GPA Unit 3 Hearing Perception Sound 16

General Principles of Acoustics Section 3
3 Hearing and Perception of Sound

This unit discusses human hearing and the subjective attributes of sounds, in
particular the concept of noisiness and the relevant indices.
3.1 Ear and Hearing
3.1.1 Anatomy of the ear
Figure 3.1 A cross-section through the human ear from http://hyperphysics.phy-

astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/ear.html.) At this site there are interactive
diagrams which give more information on the operation of the ear.
Further interactive ear diagrams may be found at
http://www.hearingcenteronline.com/ear2.shtml
Many images of the components of the ear can be seen at
http://www.augie.edu/perry/ear/hearmech.htm
A diagrammatic section of the ear is shown in Figure 3.1. The ear is divided into
three main zones, each with a distinct function.
● the external ear consists of:

the pinna - the fleshy outside portion or ear lobe,
the external meatus - the ear canal; and
the tympanic membrane - the ear drum.
The sound wave is ‘funnelled’ down the canal and the pressure impinges on the
membrane causing it to vibrate. Under conditions of maximum sensitivity, an ear
drum moves a distance approximately the diameter of a hydrogen atom at the
threshold of hearing for a young person with no history of hearing disorders. This is
indeed a small movement; yet we are to consider this later as a relatively large
excursion in relation to other movements in the operating mechanism of the ear.
● the middle ear is the second component and is an air-filled cavity beyond the
tympanic membrane containing the ossicles which are the three smallest bones in
the body. The bones are called the malleus, incus and stapes and are commonly
Notes based on the General Principles of Acoustics Module of the Institute of Acoustics, UK
known as the hammer, the anvil and the stirrup because of their shapes. These
three bones form a conductive chain from the tympanic membrane to the oval
window, which is a membrane at the barrier to the internal ear. The ossicles act as a
mechanical system which transforms the relatively large displacement but small force
provided by the movement of the ear drum to a small displacement but involving a
larger force at the oval window.
Also in the middle ear are the semi-circular canals, which contain sensors that
provide information about the spacial attitude of the head in three dimensions.
● the inner ear is the third component consisting of the cochlea which is a small
tube, coiled like a snail, and set within the protection of the hardest bone in the body
after the teeth. The tube of the cochlear is broadly separated into two main parts, the
upper or scala vestibuli and the lower or scala tympani. These inter-connect through
a gap at the apical end which is called the helicotrema. The two main parts are
separated and supported by a complex structure, the most important part of which is
the basilar membrane. This is a cellophane-like strip about 35mm long, 2mm wide at
the near, or basal, end enlarging to about 3mm wide at the apical end. The oval
window, connected to the ossicles, forms the end of the upper part and a membrane
called the round window seals the lower part.
The cochlea is filled with liquid and the movement of the oval window causes an
increase in hydrostatic pressure in the upper part which effectively pushes the basilar
membrane down into the lower space. The liquid in the cochlear is effectively
incompressible so the movement of the basilar membrane is accommodated by a
contrary movement of the round window. The basilar membrane includes ranks of
hair like structures which move with the fluid and the membrane. Embedded at the
base of these hairs are nerve cells which detect the movement and generate
electrical signals for transmission to the brain.
As an acoustic medium, the cochlear is very small so, even though the fluid has a
velocity of sound exceeding that of air, the pressure increase caused by the inward
movement of the oval window (and vice-versa) takes effect more or less
instantaneously along the length of the cochlear. It is wrong, therefore, to picture the
pressure wave generated at the rear of the window propagating slowly along the
cochlear.
The acoustic propagation path The path between the exterior of the ear and the
inner ear contains a complex variety of interactive elements all of which function in a
frequency selective or tuned manner. Hi-Fi engineers apply much ingenuity to
achieving a linear relationship between the input and output of their various devices
and any departure from linearity in their terms generates distortion. The ear/brain
system is a totally non-linear system; so there are no straight line graphs to be seen.
The outcome is that the hearing response has maximum sensitivity around 3 and
5 kHz.
3.1.2 More on the ear's components

The ear canal acts as a form of tuned musical instrument giving of the order of 20 dB
increase in pressure at the tympanic membrane over the open field values at certain
GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.2

frequencies. The tensor tympani muscles are attached to the ossicles which
themselves communicate with the ear drum. Any tendencies of the ear drum to
exceed certain excursion limits results in a tightening of these muscles to Iimit further
movement and thus protect the chain of the hearing process. Such tensioning of
these muscles is accompanied by a sensation of pain. This sensation of pain must
be taken as evidence of conditions likely to lead to hearing loss if exposure to
excessive noise is identified as a likely cause. But if the pain does not seem to result
from exposure to high noise, it could result from otitis media, a condition that can
cause the ear drum to be sucked in towards the middle ear because of a reduction of
pressure in the middle ear.
As noted earlier, the middle ear is air-filled, and the Eustachian Tube connects it to
the nasal cavity. Swallowing causes the Eustachian Tube to open for a moment,
thus allowing air to move in or out as required to equalize pressure across the
tympanic membrane. Sometimes the pressure differential may be too great for
voluntary opening of the tube to solve the problem, and this can lead to either
temporary or permanent damage to the inner ear.
3.2 Aspects of hearing
3.2.1 Pitch discrimination

We can readily discern the change in pitch generated by varying the frequency of a
pure tone test signal by a few Hz. In the earlier times of Helmholtz, it was reasonable
to suppose that the basilar membrane, incorporating the hair and nerve cells, acts as
an array of individual transducers along its length rather in the manner of a host of
tuned microphones each responding to a certain pure tone component. It was
imagined that each tuned element was connected via biological wires to the brain,
and that the brain assembled a total sensation by summing the signals along each of
the wires! The basis for this lay in imagining that the pieces of the basilar membrane
acted like the wires of a piano: if a tuning fork is struck and applied to the frame of
the piano, the strings that are, by virtue of their mass and tension, closest in natural
frequency to the tuning fork vibrate in a form of sympathetic or resonant oscillation.
This theory was supported to a degree by the knowledge that accidental damage to
the apical end of the cochlear resulted in a loss of ability to hear low notes, and the
reverse is true in respect of damage towards the basal end.
In reality this theory is flawed, because the relevant membranes reside in a liquid
which damps out the possibility of a sharply-tuned response based on mechanical
properties. In fact, pitch discrimination results from sophisticated signal processing
activity in a chain of events involving the ear, the inner ear, the voltage pulses that
are transmitted to the brain and the brain itself.
Like most systems, the hearing mechanism, with its combination of mechanical and
electrical parts, is more efficient over a frequency range. This range, around 1 to 4
kHz, is also the frequency range that the bulk of information content in speech, i.e.
consonants, lies within. Any loss of acuity in this band carries a heavy penalty in
terms of loss of intelligibility of speech.

3.2.2 Binaural localisation

This simply refers to using our two ears to localise sources and is an interesting
example of how the ear/brain system weighs two pieces of information and comes up
with the most probable solution. Sounds arriving at a listener in a more or less freely
propagating situation (ie not in a reverberation chamber) produce a difference in
levels at the two ears on account of the acoustical shadow of the head.
But this effect is diffraction governed (see later) and is only available at high
frequencies, say 500 Hz upwards. This means that at lower frequencies, the sound
tends to bend round the head making the level difference at the further ear very
small. The difference in time of arrival of the sound at each ear from sources away
from the axial vertical plane through the listener is potentially useful for localisation,
but it can be confusing at high frequencies because of ambiguities. These arise
because, for example, while a pure tone from a signal source on the right could be
one cycle ahead in the right ear compared with the left; the same signal source
placed symmetrically on the left would produce an identical effect.
There is also a phase difference in the sound arriving at the two ears. This phase
difference may be accentuated by the shape of the pinna which acts as a wave
guide.
The ear/brain system clearly makes use of sophisticated signal analysis including all
aspects of the signal and is surprisingly accurate in determining from which direction
sounds are emanating. It is relevant to mention here that the use of hearing
protectors, while necessary to reduce the risk of damage from high levels of noise,
can interfere with this processing and reduce the ability to detect the direction that a
sound is coming from.
3.2.3 Combination tones and harmonics

A system displaying non-linearity (for example an over-driven loudspeaker with the
cone hitting the endstops) with a single pure tone of frequency, f, as input will output
an array of distortion components at twice, three times, four times etc, the original
frequency. These are collectively known as harmonic distortion components, and Hi-
Fi designers go to great length to minimise this effect. Moreover, if two pure tones of
frequencies f1 and f2 are presented to the input, the output comprises signal
components at the two original frequencies, various harmonics of these frequencies
and some combination frequencies at for example, f1 + f2, f1 - f2, 2f1 + f2, f1 + 2f2, etc.
It is pertinent to ask if similar frequency series are generated by our exceedingly non-
linear ear/brain system. The answer is “yes”, and they can be detected electronically
within the voltage signals being passed to the brain. They can also be made audible
by various tricks, for example using different tones presented at the same time. Yet,
however many distortion products are generated en route to the brain, we still derive
the sensation that we are listening to a pure tone or a musical instrument and so
forth.

3.2.4 The ability to detect signals in noise

The ability of a listener to understand their name, spoken at a distance in a noisy
room at perhaps 20 dB below the general background level, is an awesome
illustration of the ear's signal processing system. There are only two inputs to this
system via the ear drums on each side of the head, yet they give rise to a remarkable
ability to decode and extract signals from noise, much in advance of the
achievements of present-day electronic techniques. In relation to environmental
noise this ability may be a disadvantage, as a resident may hear and become
annoyed by a sound well below the overall noise level. This may lead to difficulties
when there is a need to measure this noise in order to assess if the complaint is
justified, and to develop appropriate noise reduction procedures.
3.2.5 Masking
This concerns the ability of one sound to inhibit our ability to hear another. Masking
is more effective if both sounds have a similar frequency, although it is also found
that a low frequency sound is more effective in masking a high frequency sound than
the reverse.
Masking sound can be used to advantage. For example, a general background

sound can be introduced into a large open office to mask some of the noise from
other workers in the area. Masking noise, like background music, can also be used
to provide some privacy between a consulting room and an adjacent waiting room. It
is important in these applications to ensure that the masking noise itself does not
cause annoyance or disturbance.
3.2.6 Critical bands

This refers to an interesting set of similar phenomena, and gives some insight into
ear/brain processes. For example, a listener might be presented with a narrow band
of noise centred, say, on 1 kHz and the bandwidth of the noise increased whilst
maintaining its total energy constant. Initially it is found that the sensation of
loudness remains constant but, when the bandwidth reaches a certain value, the
loudness appears to progressively increase. This bandwidth, called the ‘critical
bandwidth’, is found to lie close to one third of an octave.
3.2.7 Harmonic restoration

A superficial discussion of hearing sometimes states that the pitch of a musical signal
is determined by the lowest component frequency, the “fundamental”, and that the
harmonic mix determines the quality of the sound. That this is incorrect is clear when
we consider a small Ioudspeaker in a radio or a set of ear buds for an MP3 player.
Theory shows that such small radiating surfaces are unable to generate significant
powers of low frequency sound without impossibly large excursions of the surface,
which explains the noticeably large movements of a woofer cone when generating
low frequency sounds. In the case under consideration, since small loudspeakers
cannot produce much energy at low frequencies, the lower-harmonics will be absent
from the reproduced musical sound. Yet this is not observed, so this simple theory is
invalid. What appears to happen is that the ear discerns pitch on the basis of the
separation between harmonics, often equal to the non-reproduced fundamental, so

the sensation of pitch does not change (although sound quality from small
loudspeakers is not usually great) It is as though the ear/brain system uses prior
experience to replace the missing harmonics.
3.2.8 Speech intelligibility and noise

The bulk of information content in speech lies between 250 Hz and 5 kHz, whilst the
dynamic range in any frequency band is about 30dB. There are several approaches
to quantifying speech intelligibility and its converse, namely speech privacy, and
these are treated in a later Section. A simple measure for field use (rather than
research work) is Speech Interference Level, SIL, the arithmetic average of noise
levels in the 500 Hz, 1 kHz and 2 kHz octave bands. For most noise spectra, the SIL
is 9 units less than the A-weighted sound pressure level, to an accuracy of about 4
units. A guide to voice levels needed for face-to-face communication across a
distance of r metres can be gauged from:
VLA ≥ 1.33 (SIL + 20 lg r) – 36
where VLA, the A-weighted voice level, is taken to be:
57 dB for normal voice;
65 dB for raised voice;
74 dB for a very loud voice; and
82 dB for a shout.
3.3 Equal loudness contours and frequency weighting filters
3.3.1 Equal loudness contours

Loudness is a measure of the subjective impression of the magnitude of a sound. It
is related to the physical characteristics of the noise such as its intensity and
frequency. To experimentally determine the frequency response for human hearing,
listeners were asked to judge between the loudness of a reference tone at 1000 Hz
set at a constant level, and a test tone at another frequency. The level of the test
tone was adjusted until the subject judged that the two tones were equally loud.
These “equal loudness” contours show that human hearing is most sensitive to
frequencies in the 1 to 4 kHz range, with a reduced response at the low and very
high frequency ends of the spectrum. Thus, for example, a pure tone of say 60 dB at
I00 Hz will appear to be less loud than a tone of 60 dB at I000 Hz.
Much research has been undertaken to develop equal loudness contours (see the
report by Suzuki et al at http://www.nedo.go.jp/itd/grant-e/report/00pdf/is-01e.pdf ). One set of
contours were presented in ISO 226–1987 and reproduced in AS 3657.1-1989. In
2003 a revised version of ISO 226 provided a new set of contours (the Australian
Standard has been withdrawn and not replaced, so the current ISO standard is
applicable). Figure 3.2 shows a comparison of the shapes of these two sets of
contours. Each of the curves is drawn so as to pass through the intersection of the 1
kHz line and a particular sound pressure level; the numerical value of which is used
to identify the curve. The associated word ‘phon’ is explained in Section 3.7 below.

Consider the solid line passing through 40 dB at 1 kHz. Moving to the lower
frequencies, it is seen that in order to maintain a constant sensation of loudness, the
strength of the signal must increase considerably, by nearly 100 dB at 20 Hz.
Conversely, signal strength must be reduced in the 2 to 4 kHz region, although it
must be increased at higher frequencies.
Figure 3.2 Equal loudness contours based on ISO226 1987 and 2003 versions as
shown in http://www.aist.go.jp/aist_e/latest_research/2003/20031114/20031114.html
3.3.2 A, C and Z-frequency weighting filters

The shape of the equal loudness contours shown in Figure 3.2 indicate that the
human frequency response to sound varies with the sound level, with contours at
higher noise levels being “flatter” than at lower levels. Once the equal loudness
curves have been determined, it is possible to use this information to include a
frequency filter, similar to a graphic equaliser, into a measurement chain so that
measured sound pressure levels better relate to subjective reaction to the loudness
of the sounds. To allow for the change in shape of the equal loudness contours,
three different frequency weighting filters were originally developed. These were
called ‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’-weighting filters, for use with low, medium and high sound
levels.
Over time the A-weighted sound pressure level has, despite some limitations,
become universally accepted as the simplest way of measuring a noise which
correlates with human response. Sound pressure level values measured with the A
weighting should be strictly referred to as “A-weighted sound pressure level” in dB.
In practice it is common to refer to such sound pressure levels in dBA or dB(A).
Similarly, the descriptors such as ‘equivalent continuous A-weighted sound pressure

level, LAeq,T” should have the units dB, but it is common to see references to LAeq with
units of dBA.
The almost flat C-weighting has been used in occupational noise assessments as
part of a process for the selection of suitable hearing protectors, and is still used for
the assessment of short duration impulse noise.
The Z, or Zero, weighting was introduced in IEC standards in 2002 to replace the
former Linear Filter. Specifications for Z-weighting define a linear or flat response
from 10 Hz to 20 kHz, i.e. it covers the range of interest for most noise assessments.
Specifications for these filters, in terms of 1/3 octave bands, are included in
Australian Standards, AS IEC 61672.1—2004 for sound level meters. Table 3.1 lists
the weightings for octave bands, and they are shown graphically in Figure 3.3.
Table 3.1 Octave band values for the A, C and Z-frequency weightings
Frequency, Hz A-weighting C-weighting Z-weighting
16 – 56.7 – 8.5
31.5 – 39.4 – 3.0
63 – 26.2 – 0.8
125 – 16.1 – 0.2
250 – 8.6 – 0.0 Flat
500 – 3.2 – 0.0 from10Hz
1000 0 0 to 20kHz
2000 + 1.2 – 0.2
4000 + 1.0 – 0.8
8000 – 1.1 – 3.0
16000 – 6.6 – 8.5
10
Z weighting
0
Sound pressure level, dB..
-10
C weighting
A weighting
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
16 31.5 62.5 125 250 500 1K 2k 4K 8K 16K
Frequency, Hz

Figure 3.3 Graphical representations of the A, C and Z weighting filters.

Example:
The octave band spectrum, measured with a linear or Z filter is given in the table.
a) Determine the A-weighted spectrum for this sound and present it graphically.
b) Determine the overall A-weighted sound level for this source using the tabular
technique for the addition of decibels as discussed in Section 1 of this module.
Freq, Hz 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K

LZp, dB 82 75 64 60 69 58 56 45
A – 26 – 16 –9 –3 0 +1 +1 -1
weighting
LAp, dB 56 59 55 57 69 59 57 44
100
90
80
Z weighted
sound level
70
60
A weighted
50 sound level
40
62.5 125 250 500 1K 2k 4K 8K
Frequency, Hz
To use the table for the addition of decibels to determine the overall A-weighted
sound pressure level for the A-weighted octave band spectra, first rearrange the
individual sound levels in numerical ascending order and then ‘add’ them in
sequence.
LAp,dB 56 59 55 57 69 59 57 44
Rearranging 44 55 56 57 57 59 59 69
Difference >10 1 2 4 3 5 4
Add to
higher 0 3 2 1 2 1 1
Cumulative
total 55 59 61 62 64 65 70
So the overall A-weighted sound pressure level for this sound is 70 dB
You can check this using the formula for the addition of decibels

Exercise:
The octave band spectrum, measured with a linear or Z filter is given in the table.
a) Determine the A-weighted spectrum for this sound and present it graphically.
b) Using the techniques for the addition of decibels determine the overall A-weighted
sound level for this source.
Freq, Hz 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K

LZp,dB 45 56 58 69 60 64 75 82
100
90
The overall A-weighted sound pressure

80
level for this sound is 82 dB
Z weighted
sound level
70
Note the effect on the overall A-weighted
sound level when for this spectrum the
60
numbers are just the reverse of the
spectrum in the example above.
A weighted
50
sound level
40
62.5 125 250 500 1K 2k 4K 8K
Frequency, Hz
3.4 Audiometry
3.4.1 Types of audiometry

Air-conduction audiometry is the most commonly used form of measuring acuity of
hearing. Earphones are placed on the subject and tone bursts over a series of
frequencies are presented together with a means of indicating whether the subject
can hear the signal at that particular level. Traditionally, audiometric data is
presented as illustrated in Figure 3.4. The zero line, called audiometric zero, is the
threshold of hearing. If, for the subject to hear the sound, the sound level has to be
increased above the value on this threshold curve then the subject is said to have a
raised threshold. This of course indicates a reduction in acuity and is evidence of
some deafness. The magnitude of the threshold shift shows the extent of that
deafness. On the audiogram chart, the change in threshold is plotted below the
audiometric zero.
Bone conduction audiometry involves the vibration of the skull by direct contact
with an oscillating device which bypasses the external and middle ear and so tests
the performance of the inner ear.
Otoacoustic emissions are sounds measured in the external ear canal that are a
reflection of the working cochlea. Probe and click stimuli are utilized in the

performance of this test. Otoacoustic emission is used in the screening, as well as

the diagnosis, of hearing impairment in neonates and young children.
a b
Figure 3.4 Examples of air conduction audiograms; (a) showing normal hearing
and (b) showing hearing loss (from http://www-
personal.umich.edu/~lusk/sallynihl.html).
3.4.2 Techniques for audiometry

Manual audiometry requires a trained person to operate the instrument. The
subject indicates by pressing a button when he can hear the pitch presented at the
level at which it is being presented. Some uncertainty is involved in respect of the
judgement of the technician or other person operating the instrument, and this is
particularly so when the subject shows uncertainty about a particular response,
raising the question of whether a second attempt should be offered.
Automatic or Bekesy audiometry involves the automatic presentation of tone bursts

with an array of frequencies and levels. If the subject indicates audibility, the level
presented is ramped to a lower value until the subject's response reverses. At this
point, the level is ramped upwards and the process continued throughout the
frequency range. Level changes are automatically coupled to a pen recorder which
traces the subject's response automatically. There is clearly a benefit in speed, but
more importantly in consistency of operations, since variations in judgement of the
operator are taken out of the equation. There is another benefit of this form of
audiometry for patients exhibiting what is called loudness recruitment. Such a
person is unable to hear quiet sounds but can hear intense sounds very loudly,
perhaps reacting with startle when a door slams. Recruitment is evidenced by the
pen making very small excursions between the 'can't hear' and 'can hear' positions.
This information is often of value to a medical practitioner looking to make a
diagnosis of the origin of the hearing loss.
3.4.3 Errors in audiometry

Proper training is required for those undertaking audiometry. The types of errors that
can occur in the audiograms if sufficient care is not taken include:
• Set and reset errors for headphones. Repeatedly placing them on a subject
and making measurements will normally produce some scatter in the results.

• Excessive noise level in the booth. The noise level should be more than 10
decibels below the hearing threshold when the attenuation of the cups of the
ear pieces has been allowed for.
• Lack of care in the case of profound unilateral deafness. Intracranial
attenuation is about 40 dB, which means that a person with virtually no
residual hearing in one ear may still perceive a high-level tone being
presented by virtue of the level of hearing available in the other ear. In this
case a band of masking noise is applied to the contralateral ear to overcome
the problem.
• Calibration drift. Performance checks need to be made regularly to ensure
there are no calibration problems with the equipment.
• Malingering. This usually shows up as a lack of consistency in responses.
The training for audiometrists includes techniques to deal with the problem.
3.5 Types and sources of hearing loss

There are many forms of hearing loss and a few of the more common types are
discussed below. You can listen to examples of hearing loss at a number of sites on
the web including http://www.utdallas.edu/~thib/rehabinfo/tohl.htm, and
http://www.hearingcenteronline.com/sound.shtml#Moderate.
Conductive hearing loss This is the result of defects in the conductive parts of the
hearing mechanism. Examples are beads or wax in the ear canal, otosclerosis or
bony deposits at the junction of ossicles, perforated or partially immobilised ear drum,
etc. The effect is generally like turning down the amplification of a radio, so that the
attenuation is more or less the same across the frequency range. As the inner ear is
still functioning, there is some hope of medical relief where hearing loss arises in this
way via hearing aid amplification or implants.
Figure 3.5 Example of an

audiogram showing conductive
hearing loss (from
http://www.gpnotebook.co.uk/simplepage
.cfm?ID=845873165). Note that the
loss is more or less even across
the frequency range.
Sensorineural hearing loss This is associated with damage to the inner ear,
especially the mechanisms implicated in generating and interpreting the nerve
impulses. The effect therefore varies across the frequency spectrum rather like

adjusting the individual levels on a graphic equaliser. The main causes include
presbycusis, excessive noise exposure, medications and other factors which affect
nerves.
• Presbycusis is also referred to as ‘old age hearing loss’ There is variation in
the incidence of this condition: some people reach the age of 70 with virtually
zero hearing loss, whilst others of the same age may be profoundly deaf. The
reduction in acuity commences at the higher frequencies and progresses
gradually with age down through the frequency spectrum. This process is
irreversible and hearing aids can only provide partial relief.

audiogram showing sensorineural
hearing loss from presbycusis
(from
.cfm?ID=845873165).
Note that the loss increases with
frequency.
• Noise-induced hearing loss An audiogram taken before and after spending

only a short time in a high-noise environment will probably show a threshold
shift, with the greatest difference being in the 4 to 6 kHz region. This is a
Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS) and, after a period in relative quiet, a repeat
audiogram should show a return to normal. Repeated exposure to excess
noise leads to more episodes of temporary threshold shift, each of which takes
a little longer to return to normal. Further exposure to the noise may lead to a
Permanent Threshold Shift (PTS).

audiogram showing noise-induced
sensorineural hearing loss from
excessive noise exposure (from
.cfm?ID=845873165).
Note that the loss usually shows
as a notch in the audiogram
around 4 kHz.

3.6 Estimation of risk of noise-induced hearing loss

Noise-induced hearing loss is a major workplace injury in Australia. The effect of
noise on hearing varies throughout the population, with some people showing
minimal hearing loss whilst colleagues exposed to substantially the same noise
experience substantial hearing loss. The part of the Basilar Membrane carrying the
damaged hair cells resides primarily in the first quarter turn of the cochlear at the
basal end, and the frequency bands most affected by occupational noise lie in the 3
to 6 kHz range, generally independent of the frequency spectrum of the noise.
These are where the ear is most sensitive to sound, and where the mechanism of the
middle ear is most efficient at transmitting. It is important to note that the consonants
in speech, which are essential for understanding speech, have most of their energy
in this frequency range. So a person with noise-induced hearing loss may be aware
that someone is talking to them as they hear the low-frequency vowels, but may not
be able to understand what is being said.
The onset of occupational hearing loss, except for single identifiable events, is
insidious. That is to say, the first 20 dB of hearing loss is probably not noticeable;
anyone with a head cold likely experiences that amount of hearing loss without giving
it much thought. However, every dB thereafter becomes progressively more
problematical for the person affected. On the question of estimating the likelihood of
significant hearing loss over a particular number of years, the best available data
suggests that the total amount of A-weighted sound energy received by the subject
over time T, i.e. .the LAeq,T, offers a reasonable statistical basis. In terms of very
large short duration noise, such as from explosives firing, the estimation of the risk of
hearing damage is based on the peak noise level using the C-weighting.
The method for estimating and limiting the likelihood of occupational hearing loss is
described in AS/NZS 1269 parts 0 to 4, 2005. It is based on the determination of the
A-weighted equivalent energy level over the 8 hour day, LAeq,8h. The criteria in the
national standard NOHSC:1007 (2004) and adopted in all of the States, requires that
a worker should not be exposed to a LAeq,8h in excess of 85 dB. It is important to
realise that at this level, after a working life of 40 years, an estimated 74% of an
exposed otologically normal male population would, on average, suffer a six percent
hearing loss (AS/NZS 1269 part 4). Such a loss would be sufficient to lodge a
hearing compensation claim in NSW.
Nevertheless, is unusual for a worker to be exposed to the same noise level for an
entire 8 hour day. The procedure for determination of the LAeq,8h for any worker
requires the measurement of both the LAeq,T and time duration T for each task during
the day. It is not accurate to just add up the levels in dB because the logarithmic
nature of the dB scale. Thus the overall LAeq,8h is determined by determining the
noise p2 for each task, multiplying by the duration of exposure, adding up the
components, dividing by 8 to allow for the standardisation to the 8 hour day, and
conversion back to dB for the LAeq,8h (refer back to Section 2 of the notes for more
details about the determination of LAeq,8h ).
The useful ‘3dB rule’ (easily proved by going through the mathematics) is that each
increase in noise level by 3dB, reduces the allowable period by half. Thus an A-
weighted noise exposure of 85 dB for 8 hours is equivalent to a noise exposure of 88
dB for 4 hours, 91 dB for 2 hours, etc. For example, it is clear that only a short time

in a night club, where amplified music is commonly in the range 95 to 105 dB, can
lead to a noise exposure exceeding an LAeq,8h of 85 dB.
3.7 Assessment of loudness of sound

In order to achieve an acceptable acoustic environment, it is essential to consider the
subjective characteristics of sounds. The most prominent such aspect of sound is its
loudness. Another subjective attribute is that of pitch, which is related to the
frequency of a sound as discussed above. A third subjective attribute is the quality of
a sound, basically what it “sounds like”. It is the sum of a set of individual sensations
such as these that allow identification of the source of a sound. For example, there is
no problem in identifying a sound as originating from a singing kettle, and the whole
of the ear/brain system is involved in this identification process. The frequency
spectrum of a sound provides the major part of the necessary information, but that is
not the entire story. The ear/brain system applies a high weighting to information
gleaned from resonances and it also prioritises information from transient signals.
For example, a clarinet note that has had its starting transient changed electronically
loses almost all of its identity, even though it still carries the frequency spectrum of
the note proper.
There has been much research on developing appropriate measures to describe the
loudness of sounds. The A-weighting is commonly used in defining acceptable noise
levels and criteria. There are situations where the quality of the sound is important in
assessing the loudness and the following are methods developed to consider this
aspect.
3.7.1 Loudness Level (Phons) and Loudness (Sones)

While in practice the use of the A weighting is adequate to represent the loudness of
sounds, there are particular situations when it is necessary to be more precise and
this is when the Phon and Sone scales are used. You may well find reference to
them in studies of sound in auditoria or in studies of perceptions of sounds.
Referring back to Figure 3.1, every point on the equal loudness curve marked 40 is
said to have a Loudness Level of 40 Phons; likewise for all the other curves, such as
60 Phons, 70 Phons, 80 Phons, and so forth. Note the use of the term “Loudness
Level” and the fact that from previous arguments the word “level” can only be
properly used when applied to either a decibel or a decibel-based quantity. Because
the Phon value has been derived from the sound pressure level of an equally loud
pure tone of 1 kHz it is clear that the Phon scale is indeed logarithmically-based and
so qualifies in this regard.
The question arises as to the relationship between the Phon value and the loudness
that listeners would perceive, and for this purpose we introduce the idea of
Loudness, which is an attempt to give a number on a relative scale to the common
sensation called loudness. If a jury of people is asked to compare the loudness of a
pure tone on the 40 Phon curve with a pure tone on the 50 Phon curve, with some
practice, it has been shown that they would eventually conclude that the 50 Phon

curve is more or less twice as loud as the 40 Phon curve. Therefore, each curve
represents a doubling or halving of loudness with respect to its neighbour. This is
commonly used for guidance when discussing the effect of different sound pressure
levels, namely that a change in sound pressure level of 10 dB is perceived as a
doubling or halving of the loudness of the sound.
The Sone scale was introduced to assist with the description of the loudness of
sounds. Any sound on the 40 Phon Loudness Level curve is rated as having 1 unit
of loudness and such a sound is assigned a Loudness of 1 Sone. In that case, and
using the 10 dB rule, it follows that by definition 50 Phons would have a Loudness of
2 Sones, 60 Phons = 4 Sones and so forth. Likewise going downwards a 30 Phon
sound would be half a Sone and possibly a 20 Phon sound, which is a very quiet
sound, would be rated as a quarter of a Sone. This simple numerical relationship
between Phon and Sone values may be expressed, in both directions, by the
following equations:
Sones = 2 (Phons – 40) / 10
Phons = 40 + 33 lg(Sones)
3.7.2 Loudness determined by subjective means

The implication of the above can be usefully translated into a hypothetical, but totally
impracticable, experimental method for determining the Loudness of a sound other
than a pure tone. It is included here solely for the principle it illustrates.
The experiment uses an electronic pure tone generator capable of producing a signal
at 1 kHz and at varying loudness, a loudspeaker and a sound level meter. The level
of the 1 kHz reference tone coming out of the loudspeaker is adjusted until it is
judged by the experimenter to be just as loud as the complex sound. This is not an
easy task, particularly if the sound in question has a strong quality such as a
motorcycle exhaust, but nevertheless one that can be accomplished with practice. If
the measured level of the reference tone is, say, 50 dB then it follows that the
complex sound also has a loudness level of 50 Phons and a loudness of 2 Sones. In
stating such a result it is necessary to add that it has been obtained by subjective
means.
3.7.3 Loudness calculated from spectral data

If the above experiment is illustrative but impracticable, what better can be done …
for example is there a better way of assessing loudness than the A-weighting scale?
Figure 3.8 shows a set of totally empirical curves for a loudness index (that is to say,
they are based on experimentation rather than theory).
The curves are those of partial loudness index, and they are used as follows. Take a
frequency spectrum, such as listed in the earlier example in Section3.3.2, and add it
to the chart in Figure 3.8. The partial loudness index, Si (sometimes called partial
loudness) can be read from the intersection of each point on the frequency spectrum
with the lines of loudness index, interpolating between lines as necessary. The
calculation method then requires identifying the highest value of partial loudness
index; Simax, which is given a weighting (or multiplier) of unity whilst all the others are
multiplied by 0.3 and the whole lot summed. In this particular example, the total

loudness, Stot, of the sound as computed from the spectral data is 19.5 Sones, and
the equivalent calculated Loudness Level is 83 Phons. To make it clear that this
calculation method has been used, these are referred to as SonesOD and PhonsOD
where the OD refers to octave band data in a diffuse sound field.
Figure 3.8 Chart for determination of loudness index (from AS 3657.2—1996 based
on ISO 532:1975, Acoustics—Expression of the subjective magnitude of sound
or noise, Part 2:Method for calculating Loudness Level)
The implication of this calculation method is that somehow or other, in generating the
sensation of loudness of a complex sound, the ear/brain system appears to derive

most of the sensation from only one octave band. Which band this is in a particular
instance depends, of course, on the spectrum in relation to the loudness index
curves. Is this cumbersome approach, which can of course be done with a software
program, any better than a directly read A-weighted sound pressure level? It is
generally taken that the perceived error with the OD approach is approximately half
of that when using the A-weighting. Although modern instrumentation and software
would facilitate the computation of Phons from spectral data, there is as yet no strong
body of opinion for replacing A-weighting in the majority of noise criteria.
Example: Determination of loudness of the following sound in Sones and Phons

Freq, Hz 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K
LZp, dB 82 75 64 60 69 58 56 45
Partial
loudness 8.0 6.5 4.2 4.0 6.5 5.0 5.5 3.4
index, Si
Si,max= 8 hence Stot = Si,max + 0.3((ΣSi) – Si,max) = 8 + 0.3(35.1) = 18.5 Sones
From the nomogram at the right of Figure 3.8, the calculated loudness level value
corresponding to 18.5 Sones is 82 Phons.
Refer back to Section 3.3.2 to compare this with the overall A-weighted sound
pressure level determined for this same spectrum.
Exercise: Determination of the loudness of a sound in Sones and Phons

Frequency 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K
LZp, dB 45 56 58 69 60 64 75 82
Partial loudness
index, Si
Si,max= .......... hence Stot = Si,max + 0.3((ΣSi) – Si,max) = ………........ = ……… Sones
From the nomogram the loudness level is …90 Phons

Refer back to the exercise in Section 3.3.2 to compare this with the overall A-
weighted sound pressure level determined for this same spectrum.
3.8 Noisiness, the Noy and PNdB
3.8.1 The Noy

When dealing with broad-band sounds, that is to say the sounds of everyday life, the
rating of sounds in terms of their respective noisiness instead of their loudness has a
lot to commend it. This was certainly found to be the case with the early studies of
aircraft noise; it seems that if people are asked to rate the noisiness of a sound a
more consistent analysis results. In the public perception noisiness is understood to

carry connotations not only of loudness but also of intrusiveness, that is to say those
aspects of the quality of a sound.
Following the way ideas about loudness were developed, it seems logical therefore
to introduce a standard of noisiness and, since this is about noise rather than pure
tones, it makes sense to take a band of noise centred on 1 kHz, 1 octave wide and of
measured sound pressure level 40 dB. Such a sound would be assigned a value of
one unit of noisiness, the general idea being that any sound judged twice as noisy is
assigned a value of 2 units. The unit is given the name of the Noy.
As was discussed for loudness, it may be possible but not practicable, to develop a
procedure for the subjective assessment of noisiness. In this case a variable output
generator producing noise of one octave centred on 1 kHz; could be adjusted to a
state of equal noisiness with the sound in question. A sound level meter would then
measure the level and the Noy value read from the graph.
3.8.2 Noisiness from spectral data

We can follow the parallel with loudness even further by recalling the procedure for
calculating Loudness and Loudness Level from the spectrum of a sound. A similar
empirical approach is applied by taking the spectrum of a sound and determining its
overall noisiness by referring the spectrum to another set of empirical curves.
Figure 3.9 shows a set of partial noisiness (or partial noisiness index) curves.
Because the same 10 dB rule is generally found to apply here, an octave band of
noise at a sound pressure level of 50 dB has a noisiness of 2 Noys. The calculation
procedure is very similar to that for the calculation of Sones. The spectral data is
plotted onto the chart of Figure 3.9 and the partial noisiness for each octave band
determined. The total noisiness of the sound is obtained by identifying the band with
the highest partial noisiness and giving that a weighting factor or multiplier of unity; all
the others are given a weighting of 0.3 and summed, and the total noisiness
determined.
The shape of the partial loudness index curves is not too different from that of the
general shape of the equal loudness contours, except that in the higher frequency
region around 2 to 6 kHz, the curves descend quite dramatically. The implication of
this is that any signal in those bands contributes more to the sensation of noisiness
than would be expected on the basis of their loudness alone.
3.8.3 Perceived Noisiness Level, LPN, expressed as a number of PNdB

If we further follow the structure of the Section on loudness, it is logical to explore the
possibility of a logarithmically-based equivalent to the noisiness expressed in Noys.
The result is the introduction of the Perceived Noisiness Level, LPN, a quantity that
will be familiar to those dealing with noise around an airport as it is commonly used in
the process for the development of aircraft noise contours. This quantity is derived
from the total Noy value by use of the nomogram on the graph or by using equations
that look familiar from the discussion of loudness:
Noys = 2 (LPN – 40) / 10
LPN = 40 + 33 lg(Noy)

Figure 3.9 Example of determination of noisiness of a sound in Noys and Perceived

Noisiness Level, PNdB (from ISO recommendation R507, 1966 as
shown in http://www.sfu.ca/sonic-studio/handbook/Perceived_Noise_
Level.htm.
Exercise: Determination of the noisiness of a sound in Noys and Perceived

Noisiness Level, PNdB
Frequency 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K
LZp, dB 82 75 64 60 69 58 56 45
Partial
7.5 7.5 5 4 7.5 6.5 6.5 2
noisiness Ni
Ni,max= 7.5 hence Ntot = Ni,max + 0.3((ΣNi)-Ni,max) = 7.5 + 0.3(39) = 19 Noys
From the nomogram at the right of Figure 3.9, the Perceived Noisiness Level
corresponding to 19 Noys is 82 PNdB.
Refer back to Section 3.3.2 to compare this with the overall the overall A-weighted
sound pressure level determined for this same spectrum.

Exercise: Determination of the noisiness of a sound in Noys and Perceived

Noisiness Level, PNdB
Frequency 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K
LZp, dB 45 56 58 69 60 64 75 82
Partial noisiness
Ni
Ni,max= ….. so Ntot = Ni,max +0.3((ΣNi) – Ni,max) = ….. + 0.3(……) = …… Noys

From the nomogram the Perceived Noisiness Level is …95 PNdB
Refer back to Section 3.3.2 to compare this with the overall A-weighted sound
pressure level determined for this same spectrum.
3.8.4 Measurement of noisiness

The possibility for the measurement of the LPN, sometimes referred to as PNdB, as a
value read directly from a meter is of interest. Just as the shape of the A-weighting
filter was developed from the shaper of the equal loudness curves, so has a D-
weighting filter been developed from the shape of the Noy curves. Some sound level
meters have this frequency weighting filter and an estimate of the PNdB value can be
obtained by adding a correction term to the D-weighted sound pressure level in
accordance with the nature of the source. Thus it has been found that:
LPN =D-weighted Sound Pressure Level + 7 for piston-engined planes
LPN =D-weighted Sound Pressure Level + 13 for jet-engined planes
Sometimes one sees:
LPN = D-weighted Sound Pressure Level + 13 (±3) for aircraft generally
3.8.5 Noise and Number Index, NNI

An index that has been used for some time is the Noise and Number Index (NNI)
which seeks to compare the respective contributions of the noisiness of aircraft
overflights and the total number of overflights to the annoyance caused. For this,the
determinations of LPN is made during each overflight, so that the logarithmic average
of the maximum LPN values can be found. This is given the symbol LPN,max, The NNI
value is obtained from:
NNI = LPN,max + 15 lgN – 80
where N is the number of aircraft overflights during the daytime period.
Notice that the leverage implied in the multiplier of 15 is that the same increase in
NNI (and hence of annoyance) can arise from either a two-fold increase in the
number of aircraft, N, or an increase of 4.5 dB in LPN,max The 80 value is introduced
because annoyance is held to be zero when the sum of the first two terms does not
exceed 80. Other refinements of the basic idea include the introduction of
allowances for the duration of overflights and for the presence .of tonal components
in the aircraft noise. This leads to metrics such as Effective Perceived Noise Level.

3.8.6 Noise Pollution Level, LNP

An example of the result of the intensive quest a few decades ago for indices that
match subjective reactions in selected circumstances is the Noise Pollution Level,
LNP. The aim of this quantity is to combine an expression of the general level with a
term that represents the variability of levels. The relationships used were:
LNP = LAeq + 2.56σ
LNP = LAeq + (LA10 – LA90)
The value of these approximations in practice depends upon the nature of the level
distribution and the Noise Pollution Level has not had extensive application.
3.9 Acceptable Noise levels inside buildings
3.9.1 A-weighted sound pressure levels

Within any building there are a range of spaces with different noise levels generated
by the use of that space. For example the foyer area is only used for transit or
general chatting when people are only a short distance apart. By contrast, in a
boardroom it is essential that everyone present hears everything that is said, even if
they are meters apart at different ends of the room. A level of background noise in
the building foyer or coffee area with A-weighted sound pressure level of around 50
dB would not unduly interfere with the use of that space, whilst such a level would be
quite intrusive in the boardroom.
Table 3.2 Acceptable noise levels for some office spaces, from AS/NZS 2107, 2000

AS/NZS 2107, 2000 provides guidance on acceptable noise levels for an extensive
range of areas of occupancy within buildings, and an extract for some spaces within
office buildings is listed in Table 3.2. These levels have been developed with a view
to ensuring that the noise from outside the space does not interfere with the activity
within the space. The level applies when the space is ready for occupancy but not
actually occupied. The main sources of noise from outside the space are therefore
building services such as air conditioning, lifts, etc; plant and equipment in other
rooms of the building; noise coming through the façade; etc.
The majority of the acceptable levels in AS/NZS 2107, 2000 are given in terms of
LAeq. For some spaces where appropriate background noise levels and, in particular,
low frequency noise are critical, the acceptable levels are given in terms of the
descriptors discussed below.
3.9.2 NC and NR curves

100
90 Noise Criterion Curves
80
70
60 60
Figure 3.10 NC or Noise
50 Criterion Curves.
50
(based on data from
40 http://www.ceramiassociates.
40
com/pdf/nc-chart.pdf )
30
30
20
20
10
0
31.5 62.5 125 250 500 1K 2k 4K 8K
Frequency, Hz
Figures 3.10 and 3.11 show two empirically-based sets of graphs, known as Noise
Criteria (or NC) and Noise Rating (or NR) curves, often used for rating steady noise
within buildings such as air conditioning noise; the NC curves originated in the US,
whilst the NR curves originated in Europe. Note that the NR curves are defined
down to 31.5 Hz, whilst the NC curves stop at 63 Hz, and the importance of this
seemingly small difference will become clear later.
The method of use of the two sets of curves is similar. The spectrum of the steady
noise in octave bands is plotted on the chart. The NC or NR value for that spectrum
is the curve with the lowest number (interpolating if necessary) that is everywhere

just above the plotted spectrum. For example, the following spectrum has been
plotted on both Figures 3.10 and 3.11.
Frequency 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K

Lp,dB 62 55 44 40 49 38 36 25
100
Noise Rating Curves

80
Sound pressure level, dB
60
60
Figure 3.11 NR or Noise Rating
50 Curve
40 (based on data from
40 http://www.ceramiassociates.com/pdf/nc-
chart.pdf)
30
20
20
10
0
0
-20
31.5 62.5 125 250 500 1K 2k 4K 8K
Frequency, Hz
On Figure 3.10 it can be seen that, whilst Lp has a maximum of 62dB at 63Hz, its
value at 1kHz is the largest with respect to the NC curves, where it lies between
NC45 and NC50. Interpolating between these two curves, the NC value for this
spectrum is estimated as NC48. Similarly for the spectrum plotted on Figure 3.11,
the NR value for the same spectrum is estimated as NR49.
Specifications for acoustic comfort in buildings subject to noise from mechanical

ventilation systems are sometimes set in terms of NC or NR values. Such an
approach often has an advantage over just dealing with the A-weighted sound
pressure level. For example, it is clear that using the NC or NR curves can identify
the most important octave band that needs attenuating if a specified NC or NR value
is to be achieved.
Example: NC40 has been specified as the limiting value in a contract for designing
and installing an air conditioning system in a building, and the measured spectrum is
that shown on Figure 3.10. This represents NC48, ie 8 dB above the specification.
For what frequency should the maximum effort be applied for noise control?

Although the highest noise level is in the 63Hz frequency band, it is the level of 49 dB
at 1kHz that defines the NC as 48. If the level in this frequency band was reduced by
8 dB to 41 dB, then NC40 would be achieved.
Exercise: Determine the NC and NR for the following spectrum:

Frequency 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K
Lp,dB 65 62 58 49 40 38 42 40
NC=……………….. NR=………………
NR45 has been set down as the limiting value in a contract for designing and
installing an air conditioning system in this building.
For what frequency, or frequencies, should the maximum effort be applied for noise
control to meet this specification?
……………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………….
3.9.3 Comparison of A-weighting, NC and NR values

Many acceptability criteria are specified in terms of A-weighted sound pressure levels
but other references and specifications may be stated in terms of NR or NC value.
As long as the comparison is only being made for air conditioning noise, it has been
found that there is a sufficient commonality of the spectra, and it is commonly
assumed that the NC or NR value is some 6 or 7 units less than the A-weighted
value. However this should be applied with caution, as much greater differences can
be found for different frequency spectra from other noise sources.
The question arises about which of these approaches is the best for assessing a
sound (PNdB can be put on one side because it is used primarily for aircraft noise
purposes). The general answer is that it is a matter primarily of the spectrum
involved. For general noise the A-weighted sound pressure level provides a good
basis for assessment. For noise with substantial energy in the low frequencies, such
as mechanical plant noise, NC and NR are generally preferred. They also have the
benefit of indicating the frequency bands that need attenuation to achieve a lower NC
or NR value.
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General Principles of Acoustics Section 3

3 Hearing and Perception of Sound

3.1 Ear and Hearing

3.1.1 Anatomy of the ear

Figure 3.1 A cross-section through the human ear from http://hyperphysics.phy-

● the external ear consists of:

3.1.2 More on the ear's components

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.2

3.2 Aspects of hearing

3.2.1 Pitch discrimination

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.3

3.2.2 Binaural localisation

3.2.3 Combination tones and harmonics

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.4

3.2.4 The ability to detect signals in noise

Masking sound can be used to advantage. For example, a general background

3.2.6 Critical bands

3.2.7 Harmonic restoration

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.5

3.2.8 Speech intelligibility and noise

3.3 Equal loudness contours and frequency weighting filters

3.3.1 Equal loudness contours

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.6

3.3.2 A, C and Z-frequency weighting filters

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.7

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.8

Figure 3.3 Graphical representations of the A, C and Z weighting filters.

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.9

Freq, Hz 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.10

Freq, Hz 63 125 250 500 1K 2K 4K 8K

The overall A-weighted sound pressure

3.4.1 Types of audiometry

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.11

performance of this test. Otoacoustic emission is used in the screening, as well as

3.4.2 Techniques for audiometry

Automatic or Bekesy audiometry involves the automatic presentation of tone bursts

3.4.3 Errors in audiometry

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.12

3.5 Types and sources of hearing loss

Figure 3.5 Example of an

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.13

Figure 3.6 Example of an

• Noise-induced hearing loss An audiogram taken before and after spending

Figure 3.7 Example of an

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.14

3.6 Estimation of risk of noise-induced hearing loss

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.15

3.7 Assessment of loudness of sound

3.7.1 Loudness Level (Phons) and Loudness (Sones)

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.16

3.7.2 Loudness determined by subjective means

3.7.3 Loudness calculated from spectral data

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.17

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.18

Example: Determination of loudness of the following sound in Sones and Phons

Si,max= 8 hence Stot = Si,max + 0.3((ΣSi) – Si,max) = 8 + 0.3(35.1) = 18.5 Sones

Exercise: Determination of the loudness of a sound in Sones and Phons

From the nomogram the loudness level is …90 Phons

3.8 Noisiness, the Noy and PNdB

3.8.1 The Noy

GPA Dec 2016 Section 3 page 3.19

3.8.2 Noisiness from spectral data

3.8.3 Perceived Noisiness Level, LPN, expressed as a number of PNdB