Sumber Pembiayaan Jalan

SJ-4215 Pembiayaan Jalan – Kuliah 2

Siapa yang membiayai Prasarana Jalan ?

Prasarana Jalan

Pertumbuhan Ekonomi
apa yang membiayai Prasarana Jalan ?
ertama, pengguna (users):
Dalam lingkaran ini,
Prasarana Jalan
membiayai dirinya
sendiri

Prasarana Jalan

USERS
Pertumbuhan Ekonomi
 apa yang membiayai Prasarana Jalan ?
edua, pengguna (users)
subsidi oleh pembayar pajak … SUBSIDI

Prasarana Jalan

AX PAYERS
USERS
Pertumbuhan
Ekonomi
apa yang membiayai Prasarana Jalan ?
Dua Mekanisme kelembagaan memungkinkan adanya penyaluran
rus kas – dari anggaran Pemerintah, dan dari Perusahaan
Pengelola (service providers)
Semua Pengeluaran
Pemerintah berasal dari dana Pengelola dapat dilakukan oleh
pajak, untuk sekarang maupun Pemerintah , BUMN, atauapun
ke depan sektor Swasta

STATE
BUDGET PROVIDERS

Prasarana Jalan

TAX PAYERS USERS

Pertumbuhan
Ekonomi
Premise:
Four fundamental questions about road finance
have and still underlie nearly all policy debates
our basic questions

1. Who should pay for transportation?

2. How should they pay?
3. Where should funds be expended?
4. What systems, modes, or projects should
receive priority?
undamental Questions : Who?

• Should transportation system users pay fees to

travel?
• Or, should everyone pay for transportation
systems through general instruments of taxation?
• Should people pay for transportation systems
based on ability to pay? Benefits received? Costs
imposed?
undamental Questions : How?
• If users are to pay…
– Should we levy bridge tolls, transit fares, fuel taxes, or roadway
tolls?
– Should such fees be relatively static, or vary with respect to
congestion, emissions, axle weights, etc.?

• If everyone is to pay…
– Should it be from income, sales, property, or other taxes?
– Should we borrow the money now and put off decisions over
how to retire the debt?
undamental Questions : Where?

• Should transportation taxes and fees collected in

one jurisdiction be spent in other places?
– If so, on what basis should the funds be
geographically redistributed?
• From have-nots to haves?
– If not, what is the rationale for a federal (or, for that
matter, state) finance program?
undamental Questions : What?

• Should streets and highways receive priority

because they are so heavily used?

• Or should public transit and bicycling receive

priority to create more environmentally-friendly
travel alternatives?
ransportation Finance
Expenditures: Expenditures:
NonTransportation
Transportation Purposes
Purposes
Transportation User Fees Transportation Taxes for General
• Motor fuel taxes for highways Purposes
Revenues: and transit • Fuel taxes for deficit reduction
ransportation Sources • Transit fares • Parking meter revenue to
• Bridge tolls to retire bonds fund libraries

General Taxes for Transportation General Taxes for General

Revenues: • Sales taxes dedicated to Purposes
transportation • Income taxes for education,
on-Transportation welfare, and national defense
• General obligation bonds for
ources transportation
Modes of Road Financing
ransportation Finance in US
• Establishing Roles and Principles (1920-1945)
– Abandoned bond finance if favor of user fees
• Mass Production of Highways (1945-1970)
– Bi-partisan support for fuel tax increases
– User fee logic codified by putting revenues to trust funds
• Fiscal Retrenchment/Rise of Multimodalism (1970-1990)
– Bi-partisan support for highway program unravels
– Fuel taxes begin to “sunset”
• Era of Ad Hoc Projects and Finance (1990-2010)
– User fee logic erodes in favor of bonds and general taxes
– Rise of voter-approved project funding and earmaking
ransportation Systems

• Highway:
–Local, state and federal governmental agencies
own nearly all of the nation’s 4 million miles of
road
–Local -77%; State –20%; Federal –3%
–Private operations:
–Motor carriers provide commercial freight
–Private vehicles and bus service
ransportation Systems
• Public Transit
– Use existing highway system and rail system
– Primarily local transit systems for bus and fixed rail facilities
• Airports:
– Local Airport Authorities own airports
– Commercial and charter airlines provide air service
• Railroads
– Private companies own track and provide rail freight service
– Passenger service from state/local/federal
• Waterways
– Federal jurisdiction over waterways and locks and dams
– Private barge companies provide commercial service
How do we pay for the Operations,
Maintenance and Improvements ?
inancing Transportation Infrastructure

• Financing is from a combination of Public and Private sources

that varies depending on the transportation system
• ..Largest component -“USER CHARGES”
nancing Highways

• Local: Property taxes, special assessments, tolls, bonds, transfers

of state funds and transfers of federal funds.
• State: Fuel taxes, general revenues, registration fees, use taxes,
bonds, transfers of federal funds.
• Federal: Fuel taxes, commercial truck taxes
• Federal Highway Trust Fund
ederalism In Transportation Finance

• In the US, transportation financing comes from a variety of private sector,

Federal, state government, and local government sources
• One mode is largely financed privately
– Freight railroads
• Most modes involve privately-funded vehicles running on publicly funded
guideways (or ports/airports)
– Highways, aviation, inland waterways, ocean shipping
– User fees are used to recover public costs to some extent
• A few modes are largely publicly financed
– Urban public transportation, passenger railroads
eneral Finances
• Basically everywhere, transportation is paid for through a variety
of means:
– Fares and tariffs
• Fare = what passengers pay
• Tariff = what is paid to move freight
– User fees and taxes
– Non-user fees and taxes
• Figuring out the impacts of this system is difficult
Highways
• Around $120 billion a year is spent to build,
maintain, and operate highways in the US
–50 percent for construction and reconstruction
–25 percent for routine maintenance and snow
removal
–The other 25%:
• 4 percent for interest on bonds
• 5 percent to for bond principal/retirement
• 7 percent for administration and research
• 9 percent for law enforcement and safety
Public Transportation
–Includes commuter rail, subways, light rail, buses
–Around $35 billion in total cost per year
• About $10 billion in capital investment
• The rest ($25 billion) for operating expenses such as driver
and mechanic wages, benefits and fuel
–Over two-thirds comes from non-user fees and
taxes
• Much of this comes from the Federal government
–About 35 percent of operating funding comes
from fares, so 65 percent is operating subsidies
ain Funding Roles Of The Federal Government

• Capital investment and major maintenance for highways o

national significance
• Capital improvements for airports and airways
• Capital and operations for public transportation and
intercity rail passenger service
• Programs and projects that improve safety and
environmental quality
• Capital investments that improve shipping on inland
waterways and oceans
• Research and human capital development
ow Highway Spending Is Supported
• 60% from fuel taxes and other user fees
• 4% from tolls
• 23% from property taxes and other local taxes
– This is a subsidy and it mainly pays for local streets
and low-volume rural roads
• 15% from bond sales and investment income
– (The total is more than 100% because funds are being
placed in reserve to retire bonds and for other
purposes.)
Highway User Fees
User Fee Description Advantages Disadvantages

Vehicle registration fees A fee assessed each year Stable, can be graduated Can become very
for operating a vehicle unpopular with voters if
set high
Fuel taxes A cents per gallon excise High revenue yield, easy Varies with economic
tax to administer, possible to activity
evade
Drivers license fees A fee assessed each year Very stable, easy to Low revenue yield
for having a drivers administer
license
Tolls A per use fee for using a Perceived as “fair” Expensive to administer
roadway until ITS technology
came along

Parking fees, taxes, and Fees collected for Perceived as “fair” Usually covers cost of
fines parking vehicles parking, if that
uel Taxes
• Why Fuel Taxes
– Road User Fee
– Energy Conservation
– Revenue Neutral Tax Shift
– Internalizing External Costs
– As a Demand Management Strategy
• Equity
– Regressive nature of Fuel Taxes
– Rural/Urban
he motor fuels tax
• Conceived as a user fee from the outset
– Those who drive more, pay more
– Those who drive big vehicles, pay more
• Revenues rise and fall with system use
• Easy to link revenue collections to project expenditures
• Encourages fuel efficiency
• Cheap to administer
• Low evasion rates
 Non-User Fees Used For Highways
Non-User Fee Description
Property taxes Taxes assessed against the
value of land and/or
buildings
ncome or payroll Taxes on the income or
axes residents and/or commuters
or employee payrolls
Sales taxes Taxes based on the value of
sales of goods and services
Severance taxes Taxes on oil, coal, or
minerals exported
Advantages
Seen as “fair” in that good
local road access adds value
to property
Can be made progressive;
higher income families are
seen as better able to pay
Most people view the sales
tax as “fair”; straightforward
overall
States can export their tax
burdens
Disadvantages
Usually highly regressive
Revenues are sensitive to
economic fluctuations
Revenues adjust for inflation
but are sensitive to economic
fluctuations; can be
regressive if levied on items
such as food and clothing
Revenues fluctuate greatly