: 63–76. Robb LJ, Charlesworth EG, Drennan GR, Gibson RL, and Tongu EL (1996)
Meyers RE, McCarthy TS, and Stanistreet IG (1990) A tectono-sedimentary Tectono-metamorphic setting and paragenetic sequence of Au-U mineralization
reconstruction of the development and evolution of the Witwatersrand Basin, with in the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences
particular emphasis on the Central Rand Group. South African Journal of Geology 44: 353–371.
93: 180–201. Robb LJ, Davis DW, and Kamo SL (1990a) U-Pb ages on single detrital zircon
Mikhopadhyay PK (1992) Maturation of organic matter revealed by microscopic grains from the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa: Constraints on the age of
methods: Applications and limitations of vitrinite reflectance, and continuous sedimentation and on the evolution of granites adjacent to the basin. Journal of
spectral and pulsed laser reflectance spectroscopy. In: Wolf KH and Chiligarian GV Geology 98: 311–328.
(eds.) Diagenesis III, pp. 435–510. New York: Elsevier. Robb LJ, Davis DW, and Kamo SL (1991) Chronological framework for the
Minter WEL (1978) A sedimentological synthesis of placer gold, uranium and pyrite Witwatersrand Basin and environs; toward a time-constrained geological model.
concentrations in the Proterozoic Witwatersrand sediments. In: Miall AD (ed.) South African Journal of Geology 94: 86–95.
Fluvial Sedimentology. Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir Robb LJ, Davis DW, Kamo SL, and Meyer FM (1992) Ages of altered granites adjoining
5, pp. 801–829. Calgary: Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists. the Witwatersrand Basin with implications for the source of gold and uranium.
Minter WEL (1993) Morphology of Witwatersrand gold grains from the Basal Reef: Nature 357: 677–680.
Evidence for their detrital origin. Economic Geology 88: 237–248. Robb LJ and Meyer FM (1990) The nature of the Witwatersrand hinterland: Conjectures
Minter WEL (1999) Irrefutable detrital origin of Witwatersrand gold and evidence of on the source-area problem. Economic Geology 85: 511–536.
eolian signatures. Economic Geology 94: 665–670. Robb LJ and Meyer FM (1995) The Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa: A
Minter WEL, Hill WCN, Kidger RJ, Kingsley CS, and Snowden PA (1986) The Welkom geological framework and mineralization processes. Ore Geology Review
Goldfield. Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, vol. I, pp. 497–539. 10: 67–94.
Johannesburg: Geological Society of South Africa. Robb LJ, Meyer FM, Ferraz MF, and Drennan GR (1990b) The distribution of
Moore M, Davis DW, Robb LJ, Jackson MC, and Grobler DF (1993) Archean rapakivi radioelements in Archaen granites of the Kapvaal Craton, with implications for the
granite-anorthosite-rhyolite complex in the Witwatersrand Basin hinterland, source of uranium in the Witwatersrand Basin. South African Journal of Geology
southern Africa. Geology 21: 1031–1034. 93: 5–40.
Robb LJ and Robb VM (1998) Gold in the Witwatersrand Basin. In: Wilson MGC and Styles MT, Wetton PD, and Bland DJ (1995) Characterization of gold from Zimbabwe:
Anhauser CR (eds.) The Mineral Resources of South Africa. Council for Geoscience Part 2. Alluvial and soil gold. BGS Technical Report WC/95/5. Nottingham: British
Handbook, vol. 16, pp. 294–349. Pretoria: Council for Geoscience. Geological Survey.
Rudnick RL and Fountain DM (1995) Nature and composition of the continental crust: Utter T (1979) The morphology and silver content of gold from the Upper Witwatersrand
A lower crustal perspective. Reviews in Geophysics 33: 267–309. and Ventersdorp Systems of the Klerksdorp gold field, South Africa. Economic
Rust IC (1994) A note on the Ventersdorp Contact Reef: A gravel in transit. South Geology 74: 27–44.
African Journal of Geology 97: 238. Vennemann TW, Kesler SE, and O’Neil JR (1992) Stable isotope compositions of quartz
Saager R (1969) The relationship of silver and gold in the Basal Reef of the pebbles and their fluid inclusions as tracers of sediment provenance: Implications
Witwatersrand System, South Africa. Mineralium Deposita 4: 93–113. for gold- and uranium-bearing quartz pebble conglomerates. Geology 20: 837–840.
Saager R and Muff R (1986) The auriferous placer at Mount Robert, Pietersberg Viljoen RP, Saager R, and Viljoen MJ (1970) Some thoughts on the origin and
Greenstone Belt. In: Anhaeusser CR and Maske S (eds.) Mineral Deposits of processes responsible for the concentration of gold in the early Precambrian of
Southern Africa, vol. I, pp. 213–220. Johannesburg: Geological Society of South South Africa. Mineralium Deposita 5: 164–180.
Africa. Vollbrecht A, Oberthür T, Ruedrich J, and Weber K (2002) Microfabric analyses applied
Schaefer BF, Pearson DG, Rogers NW, and Barnicoat AC (2010) Re-Os isotope and PGE to the Witwatersrand gold- and uranium-bearing conglomerates: Constraints on the
constraints on the timing and origin of gold mineralization in the Witwatersrand provenance and post-depositional modification of rock and ore components.
Basin. Chemical Geology 276(1–2): 88–94. Mineralium Deposita 37: 433–451.
Schidlowski M (1968) The gold fraction of the Witwatersrand conglomerates Von Gehlen K (1983) Silver and mercury in single gold grains from the Witwatersrand
from the Orange Free State Goldfield (South Africa). Mineralium Deposita and Barberton, South Africa. Mineralium Deposita 18: 529–534.
3: 344–363. Von Gehlen K and Hallbauer DK (1984) Composition of gold from Archaen granite and
Schidlowski M (1981) Uraniferous constituents of the Witwatersrand conglomerates: the Witwatersrand palaeoplacer, South Africa. Terra Cognita 4: 85.
Ore-microscopic observations and implications for the Witwatersrand metallogeny. Von Rahden HVR (1965) Apparent fineness values of gold from two Witwatersrand gold
US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1161: N1–N29. mines. Economic Geology 60: 980–997.
Schmitz MD, Bowring SA, de Wit MJ, and Gartz V (2004) Subduction and terrane Walraven F, Armstrong RA, and Kruger FJ (1990) A chronostratigraphic framework for
collision stabilize the western Kaapvaal craton tectosphere 2.9 billion years ago. the north-central Kaapvaal Craton, the Bushveld Complex and the Vredefort
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 222: 363–376. structure. Tectonophysics 171: 23–48.
Schweitzer JK, Van Niekerk AW, Ashworth SGE, and Henckel J (1994) Interrelationship Walraven F and Hattingh E (1993) Geochronology of the Nebo Granite, Bushveld
between geomorphology, stratigraphy, and gold grade in the Ventersdorp Contact Complex. South African Journal of Geology 96: 31–42.
Reef, eastern portion of the Elandsrand Gold Mine. South African Journal of Watanabe Y, Naraoka H, Wronkiewicz DJ, Condie KC, and Ohmoto H (1998)
Geology 97: 339–347. Carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur geochemistry of Archaen and Proterozoic shales
Seward TM (1973) Thio complexes of gold and the transport of gold in hydrothermal from the Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
ore solutions. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 37: 379–399. 61: 3441–3459.
Seward TM (1976) The stability of chloride complexes of silver in hydrothermal Wedepohl KH (1995) The composition of the continental crust. Geochimica et
solutions up to 300 C. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 40: 1329–1341. Cosmochimica Acta 59: 1217–1232.
Seward TM (1991) The hydrothermal geochemistry of gold. In: Foster RP (ed.) Gold Wedepohl KH (ed.) (1978) Handbook of Geochemistry, Volume 2. New York: Springer-
Metallogeny and Exploration, pp. 37–62. London: Blackie. Verlag.
Shenberger DM and Barnes HL (1989) Solubility of gold in aqueous sulphide Young RB (1917) The Banket: A Study of the Auriferous Conglomerates of the
solutions from 150 C to 350 C. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 53: 269–278. Witwatersrand and the Associated rocks. London: Gurney and Jackson.
Smieja-Krol B, Duber S, and Rouzaud J-N (2009) Multiscale organisation of organic Youngson JH and Craw D (1995) Evolution of placer gold deposits during regional
matter associated with gold and uranium minerals in the Witwatersrand Basin, uplift, Central Otago, New Zealand. Economic Geology 90: 731–745.
South Africa. International Journal of Coal Geology 78: 77–88. Zinkernagel N (1978) Cathodoluminescence of quartz and its application to sandstone
Spangenberg JE and Frimmel HE (2001) Basin-internal derivation of hydrocarbons in petrology. Contributions to Sedimentology 8: 1–69.
the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa: Evidence from bulk and molecular d13C data. Zotov AV, Baranova NN, Dat’yina TG, and Bannykh LM (1991) The solubility of gold in
Chemical Geology 173: 339–355. aqueous chloride fluids at 350–500 C and 500–1500 atm.: Thermodynamic
Spilsbury EG (1908) Discussion on “The origin of gold in the Rand banket” by J.W. parameters of AuCl2 (aq) up to 750 C and 5000 atm. Geochemistry International
Gregory. Transactions of the Institute of Mineralogy and Metallurgy 17: 1–3. 28: 63–71.
Strasheim A and Jackson PFS (1971) An analytical survey of raw bullion from South Zotov AV, Levin KA, Khodakovskiy IL, and Kozlov VK (1986) Thermodynamic
African gold mines by mass spectroscopy. Journal of the South African Institute of parameters of Ag(I) complexes in aqueous solution at 273–623K. Geochemistry
Mining and Metallurgy 72: 121–128. International 23: 103–116.

Geochemistry of Placer Gold - A Case Study of The Witwatersrand Deposits

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geochemistry of Placer Gold - A Case Study of The Witwatersrand Deposits

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

13.

17 Geochemistry of Placer Gold – A Case Study of the Witwatersrand

13.17.1 Introduction 433

Treatise on Geochemistry 2nd Edition http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.01119-0 433

Table 1 Chemical and physical properties of gold Table 2 Gold abundances

Atomic number: 79 Au (ppb)

3.0 Williams-Jones, 1995). Figure 2 illustrates the variation in

(c) (d) 20kv 011kx 909 m 18231

Dissolution of Au, Ag O2 O2 Water table

Fe2+ Fe2+ Fe2+

Ag vs. Au (Mazowe Belt, Zimbabwe)

Ventersdorp Supergroup ~ 2.7 Ga

Central Rand Group ~ 2.8 Ga

South Africa West Wits East

28⬚ S Bushveld Igneous Complex

(a) Quartz veins in Elsburg B Reef, Placer

(b) Rounded detrital pyrite in basal lag,

(c) Euhedral authigenic pyrite (upper arrow)

In no study has any correlation between Ag and Hg abun-

authors (e.g., Utter, 1979). Such syn-transport chemical zona-

spheric conditions considered to have been prevalent during

CRG deposition (e.g., Frimmel, 2005) nor would it have

temperatures during the successive regional greenschist meta-

20 mm morphic events that have affected the CRG from approximately

(a) Dominion rifting

Table 4 Gold chemistry and gold isotope studies

Goldfield Unit Analytical Separate In situ Data reported Mineralization References

Gold chemistry studies

Goldfield Unit Analytical Ore Rock Mineralization model References

Gold isotope studies

West Wits West Wits (VCR, VHG163B & C)*

West Wits VCR 4 West Wits Elsburg B 6

E. Driefontein VCR thin section 4

E. Driefontein VCR thin section 5

E. Driefontein Carbon Leader sections 1a & 1b

E. Driefontein Carbon Leader thin section 4b

Kinross Kimberley Reef thin sections 3 & 4

Kinross Kimberley Reef thin section 2

You might also like