Module I Introduction of Emotions

Nature, Concept
Emotions are subjective feelings and experiences that involve physiological arousal and
cognitive appraisal.
1. An emotion is a multicomponent process made up of basic processes such as
a. feelings of pleasure or displeasure;
b. facial/bodily expression components;
c. particular appraisals;
d. and motivational components such as particular action plans and activation states
(Frijda, 1993; Lewis, 2014).

Process of emotion
A well-established psychological theory of emotion regulation that closely
aligns with the above definitions is Gross’s model of emotion regulation
(e.g., Gross, 1999).

Understanding emotion regulation as a process, the model assumes the

existence of an emotion episode or situation and identifies five distinct stages
at which this episode can be modulated. These stages can be further
differentiated in “antecedent” (aiming at changes in the antecedents of an
emotion) and “response” oriented regulation (changing the emotional
response-components).

The model is organized along a time axis representing analytically distinct

phases in the elicitation of an emotion. Antecedent-oriented regulation kicks in
at an early stage in the emotion generative process and focuses on changing the
situational circumstances that give rise to an emotion in the very first place.
Habitually avoiding unsuitable or unpleasant topics of conversation
is an example of this type of regulation or dismissing an employe
who is a frequent cause of anger.
Response-oriented regulation, on the other hand, refers to strategies employed
when an emotion, including most of its response-components, have already
manifested. These strategies are directed at changing the effects or immediate
consequences of an emotion, such as the suppression of a facial expression.

Antecedent-oriented regulation encompasses several possibilities: the selection

and modification of the emotionally relevant situation, the deployment of
attention, and the (cognitive) interpretation or appraisal of the present
situation (cf. Gross, 1998, 2002, p. 282). Situation selection as the first possible
step of antecedent-oriented regulation aims at seeking, creating, or avoiding
situations in which actors expect certain emotions to occur, either based on
experience or actual exposure. If actors are unable to actively seek or avoid a
situation, the modification of a situation still allows changing its emotionally
relevant constituents in such a way that a desired emotion is experienced or an
undesired is avoided.

Actors can also change attentional deployment and focus on selected aspects of
a situation or actively disregard others to regulate emotions. Ignorance of
certain facts or persons is a well-known strategy in this regard. A closely related
approach is the active and deliberate modification of one’s (cognitive)
evaluation of the situation or of a certain aspect thereof. This “reappraisal” or
re-interpretation involves the re-framing of a situation and the re-examination
of the preceding appraisal that elicited the actual emotion state (e.g., Urry,
2009). Such reappraisals or cognitive changes imbue a situation with a meaning
different from an originally assigned meaning and consequently give rise to
changes in the related emotion (Gross, 2002).

Response-oriented regulation taps changes in the various consequences or

components of an emotion. Good examples of this type of regulation are the
suppression or evocation of a facial expression or the regulation of physiological
reactions, such as efforts to calm down or to curb motor reactions. The key
difference between both kinds of regulatory effort is that antecedent-focused
regulation usually aims at changing or producing an emotional reaction in its
entirety or simply at disposing an existing emotion. Response-focused
regulation rather aims at dealing with the consequences of an emotion and
usually does not target the entire emotional response (although, of course, one
could argue that getting rid of the phenomenal component of an emotion is
pretty much the same as getting rid of an emotion in its entirety).

Emotion Regulation Goals

Core features (relevant to goals, multi-faceted, regulation is

possible)
1. First, emotions arise when an individual attends to a situation and sees it as relevant to his or
her goals.
a. The goals that support this evaluation may be enduring (staying alive) or transient
(seeing our team win the game).
b. They may be central to our sense of self (being a good student) or peripheral (opening a
cereal box).
c. Goals may be conscious and complicated (plotting revenge on a classroom bully) or
unconscious and simple (ducking a punch).
d. They may be widely shared and understood (having friends) or highly idiosyncratic
(finding a new beetle for our collection).
e. Whatever the goal, and whatever the source of the situational meaning for the
individual, it is this meaning that gives rise to emotion. As this meaning changes over
time (due either to changes in the situation itself or to changes in the meaning the
situation holds), the emotion will also change.
2. Second, emotions are multifaceted, whole-body phenomena that involve looselycoupled
changes in the domains of subjective experience, behavior, and central and peripheral
physiology (Mauss, Levenson, McCarter, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2005).
3. REGULATION IS POSSIBLE:
a. Third, the multisystem changes associated with emotion are rarely obligatory. Emotions
do possess an imperative quality—which Frijda (1986) has termed “control
precedence”—meaning that they can interrupt what we are doing and force themselves
on our awareness. However, emotions often must compete with other responses that
are also occasioned by the social matrix within which our emotions typically play out.
The malleability of emotion has been emphasized since William James (1884), who
viewed emotions as response tendencies that may be modulated in a large number of
 ways. It is this third aspect of emotion that is most crucial for an analysis of emotion
regulation, because it is this feature that makes such regulation possible.

Defining emotions’ valence: negative or positive

Emotions can be defined on the basis of one or more of these three dimensions, which are known as
‘valence’ of the emotion.

1. Cause
a. (1) according to whether the conditions that brought about the emotion were pleasant
or unpleasant,
b. This is mostly used by appraisal theorists to define whether the emotion was negative or
positive.
2. Consequence
a. (2) according to whether the consequences of the emotion were adaptive or
maladaptive,
3. Feeling
a. (3) according to whether the emotion feels subjectively pleasant or unpleasant
Theories of emotion

Early theories
Early theory

James Lange: event>physiological response > emotion

1. Event >
2. physiological response >
3. interpretation >
4. emotion

• The James–Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise as a result of

physiological arousal —i.e., that the self-perception of changes in the body
produces an emotional experience.
 • According to the James–Lange theory, we experience emotions (such as fear,
sadness, and happiness) only afterphysiological arousal (such as the fight-or-flight
response) has occurred.
• One limitation of the James–Lange theory is that it is not known exactly what
causes the changes in the body, so it is unclear whether they should be
considered part of the emotion itself.
• Critics of the James–Lange theory doubt that there is sufficient variation in
physiological arousal to lead to the wide variety of emotions that we experience

Criticism
The viscera were attributed a major role by James. The viscera are composed of smooth muscle
and glands. Cannon identified and outlined five issues with the James–Lange theory's notion of the
vasomotor center as the explanation of emotional experience.

1. Removing viscera doesn’t alter emotional behaviour

2. One limitation of the James–Lange theory is that it is not known exactly what
causes the changes in the body, so it is unclear whether they should be
considered part of the emotion itself.
3. Too general
a. the physical emotional responses that had so far been documented are too general
to be linked to a specific emotion
b. Critics of the James–Lange theory doubt that there is sufficient variation in
physiological arousal to lead to the wide variety of emotions that we experience
c. For example, the same visceral responses such as increased heart rate, sweating,
widening of the pupils, and the discharge of adrenaline can be associated with the
experience of fear or anger. However, they are also connected to conditions such as
fever, feeling cold, and having difficulty breathing.
4. Cannon argued that visceral responses are too slow to be a source of emotional feeling
5. Viscera are relatively insensitive structures
6. Artificial induction of visceral changes of strong emotions doesn’t produce them.

Canon-bard: event > (both physiological response and emotion)

1. Event
2. (simultaneous)
a. Physiological response
b. Emotion

3. The Cannon–Bard theory of emotion was developed in response to the James-

Lange theory, which proposes that emotions arise from physical arousal.
4. In contrast, the Cannon–Bard theory argues that physiological arousal and
emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently.
 5. According to the Cannon–Bard theory, when you see a venomous snake, you
feel fear at exactly the same time that your autonomic nervous system responds.
6. According to this theory, emotional expression results from activation of the
subcortical centers of the brain.
7. Where James-Lange theory represented a physiological explanation for emotions, the
Cannon-Bard theory represents and neurobiological approach.
8.

Cognitive theory
Schachter singer – unexplained arousal and appraisal of situations
1. event
2. physiological response
3. identify the reason/cognitive label
4. emotion

5. According to the Schachter–Singer theory of emotion (also known as two-factor

theory), emotions are the result of the interaction between two factors:
physiological arousal and cognition.
6. According to the Schacter–Singer theory, physiological arousal is cognitively
interpreted based on environmental context; this process culminates in emotional
experience.
7. For example, if you were to see a venomous snake in your backyard, the
Schachter–Singer theory argues that the snake would elicit a physiological
response that would be cognitively labeled as fear based on the context
These cognitive interpretations —how a person labels and understands what they are
experiencing—are formed based on the person’s past experiences.
Lazarus – personal meaning (stress related)
1. event
2. Cognitive appraisal
a. Primary appraisal (personal meaning):
i. Motivational relevance : how relevant is the situation to my needs
ii. Motivational congruence: how consistent is the situation to my goals
 b. Secondary appraisal: people’s evaluations of their resources and options for coping
3. (simultaneous)
a. physiological changes >
b. action (the individual feels the emotion and chooses how to act)

c.

Social theory
Tomkins, Ekman – Facial feedback hypothesis (based on james-lange)
If you’re forced to smile, you’d feel happier

• According to the facial feedback hypothesis, facial expressions are not only the
results of our emotions but are also capable of influencing our emotions. In other
words, the act of smiling can itself actually make you feel happier.
• Research investigating the facial feedback hypothesis has found that suppressing
facial expressions of emotion may decrease how intensely those emotions are
experienced.
 • Emotion is displayed not only through facial expression but also through tone of
voice, behavior, and body language.
• Children who have autism spectrum disorder have difficulty recognizing the
emotional states of others. Research has shown that this may stem from an
inability to identify facial expressions and other nonverbal expressions of emotion.

Module II Negative Emotions

Introduction to types of negative emotions
Anger,
1. Anger likely serves a variety of adaptive functions
a. It organizes and regulates psychological processes, such as self-defense and mastery
b. It regulates social and interpersonal processes
c. and it organizes processes to assist with goal-directed action
2. Negative functions
a. negative intra- and interpersonal consequences, including child maltreatment and
violence
3. Health effects
a. coronary heart disease (Niaura et al., 2002)
4. Cause
a. Several theorists have proposed that anger results from physical or psychological
restraint
b. or from interference with goal-directed activity (Darwin, 1872/1965; Izard, 1977; Lewis,
1993).
c. According to behaviorism theories, angry emotions—like frustration, anger, and rage—
are caused by the omission of positive reinforcers or the termination of positive
reinforcers.
d. According to cognitive theorists, anger is an unpleasant emotion that often occurs in
response to an appraisal of a blocked goal.
5. Approach motivation
a. Although negative emotions are often presumed to be related to withdrawal motivation
(e.g., Norris, Gollan, Berntson, & Cacioppo, 2010; Watson, 2000), many sources of
evidence suggest that anger violates this expected relationship. Anger is an approach
motivated emotion

Fear,
1. Fear is a negatively valenced emotion elicited in response to an impending threat that motivates
a defensive reaction to protect the organism
2. Generally, fear responses subside relatively quickly upon termination of the threatening
stimulus to allow the body to achieve a homeostatic state.
Anxiety
1. Anxiety is a state of unease about a distal, potentially negative outcome that is uncertain or
unpredictable (Lake & LaBar, 2011).
2. Fear vs anxiety
a. anxiety is longer lasting, is more future than present oriented
b. often has a less specific elicitor or terminator (Lang, Davis, & Ohman, 2000),
c. and functionally prepares the organism to confront a threat—albeit reluctantly—rather
than withdrawing from it (McNaughton & Corr, 2004).
3. Fear turning into anxiety
a. Fear can become anxiety if active coping mechanisms fail and the fear remains
unresolved (e.g., when a specific source of threat in the environment is not identified).
b. Nonetheless, fear is not a necessary antecedent to anxiety
c. Anxious states are maintained by a host of cognitive processes, including rumination,
abstraction, risk assessment, mental time travel, and mental projection/simulation
4. Similarity: fear and anxiety
a. both emotions are elicited in the context of defensive motivation
b.

Jealousy,
1. Jealousy may result when the jealous person perceives a threat of loss of a valued (romantic)
relationship to a real or imagined rival.
2. The threat may be to the existence of the relationship or to its quality.

Jealousy is the reaction to the threat that we might lose the affections of someone important to us and
that these affections be directed toward someone else. Envy is more simply a desire to have what
someone else has, whether this be a possession or a personal attribute or characteristic. So jealousy is
based on the possibility of losing an existing relationship and envy is based on the possibility of
possessing some thing that another person has. Generally, jealousy is more powerful and more intense
than envy.

Jealousy is linked to feelings of suspiciousness, rejection, hostility, anger, fear of loss, hurt and so on.
Envy is linked to feelings of inferiority, dissatisfaction, wishfulness, longing and selfcriticism.

Sadness,
1. Sadness is an emotion that concentrates attention on the self and is an indication that the
person (the self) needs help.
2. Experientially, it is made up of downheartedness, discouragement, loneliness and isolation.
3. Typical causes are the commonplace circumstances of everyday life, but especially those that
usually involve loss.
4. Adaptive functions
a. It has been argued that the state of sadness may facilitate deliberation, aid in the
reevaluation of goals, and motivate individuals to change their life circumstances in
adaptive ways in the face of such stressful or negative life events (Carver, 2004; Keller &
 Nesse, 2006; Tiedens & Linton, 2001). It seems to have the effect of slowing down the
system and prompts reflection.
b. Moreover, the visible manifestation of sadness, in particular crying, may elicit
compassion and aid from others (Nettle, 2004; Vingerhoets & Cornelius, 2001).

Guilt,
1. Guilt also occurs in response to accepting responsibility for a failure of an SRG (standards, rules
and goals)
2. Guilt vs shame
a. It is not as intense a negative emotion as shame, since guilt is the consequence of focus
on the person’s specific actions that result in the failure rather than on the totality of
the self.
b. While it is possible to be ashamed of a guilty action, it is not readily possible to be guilty
about being ashamed
3. Behavioural consequence
a. The action pattern of guilt is directed outward toward reparation rather than inward
toward withdrawal as seen in shame’s collapse of the body and disruption of thought. In
fact, the emotion of guilt always seems to have an associated corrective action,
something the individual can do to repair the failure (Cole, Barrett, & ZahnWaxler,
1992).
4. Guilt turning into shame
a. Guilt can be experienced with different degrees of severity, which are tied to the ease
and availability of a corrective action. Should a corrective action not be possible, either
in thought, words, or deeds, it is possible that a guilt experience can become one of
shame.
b.
Understanding Cycle of negative emotions
Implications of negative emotions on physical &
mental well-being
Depression >> Diabetes
The most recent meta-analysis summarized across 23 prospective studies, which included 424,557
participants, a mean follow-up of 8.3 years, and considered 19,977 incident diabetes cases. Results
indicated an increased risk of developing T2D among depressed versus nondepressed individuals, with
an RR of 1.56 (95% CI: 1.37–1.77) that attenuated somewhat after adjusting for other risk factors.

Psychological Distress >> Immune system

For example, one study of healthy middle-age adults examined levels of psychological distress in relation
to changes in markers of immune function over a 1-year period, including natural killer (NK) cell, B, and T
cell counts (Nakata, Irie, & Takahashi, 2011). Higher distress was associated with suppression of NK cell
immunity (and not the other cell types), but not the reverse, suggesting that emotions may induce
alterations in cellular immunity

Depression >> Metabolic syndrome

A small meta-analysis of four prospective studies, with a total sample size of 3,834 participants, reported
a 52% (95% CI: 1.20–1.91) excess risk of developing metabolic syndrome associated with depressive
symptoms

Depression >> Cancer

Several meta-analyses have considered the literature. One reported increased risk of incident cancer
associated with depression when looking across multiple cancers, with effects stronger in studies with
large sample sizes (n ≥ 100,000) and a longer follow-up period (≥ 10 years; Chida, Hamer, Wardle, &
Steptoe, 2008).

Anxiety >> CHD

The most recent meta-analysis of 20 prospective studies concluded that anxiety is an independent risk
factor for CHD with a pooled HR for incident CHD of 1.26 (95% CI: 1.15–1.38; Roest et al., 2010)
Module III Transforming Emotions
Moving from negative to positive emotions
behaviour
Interventions and therapies (Rational Emotive
Behaviour Therapy)
Rebt
Cognitive Techniques,
ABCDEF
A fundamental premise of REBT is humans do not get emotionally disturbed by unfortunate
circumstances, but by how they construct their views of these circumstances
In REBT, clients usually learn and begin to apply this premise by learning the A-B-C-D-E-F model
of psychological disturbance and change. The A-B-C model states that it is not an A, adversity
(or activating event) that cause disturbed and dysfunctional emotional and
behavioral Cs, consequences, but also what people B, irrationally believe about
the A, adversity.
According to REBT, if a person's evaluative B, belief about the A, activating event is rigid,
absolutistic, fictional and dysfunctional, the C, the emotional and behavioral consequence, is likely to
be self-defeating and destructive.
Through REBT, by understanding the role of their mediating, evaluative and philosophically based
illogical, unrealistic and self-defeating meanings, interpretations and assumptions in disturbance,
individuals can learn to identify them, then go to D, disputing and questioning the evidence for them.
At E, effective new philosophy, they can recognize and reinforce the notion no evidence exists for
any psychopathological must, ought or should and distinguish them from healthy constructs, and
subscribe to more constructive and self-helping philosophies.[14] This new reasonable perspective
leads to F, new feelings and behaviors appropriate to the A they are addressing in the exercise.
Coping self-statements.. For example, an individual who is afraid of public speaking may write down and
repeat to himself several times a day statements such as “I want to speak flawlessly, but it is all right if I
don’t,”“No one is killed for giving a poor speech,” and “I am an articulate person.”

Cost-benefit analysis. This method is particularly helpful for individuals who have addictions and/or low
frustration tolerance. Individuals who are addicted to smoking may be asked to make lists of the
advantages of stopping smoking and the disadvantages of continuing smoking. They are then instructed
to think seriously about these advantages and disadvantages 10 or 20 times a day. This activity gives
them good reasons for overcoming the addiction (Ellis, 1991b; Ellis & Velten, 1992).

Psychoeducational methods. When the session is over, REBT does not stop. Ellis and his colleagues have
published a variety of self-help books that they recommend to their clients. Listening to audiotapes that
teach the principles of REBT is often recommended, as is listening to audiotapes of the client’s therapy
session.

Teaching others. Ellis recommends that clients teach their friends and associates, when appropriate, the
principles of REBT. When others present irrational beliefs to the clients, Ellis suggests that clients try to
point out rational beliefs to their friends. Trying to persuade others not to use irrational beliefs can help
the persuader to learn more effective ways of disputing her own irrational beliefs (Bard, 1980; Ellis,
1991b).

Problem solving. Rational emotive behavior therapists help their clients figure out and arrive at viable
options by dealing with both practical problems (finding a job) and emotional problems—problems
about having practical problems (fretting and worrying about getting a job).

Changing one’s language. REBT contends that imprecise language is one of the causes of distorted
thinking processes. Clients learn that “musts,” “oughts,” and “shoulds” can be replaced by preferences.
Instead of saying “It would be absolutely awful if . . .”, they learn to say “It would be inconvenient if . . .”.

Emotive techniques

Imagery. For example, a man may vividly imagine that, if he is rejected by a woman he wishes to date,
he will be terribly depressed afterward, be unable to think about anything else, and be very angry at
himself. The therapist then would have him keep the same negative image and work on feeling the
healthy emotions—disappointment and regret about the woman’s wish not to go out with him—
without feeling depressed and angry at himself. It can help reduce depression and feelings of
inadequacy.

Role playing. Rehearsing certain behaviors to elicit client feelings often can bring out emotions the
client was not previously aware of. For example, by role playing a situation in which a woman asks a
man for a date, the woman can be aware of strong fears she did not know she had

Shame-attacking exercises. The purpose of these exercises is to help clients feel unashamed when
others may disapprove of them. Examples include minor infractions of social conventions, such as
talking loudly to a store clerk or engaging strangers in conversations. Asking silly questions to
receptionists or teachers is another example. Such exercises are continued until one stops feeling sorry
and disappointed about others’ disapproval and ceases putting oneself down and feeling ashamed.

Forceful self-statements. Statements that combat “musturbating” beliefs in a strong and forceful
manner can be helpful in replacing irrational beliefs with rational beliefs. If a client has told himself that
it is awful and terrible to get a C on an examination, this self-statement can be replaced by a forceful
and more suitable statement such as “I want to get an A, but I don’t have to!” Ellis often uses
obscenities as a way of providing more force to a statement (Dryden & Ellis, 2001, 2003; Ellis, 2001b).

Forceful self-dialogue. In addition to single self-statements, a dialogue with oneself, somewhat similar
to the Socratic dialogue on page 344, can be quite helpful. Arguing strongly and vigorously against an
irrational belief has an advantage over therapist–client dialogue in that all of the material comes from
the client. Taping such dialogues, listening to them over and over again, and letting listeners determine
if one’s disputing is really powerful can help clients impress themselves with their own power (Ellis,
1986c; Ellis, Gordon, Neenan, & Palmer, 1997).

Using humor. REBT contends that emotional disturbances often result from taking oneself too seriously.
One appealing aspects of REBT is that it fosters the development of a better sense of humor and helps
put life into perspective (Wolfe, 2007). Humor shows the absurdity of certain ideas that clients
steadfastly maintain, and it can be of value in helping clients take themselves much less seriously.

Behavioural techniques
Activity homework. the therapist may suggest that they stay in the uncomfortable situation and teach
themselves to deal with hard or uncomfortable tasks. For example, rather than quitting a job, a client
may work with an unreasonable boss and listen to unfair criticism but mentally dispute the criticism and
not accept the boss’s beliefs as her own irrational beliefs. Clients often observe that when they do such
tasks, they are anxious or self-conscious at first but are able to comprehend the irrational beliefs
underlying their emotions.

Reinforcements and penalties. When people accomplish a task, it is useful for them to reward
themselves. For example, a shy person who has an extended conversation with three sales clerks may
reward himself by reading a favorite magazine. Individuals who fail to attempt a task may penalize
themselves. Ellis (1986c) gives the example of burning a $100 bill. Such a self-penalty can quickly
encourage clients to complete agreed-upon assignments.

Social skills For example, assertiveness training workshops can be helpful for those who are shy and find
it difficult to have their needs met by other people (Ellis, 1991b). Workshops on communication skills,
job-interviewing skills, and other social and work-related skills can supplement individual REBT.
Emotional regulation

Core features
1. First, we explicitly include the possibility that people may regulate either negative or positive
emotions, either by decreasing them or by increasing them
2. Second, although prototypical examples of emotion regulation are conscious, we can imagine
emotion regulatory activity that is initially deliberate but later occurs without conscious
awareness. Examples include hiding the anger we feel when we are rejected by a peer or quickly
turning our attention away from potentially upsetting material
3. Third, we make no a priori assumptions as to whether any particular form of emotion regulation
is necessarily good or bad (Thompson & Calkins, 1996). In our view, emotion regulation
processes may be used to make things either better or worse, depending on the context. For
example, cognitive strategies that dampen negative emotions may help a medical professional
operate efficiently in stressful circumstances, but also may neutralize negative emotions
associated with empathy, thereby decreasing helping.
Emotional regulation process model

Situation selection[edit]
Situation selection involves choosing to avoid or approach an emotionally relevant situation. If a
person selects to avoid or disengage from an emotionally relevant situation, he or she is decreasing
the likelihood of experiencing an emotion.
Alternatively, if a person selects to approach or engage with an emotionally relevant situation, he or
she is increasing the likelihood of experiencing an emotion.[12]
Typical examples of situation selection may be seen interpersonally, such as when a parent
removes his or her child from an emotionally unpleasant situation.[14] Use of situation selection may
also be seen in psychopathology. For example, avoidance of social situations to regulate emotions is
particularly pronounced for those with social anxiety disorder[15] and avoidant personality disorder.[16]
Effective situation selection is not always an easy task. For instance, humans display
difficulties predicting their emotional responses to future events. Therefore, they may have trouble
making accurate and appropriate decisions about which emotionally relevant situations to approach
or to avoid.[17]
Situation modification[edit]
Situation modification involves efforts to modify a situation so as to change its emotional
impact.[12] Situation modification refers specifically to altering one's external, physical environment.
Altering one's "internal" environment to regulate emotion is called cognitive change.[11]
Examples of situation modification may include injecting humor into a speech to elicit laughter[18] or
extending the physical distance between oneself and another person.[19]

Attentional deployment[edit]
Attentional deployment involves directing one's attention towards or away from an emotional
situation.[12]
Distraction[edit]
Distraction, an example of attentional deployment, is an early selection strategy, which involves
diverting one's attention away from an emotional stimulus and towards other content.[20] Distraction
has been shown to reduce the intensity of painful[21] and emotional experiences,[22] to decrease facial
responding and neural activation in the amygdala associated with emotion,[22][23] as well as to alleviate
emotional distress.[24] As opposed to reappraisal, individuals show a relative preference to engage in
distraction when facing stimuli of high negative emotional intensity. This is because distraction easily
filters out high-intensity emotional content, which would otherwise be relatively difficult to appraise
and process.[25]
Rumination[edit]
Rumination, an example of attentional deployment,[16] is defined as the passive and repetitive
focusing of one's attention on one's symptoms of distress and the causes and consequences of
these symptoms. Rumination is generally considered to be a maladaptive emotion regulation
strategy, as it tends to exacerbate emotional distress. It has also been implicated in a host of
disorders including major depression.[26]
Worry[edit]
Worry, an example of attentional deployment,[16] involves directing attention to thoughts and images
concerned with potentially negative events in the future.[27] By focusing on these events, worrying
serves to aid in the downregulation of intense negative emotion and physiological activity.[16] While
worry may sometimes involve problem solving, incessant worry is generally considered maladaptive,
being a common feature of anxiety disorders, particularly generalized anxiety disorder.[28]
Thought suppression[edit]
Thought suppression, an example of attentional deployment, involves efforts to redirect one's
attention from specific thoughts and mental images to other content so as to modify one's emotional
state.[16]Although thought suppression may provide temporary relief from undesirable thoughts, it may
ironically end up spurring the production of even more unwanted thoughts.[29] This strategy is
generally considered maladaptive, being most associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder.[16]

Cognitive change[edit]
Cognitive change involves changing how one appraises a situation so as to alter its emotional
meaning.[12]
Reappraisal[edit]
Reappraisal, an example of cognitive change, is a late selection strategy, which involves
reinterpreting the meaning of an event so as to alter its emotional impact.[12] For example, this might
involve reinterpreting an event by broadening one's perspective to see "the bigger
picture."[30] Reappraisal has been shown to effectively reduce physiological,[31] subjective,[13] and
neural[32] emotional responding. As opposed to distraction, individuals show a relative preference to
engage in reappraisal when facing stimuli of low negative emotional intensity because these stimuli
are relatively easy to appraise and process.[25]
Reappraisal is generally considered to be an adaptive emotion-regulation strategy. Compared to
suppression, which is correlated negatively with many psychological disorders,[7] reappraisal can be
associated with better interpersonal outcomes, and can be positively related to
wellbeing.[33] However, some researchers argue that context is important when evaluating the
adaptiveness of a strategy, suggesting that in some contexts reappraisal may be maladaptive.[34]
Distancing[edit]
Distancing, an example of cognitive change, involves taking on an independent, third-person
perspective when evaluating an emotional event.[35] Distancing has been shown to be an adaptive
form of self-reflection, facilitating the emotional processing of negatively valenced stimuli,[36] reducing
emotional and cardiovascular reactivity to negative stimuli, and increasing problem-solving
behavior.[37]
Humor[edit]
Humor, an example of cognitive change, has been shown to be an effective emotion regulation
strategy. Specifically, positive, good-natured humor has been shown to effectively upregulate
positive emotion and downregulate negative emotion. On the other hand, negative, mean-spirited
humor is less effective in this regard.[38]

Response modulation[edit]
Response modulation involves attempts to directly influence experiential, behavioral, and
physiological response systems.[12]
Expressive suppression[edit]
Expressive suppression, an example of response modulation, involves inhibiting emotional
expressions. It has been shown to effectively reduce facial expressivity, subjective feelings of
positive emotion, heart rate, and sympathetic activation. However, the research is mixed regarding
whether this strategy is effective for downregulating negative emotion.[39] Research has also shown
that expressive suppression may have negative social consequences, correlating with reduced
personal connections and greater difficulties forming relationships.[40]
Expressive suppression is generally considered to be a maladaptive emotion-regulation strategy.
Compared to reappraisal, it is correlated positively with many psychological disorders,[7] associated
with worse interpersonal outcomes, is negatively related to wellbeing,[33] and requires the mobilization
of a relatively substantial amount of cognitive resources.[41] However, some researchers argue that
context is important when evaluating the adaptiveness of a strategy, suggesting that in some
contexts suppression may be adaptive.[34]
Drug use[edit]
Drug use, an example of response modulation, can be a way to alter emotion-associated
physiological responses. For example, alcohol can
produce sedative and anxiolytic effects[42] and beta blockers can affect sympathetic activation.[11]
Exercise[edit]
Exercise, an example of response modulation, can be used to downregulate the physiological and
experiential effects of negative emotions.[11] Regular physical activity has also been shown to reduce
emotional distress and improve emotional control.[43]
Sleep[edit]
Sleep plays a role in emotion regulation, although stress and worry can also interfere with sleep.
Studies have shown that sleep, specifically REM sleep, down-regulates reactivity of the amygdala, a
brain structure known to be involved in the processing of emotions, in response to previous
emotional experiences.[44] On the flip side, sleep deprivation is associated with greater emotional
reactivity or overreaction to negative and stressful stimuli. This is a result of both increased
amygdala activity and a disconnect between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, which regulates
the amygdala through inhibition, together resulting in an overactive emotional brain.[44] Due to the
subsequent lack of emotional control, sleep deprivation may be associated with
depression, impulsivity, and mood swings. Additionally, there is some evidence that sleep
deprivation may reduce emotional reactivity to positive stimuli and events and impair emotion
recognition in others

1. Situation selection
a. The most forward-looking approach to emotion regulation is situation selection. This
type of emotion regulation involves taking actions that make it more (or less) likely that
we will end up in a situation we expect will give rise to desirable (or undesirable)
emotions.
b. This form of extrinsic emotion regulation is important throughout life, but is most
evident in infancy and early childhood when parents strive to create daily routines with
manageable emotional demands for their offspring. This can involve careful selection of
child care arrangements, predictable routines, scheduling naps and breaks to assist
young children’s coping, and managing the broader emotional climate of family life
2. Situation modification
a. situation modification—as we mean it here—has to do with modifying external, physical
environments
b. When conservative in-laws visit, situation modification may take the form of hiding
politically incindiary artwork
c. Situation modification is also a mainstay of parenting, where it takes the form of helping
with a frustrating puzzle or setting up for an elaborate doll tea party
3. Attentional deployment
a. attentional deployment refers to how individuals direct their attention within a given
situation in order to influence their emotions
b. Two major attentional strategies are distraction and concentration
i. Distraction focuses attention on different aspects of the situation, or moves
attention away from the situation altogether, such as when an infant shifts its
gaze from the emotion-eliciting stimulus to decrease stimulation (Rothbart &
Sheese, this volume; Stifter & Moyer, 1991). Distraction also may involve
changing internal focus, such as when individuals invoke thoughts or memories
that are inconsistent with the undesirable emotional state (Watts, this volume),
or when an actor calls to mind an emotional incident in order to portray that
emotion convincingly.
ii. Concentration draws attention to emotional features of a situation. Wegner and
Bargh (1998) have termed this “controlled starting” of emotion. When attention
is repetitively directed to our feelings and their consequences, it is referred to
as rumination. Ruminating on sad events leads to longer and more severe
depressive symptoms (Just & Alloy, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1993).
 4. Cognitive change
a. Cognitive change refers to changing how we appraise the situation we are in to alter its
emotional significance, either by changing how we think about the situation or about
our capacity to manage the demands it poses.
b. One form of cognitive change that has received particular attention is reappraisal
(Gross, 2002; John & Gross, this volume; Ochsner & Gross, this volume). This type of
cognitive change involves changing a situation’s meaning in a way that alters its
emotional impact.
5. Response modulation
a. Response modulation refers to influencing physiological, experiential, or behavioral
responding as directly as possible. Attempts at regulating the physiological and
experiential aspects of emotion are common.
b. Drugs may be used to target physiological responses such as muscle tension (anxiolytics)
or sympathetic hyperreactivity (beta blockers).
c. Exercise and relaxation also can be used to decrease physiological and experiential
aspects of negative emotions,
d. and, alcohol, cigarettes, drugs, and even food also may be used to modify emotion
experience
e. Another common form of response modulation involves regulating emotionexpressive
behavior (Gross, Richards, & John, 2006). We may wish to regulate expressive behavior
for many reasons, ranging from an assessment that it would be best to hide our true
feelings from another person (e.g., hiding our fear when standing up to a bully)
6. Time and feedback
a. Previous emotional cycle will act as an input into the current emotional cycle
b. The emotion after the current emotional cycle will also determine how we deal with the
emotion itself. (e.g., deciding to “really let someone have it” when we are angry).

EQ training program

Module IV : Positive Emotions

Understanding Positive emotions
Love,
Izard distinguishes between various types: love for parents, love for siblings and
love in a romantic sense.
According to the triangular theory of love developed by psychologist Robert
Sternberg, the three components of love are intimacy, passion, and
commitment. Intimacy encompasses feelings of attachment, closeness,
connectedness, and bondedness. Passion encompasses drives connected
to both limerance and sexual attraction. Commitment encompasses, in the
short term, the decision to remain with another, and in the long term, the
shared achievements and plans made with that other person.

• . non-love (casual)
• liking (intimacy only)
• infatuation (passion only)
• empty love (decision-commitment only, from only one person)
• romantic love (intimacy and passion)
• fatuous love (passion and decision-commitment)
• companionate love (intimacy and decision-commitment)
• consummate love (intimacy, passion and decision-commitment)
Happiness,
subjective well-being is a broad concept that includes
experiencing pleasant emotions, low levels of negative
moods, and high life satisfaction.
Martin Seligman spent years developing a theory of
well-being he called PERMA model. The model
comprises 5 elements, that create the foundation of
a flourishing life:
1. Positive Emotions
2. Engagement
3. Relationships
4. Meaning
5. Accomplishments
Contentment,
Happiness, in positive psychology, is defined in a twofold manner, which in totality is referred to
as subjective well-being. How much positive emotion (positive affect) as opposed to negative
emotion (negative affect) does a person have, and how ones view one's life overall (global
satisfaction) are the questions asked in positive psychology to determine happiness.

Contentment may be more associated or closely related to a person's level of satisfaction

with his/her life (global satisfaction), but the idea of contentment is certainly intertwined in the
concept of what makes people happy.

• Life satisfaction is defined as one’s evaluation of life as a whole, rather then the feelings and
emotions that are experienced in the moment.

• Happiness is an immediate, in-the-moment experience, whereas life satisfaction is happiness

that exists when we think about our lives as a whole, looking at the big picture

• In general, whatever level of satisfaction you are feeling, you can define and maximize your level
of wellbeing if you choose which elements you want to engage in to flourish. Also, life
satisfaction tends to be dependent on your emotional state.
Resilience,
resilience generally refers to patterns of positive adaptation during or following significant adversity or
risk.

Resilience is an inferential concept, in that two major judgments must be rendered to diagnose
resilience.

First, there is a judgment that individuals are at least “doing OK” with respect to a set of expectations
for behavior.

Second, there must be significant exposure to risk or adversity that has posed a serious threat to good
outcomes.

Models of resilience
Variable focussed
In this model, the assets and risks contribute independently to how well a child is doing on the outcome
of interest.

Person focussed
Person-focused approaches identify resilient people and try to understand how they differ from other
people who are not faring as well in the face of adversity or those who have not been challenged by
serious threats to development.
Pathway model
Compassion
1. Basic requirements for compassion
As in so many other aspects of human nature, it is useful to start with Aristotle. Compassion is
the word most often used in connection with the emotion evoked by the sufferings of others.
It has been generally accepted that there are three requirements for compassion:
First, we must feel that the troubles that evoke our feelings are serious;
second, we require that the sufferers’ troubles not be selfinflicted—that they be the result of an
unjust fate;
finally, it is believed that for compassion to be evoked, we must be able to picture ourselves in
the same predicament.

2. Compassion’s core: connecting and identifying with others

At its core, compassion is a process of connecting by identifying with another person. The roots
of this identification process can be found in more than one place.

First, research with infants has shown that even in the first days of their lives they begin to
mirror the facial expressions and simple bodily movements of the mother. They are seeing
themselves in the other and the other in themselves. This, of course, shows the newborn infant
to be more responsive to its caregivers and its environment than previously had been believed
and places the onset of identification at the earliest age (Meltzoff, 1985; Meltzoff & Kuhl, 1989;
Meltzoff & Moore, 1977; Stern, 1985; Trevarthen, 1988).

For George Herbert Mead (1934), in fact, the “self” arises and is developed through the social
experience of others; there is no self or self-definition without others.

It is common experience that people differ in the depth or intensity of their compassion. What
brings tears to the eyes of one is a matter of indifference to another. The differences appear to
be explained by the varying degree of experienced identification with the suffering other. For
Arthur Schopenhauer (who was greatly influenced by Buddhism), such identification required
transcending preoccupation with the centrality of the self. The suffering he sees in others
touches him almost as much as does his own.
He therefore tries to strike a balance between the two, denies himself pleasures, and undergoes
privations in order to alleviate another’s suffering. He perceives that the distinction between
himself and others, which “to the wicked man is so great a gulf, belongs only to fleeting,
deceptive phenomenon” (Schopenhauer, 1969, p. 372). Compassion, empathy, pity, and charity
all require the ability to identify with another, to see in the plight of another what might cause
distress in oneself.

For compassion, because often it is felt toward strangers, even aliens, the act of identification
requires bridging the gap between the self and another, when there is no direct connection with
the other—or, put another way, when the connection to the other is merely conceptual.

(Snyder & Lopez, 2001)

& other positive emotions)
Cycle of positive emotions
The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions[1] suggests that positive emotions (viz.
enjoyment/happiness/joy, and perhaps interest/anticipation)[2] broaden one's awareness and
encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, this broadened
behavioral repertoire builds skills and resources. For example, curiosity about a landscape becomes
valuable navigational knowledge; pleasant interactions with a stranger become a supportive
friendship; aimless physical play becomes exercise and physical excellence.

This is in contrast to negative emotions, which prompt narrow, immediate survival-oriented

behaviors. For example, the negative emotion of anxiety leads to the specific fight-or-flight
response for immediate survival. On the other hand, positive emotions do not have any immediate
survival value, because they take one's mind off immediate needs and stressors. However, over
time, the skills and resources built by broadened behavior enhance survival
Module V Implication of Positive emotion in
Relationship & Health
Implications of positive emotions on relationships
Implications of positive emotions on health
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3173764/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1201429/

Positive affect >> Heart disease; Boehm & Kubzansky, 2012

studies have consistently reported reduced risk of incident CHD in relation to positive affect. CHD:
Coronary heart disease

Positive affect >> heat disease; Davidson, Mostofsky and

Whang, 2010
In another study, positive emotions were assessed based on structured interviews and evaluations of
positivity displayed on participants’ faces during these interviews (Davidson, Mostofsky, & Whang,
2010). In this sample of 1,739 men and women, those who displayed more positive affect were at 22%
lower risk of developing heart disease over a 10-year period, after controlling for major coronary risk
factors and negative affect.