Regional Development and Planning-2

Geography with Sandeep Sir
Planning For Backward Area, Desert, Drought Prone, Hill,

Tribal Area Development; Multilevel Planning; Regional
Planning and Development of Island Territories
Planning For Backward Area Development

Backwardness is relative, multi-dimensional, and perceptional. It differs in
time, space and nature. Also, it refers to spatial as well as structural disparity. Hence, because
of its complex characteristics, there is no universally agreed definition or measurement
technique of backwardness.
The backwardness of a place and that of the people living there get impacted
upon each other. This is so because the people and places are inter-woven in symbiotic
relationship. All parts of a country are not equally endowed with rich natural and human
resources. Resource-rich areas leave behind their poor counterparts on the path of
development. Gradually the gap widens and as a result disadvantaged places and people
conscious of the widening gap, demand the measures to mitigate disparity.
Indian planning and area backwardness
Growth with justice is one of the main objectives of planning in India. It

promises promotion of socio-economic upliftment of backward people on the one hand and
the development of resource potentials of backward areas, on the other. Hence, it involves
both social and spatial justice.
India is a vast country with a variety of landforms and ethnic groups. The
inter-play of people with land has brought out different patterns of development. In addition,
under the federal polity the state governments are free to evolve development policies suited
to their situations. Nevertheless, some strategic, vulnerable and ecologically fragile areas
such as hills, deserts, drought prone, border areas, industrially backward, tribal and coastal
needing special attention, require the union government‘s intervention.
India is among the few developing nations, which have started comprehensive
development programmes for their backward areas.
There is no well-accepted definition of backward areas in India. Consequently,

there are different types of backward areas rather than one type of backward area, as such.
There are no absolute standards of ‗backwardness‘ as there are no such standards for
‗development‘. Backward areas are defined and identified on the basis of purpose. They are
also defined on the basis of arrangements. For instance, in the arrangement for fiscal transfers
between the Centre and the states, backwardness has been defined in terms of the state
income below the national average. Similarly, in the scheme for concessional finance for
industry, industrial backwardness was defined relative to the state averages.
The areas identified as backward for the purpose of planning must have three
characteristics: (i) potential for development, (ii) inhibiting factors preventing them from
realising their potential, and (iii) a need for special programmes to remove the bottlenecks. In
the identification and demarcation of backward areas, the geographical unit needs to be
defined.
Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com
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There are two broad approaches of operationalising the concept of

Backwardness (i) Index-based, and (ii) Problem area. The first is to rely on some overall
index for ranking areas and beat all areas below some cut off point as backward. The second
is to identify problem areas in different categories by specifying the constraints on
development that can only be mitigated by special measures. In India, both the approaches,
index based and problem area, have been adopted. The former was used for identifying
industrially backward areas whereas the latter for Drought Prone, Desert, Hill etc.
Sivaraman, the then Chairman of the National Committee on Development of

Backward Areas noted that backward area is an area with potential, which has not yet
been developed. There must be something inherently regressive to development
in the people of the area or their society or the environment.
Interestingly in the Indian perception, backwardness is associated with rural

areas. While in reality, all backward areas are rural but all rural areas are not backward.
Similarly, the majority of population in a backward area comprises backward people but all
backward people are not found only in backward areas. It implies that in spatial coverage
backward areas and backward people are not synonymous.
Evolution of backward area development programmes in India
There has always been a concern for the development of backward areas in
Indian Plans. Even in the First Plan (1951-56), showing concern for the development of
scarcity prone areas, an allocation of Rs. 150 million was made under the Central Sector
allocations. The responsibility of designing and implementing projects for the development of
such areas was given to respective states. During the Second Plan heavy public investment
was made to establish large industrial complexes in mineral rich backward areas resided in by
the tribals in Central India. The Third Plan (1961-66) warned against growing (social and
spatial) disparities and their consequences. It devoted a full chapter on balanced regional
development.
The Fourth Plan is considered as a watershed in the context of developing

backward areas to minimize disparities in development. Initiating a two pronged strategy, it
initiated ‗target group‘ and ‗target area‘ programmes. The former was devised for the
removal of social inequalities and the latter for tackling regional backwardness.
The target groups identified during the Fourth Plan included small and
marginal farmers, as well as the agricultural labourers. Small Farmers Development Agency
(SFDA) targeted the small farmers, households having land holdings of 2 hectares or less.
Such households accounted for 52 per cent of total rural households. Marginal Farmers and
Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFAL) was formed to look after the interests
of the marginal farmers and the agricultural labourers. The latter, defined as labourers whose
more than half of the total income came from agricultural wages, accounting for about one-
fourth of the total rural households (Government of India, 1969).
The category of ‗target areas‘ included the hill, border, drought prone and
industrially backward areas. These programmes, conceived during the Fourth Plan (1969-74),
were implemented mainly during the Fifth Plan (1974-79).
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Chronology of the backward area programmes
The programmes targeting disadvantaged areas, to counter rising regional

disparity in development, were mainly initiated during the Fourth Plan. With the exception of
the hill area development programme, identified towards the latter half of the Third Plan,
most of the other such programmes were identified during this Plan. The Indo-China war in
1962 made our planners and policy makers sensitive to the development of hill areas in North
and North-eastern India with an eye on national security.
Industrially backward areas were identified in 1969. Areas characterised by

‗structural impoverishment‘ such as Drought Prone Areas were identified in 1971. The area
under the Western Ghats hill development programme was identified in 1972. Areas
dominantly inhabited by the socially backward tribal communities were identified in 1974 for
the Tribal Sub-plan projects.
Evidently, a large majority of backward area programmes were identified

during the Third and the Fourth Plans, actual implementation taking place from the final
years of the Fourth till the end of the Fifth Plan
In the Sixth Plan (1980-85), no new programme of backward area

development was initiated. During the Seventh Plan came the Border Area Development
Programme in 1987.
The erstwhile Planning Commission of India implements the area programmes

such as the Hill Area Development Programme including the Western Ghats, the Border Area
Development, the North-East( now under Ministry of DoNER), and the Desert Development
Programmes. Tribal area development programme is with the Ministry of Tribal Affairs
(earlier Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment). The Drought Prone Area Programme
(DPAP) is the responsibility of the Ministry of Rural Development. The Desert Development
Programme (DDP) is now the dual responsibility of the Planning Commission and the
Ministry of Rural Development. The Ministry of Industry is assigned the responsibility of the
Industrially Backward Area Development Programme.
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Desert Development Programme

The desert areas of the country had remained backward in many respects due
to difficult physiography varying agro-climatic conditions and distinct socio cultural features.
Since the people living in these areas were facing hardships owing to geo-climatic conditions,
the desert development programme was introduced as a centrally sponsored scheme in 1977-
78. The objective of the programme is to control the desertification and restoration of
ecological balance in the desert areas for development.
Over the years, the increase in human and livestock population in desert areas
has placed the natural resources of the region under great stress. The major problems are
continuous depletion of vegetative cover, increase in soil erosion and fall in ground water
table. All these factors account for diminishing productivity of land and loss of natural
resources. The problems would have been worse but for the introduction of some specific
highly focussed area development programmes in these areas. On the recommendations of
the National Commission on Agriculture in its Interim Report (1974) and Final Report
(1976), the Desert Development Programme (DDP) was started in the year 1977-78. The
programme was started both in the hot desert areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana, and
the cold desert areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The objective of the
programme has been to mitigate adverse effects of desertification and adverse climatic
conditions on crops, human and livestock population, combating desertification and restoring
ecological balance of the area.
In hot sandy desert areas, sand dune stabilization and shelter belt plantations
were given greater weightage. On the other hand, in cold desert areas, since rainfall is
negligible, crop cultivation and afforestation could be taken up only through assured
irrigation. In these areas, the main activity was water resources development by construction
of channels for diversion of water flow from the glacier and springs to the fields and lift
irrigation works in the valleys. Through the Programme created good impact in the areas
treated, overall impact in the identified areas in the country was not very encouraging.
Objectives
i. Controlling desertification of the desert areas through integrating and dovetailing

other related state/central programmes.
ii. To conserve, develop and harness land water and other resources including
rainfall for restoration of ecological balance in the long run.
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The DDP is now implemented on watershed basis like DPAP as per the new
guidelines for watershed development. In sandy areas, area development is done by taking up
a cluster of villages on an index catchment as the unit of planning. Sand dune stabilisation
and shelter belt plantation are the key activities in sandy areas, apart from development of
dairy, irrigation facilities, forestation and pastures. The Centre gives cent percent grant for
this programme. The North-western region of India, Rajasthan and adjacent state are most
benefitted from it.
Involvement of the local people both in planning and execution of the

programme was virtually non-existent. Besides inadequacy of funds, non-availability of
trained personnel and taking up of too many activities, which were neither properly integrated
nor necessarily related to the objectives of the programme, were also identified as
contributory factors towards reducing the impact of the programme.
Drought Prone Areas Programme

The Drought Prone Areas Programme is a centrally shared programme
launched in 1973-74 to tackle the special problems faced by those fragile areas which are
prone to and are constantly affected by severe drought conditions. These areas are
characterised by poor natural resource base for producing food, fodder and fuel and a large
human and cattle population which exert heavy pressure on the available resources and lead
to depletion of vegetative cover and reduction in ground water level due to continuous
exploitation and inadequate efforts for recharging the aquifers.
The objectives of the programme are (i) to minimise the adverse effects of
drought on the production of crops and livestock and productivity of land, water and human
resources thereby ultimately leading to ‘drought proofing‘ of the affected areas, (ii) to
promote overall economic development and improve the socio-economic condition of the
poor and disadvantaged sections inhabiting the programme areas and (iii) to take up
development works through the watershed approach for land development, water resource
development and afforestation / pasture development.
Significance of Planning for Drought-Prone Areas:
1. The drought-prone areas form a significant proportion of the country‘s area.

2. These areas are characterised by low productivity which is a major cause of regional
imbalances.
3. These areas are a strain on the country‘s financial resources.
The components of the strategy are as follows:
1. Development and scientific management of resources

2. Land improvement
3. Soil conservation
4. Desiltation of tanks, canals and reservoirs
5. Afforestation and pasture development
6. Restructuring of cropping patterns
7. Scientific agronomic practices
8. Livestock development
9. Focus on small and marginal farmers and agricultural labourers
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10. Development of infrastructure, availability of funds and civic amenities like roads,
drinking water, regulated markets etc.
It is a truly comprehensive programme, because it takes a long-term view and

follows a total approach to development. At the National level, the programme covers 746
lakh hectares in 972 blocks spread over 182 districts in 16 States.
Some drawbacks of the DPAP are:
1. Targeting is faulty—at places, small and marginal farmers and agricultural labourers
are not benefiting.
2. There are delays caused due to inadequate staff.
3. Lack of experience is reflected in plan formulation.
4. Lack of information regarding potential areas for development affects the pace of
implementation.
5. Duplication of efforts leads to inefficiency.
Hill Area Development Programme

The Hill Areas Development Programme(HADP)/ Western Ghats
Development Programme (WGDP) which have been in operation from the Fifth Five Year
Plan in designated hill areas. Under these programmes, special Central Assistance is given to
designated hill areas in order to supplement the efforts of the State Governments in the
development of these ecologically fragile areas. The Hill Area Development Programme,
introduced in Nilgiris District since the year 1975, is funded by the Government of India to
supplement the plan resources of the state by providing Special Central Assistance.
The main objective of HADP is eco-restoration, eco- development and eco

preservation. While taking care of the socio economic and developmental needs of the
District, the HADP is to develop land use planning for forest areas to cultivable areas to
conserve soil, water and increase productivity of land, economic upliftment of tribals in
isolated settlements and also to ensure peoples participation in all developmental activities.
This translated on the field consist of the following components:
1. To preserve and conserve sholas and grasslands of Nilgiris.

2. Development of landuse plan for forest area as well as cultivated areas.
3. Conserve soil and water to increase productivity of the land by using vegetative
methods and changing the cropping pattern.
4. Promote non-land based economic activities to uplift the poor people and to
ensure environment Protection.
5. Economic up-liftment of tribals in isolated locations, settlements.
6. To evolve a comprehensive human settlement policy and discourage migration.
7. "Area based Approach" adopted and integrated plans to be prepared for all
watersheds and high priority watershed shall be chosen for treatment.
8. Use of scientific interventions will be encouraged i.e. Application of Remote
sensing, etc.,
9. Promotion of Non-Conventional Energy sources i.e. Solar, Hydro, Bio-gas, etc.,
The hill areas in India constitute roughly 17 per cent of the country's total land mass.
These areas broadly fall into two categories:
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(1) Those that are co-extensive with the boundaries of the State or the Union
Territory, and
(2) Those which form a part of a State.
The first category includes the states and union territories of the North-Eastern
Region, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. These are termed as 'Special Category
States' whose outlays are met, substantially out of Central assistance. For the integrated
development of the hill states and union territories of the North-Eastern region, the Central
Government has set up the North Eastern Council in 1971 by an Act of Parliament.
The Council takes up such schemes as are of common interest to more than
one State or Union Territory and to the region as a whole under its development plans. The
Council has played an important role in the development on inter-regional programmes of
power generation and transmission, construction of roads, agriculture, animal husbandry,
fisheries etc. It has been supporting research and experimental projects. A training
infrastructure is being built up for manpower development in the region under the auspices of
the Council.
Hill areas forming part of larger composite State occur in Assam, Uttaranchal
(formerly Uttar Pradesh), and West Bengal in the Himalayan sub- Himalayan region. These
incorporate Karbi Anglong and North Cachar districts of Assam (area 15,200 sq.km.),
Darjeeling district of West Bengal (area : 2,400 sq. km), and Dehradun, Pauri Garhwal, Tehri
Garhwal, Chamoli, Uttarkashi, Almora, Pithoragarh and Nainital districts of Uttaranchal (area
:51,100 sq. km). Although the primary responsibility for the development of these hill areas
is that of the concerned State Government, the need for Central assistance has been realized
as far back as the Second Five Year Plan.
Arrangements for providing Central assistance to the Hill Areas Development

Programme have been further systematized since the commencement of the Fifth Five Year
Plan. The Special Central Assistance is being allocated among the constituent States, giving
equal weight age to the area and population of the hill areas.
Since the Fifth Plan, the concept of a sub plan has been introduced, in order to
ensure complementarily and 1 linkage among the schemes formulated under the various
sectors of the State Plan and out of the Centre additive. Another important hill area extends
over the Western Ghats region which incorporates 132 talukas in the States of Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala (area : 134,500 sq. km). Here Central assistance is
provided for development programmes in these areas, though the concept of sub-plan has not
been introduced. The Tamil Nadu Hill Area is another hill area covering a total area of 2,500
sq. km.
The hills pose problems which are peculiar and different from the problems
encountered in the plain area. The terrain, besides cultural and socioeconomic diversities,
calls for formulation of altogether different methodologies as also norms and planning
standards. The formulation of region specific development strategies for the different hill
areas of the country requires as a basic pre-condition detailed information about the social,
economic, political and cultural features, resource endowment (both human and physical),
development potential and their particular problems.
The guiding principles on which the hill area development programmes should
be based are the promotion of secure basic life support system and judicious utilization of
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land, mineral, water and biotic resources in a total perspective embracing complementarily of
interests of the hills and plains. The whole strategy should centre on the active participation
of the people, particularly of women in the fulfillment of their basic needs. The people's
involvement can be ensured by encouraging the concept of "social fencing" which implies a
voluntary and self-imposed discipline in managing society's resources at a local level.
The hill area programmes place adequate emphasis on exploiting the

indigenous resources of the hill through specially designed programmes for the development
of horticulture, plantations, agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry, bee-keeping, forestry, soil
conservation and suitable village industries.
The focus is essentially on a package of activities that could be absorbed by

the local people and in themselves interact to produce the desired results. Strengthening of
the co-operatives or farmer's service societies has been given great importance. In forestry
programme, production forestry such as the plantation programme (for coffee, tea, spices,
etc.), agro forestry and social forestry have been emphasized. In the horticultural programme,
it is not merely the development of orchards (apple, grapes, banana etc), but tying them up
with marketing that has been emphasized.
In some of these hill areas there is an element of tribal population also and
practices like Jhum cultivation are prevalent. In this context, special programmes have been
devised to prevent Jhum cultivation and to rehabilitate the Jhumiyas in settled agri-
cultivation. Programmes have been initiated for developing plantations of coffee, and rubber
etc (cash crop plantations) and rehabilitating the Jhumiyas in such plantation agriculture,
making them progressively owners of the plantation estate.
Animal husbandry programmes need to be appraised keeping in view the stock

of animals and availability and status of pastures and forests. The programme needs scientific
breeding approach, strong protective and curative animal health cover, and processing and
marketing the produce.
The hill areas are particularly suited to industries which require pollution free
atmospheres, cold climate based on high skills and high value additions like electronic, watch
making, optical glass, collapsible furniture, medicines and drugs etc Cottage dustiest like
carpet manufacture and handlooms also suitable activities. Along with this tourism one of the
most important industries and it should properly develop.
The Hill areas, particularly, the Himalaya region is rich in genetic material of
medicinal a food plants, fruits, including citrus and a wide ran) of other economic plants,
orchids and other flower some rare wild life still occurs in these areas. Would be important to
have an integrated strategy for the preservation of the valuable flora and fauna through a
chain of biosphere reserves, national pair and gene-sanctuaries.
For the scientific planning of the hill areas vital information on resources e.g.
occurrence oil minerals, soil characteristics, vegetation types Audi characteristics, estimation
of the volume of surface and sub-surface flow in watersheds, etc., is required.1 Such
information also needs to be constantly up-B dated. Remote-sensing techniques and air-photo
in perpetration combined with ground truth studies hold great possibilities for this purpose.
A perspective plan spelling out the long-term and short-term developments in

the area should be drawn up. Plans should also be drawn up for the regional, sub- f regional,
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taluka (block) and settlement levels. While the use of legal and executive powers provide
necessary protection to the environment should be made I effective, far more reliance should
be placed on I people's action to achieve the desired results. The need for increasing public
awareness about the environmental issues and to stimulate public participation in activities
for environmental protection has to be emphasized.
The concept of eco-development needs to be built into the programmes

selected for implementation. Keeping constant need for eco- preservation in view, it is
necessary that economic projects located in these areas build into their cost, the cost of eco-
restoration. For example, a paper project should include the cost of a forestation and its
economic viability determined accordingly.
To summarise, new approaches will have to be introduced for meeting the

basic needs of hill people comprising water, food, work, fodder, feed, fuel and fertilizer.
Water will have to be harvested in small ponds and reservoirs on a watershed basis and stored
for use during winter and spring.
Since the land in the hills is best used for perennial crops, it will be advisable
to store the needed food grains in small storage structures at numerous points so that food
availability attains the requisite degree of viability for persuading farmers to abandon
jhuming and adopting cultivation of annual crops in steep slopes.
Recognising the uniqueness of the Himalayas and the challenges for

sustainable development, NITI Aayog set up 5 Working Groups (WGs) to draft a roadmap
for actions in 5 thematic areas. While these thematic areas are quite significant for the
Himalayas, they are not exhaustive by any means. Mountain specificities require specific
solutions for resilience building that address socioeconomic and environmental challenges in
the mountain setting. The reports from the five groups discuss the significance, the
challenges, the ongoing actions and a future roadmap. The five thematic areas are as follows
1. Inventory and Revival of Springs in the Himalayas for Water Security

2. Sustainable Tourism in the Indian Himalayan Region
3. Shifting Cultivation: Towards A Transformational Approach
4. Strengthening the Skill and Entrepreneurship Landscape in Himalayas
5. Data/Information for Informed Decision Making by Multiple Stakeholders
Also Ministry for Development of North-East Region has launched the ―Hill
Area Development Programme‖ (HADP) for Northeast recently.
Tribal Area Development Programme

The tribal areas are relatively backward. Their relative isolation obstructed the
winds of change; even culture contacts with the outside world brought in many problems. It
was surmised that the changes occurring among the tribal‘s were associated with the fact of
culture contact. Through such contacts, the tribes got involved in a sort of tribe-caste
continuum to the extent that those tribes that freely interacted and even shared the same
habitat were treated as castes. Processes of Hinduization and Sanskritization changed their
socio-religious profiles.
Many of the tribal deities got enshrined in the ‗temple of Hinduism‘ and many
elements of the Hindu Great Tradition got parochialized in the tribal settings. With the advent
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of British colonial rule, the tribal‘s came in contact with Christianity and adopted several
elements of Westernization, including modern forms of government and a legal system that
challenged customary law.
In the post-independence phase, the programmes of planned development and

externally induced cultural change have affected the ways of life of these people. The
phenomenon of cultural contact is held responsible for a variety of problems faced by the
tribal‘s.
The problems relate:
 The exploitation of the tribal‘s by outside contractors, moneylenders, and politicians;

 The problem of land alienation and bonded labour;
 Health related problems, including venereal diseases;
 The effort of Christian missionaries during British rule to convert the tribal‘s to
Christianity and, consequently, to discard many of their traditions;
 Depopulation;
 The British policy of divide and rule, resulting in the creation of identity crisis and
hurting the national solidarity being forged by the freedom fighters; and
 Adverse effects on tribal customary law, particularly with regard to land rights and
transfer of land.
In the ensuing debate in the 1950s, it was made clear that there was a need to
properly plan the programmes of culture change. The problems of the tribal people should
first be carefully and scientifically studied and then appropriate strategies evolved to solve
them. An ad hoc and overly enthusiastic approach of philanthropy could be more damaging
to the cause of the tribal‘s. What anthropologists such as S.C. Dube have suggested in this
regard has been summarized below:
1. Systematic studies of the social organization and values of the tribal communities
should be undertaken.
2. The problems of the tribal groups differ relative to their technological, economic, and
cultural development, and the solutions will also differ accordingly.
3. We must understand the factors and forces of tribal unity.
4. We must analyze tribal cultures in terms of change-prone and change-resistant
aspects.
5. The tribe should be viewed in a holistic perspective in which all the parts of its culture
are seen as related to one another. Change brought about in any part is likely to have
repercussions in other parts.
6. Administrators and social workers working in the tribal areas must be properly trained
in tribal cultures and should have an anthropological perspective.
7. Development projects for the tribal areas should establish a proper match between
tribal needs and national goals.
8. There should be continued monitoring and evaluation of projects so that corrective
actions can be taken against unanticipated harmful effects.
Since independence, a number of projects were initiated to develop the tribal

areas. Reviewing the progress, the Study Team on Tribal Development Programmes, headed
by Shilu Ao, found in 1969 that the development of these areas was uneven. A recommended
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more concentrated action in those areas where the tribal‘s were still leading a primitive
existence.
The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-79) prepared a Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP),

addressing the needs of the extremely backward tribal communities with complete funding
from the Central government. A special workshop was convened in 1975 to evolve the
criteria for the identification of such backward groups.
Three criteria were proposed:
(1) Pre-agricultural level of technology;

(2) Low level of literacy; and
(3) Stagnant or declining population.
Following these criteria, 74 tribal groups in 15 states and Union territories

were identified as ‗primitive‘. For these primitive tribal groups, a new Central Sector Scheme
has been introduced from 1998-99, under which financial assistance is given to Integrated
Tribal Development Projects (ITDP), Tribal Research Institutes (TRIs), and non-
governmental organizations (NGOs). A sum of Rs 10.71 crore was sanctioned for this
scheme in 2000-01. There are 194 ITDPs in the country in those blocks where the scheduled
tribe population is more than 50 per cent of the total population. In addition, the TSP under
the Modified Area Development Approach (MADA), covers places where there are at least
5,000 tribals. There are 252 such MADA pockets.
Special Central assistance is also given to the states/UTs to supplement their

efforts in tribal development. This assistance is given for income-generating schemes in the
sectors of agriculture, horticulture, minor irrigation, animal husbandry, soil conservation,
education, cooperatives, and small-scale cottage industries. In 2000-01, Rs 400 crore was
given to the states for this purpose. Additional grants were also given for setting up
residential schools and ashram schools. In 2001, the government of India set up a National
Scheduled Tribes Financial Development Corporation. This is an apex institution for
financing economically viable projects for scheduled tribes.
There is also a Central Sector Scheme of Grain Banks in tribal villages, which
was launched in 1996-97. The main aim of this scheme is to provide safeguards against fall in
the nutritional standards of scheduled tribes living in remote rural areas. Tribal India, like the
rest of the country, is in the throes of change. The large number of tribes in our Northeast has
a high degree of literacy and numerical predominance in many of the states in which they
reside. They are also politically active. Change has affected almost all the tribes so much that
the old monographs written about them read like unbelievable tales.
There is need to revisit many of the tribal groups and study them to find out
how much change has occurred in them and what institutions of their primitive past still
continue to guide their lives. Their diversity notwithstanding, they are a part of the unity of
India.
The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is implementing Special Area

Programmes/Central Sector/Centrally Sponsored Schemes for the socio-economic and
educational development of Scheduled Tribes in the country. A list of schemes being
implemented by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs is given below. These schemes cover the
tribal areas on pan India basis.
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S.No. Name of the scheme
1. Special Central Assistance to Tribal Sub Plan (SCA to TSP)
2. Grant under Article 275(1) of the Constitution of India
3. Grants-in-Aid to State Tribal Development Corporative Corporations (STDCCs)

etc. for Minor Forest Produce (MFP) Operations
4. Minor Forest Produce (MFP) through Minimum Support Price (MSP) and
Development of Value Chain for MFP
5. Grant-in-Aid to Voluntary Organisation working for the Welfare of Scheduled

Tribes
6. Coaching for Scheduled Tribes
7. Strengthening Education among Scheduled Tribe Girls in Low Literacy Districts
8. Vocational Training in Tribal Areas (NGO component)
9. Girls/Boys Hostels for STs
10. Establishment of Ashram Schools for STs in TSP Area
11. Post Matric Scholarship for ST students
12. Upgradation of Merit
13. Pre-Matric Scholarship for needy ST students studying in Classes IX & X
14. Vocational Training in Tribal Areas
15. Top Class Education for STs
16. National Overseas Scholarship for ST students
17. Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship
18. Development of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups(PTGs)
19. Research information & Mass Education, Tribal Festival and Others
As per the Planning Commission Integrated Action Plan (IAP) scheme for
Selected Tribal and Backward Districts was implemented in 82 districts of the nine States
namely Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Odisha, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal up to 31.03.2013. From 2013-14, the Government
has decided to continue this scheme as ―Additional Central Assistance (ACA) for Left Wing
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Extremism (LWE) affected districts‖ for the remaining years of the Twelfth Five Plan. The
schemes presently cover 88 districts including the 82 IAP districts.
The Ministry of Rural Development is implementing Aajeevika Skills

(Placement Linked Skill Development schemes) called ―Roshani‖ for youth from 27 most
critical Left Wing Extremist (LWE) affected districts.
Further, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways is implementing and

monitoring the Road Requirement Plan (RRP-I) since 2009-10 in 34 LWE affected districts
and envisages development of total length of 5477 km of roads in 8 LWE affected States in
an estimated cost of Rs. 7300.00 crore. Though not specifically aimed of tribals, RRP-I
would lead to the overall development of the area. The implementation of the
schemes/programmes of various development programmes of the Government is a continuing
process with the progress being monitored from time to time.
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Multi-Level/ Decentralized Planning

Multi-level Planning opposed to centralized planning is an exercise where
local institutions are actively involved not only at the implementation level but MLP is a
more integrative effort that seeks to involve all hierarchies of administrative, geographical,
political and regional levels in planning process. It seeks to involve active participation of the
lower hierarchical levels in information generation, data collection, policy suggestion, plan
implementation & monitoring of all developmental activities.
A planning process can be either single-level or multi-level. In the single-level

planning, the formulation of plans and decision making are done at the national level; the
process is centralised and the lower territorial levels come into the picture only at the
implementation stage. On the other hand, in the multi-level planning process, the national
territory is divided into small territorial units, their number depending upon the size of the
country, the administrative, and the geographical and cultural settings.
The concept of multi-level regional planning may be defined as 'planning for a

variety of regions which together form a system and subordinate systems'. In multi-level
planning, the various levels of planning provide bases for higher-level planning. Similarly,
the higher-level regional plans provide the basic frame-work for the lower-level plans. In
such plans, there is direct participation of the people in the planning process. In multi-level
planning, every region/unit constitutes a system and hence, the planning process becomes
more effective.
In India following five stages of multi-level planning have been recognized, these include:
1. National Level-sectored cum inter-state / inter-regional planning.

2. State Level-sectored cum inter-district / inter-regional planning.
3. District/Metropolitan Level-regional planning.
4. Block Level-area planning
5. Panchayat Level-village planning. These also denote five different phases of change
in the policy of planning in the country.
It is pertinent to note that before 1993, the Indian Constitution did not specifically recognise
district as a third stratum of planning.
(1) National Level
At national level erstwhile Planning Commission (now Niti Aayog) is the

nodal agency responsible for the country planning. The Prime Minister is the Chairman of
this Commission. It not only prepares Plans for the country but also coordinates the sectored
development works of different ministries of the central Government, states and union
territories. The functions of the Planning Commission are supervised through the National
Development Council.
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The Planning Commission has been granted constitutional status through 52nd
Amendment of the Constitution. No big plan can be executed without its prior approval by
the Planning Commission. The Commission formulates three types of plans: (a) Perspective
plans for 15-25 years, (b) Five year plans, and (c) Annual plans within the framework of Five
Year Plan.
In real sense of the term the perspective planning is of little significance

except that it helps in the achievement of long-term socio-economic objectives. The Planning
Commission also issues guidelines to the states for perspective planning, monitoring and
evaluation of existing plans, plan formulation, regional or district planning and for plan
coordination.
(2) State level
At state level the mechanism of the planning is almost same of the national
level. The state Planning Board acts like national planning Commission and coordinates the
development plans of different ministries and the districts. It also has the responsibility of the
formulation, implementation and monitoring of state plan. It is in constant touch with
Planning Commission regarding the formulation of plans and allocation of resources. Under
the federal set up of the country states enjoy autonomy in certain state subjects and play
pivotal role in the implementation of planning programmes.
It is at state level that all sorts of economic and social data are available and
development plans could be formulated keeping regional interests and demands in mind.
Hence, there is a need for more rigorous exercise of planning at state-level. Those states
which are conscious of their responsibility and are showing interest in plan formulation and
implementation are displaying better performance in development programmes. Andhra
Pradesh case may be cited as an example. Infect the Center and the States are the two
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principal actors in planning and they should move in unison to achieve the objectives and
priorities laid down in the plans.
(3) District Level
The concept of the district-level planning is based on the principle of local

level planning. It also assumes that success of the planning needs greater mobilization and
utilization of local resources. Below the state, district occupies a pivotal position in planning
because of its location and administrative advantages.
Not only it has sufficient administrative and technical expertise and good
source of data and information to carry out plan programmes but has well-knit system to
involve people's participation and make the gains of planning to reach to the grass-root level.
Since the British days district has an effective system of administration and a store house of
all sorts of information and data. The District Board consists of elected representatives who
can play significant role in the process of planning. Hence, there is a sizeable group of
scholars who consider district as an ideal and viable unit of micro- level planning.
It is also argued that Gram Panchayat and Development Block are too small to
act as the smallest unit of planning. Also there is complete lack of administrative framework
and data collection system at these two levels. Hence, there would be a number of difficulties
in the formulation and execution of plans at village and block levels. Although the
importance of district-level planning was realized during the times of community
development plans but the real breakthrough came with the Third Five Year Plan (1961-66)
in which emphasis was laid on the district -level planning to remove inter-district and intra-
district disparities and make optimum utilization of natural and human resources at district
level.
Infect failure of Community Development Plan also forced our planners to opt
for alternative course for decentralised planning and involve local resources and people in the
planning process. But despite this suggestion of the Planning Commission, the Indian
Constitution did not specifically recognize the district as a third stratum of planning until
1993. However, states like Maharashtra and Gujarat started allocating district- wise funds
from the State's pool to carry on development activities since late '60s. In both these states
District Planning and Development Councils functioned under the chairmanship of a Minister
of State. Presently District Planning is supervised through Zila Parishad and its Chairman. Its
formulation and implementation are looked after by the District Planning Officer (DPO) or
the District Magistrate. In Karnataka and Tamil Nadu district magistrate is the chairman of
the Zila Parishad but in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh he participates in its meetings without any
voting right. In some other states he acts as an adviser.
Despite this elaborate system, the task of preparing a reasonably sound District Plan has not
made much headway in the States due to following constraints:
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(i) Some lurking reluctance on the part of Governments and their sartorial heads to
devolve sufficient authority-(administrative and financial) to the planning bodies
at the district level.
(ii) Lack of effective co-ordination at the district level between various agencies
involved in the planning exercises.
(iii) Institutionalised arrangements, for seeking consultation with various participants
in the planning process, were either not well established or not sufficiently
encouraged and developed.
(iv) Lack of trained staff, both in terms of number as well as quality. The inadequacy
of training was a serious constraint.
(v) Lack of appropriate and reduced methodologies for planning, in tandem with the
capabilities available at the local level. In this context, the non-availability of
trained planning personnel posed a serious problem.
(vi) Planning without a clear and full understanding of the realities of resource
constraints.
(vii) The database presented its own problems. Although a surfeit of data is available at
the local level from numerous sources, yet, appropriate methodologies for
selecting the "critical minimum information" for local planning from this mass of
data and using the same for some simple analysis for decision making, without
going into highly sophisticated techniques, had not emerged,
(viii) Lack of people's participation in Planning.
In general, steps taken by different states during 1959 to 1993 to devolve

powers and functions on Panchayati Raj bodies were isolated, half-hearted and lacked clear
direction. In this context, unless various institutionalized pressure as well as user groups, i.e.
"Poly-centric institutions", are developed, the success of the district planning exercise will
always be at the mercy of people, who may not be interested in it.
Attempts have been made to remove some of these constraints through the
Constitution 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts of 1992 and the Panchayats Act of 1996. Now
the provision has been made for the constitution of a District Planning Committee to
consolidate the plans prepared by the Panchayats and municipalities and prepare an integrated
development plan for the district as a whole.
(4) Block Level
Block is an important unit of micro-level planning. These development blocks

were created to supervise the implementation of development plans under the Community
Development Programme initiated during the First Five Year Plan. Each district was divided
into a number of blocks and each block comprised about 100 villages, with a population of
about 60,000.
The programme visualized mobilization of local resources, participation of the

people in the decision-making and implementation of the development schemes. Hence, a
new unit of planning was created at block-level under the leadership of a block development
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officer and a team of various specialists and village level workers (officers). The general
supervision of blocks was made by the Block Samithis under the chairmanship of the Block
Pramukh and elected representatives. Although the Community Development Programme
failed but block continued to become an important unit of micro-le planning below the
district. The Fifth Five Year Plan (1978-83) opted for area planning with a preferment for
block-level planning for achieving employment objectives and emphasis on rural
development.
The main objective of this planning was to absorb local labour surpluses and
greater involvement of people in the formulation and implementation of development plans.
The relevance of block-level planning is based on the viable areal and population-size, more
of to the regional and local problems, easier identification of target groups, optimum
utilization of regional/local resources, and greater participation of people in plan formulation
and implementation The entire strategy of such planning is based on employment planning,
growth centre planning credit planning. It is an action-oriented planning pertaining to the
development of agriculture, irrigation (mainly minor irrigation), soil conservation, animal
husbandry, pisciculture, forestry, minor processing of agricultural products, small and cottage
industries, creation of local-level infra-structure, and development of social services like
water supply, health, education, shelter, sanitation, local transport, and welfare plans.
The entire process of 1 block-level planning passes through seven stages.

These include: (i) identification phase, (ii) resource inventory phase, (iii) plan formulation
phase, (iv) employment plan phase, (v) areal or layout plan phase, (vi) credit plan phase, and
(vii) integration and implementation phase. The main objectives of such planning include
self-reliance, solution to the problems of unemployment, removal of socio-economic
disparities, creation of skill to promote self-employment and self-reliance, improvement in
productivity and optimum utilization of local resources. Thus the main focus of such planning
is the identification of target group, introduction of development plans to generate
employment, popularization of minimum need programmes and implementation of special
programmes for weaker section of the society.
The report of the Working Group (1978) has emphasised following objectives
of block- level planning. These include : (i) optimum utilization of the development
potentials of the region, (ii) higher proportion of profit to weaker section (small and marginal
farmers, land-less agricultural labourers, and rural artisans), fulfilment of minimum needs,
construction of socio-economic infrastructural bases to achieve aforesaid objectives,
formulation of institutions to check the exploitation of poor people, development of such
infrastructural facilities which could generate assets for the interest of poor and weaker
section of the society, technological upgrading and ski(l creation and removal of total unem-
ployment through public works.
(5) Panchayat-Level
The directive principles of state policy mention the village Panchayat which is
an elected body at village level. Village, here, roughly corresponds to a revenue village (or a
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group of revenue villages). The Panchayati Raj System involves a three-tier structure:
village-level, block-level and district level.
The first tier at village level is commonly known as Gram Panchayat (village
assembly), the second tier at block-level as Panchayat Samiti and the third tier at district-level
as Zila Parishad. According to the provisions of the Panchayats Act 1996 the election to the
village Panchayat is held at an interval of 5 years where there is proportionate seat
reservation for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and not less than one-third seats
reserved for women.
Through the Constitution Amendment Act 1992 the Panchayat (also called
Gram Sabha) has been authorized to look after the preparation and implementation of plans
for economic development and social justice on an illustrative list of 29 subjects. The
respective state has been given discretionary powers to prescribe powers and functions to the
Gram Sabha to act as an institution of self-government.
It has also been advised to constitute a District Planning Committee to

consolidate the plans prepared by the Panchayats and Municipalities and prepare an
integrated development plan for the district as a whole. It has also been directed to constitute
a State Finance Commission (SFC) to review every five years, the financial position of
Panchayats and to make recommendations about the principle governing the distribution of
revenues between the state and the Panchayats, and determination of the grants-in-aid to the
Panchayats from the Consolidated Funds of the State.
The implementation of the plan at the Panchayat-level is the responsibility of

the village development officer (VDO) and the secretary and is supervised by the Gram
Sabha which is headed by the Gram Pradhan. Under the existing provisions, funds for the
Gram Sabha (Village Panchayat) are directly being allocated from the centre to execute rural
development programmes like IRDP, JRY etc.
The Panchayat has also been entrusted with the responsibility for the
promotion of agriculture, rural industries, provision of medical relief, maternity, women and
child welfare, maintaining common grazing grounds, village roads, tanks, wells, sanitation
and execution of other socio-economic programmes. In some places, they are also authorized
to supervise primary education and collect land revenue. Presently, Gram Panchayats are
involved in the identification of beneficiaries in antipoverty programmes.
The new status accorded to the Panchayats by the Constitution has raised high
hopes and expectations among the elected representatives and the rural folk at large. But
owing to the political complexions of the governments in the Indian states, the reluctance of
the state-level political and administrative functionaries to part with power and authority, and
some genuine financial and economic difficulties, the progress in operationalisation has been
somewhat slow and halting.
It has been found that elected representatives of Panchayat Raj Institutions are
largely unaware of the political and economic dimensions of development issues and lack
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planning and managerial skills. This is particularly true of women elected representatives,
who are performing their duties under some severe constraints of different kinds.
Merits and Demerits of Decentralized Planning
Merits
 Under centralized planning, decision making at the centralized level and direction
from a single level is possible. However, there are high costs of obtaining
information, loss of time, difficulties in applying concepts uniformly to all situations,
problems of distortions in transmitting decisions for implementations etc., which
reduce the effectiveness of centralized planning. In other words, from a purely cost-
effective angle of decision making, it is better to have a number of agency levels in a
semi hierarchical fashion, entrusted with decision-making powers. Further, the socio
political compulsions may require that decision-making powers are distributed to
more than one level for the same area. Similarly, decisions can be made at different
levels by the same agency or by different agencies.
 Decentralized planning gives greater freedom to the regional bodies and local
enterprises, as compared to centralized planning.
 Decentralized planning represents, in a way, planning from below and spreads out
authority – political and economic – to lower and horizontal levels. It, thus, promotes
popular participation and recognizes the value of local and sub-regional factors, and
the needs of a pluralistic society.
 Centralized planning is affected by bureaucratic functioning and growth of red-tapism
and, therefore, there is loss in the efficiency of management. Decentralized planning
helps to a large extent in overcoming this problem.
 Centralized planning may result in the centralization of powers. Moreover, individual
initiative and enterprise may be adversely affected by such a system. Decentralized
planning helps to overcome these possibilities.
 In centralized planning, the formulators are often not aware of ground realities, and
often standardized programmes and schemes are prepared, which may not be suitable
at all places. In decentralized planning, the plans are more realistic.
Decentralized planning has its own handicaps. These are:
 Decentralized planning, sometimes, does not reflect national priorities, which is

possible in centralized planning. It is, therefore, not able to strengthen the nationalist
forces or fight divisive forces.
 In decentralized planning, the administrative and political structures at the lower
levels may act as constraints to change and development. This may be through
cornering the benefits of development or by covertly or overtly opposing alterations,
which will empower other groups. The disadvantaged may be too weak to stake their
claims.
 Technical capabilities in planning are often limited at the lower levels. On balance,
however, an optimum mix of centralized and decentralized planning seems desirable.
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For instance, areas of national and international importance like core sector industries,
communication, etc. may need centralized planning, while areas of agriculture, rural
development, water supply, etc. may benefit from decentralized planning. By and
large, areas which are widely dispersed, dissimilar in resources, and have problems
which are locality specific need decentralized planning. Rural development is an area,
which meets this description and needs a decentralized system of planning.
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Regional Planning and Development of Island Territories

The 1382 offshore-identified islands of India hold immense unexploited
potential for fostering growth and achieving cohesive socio-economic development of the
region in particular and also, the nation as a whole. They can significantly contribute to the
GDP by leveraging the gains from promoting infrastructure and tourism on a large
scale. However, care must be taken to safeguard and maintain the position of these islands
as vital strategic assets for national security while keeping their nature and composition as
biodiversity hotspots intact.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI) are a group of picturesque islands,
big and small, inhabited and uninhabited, totalling 572 with islets and rocky cliffs, lying in
the South-Eastern part of the Bay of Bengal. It is under the administration of the Central
government of India and is located at the longitude between 92° and 94° E and latitude
between 6° and 14° N. The Union territory is bestowed with abundant marine resources and
green vegetation. The total area of the island is 8249 sq. km (Andaman: 6408 sq. km and
Nicobar: 1841 sq. km). Only 16.64 sq. km is marked as urban and 8232.36 sq. km area is
rural. Only 38 islands have human habitations.
The areas inhabited by tribal population are notified as tribal reserve area
which constitutes 34 per cent of the forest area. The union territory‘s total population is
around 3.56 lakh. The islands are already facing the problem of encroachment on both forest
as well as revenue land.
A stagnant primary sector combined with declining industrial activity has

severely limited employment opportunities outside government service. Any development
strategy in the UT must take into account its potential and build on its strengths like its
relatively high literacy rate and good health status, an abundant natural resource endowment,
potential for development of tourism, and potential for exports of fishery products, medicinal
plants, spices, and coconut and horticulture products.
Agriculture in ANI is being practised at various places like South Andaman,

Havelock Island, Niel Island, etc. The major agricultural crops are coconut, areca nut,
vegetables like tomatoes, brinjal, bitter gourd, etc. It is proposed to step up the agricultural
growth by focusing the strategy on low input-low volume-high value agriculture.
Foodgrains production should be at subsistence level; production of

vegetables, oilseeds and perishables should be at semi-commercial level; and production of
coconut, areca nut, medicinal plants and orchids should be at commercial level. The
following measures need special attention: high quality seeds, modern production techniques,
irrigation, access to credit, transport and marketing facilities, integrated pest management,
and training of farmers.
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The ecological and environmental conditions do not permit setting up of large-

scale industrial units in ANI. There are shells and wood-based handicraft units. Small Scale
Industrial units are engaged in the production of paints and varnishes, mini flour mills, soft
drinks and beverages, steel furniture and fixtures, readymade garments, etc. Industrial
development in ANI is proposed to focus on fishery, agro and horticulture-based fresh and
processed products, cane and bamboo and related industries and handicrafts units of small
and medium scale.
The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) around the islands encompasses around
0.6 million sq. km which is 30 per cent of the EEZ of India. This provides a great opportunity
for fisheries are exploitation of other marine resources. Aquaculture is promoted in case of
mud crab and lobster fattening, freshwater shrimp farming, and freshwater fish farming.
The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) has initiated active

research programmes to identify potential drugs from marine living resources at Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. Pollution monitoring in the 10 degree channel between Andaman and
Nicobar Islands has been completed. A 15 hectare farm facility, namely Andaman Nicobar
Centre for Ocean Science and Technology (ANCOST), as a field unit of NIOT, has been
established at Port Blair. The NIOT has also formed a self-help group (SHG) titled ‗Aqua
Crab Farming SHG‘ at the Laxmipur village of Diglipur Zilla Parishad.
Tourism is one of the major developmental activities in these islands. The

Andaman tropical evergreen rainforests, the beautiful silver sandy beaches, the serpentine
mangrove-lines creeks, marine life abounding in rare species of plants, animals, corals, etc.,
provide a memorable experience to the tourists.
There is tremendous scope for enjoying nature in the beach resorts which offer
water sports including adventure water sports, trekking island camping, nature trail, scuba
diving, etc. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have been recognised as an eco-friendly
tourist‘s destination.
Lakshadweep Islands:
The Union Territory of Lakshadweep, also known as the Emerald Islands, is

an archipelago consisting of 27 (11 inhabited and 16 uninhabited) coral islands, 12 atolls,
three reefs, and five submerged banks. The Laccadives, Minicoy and Amindivi group of
Islands were renamed as Lakshadweep in 1973. It is a one-district Union territory with an
area of 32 sq. km. The islands lie about 220 to 440 km from the Kerala coast. These islands
are irregularly scattered in the sea. Though the word ‗Lakshadweep‘ roughly translates into
‗one hundred thousand islands‘, Laksha‘ may also mean ‗a sign or mark to aim at‘. As the
islands lie in the trade route between Africa and Malabar in the South-West coast of India,
they served as a landmark for navigation during ancient times.
The islands were formed by the accumulation of coral sand in the form of sand
banks caused by wind, wave and current actions. The Lakshadweep atolls like all the other
coral atolls have two important mineral deposits, viz., phosphate and calcium carbonate. The
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phosphate deposits occur on all the islands and are formed by the bird excreta or guano. The
lagoons contain large quantities of almost pure calcium carbonate sands.
Lakshadweep is one of the largest territories of India. The importance of

Lakshadweep is not restricted to the economy of India but also to its defence due to its
strategic location. However, there are no marked vegetation zones or cultivated fields due to
its parous soil. The most important commercial crop of the island is the coconut tree, which is
grown on all islands except in the Pitti Islands. The Lakshadweep coconuts are the highest oil
content nuts in the world (72 per cent).
Seagrass beds abound in the lagoons with the most common being Thalassia
hemprichiia and Cymodocea isoetifolia, which are grazed on by porpoises and turtles.
Mangroves are found in the southern part of the Minicoy Island. The coral reefs are rich in
fauna and about 300 species of ornamental fishes are found here. Tuna is the most important
commercial fish.
Fishing is a major source of income for the people. The NIOT has successfully
designed and developed Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) around the Lakshadweep Islands
at depths ranging from 500m to 1200m around 12 islands. Lakshadweep has immense
potential for development of marine fisheries and seafood. Minicoy, Agatti, Suheli and Bitra
are important in regard to tuna fishery.
Because of the economic and social backwardness, coupled with the

remoteness of these islands from the mainland, the entire indigenous population is classified
as Scheduled Tribe. The main occupation of the people is fishing and coconut cultivation.
Poultry enterprise is another emerging industry in Lakshadweep.
Coconut fibre extraction and conversion into fibre products is the main
industry in the islands. Industries which do not require huge quantity of water or power and
which do not pollute the lagoons and soil are best suited to these tiny islands. A full-fledged
handicraft production cum training centre is functioning in the area. Annually, ten to fifteen
local youths are trained in the centre for one year. After completion of the training they are
encouraged to set up their own units.
Tourism is developing into an important industry in Lakshadweep. Agatti,

Bangaram, Kalpeni, Kadmat, Kavaratti and Minicoy are important tourist places.
Sagar Island:
The Sagar Island or Gangasagar stretching for 300 sq. km. on the continental
shelf of the Bay of Bengal is situated around 150 km south of Kolkata, West Bengal. The
island is home to the Royal Bengal Tiger which is an endangered species. There are
mangrove swamps, waterways and small rivers. It is a Hindu pilgrimage centre.
For development of the island, the government has planned to link it with the
mainland through construction of a 3.3-km bridge. Planning has taken into account the need
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to preserve the ecosystem of the island and to utilise it in a wise manner for economic
development.
The island has huge potential for development as a tourist site— for its
religious-cultural significance as well as its scenic beauty. There is also potential for
development of fisheries in and around the island area and regional planning for this area has
to adopt special strategies for the purpose.
Government’s Recent Initiatives
Given the strategic location of Andaman & Nicobar (A&N Islands) and the
Lakshadweep Islands and China‘s belligerent expansionist policy in the Indian Ocean Region
(IOR), not only is there a need to develop critical infrastructure and upgrade the military base
in these regions, but also to harness the multiplier effect generated as infrastructure
connectivity strengthens. This in turn, is expected to boost tourism and spruce up economic
activity in the region.
Of late, the Islands have garnered special attention in the wake of the rising
maritime territorial tensions at the international front. India‘s only tri-service command is
established at the A&N Islands at the entrance of the Malacca Strait, the 2.8 km long -world‘s
most congested choke point, and the primary route for Chinese oil supply. However, with the
recent Indo-Japanese initiative to expand civilian infrastructure in its vicinity, China has
started exploring alternative land routes to the Middle East for oil, most notably, through the
China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC).
Emerging Sino-Indian competition in the region can be seen through the

routine deployment of submarines by China, development of underwater surveillance
networks, expansion of Chinese naval bases with the establishment of a military base in
Djibouti and extending the reach of the One Belt One Road (OBOR) mega-initiative as India
joins hands with Japan, Australia and the US in the Malabar Naval Exercises. This sentiment
is mirrored in the recent formation of the ‗Quad‘ coalition group by the same nations. The
Doklam standoff and the recent Chinese policy of forming strategic/ critical commercial
alliances with India‘s neighbouring countries as the United States displays a clear proclivity
towards India, makes fast-paced Island development all the more imperative.
The Islands host an unexplored Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) with clearly
demarcated boundaries that can be capitalized on in numerous ways; the varied ecosystem
can be exploited for its medicinal plants and exotic plant species, sustainable agriculture and
horticulture practices conducive to the agro-climatic conditions of the regions can be
propagated, large-scale hydrocarbon explorations can be undertaken, and alternate renewable
energy resources can be exploited so as to meet the energy needs of the nation.
Additionally, rainwater harvesting can be popularized so as to both conserve

water and also narrow the critical water infrastructure deficit in the region due to scarcity of
resources and inefficient management. Fisheries, the mainstay of the larger populace of these
regions, can be given a thrust so as to develop modernized and sustainable inland fisheries
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and aquaculture ecosystem integrated with the ‗Blue Economy‘ vision. Most importantly, the
Islands can be developed as prime Tourist Hotspots for not just the country, but also
internationally. The pristine beaches, coupled with rich tropical vegetation, can be turned into
a more economical and attractive alternative to conventional destinations such as Bali and
Maldives, thereby creating many forward and backward linkages and help boost the economy
of the regions to a large extent.
The A&N Islands alone account for 30% of India‘s EEZ-revenue. Given their
unrealized potential, bridging the infrastructure gap becomes the next crucial step.
Historically, Ship Building and Ship Repairing have been the high priority areas for
infrastructure initiatives in the islands. However, acknowledging the urgency and potency of
the pending development in these regions, the government in 2016, identified 26 Islands for
promoting and implementing development based on sustainable approach to building a
thriving economy of the project islands. The government has also announced laying of Rs,
1,102 Crore worth of submarine optical fiber cable between Chennai and A&N Islands so as
to increase telephone and internet connectivity in the region by December 2018. Moreover,
considering the unique maritime and territorial bio-diversity of the islands, the government
has identified enhanced connectivity as one of the key priorities.
In 2017, the Island Development Agency (IDA) was established for the
holistic development of the islands, focusing on community-based tourism. Key
Infrastructure projects such as creation of jetties/berthing facilities, Roll-on/Roll-off ships;
Bridges on Andaman Trunk Road; Upgradation of Diglipur Airport; Construction of Minicoy
Airport; Modernization of existing Jetty at Kavarati; Augmentation of Satellite Bandwidth
from 1.118 Gbps to 2.118 Gbps in Andaman & Nicobar; augmentation of helicopter services
for Islanders and tourists etc. are being accorded priority accordingly.
With better communication services, Information Technology based and other

Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) would be promoted in the Islands. Further,
after carrying out systematic study, 18 Projects, both in Andaman & Nicobar and
Lakshadweep, have been identified for implementation, out of which 7 Projects are ready for
launch through Public-Private Partnership.
Moreover, international collaborations can also be banked on for the same.

The 2016 Indo-Japan Joint Statement on Bilateral Cooperation envisioned to develop ―Smart
Islands‖ on the line of the ‗Smart Cities‘ project. Japanese capital and expertise can be both
pioneering as well as beneficial to this endeavor. The development of the Reunion Islands by
France can be a guiding example and also opens up the opportunity for prospective
collaboration with Paris in implementation of such projects. The positive response by OECD
countries in taking on ‗Smart Cities‘ projects further demands similar international
cooperation.
Private Sector Participation
Collaboration is indeed, the need of the hour in this regard as provision of a

robust regulatory environment by the government is needed so as to not encroach upon the
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natural and socio-economic rights of the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PTVG) and
also preserve the ecological balance of the region, while facilitating better connectivity and
maritime security infrastructure. Moreover, the high financial costs entailed in such
investments create a need for private sector involvement, where their operational and
managerial expertise is required so as to optimally deliver on these projects. Similarly,
International best practices can be modified suitably and replicated so as to maximize returns
further.
Although, the need for civil infrastructure development in Island regions is

unquestionable, in the wake of existing geo-strategic position of these islands, upgradation of
defense facilities is equally important. This will constructively channelize the positive
externalities of such assets to enhance the living conditions of entire populace.
However, due attention needs to be paid so as to not disturb the ecological

balance, disrupt local livelihood-activities, and engage all stakeholders in the decision
making process while ensuring that sufficient institutions and mechanisms exist for grievance
redressal, compensation and rehabilitation. The road to development must sail through the
islands.
Island Development Agency (IDA)
IDA was set up in June 2017 following Prime Minister‘s review meeting for
the holistic development of islands. The meetings of the agency are chaired by the Union
Home Minister. Members of IDA include cabinet secretary, the home secretary, secretary
(environment, forests and climate change), secretary (tourism) and secretary (tribal welfare).
NITI Aayog has highlighted the elements of holistic development, including key
infrastructure projects, digital connectivity, green energy, desalination plants, waste
management, promotion of fisheries, and tourism-based projects. With better communication
services, Information Technology based and other Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
(MSME) would be promoted in the Islands. It deals with key Infrastructure projects such as:
 creation of jetties/berthing facilities,

 Roll-on/Roll-off ships;
 Bridges on Andaman Trunk Road;
 Upgradation of Diglipur Airport;
 Construction of Minicoy Airport;
 Modernization of existing Jetty at Kavaratti;
 Augmentation of Satellite Bandwidth from 1.118 Gbps to 2.118 Gbps in Andaman
& Nicobar;
 Augmentation of helicopter services for Islanders and tourists etc.
27
Importance of IDA
Maritime Strategic Importance
 Given the strategic location of Andaman & Nicobar (A&N Islands) and the
Lakshadweep Islands and China‘s assertive expansionist policy in the Indian Ocean
Region (IOR) there is a need to develop critical infrastructure and upgrade the
military base in these regions.
 India‘s only tri-service command is established at the A&N Islands at the entrance of
the Malacca Strait, the 2.8 km long -world‘s most congested choke point, and the
primary route for Chinese oil supply.
 Illicit activities such as Pirates and territorial violations can be curbed if the Islands
such as Lakshadweep are strategically developed.
 Andaman & Nicobar Islands is centre-point for the development of Quad Group‘s
maritime agenda in the Indo-Pacific Region.
Energy Potential
 The Islands host an unexplored Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) with clearly
demarcated boundaries that can be capitalized on in numerous ways.
 The varied ecosystem can be exploited for its medicinal plants and exotic plant
species, sustainable agriculture and horticulture practices conducive to the agro-
climatic conditions of the regions can be propagated.
 The IOR is home to large-scale hydrocarbon which can be explored. Recently India‘s
exclusive rights to explore polymetallic nodules from seabed in Central Indian Ocean
Basin (CIOB) have been extended by five years.
 This can boost India‘s hunt for alternate renewable energy resources so as to meet the
energy needs of the nation.
Economic Importance
 Fisheries, the main occupation of the larger population of these regions, can be given
a thrust so as to develop modernized and sustainable inland fisheries and aquaculture
ecosystem integrated with the ‗Blue Economy‘ vision. Ex. Fishing of Lakshadweep
Tuna.
 Most importantly, the Islands can be developed as prime Tourist Hotspots for not just
the country, but also internationally.
 The pristine beaches, coupled with rich tropical vegetation, can be turned into a more
economical and attractive alternative to conventional destinations such as Bali and
Maldives.
 This helps in creating many forward and backward linkages and boosts the economy
of the regions to a large extent.
Trade and Regional Connectivity
 Indian Ocean Region handles most of the sea trade in the world.
28
 The shallow coastline of mainland India has severe impact on trade capacity.
 Deep water ports can be developed on these Islands thereby paving way for creation
of additional service and refuelling stations.
 Greater connectivity of these islands with South East Asia can be harnessed for
India‘s Act East Policy.
International Cooperation
 The 2016 Indo-Japan Joint Statement on Bilateral Cooperation envisioned to develop

―Smart Islands‖ on the line of the ‗Smart Cities‘ project.
 Japanese capital and expertise can be both pioneering as well as beneficial to this
endeavor.
 The development of the Reunion Islands by France can be a guiding example and also
opens up the opportunity for prospective collaboration with Paris in implementation
of such projects.
 The positive response by OECD countries in taking on ‗Smart Cities‘ projects further
demands similar international cooperation.
Developments of IDA
First Meeting
 In the first meeting, directions were given to identify and execute infrastructure and
connectivity projects together with provisioning of water and electricity.
 10 islands namely Smith, Ross, Aves, Long and Little Andaman in Andaman &
Nicobar and Minicoy, Bangaram, Suheli, Cherium and Tinnakara in Lakshadweep
have been identified for holistic development in the first phase.
Second Meeting
 It reviewed concept development plans and detailed master plans for holistic
development of 9 islands.
 These 9 islands include four in Andaman & Nicobar Islands (Smith, Ross, Long,
Avis) and five in Lakshadweep (Minicoy, Bangaram, Thinnakara, Cheriyam, Suheli).
Third Meeting
 It reviewed the progress made towards the preparation of Development Plans for
identified Islands (four in A&N Islands i.e. Smith, Ross, Long, Avis and five in
Lakshadweep i.e. Minicoy, Bangaram, Thinnakara, Cheriyam, Suheli).
 For these Islands, Final Site Suitability Reports have been prepared, Carrying
Capacity determined and Environmental zoning carried out to ensure sustainable
development.
29
What hinders the development of Island?
Climate Change
 Parali Island of the Lakshadweep got completely submerged due to rising sea
levels,
 The vulnerabilities of these Island groups to Tsunamis is a grave matter of
concern.
 Rise in sea temperature and oceanic acidification further intensify coral bleaching.
Restricted Area Permit
 Recently govt has decided stop the requirement of Restricted Area Permit for
foreigners visiting the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to boost tourism.
 This can pose a threat to the PVTGs such as Jarawas, Ongis and Sentinelese.
Chinese Assertiveness
 China‘s bid of encircling India in the Indian Ocean region by various initiatives is
greatest threat to India.
 Chinese development such as naval base in Djibouti and Hambantota, Sri Lanka pose
a greater threat.
Other issues
 These include delay in the project implementation due to lack of funds.

 Infrastructural development in on the islands are restricted due to logistical limitations
such as lack of developed ports, airports etc. Seamless supply of electricity and
potable water is still not achieved in these regions.
 The remoteness of these hinterlands currently fails to attract private players due to
such problems.
Govt of India initiatives so far after IDA formation
1. Ship Building and Ship Repairing have been the high priority areas for infrastructure
initiatives in the islands.
2. The government has announced laying of Rs, 1,102 Crore worth of submarine optical
fiber cable between Chennai and A&N Islands so as to increase telephone and internet
connectivity in the region by December 2018.
3. Tri-services military command has also been established in the Eastern Naval
Commands at A&N islands. This will help curbing piracy, smuggling and terror
activity.
4. Various exercises such as CORPAT, SIMBEX are held to bolster maritime security.
30
Way Forward: Private Sector Participation
1. The high financial costs in investments create a need for private sector involvement,
where their operational and managerial expertise is required to optimally deliver on
these projects.
2. Similarly, International best practices can be modified suitably and replicated so as to

maximize returns further.
3. Although, the need for civil infrastructure development in Island regions is

unquestionable, in the wake of existing geo-strategic position, upgradation of defense
facilities is equally important.
4. This will constructively channelize the positive externalities of such assets to enhance
the living conditions of entire populace.
5. Due attention needs to be paid so as to not disturb the ecological balance, disrupt local
livelihood-activities, and engage all stakeholders in the decision making process while
ensuring that sufficient institutions and mechanisms exist for grievance redressal,
compensation and rehabilitation.
31

Regional Development and Planning-2

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Regional Development and Planning-2

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Geography with Sandeep Sir

Planning For Backward Area, Desert, Drought Prone, Hill,

Planning For Backward Area Development

Indian planning and area backwardness

Growth with justice is one of the main objectives of planning in India. It

There is no well-accepted definition of backward areas in India. Consequently,

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

There are two broad approaches of operationalising the concept of

Sivaraman, the then Chairman of the National Committee on Development of

Interestingly in the Indian perception, backwardness is associated with rural

Evolution of backward area development programmes in India

The Fourth Plan is considered as a watershed in the context of developing

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Chronology of the backward area programmes

The programmes targeting disadvantaged areas, to counter rising regional

Industrially backward areas were identified in 1969. Areas characterised by

Evidently, a large majority of backward area programmes were identified

In the Sixth Plan (1980-85), no new programme of backward area

The erstwhile Planning Commission of India implements the area programmes

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Desert Development Programme

i. Controlling desertification of the desert areas through integrating and dovetailing

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Involvement of the local people both in planning and execution of the

Drought Prone Areas Programme

Significance of Planning for Drought-Prone Areas:

1. The drought-prone areas form a significant proportion of the country‘s area.

The components of the strategy are as follows:

1. Development and scientific management of resources

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

It is a truly comprehensive programme, because it takes a long-term view and

Some drawbacks of the DPAP are:

Hill Area Development Programme

The main objective of HADP is eco-restoration, eco- development and eco

1. To preserve and conserve sholas and grasslands of Nilgiris.

These areas broadly fall into two categories:

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

Arrangements for providing Central assistance to the Hill Areas Development

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

The hill area programmes place adequate emphasis on exploiting the

The focus is essentially on a package of activities that could be absorbed by

Animal husbandry programmes need to be appraised keeping in view the stock

A perspective plan spelling out the long-term and short-term developments in

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

The concept of eco-development needs to be built into the programmes

To summarise, new approaches will have to be introduced for meeting the

Recognising the uniqueness of the Himalayas and the challenges for

1. Inventory and Revival of Springs in the Himalayas for Water Security

Tribal Area Development Programme

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

In the post-independence phase, the programmes of planned development and

The problems relate:

 The exploitation of the tribal‘s by outside contractors, moneylenders, and politicians;

Since independence, a number of projects were initiated to develop the tribal

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-79) prepared a Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP),

Three criteria were proposed:

(1) Pre-agricultural level of technology;

Following these criteria, 74 tribal groups in 15 states and Union territories

Special Central assistance is also given to the states/UTs to supplement their

The Ministry of Tribal Affairs is implementing Special Area

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir sandeepmahajana@gmail.com

S.No. Name of the scheme

1. Special Central Assistance to Tribal Sub Plan (SCA to TSP)