AGR 101 Fundamentals of Agronomy

Fundamentals of Agronomy and Agricultural Heritage
AGR 101
FUNDAMENTALS OF AGRONOMY AND AGRICULTURAL
HERITAGE (1+1)
PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

B.Sc. (Agriculture)
Department of Agronomy
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
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Department of Agronomy
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

B.Sc. (Agriculture)
AGR 101
(1+1)
I Semester 2022
Certified that this is the bonafide record of work done by

_________________________________________ID.No:__________________
in AGR 101 Principles of Agronomy and Agricultural Heritage (1+1) course of
2022-23 academic year.
External examiner Course Teacher
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INDEX
Name of the student: I.D. No:
Ex. Date of Remarks

Date Title Sign
No. submission
1 Observing wetland farming system and
identification of crops
2 Observing garden land and dry land farming
systems and identification of crops
3 Identification of seeds, manures, fertilizers,
green manures and green leaf manures
4 Identification of tools and implements
5 Acquiring skill in handling primary and secondary
tillage implements
6 Practicing different methods of land configuration
for raising nursery for wet land crops
7 Practicing different methods of land configuration
for raising nursery for garden land crops
8 Practicing different methods of seed treatments,
methods of sowing and seeding implements
9 Working out seed rate and practicing thinning,
gap filling and intercultural operations
10 Working out manure and fertilizer requirements of
crops
11 Practicing methods of application: manures and
fertilizers and green manures
12 Identification of weeds, weeding practices and
handling of weeding tools and implements
13 Observing various irrigation methods
14 Practicing harvesting operations in major field
crops
15 Participation in on-going field operations during
on campus /off campus visit
16 Visit to nearby Agricultural Research Station
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EX NO. 1. OBSERVING WETLAND FARMING SYSTEMS AND IDENTIFICATION

Date: OF CROPS
______________________________________________________________________
Farm
A piece of land with specific boundaries devoted to agriculture and allied
enterprises (livestock, fishery, sericulture etc.) under a common management.
Classification of Agricultural farms
a) Based on source of irrigation
i) Rainfed ii) Irrigated
b) Based on water availability
i) Wetland ii) Dryland
c) Based on elevation
i) Upland ii) Lowland
Farming
It is the process of cultivating crops, rearing livestock, fish etc.
Rainfed farming
Crop production which purely depends on rainfall.
Irrigated farming
Crop production which depends on artificial application of water to meet the crop
water requirement.
Wet farming
It is the farming where crop production is successful when macro and micro
pores of the soil are filled with moisture. eg. Rice
Dry farming
It is the farming or crop production where soil moisture availability is limited.
Lowland farming
It is the farming where the fields are surrounded by bunds in order to retain
water. eg. Rice
Upland farming
The fields are unbunded where the water is allowed to move freely. eg. Tea,
coffee plantation in the hills.
Cropping scheme
The plan according to which, crops are raised on individual plots of a farm with
an objective of getting maximum returns from each crop without impairing fertility of the
soil.
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Cropping pattern
Yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow on a given area.
(Usually over a larger area like district, delta region and state).
Cropping systems
The cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources,
other farm enterprises and available technology, which determine their make up.
Monoculture
The repetitive cultivation of a single crop on the same land in a year or over
years.
Crop rotation
The cultivation of different crops on the same piece of land in a pre-planned
succession.
Farming system
Farming system is decision making unit comprising the farm household, cropping
and livestock systems that transform land, capital (external inputs) and labour (including
genetic resources and knowledge into useful products that can be consumed or sold.
Wetlands
Irrigated lowland is called as wetland.
Characteristics of Wetlands
 Plenty / copious availability of water
 Soils are normally clay based
 Fields are usually leveled
 Low erosion hazards
 Moderate to high inherent soil fertility
 Poor physical properties
 Have drainage problem
Special operations in Wetlands
(1) Puddling
Ploughing the field under submerged (water stagnated) condition to create fine
puddle is known as puddling. By puddling, an impervious layer is formed which helps in
stagnation of water.
(2) Digging
Opening the soil with tools like crowbar, spade etc. with a specific purpose like
removal of problematic weeds such as Cynodon or preparation of fields of small size,
where ploughing is not possible.
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(3) Trimming
Trimming refers to sectioning and shaping of field bunds by using spade.
(4) Plastering
This refers to covering the bunds with mud paste in order to prevent weed growth
and to plug rodent holes. Plastering of field bunds indirectly helps to eliminate
harbouring of pests and diseases carrying organisms on the weed flora. This also
prevents seepage of water through bunds.
(5) Leveling
Field should have even surface for uniform germination of seeds, efficient use of
fertilizers and irrigation water. Tools like leveling board, buck-scraper etc. and machinery
like Laser land leveler are used to achieve uniform leveling.
Rice based cropping systems
The cropping system adopted under lowland condition can be grouped into
1. All rice crop based cropping sequence
1. Rice-Rice
2. Rice-Rice-Rice
2. Rice-Irrigated dryland crop sequence
1. Rice-Cotton
2. Maize / Pulse-Rice-Groundnut
3. Green manure-Rice-pulse
Possible Farming systems in Wetland ecosystem
 Crop + Fish + Poultry
 Crop + Fish + Duck
 Crop + Fish + Pigeon
 Crop + Fish + Poultry/pigeon + mushroom
 Crop + Fish + Mushroom
 Crop + Fish + Pig + Mushroom
 Crop + Fish + Goat
IDENTIFICATION OF CROPS
Field crops can be classified into
1. Cereals 7. Forage crops
2. Millets (major and minor) 8. Plantation crops
3. Pulses 9. Narcotics
4. Oilseeds 10. Spices and condiments
5. Fibre crops 11. Green manure crops
6. Sugar and tuber crops
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Crops grown in Wetlands

Crops such as rice, sugarcane, jute, cotton, coconut, green gram, black gram,
cowpea, green manure crops (Daincha, Sunnhemp, Manila agathi) etc. can be grown.
I. CEREALS
I Common Name Botanical name

1. Rice : Oryza sativa
II. PULSES (Rice Fallow)
1 Black gram (Urd bean/ Ulundhu) : Vigna mungo

2 Green gram (Mung bean/ Pasipayaru) : Vigna radiata
III. OIL SEEDS (Rice fallow)
1 Sesame (Gingelly) / Til : Sesamum indicum

V. FIBRE CROPS
1 Cotton (Rice fallow) : G . hirsutum (American cotton)

2 Jute : Corchorous olitorious
3 Sunnhemp : Crotalaria juncea
VI. SUGAR CROPS
1 Sugarcane : Saccharum officinarum

VII. GREEN MANURES
1 Dhaincha : Sesbania aculeate

2 Manila agathi : Sesbania rostrata
3 Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea
Exercise
1. List out and write the identification characters of the crops observed in the
wetland farm you have visited
2. List out five rice based farming system
3. Briefly explain the field operations you have observed during the field visit.
4. Write down the important crops that are grown in wetlands of Tamil Nadu with
their botanical names
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EX. NO. 2. OBSERVING GARDEN LAND AND DRYLAND FARMING SYSTEMS

Date: AND IDENTIFICATION OF CROPS
______________________________________________________________________
Garden Lands
Irrigated drylands are otherwise called as garden lands in Tamil Nadu.
Source of irrigation
There are five irrigation sources commonly used for raising crops under
gardenland conditions. They are:
1. Openwell 2. Borewell 3. Tank 4. Pond 5. Canal
Soil type
Main soil types in irrigated areas are Red soil, Black soil and Loamy soil.
Characteristics of garden lands
 Soils are mainly well drained
 Soils ranging from sandy loam to clay loam in texture
 Need based irrigation is practiced to crops
 Intensive cultivation is prevailed
 Choice of crops are wide
 Well developed soil physical properties
 Soil fertility is moderate
 Fields are leveled with desired slope
 Size of the field is small to medium
 Existence of well developed irrigation structures
 Moisture level in the micro pores is controlled
Field operations
Ploughing
Opening of soil with implements to create a favourable soil condition for
germination of seeds and growth of crops. It may be done under wet, dry and garden
land conditions.
Beds and channels
This refers to a uniformly levelled seed bed of square or rectangular shape,
provided with bunds on all four sides with irrigation channels at convenient intervals.
Mostly close spaced crops like groundnut, finger millet, pulses etc. are raised in beds
and channels.
Ridges and furrows
Formation of bunds parallel to each other in the field at appropriate intervals for
sowing / planting of wide spaced crops like cotton, sugarcane, etc. Bunds are referred
as ridges and the depressions in between bunds are referred as furrows.
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Breaking clods
When the field is opened with heavy ploughs or when the soil is of heavy type,
bigger size of soil aggregates are formed. Bigger size of soil aggregates above the
normal which may not suits for sowing are called clods. Such clods are broken using
spade, hand hoe, wooden tools, rotovator etc. to bring the soil to fine tilth.
. Crop components
Mixed cropping
Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land, without
any definite row arrangement.
Intercropping
Refers to growing of two or more crops, simultaneously on the same piece of
land, with base crop necessarily in distinct row arrangement. The recommended
optimum base crop population is suitably combined with appropriate additional plant
density of the associated crop and there is crop intensification in both time and space
dimension
Integrated Farming systems
 Crop + Dairy + Biogas
 Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Sericulture
 Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Fishery
 Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Homestead garden + Sylvipasture
 Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Homestead garden + Silviculture + Apiculture.
 Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Spawn production + Mushroom
 Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Spawn production + Mushroom + Silviculture
Drylands
Rainfed dry uplands or lowlands are broadly classified as drylands.
Characteristics of drylands
 Soils ranged from sandy to clay loam in texture
 Drainage is not a problem
 Fully depend on rainfall and moisture from soil pool
 Partly leveled to undulating terrains
 Soil fertility is low to medium
 Fields are larger in size
 Moisture level in the micropores is uncontrolled.
Field operations and Crop component are similar to Gardenland
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Dry land based integrated farming system

 Crop + Goat
 Crop + Goat + Agroforestry
 Crop + Goat + Agroforestry + Horticulture
 Crop + Goat + Agroforestry + Horticulture + Farm pond
 Crop + Goat + Buffalo + Agroforestry + Farm pond
 Crop + Goat + Pigeon + Buffalo + Agroforestry + Farm pond
 Crop + Goat + Rabbit
Crops grown under gardenland and drylands

I. CEREALS
Common Name Botanical name

1. Wheat : Triticum aestivum
2. Maize Zea mays
3 Barley : Hordeum vulgare
4 Rye : Secale cereale
5 Oats : Avena sativa
II . MILLETS
a. Major millets
1 Sorghum (Cholam/Jowar) : Sorghum bicolor
2 Pearl millet (Bajra/ Cumbu) : Pennisetum glaucum
3 Finger millet (Ragi) : Eleusine corocana
b. Minor millets
1 Foxtail millet (Tenai/Italian millet) : Setaria italica
2 Little millet (Samai) : Panicum miliare
3 Barnyard millet (Kudiraivali) : Echinochloa frumentacea
4 Kodo millet (Varagu) : Paspalum scrobiculatum
5 Proso (common) millet (Panivaragu) : Panicum miliaceum
III. PULSES
1 Redgram (Pigeon pea/Arhar/Thuvarai) : Cajanus cajan
2 Black gram (Urd bean/ Ulundhu) : Vigna mungo
3 Green gram (Mung bean/ Pasipayaru) : Vigna radiate
4 Bengal gram (Chick pea/Konda kadalai) : Cicer arietinum
5 Cowpea (Karamani/ Thattaipayaru) : Vigna unguiculata
6 Horse gram (Kollu) : Macrotyloma uniflorum
7 Soybean (Soyamochai) : Glycine max
8 Garden bean : Lablab purpureus
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IV. OIL SEEDS

1 Groundnut (Peanut) : Arachis hypogaea
2 Sesame (Gingelly) / Til : Sesamum indicum
3 Sunflower : Helianthus annuus
4 Castor (Amanakku) : Ricinus communis
5 Indian mustard : Brassica juncea
6 Black mustard : Brassica niger
7 White mustard : Brassica alba
8 Indian rape : Brassica campestris
9 Linseed : Linum usitatisimum
10 Niger (Pey ellu) : Guizotia Abyssinia
11 Safflower (Kusumba) : Carthamus tinctorious
V. FIBRE CROPS
1 Cotton : Gossipium arboreum (Karunganni)
: G. herbaceum (Upland cotton)
: G. barbadens (Sea-island cotton)
: G . hirsutum (American cotton)
2 Deccan hemp : Hibiscus cannabinus
Mesta : Hibiscus sabdariffa
3 Sunnhemp : Crotalaria juncea
4 Sisal / Agave : Agave sisalana
VI. SUGAR CROPS
1 Sugarcane : Saccharum officinarum
VII. FORAGE CROPS

A. Grasses
1 Para grass : Brachiaria mutica
2 Guinea grass : Panicum maximium
3 Rhodes grass : Chloris Guyana
4 Bermuda grass : Cynodon dactylon
5 Sudan grass : Sorghum sudanensis
6 Australian grass : Panicum antidotale
7 Bajra (Cumbu) napier hybrid : Pennisetum typhoides
b. Legume fodder
1 Lucerne (Alfalfa/Kudhirai masal) : Medicago sativa
2 Desmanthus (Velimasal) : Desmanthus virgatus
3 Stylo (Muyal masal) : Stylosanthus hamata/ S.scabra
6 Siratro Macroptilium atropurpureum
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VIII. NARCOTICS
1 Tobacco : Nicotiana tabacum
IX. GREEN MANURES
1 Dhaincha : Sesbania aculeate
2 Manila agathi : Sesbania rostrata
3 Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea
4 Tephrosia / Kolinji : Tephrosia purpurea
5 Indigofera / Avuri : Indigofera tinctoria
6 Pillipesara : Phaseolus trilobus
Exercise
1. List out the crops observed in garden lands and drylands.
2. Suggest a suitable cropping system for the land you visited
3. Write the soil type of your area and cropping system followed.
4. Draw any one of the dry land based farming system model with brief description
5. Write briefly about the field operations you have observed during the class.
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EX. NO. 3. IDENTIFICATION OF SEEDS, MANURES, FERTILIZERS, GREEN

Date: MANURES AND GREEN LEAF MANURES
______________________________________________________________________
A. SEED
The ripened ovule with all essential parts namely embryo, endosperm and seed
coat, which produce normal plant.
A seed is an embryo plant consisting of a rudimentary stem and root together
with a supply of food sufficient to establish a plant, all encased in a protective coat.
Sexual or vegetative propagated planting materials which are used for seeding
and planting and are as such should be free from pests and diseases and should give a
good crop stand by good seeding.
a. Cereals and millets
Rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats, sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, samai,
varagu, panivaragu, kudiraivali, Tenai.
b. Pulses
Redgram, black gram, greengram, cowpea, horse gram, bengal gram, lab lab,
soybean
c. Oil seeds
Groundnut, sesame, castor, sunflower, safflower.
d. Fibre
Cotton, jute, agave
e. Narcotics
Tobacco
B. IDENTIFICATION OF MANURES
Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used as source of plant nutrients.
The manures are grouped into bulky organic manures and concentrated organic
manures based on concentration of the nutrients.
a) Bulky organic manure
FYM, compost, night soil, vermicompost, sheep/goat manure, poultry manure.
b) Concentrated organic manure
Concentrated organic manures have higher nutrient content than bulky organic
manure. They are oil cakes, blood meal, fish manure etc.
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C. FERTILIZERS
The term fertilizer refers to commercially manufactured inorganic materials either
dry or liquid, which are added to the soil to supply essential plant nutrients. There are
different types of fertilizers available.
1. Nitrogenous 2. Phosphatic 3. Potassic fertilizers
Nitrogenous fertilizers
Urea, Ammonium sulphate, Ammonium chloride, Ammonium nitrate, Mono-
Ammonium Phosphate (MAP), Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP), CAN (Calcium
ammonium nitrate), Calcium nitrate, Potassium nitrate, Sodium nitrate
Phosphatic fertilizers
Single super phosphate, rock phosphate, Mono-Ammonium Phosphate (MAP),
Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP),
Potassic fertilizers
Muriate of potash, Sulphate of potash
D. GREEN MANURING AND GREEN LEAF MANURING
Green, un-decomposed plant material used as manure is called green manuring.
It is obtained in two ways;
(1) Growing green manure crops in the field itself and incorporated into the soil
of the same field is called green manuring.
(2) Collecting green leaves from different sources and are applied to the field as
manure is known as green leaf manuring.
Some of the prominent green manures are sunnhemp, manila agathi, daincha,
pillipesara, kolinji. Few of plant materials such as glyricidia, pungam, neem, gulmohar,
vadanarayanan, subabul, peltophorum from which leaf materials are collected are
termed as green leaf manures.
Exercise
1. Observe the seeds and write their distinguishing characters you have seen.
2. List out the manures and fertilizers you have observed in the class and write their
prominent characters.
3. List out some of the complex fertilizers.
4. Specify the differentiating features of various green manure and green leaf manures
you have observed.
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EX. NO.4. IDENTIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS

Date:
______________________________________________________________________
Tools
Tools are those used manually for farm operations which are small and handy.
Eg. Hand hoe, Spade and Sickle.
Implements
Those equipments comparatively bigger in size, used for various farm operations
requiring either animal power or machine (tractor) power. Eg. Country plough, Disc
plough etc.
Machinery
Larger and heavy implements that require mechanical power with several parts
each having a definite function. Eg. Paddy harvester, Thresher, etc.
Tools, implements and machinery
S. No Name Use
Tools
1. Spade Digging, trimming bunds, guiding irrigation water
2. Hand hoe Hoeing and weeding in dry and garden lands
3. Sickle Harvesting, Trimming or weeding bunds
4. Digging fork Digging soil, harvesting underground tubers
5. Star type weeder
Weeding in row crop in dry and garden lands
6. Peg type weeder
7. Japanese rotary weeder
Weeding in line planted paddy
8. Cono weeder
Implements : Bullock drawn – Tillage implements
1. Wooden plough or country Ploughing, inter-cultivation
plough
2. Melur plough Ploughing in wetlands
3. Mould board or Iron plough Ploughing in dry and garden lands
4. Levelling board Levelling paddy fields
5. Bund former Forming beds and channels
6. Ridge plough Forming ridges and furrows
7. Puddler Puddling in wetlands
8. Green manure tramplers Incorporation of green manures
9. Guntaka (Peg / Blade type) Inter-cultivation
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Implements - Power tillers operated

1. Plough Ploughing
2. Ridger Forming ridges and furrows
3. Cage wheel Puddling
Implements : Bullock drawn - Sowing implements
1. Gorru Sowing
2. Kovai seed drill Sowing
Machinery
1. Mould board plough Ploughing
2. Disc plough Ploughing
3. Cultivator Ploughing and breaking clods
4. Disc harrow -do-
5. Rotavator Incorporation of stubbles and breaking clods
6. Cage wheel Puddling
7. Ridge plough Forming ridges and furrows
8. Bund former Forming beds and channels
9. Bed-furrow former Forming beds and furrows
10. Seed drill Sowing
Plant protection implements
1. Hand operated duster Dusting solid chemicals
2. Hand operated sprayer
i) Knapsack Spraying liquid chemicals like, pesticides,
ii) Backpack fungicides, herbicides, liquid fertilizers, growth
iii) Rocker type regulators
3. Power sprayer
Harvest, post harvest implements and machineries
1. Paddy harvester Harvesting paddy
2. Threshers Threshing grains
3. Winnowers Cleaning grains
4. Seed processing Unit Cleaning and grading seeds
5. Sugarcane harvesters Crushing cane for extraction of juice for jaggery
manufacture
Exercise
1. List out and draw the tools, implements and machineries you have observed with
distinguish characters.
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EX. NO.5. ACQUIRING SKILL IN HANDLING PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

Date: TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
______________________________________________________________________
Till
To plough or cultivate soil for seeding.
Tillage
Mechanical manipulation of the soil with tools and implements to prepare seed
bed conducive for crop production.
Tilth
The physical condition of the soil with respect to its fitness for the planting or
growth of a crop.
Plough
Implement or machinery used to invert the soil to form a tilth, in addition to other
functions such as incorporation of plant residues and manures, breaking hard pan etc.
Draught
The power applied to overcome the resistance offered by the soil for the
implements to pass through is called draught.
Primary tillage
First cutting and inverting of the soil that is done after the harvest of the crop or
untilled fallow, is known as primary tillage.
Secondary tillage
Shallow tillage operations carried out after primary tillage to bring a good tilth.
PRIMARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
Some of the important primary tillage implements are,
1. Country plough
2. Mould board plough
3. Disc plough
4. Bose plough / Melur plough
5. Sub-soil (Chisel) plough
Country plough or Desi plough
The indigenous plough consists of a wooden body to which a handle and shaft
pole are attached. The body is made with a bent piece of hard wood, like babul or Neem,
with arms making an obtuse angle (135o). It gives a wedge shape. A small piece of flat
iron (share) serves as the piercing point of the plough and it is fixed over the plough
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body with one or two clamps (staples). The one end of the shaft pole is fixed to the body
and the other end is free, to be secured with the yoke during working.
Working principle
The nature of the ploughing or breaking up of the soil performed by this type of
plough consists of opening ‘V’shaped furrow. The depth of the furrow and its width may
vary according to the size and set of the working part of plough bottom.
Uses
 Opening soil and preparing seed bed

 Removing weeds
 Covering the manure spread on the land
 Inter-cultivating in wide spaced crops like cotton, sugarcane, redgram etc.
 Thinning certain crops like pearl millet under dryland by giving a light ploughing
 It is also used occasionally for opening ridges and furrows by wedging the
wooden block between the body and shaft pole.
Ploughing with country plough
It is generally done by covering the field taking into strips till the field is
completed. To start with, the ploughing is started from the right side of the field as the
animals are turned towards their left side. First furrow is opened parallel to the end of the
field and taken in the head land and turned at distance of about 20 feet which is
convenient for the animals to turn. The plough is taken along the head lands and the
second furrow is opened, close to the previous furrow. The plough is worked round and
round concentrically turning to the left always still nearly half the area of the strip taken
for ploughing is completed leaving half the un-ploughed area in the middle. At this stage,
a new strip of similar width is taken and preceded with ploughing to cover the entire area
in such manner.
When the field is ploughed for the first time, the ploughing is done along the
length of the field. This reduces the number of turns at the headlands. The field is later
ploughed across to first ploughing in order to having thorough coverage of the field.
Mould–board plough
The mould-board plough is a modern tillage implement which has got many
advantages over country plough. Different types of mould-board plough have been
designed to suit to different kinds of work and for different soil conditions. Yet, its
behaviour depends in a great degree on the operator’s skills and on the choice and
adjustments of its parts.
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Advantages
 It ploughs deep and pulverizes the soil

 It inverts the soil
 It is more durable
 If well made and adjusted properly, it requires less guidance
 It requires less pull
 Heavier mould-board ploughs can work even in very hard soils.
Parts
The main parts of the mould-board plough are the body, handle, clevis or bridle,
share, mould-board, land-side, wheel and coulter.
Disc plough
In the disc plough, the share, the mould board and coulter of the mould board
plough are replaced by an inclined concave steel disc of 60-90 cm in diameter set at an
angle to the direction of travel. Each disc revolves on stub axle and the angle to the disc
to the vertical position and to the furrow wall is adjustable.
The discs are mounted on a frame, which is supported by wheels. Lever
arrangements are provided for lifting the disc, clear-off the ground and for changing the
angle for adjusting the depth of penetration of the discs into the soil. The discs are made
of hard high carbon steel and while working the discs rotate, scoop out furrows invert the
furrow slice, pulverize them thoroughly better than the mould board plough.
A disc plough is especially useful in the following soil conditions:
 Sticky soils and soils with hard plough pans
 Dry and hard ground in which a mould board plough will not penetrate
 Ploughing weedy lands and hard stubbles like those of maize and sorghum and
also for incorporating green manures especially in garden lands.
 Peaty and leafy-mould soils in which a mould board plough fails to turn a furrow
slice.
 Deep ploughing
The depth to which the discs will penetrate is increased as they are set more
upright. In hard soils, weight is added to the plough to aid penetration. The draught of
the disc plough is somewhat lighter than mould-board ploughs turning the volume of soil
(mainly due to bearing provision in disc ploughs).
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Sub-soil plough / Chisel plough

It has a stout shank ending in a projection without any share or mould-board. It
makes a simple vertical out in the subsoil, upto a depth of 45cm and facilitates the
downward movement of water and subsoil drainage. Sub-soling becomes necessary in
certain soils in the temperate regions, where the soil layer below the plough depth gets
hardened and becomes impermeable. This is called a plough pan and it restricts the
development of roots. Plough pans are not common in heavy soils. Such soil crack
during summer in the tropics and plough-pans are not capable of inducing or forming an
impermeable layer.
SECONDARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
Cultivators and Harrows
These are implements which are used after ploughs for (1) breaking up the
furrow slices and working the soil to the required tilth (2) destruction of weeds (3) stirring
the soil and forming mulch (4) mixing of manures and fertilizers with the soil and (5)
covering the seeds.
There is no essential difference between cultivators and harrows but generally
speaking cultivators are used to deal heavy work and large clods; and harrows are later
employed to continue the work of preparing a fine seed bed.
Junior hoe
Junior hoe is a cultivator which is generally used in South India. This implement
is not only used as a cultivator but also as an inter-cultivator for wide spaced crops like
sugarcane, cotton, redgram etc. It is a light cultivating implement primarily designed for
loosening the soils and uprooting weeds between the rows of crops.
The junior hoe has a light steel frame which is approximately triangular in shape
in which the tynes are attached. A wheel attached in the front will regulate the depth of
penetration and a double handle is provided for guiding the implement. There is a lever
arrangement by which the frame can be broadened or narrowed to adjust cultivation
width between the rows of crops. The frame is a collapsible one which could be adjusted
to the required width.
Harrows
Harrows are the implements which are used to prepare the seed-beds for sowing
crops. For initial opening of the soil, breaking the clods, covering the seeds etc. either
cultivators or harrows are used. Certain harrows and cultivators are found very useful for
inter-cultivation of line sown crops.
24
Guntakas
Guntakas are indigenous blade harrow mainly intended for stirring the soil and to
cover seeds (without blades). They are, Bara guntaka, Meesalu Guntaka, Rekkala
Guntaka, Metla Guntaka and R.E. Guntaka.
Disc harrows
Disc harrows have number of saucer shaped discs mounted on one or two axles
which may be set at a variable angle to the line of draught according to the depth
desired. The discs are generally from 30 to 50 cm in diameter and space about 15 cm
apart. The two sets of discs are set in a manner to throw the soil in opposite direction
from the other. Each set will consist of 3 to 6 or more discs. If it is bullock drawn, the
number is often limited to three or four.
If the disc sets are set up perpendicular to the line of draught, penetration is
shallow. When maximum penetration is desired, the sets should be set with forward
edges and the discs should be parallel to the direction of travel. These adjustments are
achieved by means of the lever provided. Generally the best penetration is obtained
when the discs are at 200 angle to the line of drought. Trays are also provided over the
frame for placing stones or weights and increasing the weight of the implement, which in
turn will help in deep penetration of the disc.
SPECIAL PURPOSE IMPLEMENTS
A. Implement used for puddling
Paddy lands are usually prepared by ploughing either with mould board ploughs
or wooden ploughs or with both. Considerable human labour is also engaged before the
field is finally ready for sowing or transplanting. This operation involves a great amount
of human, animal labour and time. To lesson these, the wetland puddler is preferred.
Wetland puddler
The wetland puddler is a very useful, economic and labour saving implement for
producing fine puddle in wetland for paddy cultivation. This implement consists of three
angular bladed cast iron hubs rigidly fixed to a hollow horizontal pipe and is rotated when
dragged by a pair of bullocks. This is an effective dual purpose implement useful for
trampling green manure in the field. The blades work in to the puddle, break up and
leave the field in a fine condition. When used for trampling, the vegetative matter is cut
and buried into the soil. For a satisfactory working, a preliminary ploughing is given. The
puddler is always operated with 5-10cm of standing water in the field otherwise the wet
soil clog the blades and form a lumpy mass.
25
This implement can also be worked as an efficient clod crusher in dry and garden
lands covering four to five acres in a day. An area of two acres can be worked in a day
of eight hours for wetland puddling.
Five numbers of helical blades made of mild steel are fixed in skewed shape and
mounted on a wooden frame having a bearing, so that the blades can rotate freely. A
handle and shaft pole are provided. After ploughing the land with country plough, this
implement can be used to puddle the soil, which operates at a depth of 8 to 10 cm. The
helical geometry facilitates better churning and slicing of the soil as required for
puddling.
Disc trampler or green manure trampler
This implement is used for trampling green manure in paddy fields under puddled
condition. It is a labour saving implement. It consists of 3.0 or 4.25 cm diameter steel
discs with cast iron hubs, rigidly mounted on a pipe shaft, 22.5 cm apart, rotating in
wooden block bearings. There are steel blades fixed across these discs. This implement
cuts and spread out the green manure and enables it to be buried into the puddle to a
depth of 5.0 to 7.5 cm. Green manure trampler covers about 2 acres in a day of 8 hours,
with a pair of bullocks.
Burmese set turn
This implement is used for trampling the green manure and for puddling. It
consists of three or four hubs fixed to a horizontal axle at 22.5 cm interval. The blades
7.5 cm wide and 67.5 to 90 cm long are fixed parallel to an axis. When the implement is
dragged, the blades turn the puddle and the green manure is also pressed into a depth
of about 7.5 cm. There is also a handle provided on the wooden frame so that there is
effective turning of puddle and burial of green manure. The coverage is about one
hectare.
Cage wheel (Power tiller operated / Tractor driven)
The cage wheels are available for attachments to power tillers and tractors for
puddling the medium and heavy soils for paddy cultivation. The cage wheels are
attachments in place of pneumatic wheels in power tillers and tractors. They are
particularly suitable for puddling medium and heavy soils for paddy cultivation. The cage
wheels provide a good traction and floatation of puddle. The cage wheels work well in all
fields except on a few occasions where the clay plus silt content of the soil is more than
56%.
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In addition to savings in cost and time more uniformity, thoroughness in the

puddle is obtained with the cage wheels than by the country plough. The average depth
of puddle obtained is 23 cm.
B. Levelling implements
Wooden levelling board
Animal drawn implement used in rice filed after puddling. This consists of
wooden plank of about 2.0 m long and 0.30 m wide with a handle. This is also used
under garden land condition after replacing wooden plank with iron levelers.
Buck scraper
Animal drawn implement, like a rectangular box with one end (front) open.
Coverage is 0.20 to 0.40 ha / day of 8 hours.
‘A’ Frame ridger
Used for land levelling and forming ridges.
‘V’ Ditcher
Used for levelling and forming field channels. The operation is much similar to
that of using an over sized mould board plough.
Wooden float
The implement is used for land smoothening with animal power.
C. Implements used for soil compaction and breaking clods
Rollers made up of wood, stone or iron are used to consolidate the soil, crush the
clods and smoothen the surface. They are Iron roller and Wooden or stone roller.
D. Implements for special operations
 Bund former
 Ridge plough
 Bed furrow former
 Rotovator
 Sub- soiler
Bund former
Used for forming bunds, irrigation channels and also for soil conservation.
Different sized bunds can be formed.
Ridge plough
It is double mould board plough with adjustable wings. An area of about 0.8-1.0
ha can be covered. Both animal drawn and tractor drawn implements are available.
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Bed-furrow former
Tractor drawn implement, forming alternate beds and channels simultaneously.
It covers an area of 3 ha per day of 8 hours.
Rotovator
Also called rotary plough or rotary cultivator. This is a tractor or power tiller
mounted. This performs primary and secondary tillage operations simultaneously. This
pulverizes the soil and cut all the waste materials and incorporate into the field.
Sub soiler
Used to break hard sub soil layers. Depth of work is at 50 cm. Used in dry soil
conditions for maximum fissuring of the soil.
E. Weeders
Star wheel and Peg tooth type weeders are used for weeding in dry lands. Rotary
weeder and cono-weeders are used in rice field.
F. Low cost labour saving implements
1. Multipurpose tool carrier
Used for primary and secondary tillage and inter cultural operations,
forming bunds, raised beds and transport.
2. ‘Kovai’ planter
Used for line sowing and planting especially in drylands.
3. Paddy harvester (Power tiller operated)
Reaps and winnows paddy crop.
4. Paddy thresher
For threshing different varieties of paddy.
5. Chaff cutter (Power operated)
Cutting green and dry fodder into bits for easy assimilation by animals.
G. INTERCULTURAL IMPLEMENTS
1. Japanese rotary weeder
2. Cono weeder
3. Long handled weeder
 Peg tooth type
 Star wheel type
1. Japanese rotary weeder: It consists of two small toothed rollers or drums mounted
on a frame provided with handle. Each roller consists of 5 toothed blades. It is used in
paddy crop. It buries the weeds into the soil.
28
2. Cono weeder: Similar to rotary weeder. Instead of two toothed roller, two toothed
cones are mounted on a frame provided with handle.
3. Long handled weeder: Used for weeding in row crops for removing shallow rooted
weeds.
a. Peg tooth type: It consists of two long handle of 2.5 cm diameter, 120 cm long pipes
with 52 cm long handle. In the bottom of the vertical pipe, two arms with 25 x 2.5 x 0.3
cm MS plates are fitted. At the extreme end of the arm, peg wheel is placed.
b. Star wheel type: Instead of peg type, star type rollers are used.
Exercise:
1. Describe the procedure of ploughing with country plough and its adjustments.
2. Draw mould board plough and disc plough with neat sketch.
3. Practice the use of implements.
4. Mention in which of the soils the peg and star type weeders are used.
EX No. 6. PRACTICING DIFFERENT METHODS OF LAND CONFIGURATION FOR

Date: RAISING NURSERY FOR WET LAND CROPS
______________________________________________________________________
Many of the field crops are sown directly in the well-prepared field. However,
some of the crops like rice, tobacco, chillies, finger millet etc., are first sown in the small
seedbed called nursery and then the seedlings are transplanted in the main field. This is
mainly because of the reason that such seeds are not suitable for direct sowing in the
main field; they are sown in the nursery and attended carefully till the seedlings attain a
particular size before transplanting in the main field.
In selecting nursery area, the following points are to be taken care of
 Nursery area should be a good fertile piece of land nearer to water source.
29
 It should be in an elevated area having good drainage facility

 It should be free from perennial weed infestation
 The nursery area may regularly be changed to avoid build up of pest and
disease, weed dominance and contamination of other varieties.
Transplanting
Transplanting is the removal of an actively growing plant from one place and
planting it in another place for further growth and development.
Plants which are able to endure the shock of uprooting and transplanting and
have the capacity to produce newer roots / shoots can be used for transplanting. This
operation may be done when the seedlings acquire some ability to endure such shocks
and when environmental conditions are favourable for easy establishment in the new
field / location.
In general, transplanting is done with seedlings of the crop such as rice, tobacco,
finger millet, tomato, brinjal, chillies, etc.
Rice nursery preparation may be categorized as wet nursery, dapog nursery,
modified dapog, semidry nursery and dry nursery. Among them, wet nursery is
commonly practiced for rice.
Wet nursery
Nursery preparation
 Nursery area for rice is about one tenth of the main field (800-1000 m2 or 20-25
cents/ha)
 The selected area is manured with organic manures such as, FYM or compost
@ one tonne per 1000 m2 area.
 Puddle the land well and properly level and convert it into nursery beds of one
cent (40 m2).
 At the time of nursery preparation, Di Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) is to be
added @ 2 kg/cent.
 Each bed may have width of 1.5-2.0m and convenient length. In between beds,
30cm wide drainage channel is to be provided.
 Provide gradual inclination on the surface of the bed towards both the sides to
facilitate drainage.
Seeds and sowing
 Two to three kilograms of seeds are required per cent (40 m2) of nursery area.
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 Treat the seeds with fungicide @ 2-4 g/kg of seed and soak it in water for about
18-24 hours and keep it in dark room for incubation.
 After 24 hours of incubation, sow the pre-germinated seeds evenly on the
nursery bed keeping a thin film of water.
After care
 Regulate irrigation until proper germination is completed.
 Keep the beds in saturated condition till sprouts are about 5 cm in height and
then keep a constant level of 2.5cm of water in the beds.
 On 3rd day of sowing, apply pre-emergence herbicide Thiobencarp / Butachlor to
control weeds.
 If any nitrogen deficiency symptom is noticed, top dress with urea @ 500g/cent of
area before 7-10 days of pulling out seedlings.
Age of seedlings
Usually, one-week period of nursery for one-month rice duration is the thumb
rule. The duration of nursery for short duration is 18-22 days, 25-30 days for medium
duration and 35-40 days for long duration.
Dapog nursery
This involves growing of seedlings on concrete floor or on a raised bed covered
with polythene sheet. About 30-40 m2 area is enough to raise seedlings for one hectare.
The polythene sheet prevents the entry of roots into the soil. Pre-germinated seeds are
sown over the polythene sheet @ 2 kg/ m2. Water is sprinkled and the seeds are
pressed gently to keep the roots remain contact. After six days, the seedbeds are
watered up to 1-2 cm depth. In about 14 days, seedlings are ready for transplanting.
The nursery can be cut into stripes, rolled and can be transported.
Modified Dapog nursery
This is a combination of dapog and field nursery preparation. In the first stage,
the usual dapog nursery is prepared. The modification is that it will have a thin soil
medium. Seeds are sown @ 1 kg/m2.
In the second stage, the seedlings are planted thick in the field nursery. Area
required is four times that of Dapog nursery. Seedlings are grown for 15 days and then
pulled out for transplanting.
Dry nursery
This is practiced in rainfed farming. The soil is brought to fine tilth and manured
heavily (10 tonnes of cattle manure or compost/ha). Dry seeds are sown in the beds
31
and covered with soil when there is sufficient moisture in the soil. Small beds of 1.0 to
1.5m width are formed with irrigation channels to give protective irrigation. The seedlings
will be ready after 25-30 days.
Semi-dry nursery
Nursery beds are raised as in the case of dry nursery in anticipation of water
supply. As soon as water is received, the nursery beds are treated as wet nursery beds
where in water is stagnated till the seedlings are ready for planting.
Exercise
1. Prepare nursery beds for wetland rice.
2. Write the type of nursery required for system of rice intensification (SRI) method of
rice cultivation.
3. Write down steps for wet nursery preparation for 2 ha of land.
EX NO. 7. PRACTICING DIFFERENT METHODS OF LAND CONFIGURATION FOR

Date: RAISING NURSERY FOR GARDEN LAND CROPS
______________________________________________________________________
Many of the garden land crop seeds (maize, pulses and oilseeds) are bigger in
size and are sown directly in the main field. However, the seeds of finger millet, tomato,
chilies, brinjal, tobacco etc. are very small and sowing directly on the prepared main field
is very difficult. Hence, separate nursery beds are needed to sow the seeds.
Nursery
Nursery is a place where young seedlings are raised in a smaller area and
protected more effectively in a short period for easy management.
Advantages
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 Can ensure optimum plant population

 Saving of main field duration, i.e., management in the main field is reduced
 Crop intensification is possible under transplanting.
Disadvantages
 Nursery raising is expensive

 Transplanting is another laborious and expensive method.
Age of nursery is 1/4th of the total duration of the crop. If the total duration is 16 weeks,
four week period (1 month) is under nursery. Nursery age is not very rigid, eg., 3
months crop may have nursery duration of 3 weeks, 4 months and 5 month aged crops
may have nursery duration of 4 and 5 weeks, respectively.
Transplanting: After the nursery period, seedlings are pulled-out and transplanted. This
is done on the main field after thorough field preparation or optimum tilth. Transplanting
shock is a period after transplanting, when the seedlings show no growth. This is mostly
due to the change in the environment between root and the soil. It is for a period of 5-7
days depending upon season, crop, variety, etc.
Area required for nursery is almost 1/10th of the total area of main field.
Nursery bed preparation
 Plough the land thoroughly and incorporate well-decomposed FYM @ 1kg m-2
area of nursery during last ploughing.
 Prepare raised beds with one-metre width and convenient length, not exceeding
3 m x 1.5 m.
 Form channels all round the beds to a width of 50 cm and to a depth of 10 cm.
 Form shallow rills on the beds and broadcast the fungicide treated seeds evenly
on the beds and then cover it by light hand by leveling over the soil
 Dust the insecticide powder all round the beds to prevent ants carrying the seeds
 Irrigate the beds immediately after sowing followed by irrigation on 3rd day.
 To harden and withstand the transplanting shock, withhold the irrigation a week
before transplanting.
Nursery area requirement
Sorghum : 7.5 cents/ha (300 m2)

Pearlmillet : 7.5 cents/ha (300 m2)
33
Fingermillet : 12.5 cents/ha (500 m2)

Chillies : 5.0 cents/ha (200 m2)
Tomato : 5.0 cents/ha (200 m2)
Brinjal : 5.0 cents/ha (200 m2)
Age of seedlings at planting
Sorghum : 17-18 days

Pearlmillet : 17-18 days
Fingermillet : 17-18 days
Tomato : 25-30 days
Chillies : 40-45 days
Exercise
1. Prepare the nursery bed for one irrigated crop.

2. Write down different options of nursery preparation under irrigated conditions.
3. Write down the steps of nursery preparation for transplanting chilies in 3 ha area
34
35
EX NO.8. PRACTICING DIFFERENT METHODS OF SEED TREATMENTS,

Date: METHODS OF SOWING AND SEEDING IMPLEMENTS
______________________________________________________________________
Seed treatment
It is the process of treating the seeds with inorganic chemicals, growth
regulators, etc., to augment the germination, to make it free from pest and diseases; to
harden the seeds to withstand drought.
Objectives of seed treatment
 To protect the seeds from the pest and diseases

 To facilitate easy handling of seeds
 To repel birds and rodents
 To supply plant nutrients
 To inoculate micro-organisms
 To supply growth regulators
 To supply selective herbicide
 To break the seed dormancy
 To induce drought tolerance
 To augment germination
Methods of seed treatment
i) Dry seed treatment
Mixing of seeds with powder form of pesticides (or) nutrients especially during
storage. eg: Seeds treated with Thiram @ 4g/kg of seed, Vasambu, turmeric powder
(1:100) and mixing red earth with red gram.
ii) Wet treatment
Soaking of seeds in nutrient or chemical or pesticidal solution.
iii) Slurry treatment
Dipping of seedling or mixing of seeds in slurry.
iv) Pelleting
It is the coating of solid materials in sufficient quantities to make the seeds larger,
heavier and to appear uniform in size for sowing with seed drills. Pelleting with
pesticides as a protectant against soil organisms, soil pests and as a repellant against
birds and rodents.
v) Scarification
The process of making the seed coat permeable for the developing embryo.
vi) Hot water treatment
36
Soaking in water of 75 to 80C. The volume should be 4 to 5 times that of seed

and allowed to cool in the same water.
vii) Acid treatment
With 1kg of cotton seeds, 100 ml of H2SO4 is added. It is stirred well for about
three minutes and repeatedly washed. Seeds are dried and sown.
viii) Leaching
Germination inhibitors are removed by soaking seeds in running water or
frequently changing the water. Soaking upto 12-24 hours is generally made.
ix) Hormonal treatment
To break the dormancy GA3 @ 500 ppm solution is used for soaking the seeds
for 12 hours. Cytokinins and ethylene can also be used.
SOWING
It is the process of placing the seed material in the rooting medium (soil).
Crops are sown in various ways. They are, 1. Broadcasting 2. Dibbling 3. Sowing
behind the plough 4. Drill sowing or drilling.
SOWING METHODS
1. Broadcasting
It is random sowing, literally, scattering the seeds. Broadcasting is done for many
crops. Broadcasting is mostly followed for small to medium sized crops. This is the
most widely followed method of sowing followed in India, since, it is the easiest and
cheapest and requires minimum labourers. To have optimum plant population in unit
area, certain rules should be followed.
 Only a skilled person should broadcast the seeds for uniform scattering
 The ploughed field should be in a perfect condition to trigger germination
The seeds are broadcasted in a narrow strip and the sowing is completed strip by
strip. To ensure a good and uniform population, it is better to broadcast on either
direction. This is called criss-cross sowing. If the seeds are too small, it is mixed with
sand to make a bulky one and for easy handling. In certain cases, the person sowing
will be beating the seeds against the basket for uniform scattering. After broadcasting,
the seeds are covered gently either using a country plough with a very shallow ploughing
or some wooden planks (boards / levelers are used to cover the surface). In some
cases, tree twigs or shrub branches are used. If the seeds are large, levelers collect the
seeds and leave in the other side. Comb harrow is the best used one.
37
Disadvantages
 All the seeds broadcasted do not have contact with the soil. 100% germination is
not possible
 Seed rate is high
 Seeds can not be placed in desired depth. Desired depth ensures perfect
anchorage
 Lodging
 (falling down) is common in broadcasting.
2. Dibbling
Here, line sowing is possible. Inserting a seed through a hole at a desired depth
and covering the hole. Dibbling on plain surface or ridges and furrows or beds and
channels. These types of sowing are practiced only under suitable soil condition. The
seeds are dibbled at 2/3rd from top or 1/3rd at bottom. Before sowing, furrows are
opened and fertilizers are applied above which seeds are sown. The seeds do not have
contact with the fertilizers. This is done for wider spaced crops and medium to large
sized seeds, eg., sorghum, maize, sunflower, cotton are dibbled on ridges and furrows.
Both beds and channels; and ridges and furrows come under line sowing. While
earthing up the plant occupies middle of the ridge. Earthing up is essential for proper
anchorage of the root system.
Advantages
 Uniform population
 Better germination
 Reduced seed rate.
3. Sowing behind the plough
Sowing behind the plough (line sowing) done by manual or mechanical means.
Seeds are dropped in the furrows opened by the plough and the same is closed or
covered when the next furrow is opened. The seeds are sown at uniform distance.
Manual method is a laborious and time consuming process. Seeds like redgram,
cowpea and groundnut are sown behind the country plough. Major sown crop is
groundnut.
Seeds are sown by mechanical means by ‘Gorru’- seed drill. A seed drill has a
plough share and hopper. Seeds are placed on hopper.
Advantages
 The seeds are placed at desired depth covered by iron planks
38
 Except very small and very large seeds, most of the seeds can be sown, eg.
maize, sorghum, millets, sunflower, etc.
Line sowing Vs Random sowing
No. Line sowing Random sowing

1. Costlier Cheaper
2. Takes considerable time Quickest and time saving
3. Fixed seed rate Higher seed rate
4. Mechanization is possible, eg. weeding, harvesting Not possible
5. Uniform utilization of resources (land, water, light, Resource utilization is un-
nutrient, etc.) uniform
4. Drill sowing (or) Drilling

Drilling is the practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth covered with soil and
compacted. In this method, sowing implements are used for placing the seeds into the
soil. Both animal drawn Gorrus and power operated (seed drills) implements are
available. Seeds are drilled continuously or at regular intervals in rows. In this method,
depth of sowing can be maintained and fertilizer can also be applied simultaneously. It is
possible to take up sowing of intercrops also. It requires more time, energy and cost, but
maintains uniform population per unit area. Seeds are placed at uniform depth, covered
and compacted.
PLANTING
Planting refers to putting of plant propagules (may be seedlings, cutting, tubers,
etc.) into the ground to grow as crop plants.
SOWING / PLANTING IMPLEMENTS
1. Seed drills
2. Transplanter
Seed drills
They are also called as Gorru. Gorru is operated using animal power.
Seed planter
Used for large sized seeds. Row to row and intra row spacing are fixed. Tractor
drawn seed planters cover an area of about 4 ha/day.
Exercise
1. Practice different methods of seed treatment.
2. List out the bio-fertilizers available for seed treatment.
3. Practice different sowing techniques and offer your comments.
39
40
EX NO.9. WORKING OUT SEED RATE AND PRACTICING THINNING, GAP FILLING
Date: FOR OPTIMUM CROP STAND AND INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS
_______________________________________________________________________
Seed rate
The required number of plants per unit area is decided by calculating the seed
rate. The seed rate depends on spacing or plant population, test weight, germination
percentage. The formula is as follows.
Plant population (per ha) x no. of seeds/hill x 1000 grain (test) weight (g)
Seed rate (kg/ha) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1000 x 1000
Thinning and gap filling
The objective is to maintain optimum plant population. Thinning is the removal of
excess plants leaving healthy seedlings. Gap filling is done to fill the gaps by sowing of
seeds or transplanting of seedlings in gap where early sown seed had not germinated. It
is a simultaneous process. Normally, thinning and gap filling are practiced a week after
sowing to a maximum of 15 days.
In dryland agriculture, gap filling is done first. Seeds are dibbled after 7 days of
sowing. Thinning is done after gap filling in order to avoid drought. It is a management
strategy to remove a portion of plant population to mitigate stress – referred to as mid
season correction.
Plant population or plant density
Number of plants/unit area in the cropped field is the plant population
Optimum plant population
1. Optimum plant population – It is the number of plants required to produce maximum
output or biomass/unit area.
2. Any increase beyond this stage, results in either no increase or reduction in biomass.
Crop geometry
The arrangement of the plants in different rows and columns in an area to utilize
the natural resources efficiently is called crop geometry. It is otherwise area occupied by
a single plant eg. rice - 20 cm x 15 cm. This is very essential to utilize the resources like
light, water, nutrient and space. Different geometries are available for crop production
Foraging area or soil cover
 should cover the soil as early as possible so as to intercept maximum sunlight
 Higher the intercepted radiation more will be the dry matter produced
 Close spaced crops intercept more Solar radiation than wide spaced crops
41
Different crop geometries are available for crop production

1. Random square geometry: Broadcasting results in random geometry and no equal
space is maintained; resources are either under exploited or over exploited.
2. Square method or square geometry: The plants are sown at equal distances on
either side. Mostly perennial crops, tree crops follow square method of cultivation.
Under System of Rice intensification methodology in rice proved that square geometry
could also be successful in field crops. This concept is now popular in annual field crops
such as pulses, cotton, vegetables etc.
Advantages
 Light is available uniformly
 Movement of wind is not blocked
 Mechanization can be possible.
3. Rectangular method of sowing: There are rows and columns, the row spacing are
wider than the spacing between plants. The different types exist in rectangular method
a. Solid row: Each row has definite inter row and no proper spacing between the plants.
This is followed only for annual crops which have tillering pattern. eg. Wheat.
b. Paired row arrangement: It is also a rectangular arrangement. If a crop requires 60 x
30 cm spacing and if paired row is to be adopted the spacing is altered to 90 cm instead
of 60 cm in order to accommodate an intercrop. The base population is kept constant.
c. Skip row: A row of planting is skipped and hence, there is a reduction in population.
This reduction is compensated by planting an intercrop. This is practiced in rainfed or
dryland agriculture.
d. Triangular method of planting: It is recommended for wide spaced crops like
coconut, mango, etc. The number of plants per unit area is more in this system.
Exercise:
1. Practice thinning and gap filling.
2. Workout plant population per hectare if the spacing is 10 m x 10 m
3. Work out the seed rate requirement for rice with the following data.
Sl. No. Crop geometry No. of Test weight (g) Germination (%)
seedlings/hill
1. 20 x 15 cm 3 20.0 80
2. 20 x 10 cm 3 20.0 80
3. 15 x 10 cm 3 20.0 80
4. 25 x 25 cm 1 20.0 75
5. 25 x 25 cm 2 20.0 75
42
43
EX NO.10. WORKING OUT MANURE AND FERTILIZER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS

Date:
______________________________________________________________________
MANURES
Manures are plant and or animal wastes that are used as source of plant
nutrients. They release nutrients after their decomposition. Organic manures are made
up of dead plants and animal residues, oil cakes, fish manures, dried blood from
slaughter houses etc. The manures are grouped into bulky organic manures and
concentrated organic manures based on concentration of the nutrients.
I. Organic manures
a) Bulky organic manure
 Applied in large quantities
 Contains small percentage of nutrients.
eg: FYM, compost, green manure, green leaf manure.
Advantages
 Supply plant nutrients including micronutrients
 Improve soil physical properties
 Increase the nutrient use efficiency
 Increase water holding capacity of soil
 Increase the microbiological activity
FYM
 Mixture of dung and urine of animals along with litter and left over materials
 Contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P2O5, 0.5% K2O
 General recommendation for field crops is 12.5 t/ha
Compost
 A mass of rotten organic matter made from waste is called compost.
 The compost made from farm waste like sugarcane trash, paddy straw, weeds,
coir pith and other waste are called farm compost.
 The nutrient content is 0.5: 0.15: 0.5% N, P2O5 and K2O.
 The compost made from town refuse like night soil, street sweeping and dustbin
refuse is called town compost. It contains 1.4: 1.0: 1.4% N, P2O5 and K2O.
Night soil
 It is human excreta both of solid and liquid. It is richer in N, P and K than FYM.
44
 It contains 5.5: 4.0: 2.0 per cent N, P2O5 and K2O.

Sewage and sludge
In the modern system of sanitation in cities and towns, human excreta are
flushed out with water, which is called sewage. The solid portion is called sludge and
liquid portion is called as sewage water.
Vermicompost
Compost that is prepared with the help of earthworm is called vermicompost. The
earthworm consumes large quantities of organic matter and excretes soil as casts. The
casts of earthworm have several enzymes and are rich in nutrients. It contains
3.0:1.0:1.5% N, P2O5 and K2O.
Sheep and Goat manure
The droppings of sheep and goat contain higher nutrients than FYM and
compost. The nutrient content is 3.0:1.0:2.0% N, P2O5 and K2O. This is either stored in
pit for decomposition and applied or directly applied in the field by penning. In the
second method, both dropping and urine are added to soil.
Poultry manure
The excreta of poultry birds are decomposed and used. The average nutrient
content is 3.0:2.6:1.4 % N, P2O5 and K2O.
b) Concentrated organic manure
Concentrated organic manures have higher nutrient content than bulky organic
manure. They are oil cakes, blood meal, fish manure etc. They are also knows as
organic nitrogen fertilizer.
Oil cakes
This is solid remains after oil extraction. They are of two types.
(1) Edible – Groundnut cake, coconut cake, etc.
(2) Non-edible – Castor, Neem, Mahua cake, etc
Though both oil cakes can be used as manure, edible oil cakes are used for
feeding livestock. Nutrients present in the oil cakes are made available to plants in 7-10
days of application through mineralization.
Blood meal, bone meal and meat of dead animals are dried, powdered and then
used as manures.
II. Green manuring and Green leaf manuring
45
 Growing green manure crops in the field itself and incorporated into the soil of
the same field is called green manuring.
 Collecting green leaves from different sources and are applied to the field as
The green manure crops used will mostly of legume groups for biological nitrogen
fixation. They are grown up to flowering and are incorporated.
Advantages
 Add organic matter to soil.
 Deep-rooted green manure crop brings the nutrients from deeper layer to
surface.
 Organic matter added improves the soil structure, increases the water holding
capacity and prevent erosion.
 During off-season, growing a green manure crop reduces the weed growth and
conserves the nutrients.
 Green manure crops help to reclaim the problem soil.
FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers
The term fertilizer refers to commercially manufactured inorganic materials either
dry or liquid, which are added to the soil to supply essential plant nutrients. There are
different types of fertilizers available.
1.Nitrogenous 2. Phosphatic 3. Potassic 4. Complex 5. Mixed fertilizers.
Simple fertilizers or straight fertilizers
Fertilizers containing only one primary plant nutrient are called straight fertilizers.
Nitrogenous fertilizers – contain ‘N’ alone (eg.) urea. Phosphatic fertilizers – contain
phosphorus alone (eg.) super phosphate. Potassic fertilizers – contain potassium alone
(eg.) Muriate of potash.
Complex fertilizers
Fertilizers containing two or more plant nutrients (of which two are major
nutrients) in chemical combination are called complex fertilizers. eg. 17:17:17 complex
fertilizer.
Incomplete complex fertilizers
Fertilizers containing only two of the primary nutrients are called incomplete
complex fertilizers.
46
Mixed fertilizers
Individual straight fertilizer materials are mechanically mixed together to permit
application in the field in one operation. They supply two or three major plant nutrients.
The percentage of nutrients present in the mixture is expressed as fertilizer grade like
10-5-5 NPK.
Nitrogenous fertilizer materials and their nutrient content (%)
1. Urea (46%)
2. Ammonium sulphate (21%)
3. CAN (Calcium ammonium nitrate) (25%)
4. Ammonium nitrate (34%)
Phosphatic fertilizers
Water soluble phosphate (Mono calcium phosphate)
1. Single super phosphate (SSP) - 16%
2. Double super phosphate (DSP) - 32%
3. Triple super phosphate (TSP) - 48%
4. Ammonium phosphate
Citric acid soluble phosphate (Di-calcium phosphate)
1. Basic slag -14-18%
2. Di calcium phosphate - 34-39%
Insoluble phosphate (Tri calcium phosphate)
1. Rock phosphate - 20-40%
2. Raw bone meal - 20-25%
3. Steamed bone meal - 22-30%
Potassic fertilizers
1. Muriate of potash (KCl) - 60%
2. Sulphate of potash (K2SO4) - 48-52%
3. Potassium nitrate (KNO3) - 48%
Micronutrients
Plant nutrients required in minute quantities but considered essential are called
micronutrients or trace elements or minor elements (eg.) Zinc sulphate.
47
WORKING OUT OF FERTILIZER SCHEDULE

Fertilizer requirement
The nutrient requirement of crops varies and is made available to the plant by
application of fertilizers. The nutrient(s) content of fertilizer material also varies. It is
calculated by the formula.
Quantity of fertilizer to be 100

applied (kg/ha) = -------------------------------------- x Recommended dose of
Nutrient content in the nutrient(kg/ha)
fertilizer material
Conversion factors to workout quantity of fertilizer from nutrient

Nutrient Multiplication factor Fertilizer
Nitrogen 4.9 Ammonium sulphate
Nitrogen 2.17 Urea
Nitrogen 4.0 Ammonium chloride
Nitrogen 3.0 Ammonium nitrate
Phosphoric acid (P2O5) 6.25 Super phosphate
Potash (K2O) 1.67 Muriate of potash
Potash (K2O) 2.0 Sulphate of potash
Example 1:
Fertilizer recommended for rice is 150-50-50 kg N, P2O5 & K2O per hectare.
Calculate the requirement of urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash.
100
Urea requirement = x 150 = 325.5 kg/ha
46
100
Super phosphate = x 50 = 312.5 kg/ha
16
100
Muriate of potash = x 50 = 83.3 kg/ha
60
Exercise:
1. Work out fertilizer requirement of DAP, urea and MOP for rice (150:50:50 NPK/ha).
2. Work out the manures (FYM, vermi-compost, goat manure) required to supply N
requirement to maize hybrid (150 kg/ha)
48
49
EX NO.11. PRACTICING METHODS OF APPLICATION: MANURES AND

Date: FERTILIZERS AND INCORPORATION OF GREEN MANURE AND
GREEN LEAF MANURE
________________________________________________________________________
The fertilizer should be applied in the soil in such a way that it serves the plant to
the best advantage. Fertilizers are applied by different methods mainly for three
purposes.
 To make the nutrients easily available to crops.
 To reduce fertilizer losses
 For ease of application.
Methods of fertilizer application
I. Soil application
Broadcasting
Application of fertilizer uniformly on the soil surface is known as broadcasting of
fertilizers. This is done either before sowing of the crop (basal application) or in the
standing crop (top dressing). This is the most widely practiced method in India due to
ease in application.
Band placement
Application of fertilizers in narrow bands beneath and by the side of the crop
rows is known as band placement of fertilizers. Band placement is done under the
following situations:
 When crop needs initial good start.
 When soil fertility is low.
 When fertilizer material react with soil constituent leading to unavailability
 Where volatalisation losses are high.
Point placement
Placement of fertilizers near the plant either in a hole or in a depression followed
by closing or covering with soil is known as point placement of fertilizers. It is adopted
for top dressing of nitrogenous fertilizers in widely spaced crops.
II. Sub soil placement
It refers to the placement of fertilizers in the sub-soil with the help of high power
machinery.
Fertigation
Application of fertilizers with irrigation water is known as fertigation. It is
generally followed with drip irrigation.
50
Application to plant
Root dipping
The roots of the seedlings are dipped in nutrient solution before transplanting. In
soils deficient in phosphorus, roots of rice seedlings are dipped in phosphorus slurry
before planting.
Root feeding
This method is popularly followed in coconut plantation. Active roots are
selected and are dipped into nutrient solution in a poly bag, which is tied to the root. In a
day or two, the nutrient solution is absorbed by the root system.
Foliar spray
Application of fertilizers to foliage of the crop as spray solution is known as foliar
application of fertilizers. This method is not a substitute for soil application but only a
supplement to it. This method is most suited for application of micronutrients, required in
small quantities. When deficiency symptoms are visible, nutrients can be sprayed as
mid-term correction.
GREEN MANURING AND GREEN LEAF MANURING
(3) Growing green manure crops in the field itself and incorporated into the soil
of the same field is called green manuring.
(4) Collecting green leaves from different sources and are applied to the field as
Some of the prominent green manures are sunnhemp, manila agathi, daincha,
pillipesara, kolinji. Few of plant materials such as glyricidia, pungam, neem, gulmohar,
vadanarayanan, subabul, peltophorum from which leaf materials are collected are
termed as green leaf manures.
Implements used for trampling green manure and green leaf manures
Wetland puddler
The wetland puddler is a very useful, economic and labour saving implement for
producing fine puddle in wetland for paddy cultivation. This is an effective dual purpose
implement useful for trampling green manure in the field. The blades work in to the
puddle, break up and leave the field in a fine condition. When used for trampling, the
vegetative matter is cut and buried into the soil. For a satisfactory working, a preliminary
51
ploughing is given. The puddler is always operated with 5-10cm of standing water in the
field otherwise the wet soil clog the blades and form a lumpy mass.
An area of two acres can be worked in a day of eight hours for wetland puddling.
Disc trampler or green manure trampler
This implement is used for trampling green manure in paddy fields under puddled
condition. It is a labour saving implement. It consists of 3.0 or 4.25 cm diameter steel
discs with cast iron hubs, rigidly mounted on a pipe shaft, 22.5 cm apart, rotating in
wooden block bearings. There are steel blades fixed across these discs. This implement
cuts and spread out the green manure and enables it to be buried into the puddle to a
depth of 5.0 to 7.5 cm. Green manure trampler covers about 2 acres in a day of 8 hours,
with a pair of bullocks.
Rotovator
It is also called as rotary plough or rotary cultivator. This is a tractor or power
tiller mounted. This performs primary and secondary tillage operations simultaneously.
This pulverizes the soil and cut all the waste materials and green manures and
incorporate into the field.
Exercise
1. Practice different fertilizer application methods.
2. Write the procedure of application and incorporation of manures
3. Briefly explain about the incorporation of green manures in to the soil
4. Mention the methods of collection, application and incorporation of green leaf
manures in the fields
52
53
EX NO.12. IDENTIFICATION OF WEEDS, WEEDING PRACTICES AND HANDLING

Date: OF WEEDING TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS
______________________________________________________________________
Plants are considered as weeds when they interfere with human activity in his
endeavor of cultivating crops of economic nature. In order to manage them effectively
one should know their identity, character and behaviour in the crop environment.
Weeds may be identified as per their ecological affinities as wetland, irrigated
dryland and dryland weeds. They are as follows:
A. WETLAND WEEDS
The weeds that are common in a rice eco-system are normally considered as
wetland weeds. Some of the common characters of wetland weeds are:
a. Adapted to waterlogged condition

b. Anaerobic condition favours most of the wetland weeds
c. Weeds are lustrous having lower requirement for light and oxygen than dryland
weeds
d. Mostly annuals under crop situation and perennials are on the channels and bunds
e. Most of the weeds are heavy seed producers
f. Some weeds posses floating mechanism in stem or leaves
g. Most weeds bound to occur seasonally
Weeds commonly observed under wetland conditions
Grasses:
Echinochloa colona
Echinochloa crusgalli
Cynodon dactylon
Broad-leaved weeds
Ammania baccifera
Monochoria vaginalis
Marselia quadrifoliata
Sedges
Cyperus difformis
Cyperus iria
54
B. GARDENLAND / IRRIGATED DRYLAND WEEDS

The weeds that are common in an upland irrigated condition are normally
considered as garden land weeds. Some of the common characters of garden land
weeds are:
a. Weeds neither require high moisture nor dry condition for their survival
b. Weeds are having lower requirement for light and oxygen than dryland weeds.
c. Annuals, biennial and perennials can be found under crop situation as well as on
the channels and bunds.
d. Weeds have adaptation to complete their lifecycle when they are subject to dry
conditions
e. As wide variety of crops are grown under garden land situation weed shift may
occur depending upon the crop grown
Weeds commonly observed under irrigated dryland conditions
Grasses
Dactyloctenium aegyptium
Dinebra retroflexa
Cynodon dactylon
Chloris barbata
Panicum spp
Broad-leaved weeds
Trianthema portulacastrum
Acalypha indica
Amaranthus viridis
Cleome gynandra
Digera arvensis
Partheium hysterophorus
Portulaca oleraceae
Sedges
Cyperus rotundus
C. DRYLAND WEEDS
The weeds that are common in rainfed condition are normally considered as
dryland weeds. Dryland weeds are usually hardy plants with deep root system. They are
adapted to withstand drought on account of mucilaginous nature of the stem and their
hairiness. They also found to posses under ground storage organs through which also it
55
can propagate. Dryland weeds do not mean that such plants do not flourish in places
with plenty of moisture and food.
Almost all weeds, which occur under garden land condition, will also occur under
dryland situations. The following are some of the morphological adaptations of dryland
weeds.
 Posses deep root system
 Has reduced number of leaves
 Thickened and hairy leaf
 Waxy coating
 Reduced leaf area
Weeds commonly observed under dryland conditions
Grasses
Cynodon dactylon
Chloris barbata
Dactyloctenium aegyptium
Broad-leaved weeds
Aristolochia bracteata
Abutilon indicum
Leucas aspera
Celosia argentea
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis
Tridax procumbens
Sedges
Cyperus rotundus
METHODS OF WEED MANAGEMENT
A. Physical methods of weed control
Mechanical or physical methods of weed control are being employed ever since
man began to grow crops. The mechanical methods include tillage, hoeing, hand
weeding, digging, cheeling, sickling, mowing, burning, flooding, mulching etc.
1. Tillage
2. Hoeing
3. Hand weeding
4. Digging
5. Cheeling
6. Sickling and mowing
7. Mowing
8. Burning
9. Flooding
56
Merits of physical methods
 Oldest, effective and economical method

 Large area can be covered in shorter time
 Safe method for environment
 Does not involve any skill
 Weeding is possible in between plants
 Deep rooted weeds can be controlled effectively
Demerits of physical methods
 Labour consuming
 Possibility of damaging crop
 Requires ideal and optimum specific condition
B. CULTURAL WEED CONTROL
Several cultural practices are employed for creating favourable condition for the
crop. These practices if used properly help in controlling weeds. Cultural methods,
alone cannot control weeds, but, help in reducing weed population. They should,
therefore, be used in combination with other methods. In cultural methods, tillage,
fertilizer application and irrigation are important. In addition, aspects like selection of
variety, time of sowing, cropping system, cleanliness of the farm etc., are also useful in
controlling weeds.
1. Field preparation
2. Summer tillage
3. Mulching
4. Solarisation
5. Stale seedbed
6. Blind tillage
Merits of cultural method
1. Low cost for weed control 2. Easy to adopt
3. No residual problem 4. Technical skill is not involved
5. No damage to crops 6. Effective weed control
7. Crop-weed ecosystem is maintained
Demerits of cultural method
1. Immediate and quick weed control is not possible
2. Weeds are kept under suppressed condition
3. Perennial and problematic weeds can not be controlled
4. Practical difficulty in adoption
57
C. BIOLOGICAL WEED CONTROL

 Use of living organisms viz., insects, disease organisms, herbivorous fish, snails
or even competitive plants for the control of weeds is called biological control
 In biological control method, it is not possible to eradicate weeds, but weed
population can be reduced
 This method is not useful to control all types of weeds. Introduced weeds are
best targets for biological control.
Examples
 Water hyacinth is controlled by Hyacinth moth
 Opuntia is controlled by scale insects
 Parthenium is controlled by Zygogramma beetle
 Strangler vine (Morrenia odorata) controlled by fungus- Phytophthora palmivora
(Devine - bioherbicide) in citrus gardens.
D. CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL
Using chemicals, generally referred as herbicides, for the control of weeds is
called chemical weed control. In 1944, discovery of 2,4-D Na salt became land mark in
herbicide usage. Commonly used herbicides are Pendimethalin, Fluchloralin, Atrazine
and Butachlor.
Merits of chemical weed control
 Herbicides can be recommended for adverse soil and climatic conditions, as
manual weeding is highly impossible during monsoon season
 Herbicides can control weeds even before they emerge from the soil so that crops
can germinate and grow in completely weed-free environment at early stages. It is
usually not possible with physical weed control
 Weeds, which resemble like crop in vegetative phase, may escape in manual
weeding. However, these weeds are controlled by herbicides
 Herbicides are highly suitable for broadcasted and closely spaced crops
 Control the weeds without any injury to the root system of the associated standing
crop especially in plantation crops like Tea and Coffee
 Reduces the need for pre planting tillage
 Controls many perennial weed species
 Herbicides control the weeds in the field itself or in-situ controlling, whereas,
mechanical method may lead to dispersal of weed species through seed
58
 It is profitable where labour is scarce and expensive

 Suited for minimum tillage concept and highly economical
Demerits
 Pollutes the environment
 Affects the soil microbes if the dose exceeds
 Herbicide causes drift effect to the adjoining field. eg. 2,4-D to cotton crop.
 It requires certain amount of minimum technical knowledge for calibration and
spraying
 Leaves residual effects
 Some herbicides are highly costly
 Suitable herbicides are not available for mixed and inter-cropping system.
Integrated weed management
It is a method whereby all economically, ecologically and toxicologically justifiable
methods are employed to keep the harmful organisms below the threshold level of
economic damage, keeping in the foreground the conscious employment of natural
limiting factors (FAO definition)
 Uses a variety of technologies in a single weed management with the objective to
produce optimum crop yield at a minimum cost taking into consideration
ecological and socio-economic constraints under a given agro-ecosystem.
 A system in which two or more methods are used to control weeds. These
methods may include cultural practices, natural enemies and selective herbicides.
Exercise
1. Observe the common weeds present in arable lands by listing their characters.
2. How will you differentiate the rice plant with that of Echinochloa sp. at young
stage?
3. List out the weeds you have observed in the fields, channels and bunds.
4. Have you noticed any difference in weed composition of rice field and that of
other crop planted in the wetland? List the same.
5. Practice the different weed management practices.
59
EX NO.13. OBSERVATION OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF IRRIGATION

Date:
______________________________________________________________________
Irrigation
The artificial application of water to soil at the right time, right quantity and right
place to assist in the production of crops.
Irrigation methods
1. Surface
2. Sub surface Sprinkler (overhead)
3. Pressurized Irrigation
Drip irrigation
I. Surface irrigation
Water is applied on the surface of the soil depending upon the topography of
land, soil type, crops to be grown, quantity and quality of irrigations water available,
source and availability of water, energy and labour required in conveyance. The surface
irrigation practices are,
Uncontrolled flooding
Primitive and wasteful method. Practiced where water is plenty and vast area to
be irrigated as in pastures. Great loss of water, soil erosion, un-uniform wetting and
deep percolation of water are the disadvantages.
Controlled flooding
The fields are divided into several plots and water is guided from the stream
through main and sub-channels in a controlled manner. Different methods of controlled
flooding.
a. Border irrigation
The lands are divided into strips of various dimensions depending on the slope
and type of soil. The strip may be of 3-15m width and 50 to 300 m length and are parallel
to each other.
i. Level border
Advantages
 Uniform distribution of water
 Avoid erosion
Disadvantages
 Require fine grading
 Needs large stream of water
60
ii. Graded & semi graded

 Permit mild slope
 Light irrigation is possible
b. Check basin irrigation
 Known as bed method, suitable under small stream (well irrigated)
 Beds and channels occupy fairly a large area
 Irrigation through main and branch channel.
c. Furrow method
 Field is made into ridges and furrows.
 The length may be 30 to 300m.
 The width based on the crops to be grown. Short furrows of 5-6 m length are
formed for vegetable crops.
II. Subsurface irrigation

In this method, underground porous tile tubes are imbedded in the sub-surface
region where root spread is expected. Water ooze-out through porous pipe and this is
used for drainage also. Open trenches are also used for providing water at sub-surface
layer.
III. Pressurized irrigation

a. Drip irrigation
Known as drip or trickle irrigation. Water is delivered at root zone of the crop
equal or lower than that of infiltration rate.
Advantages
 Suitable under scarce water condition

 Water saving up to 30-50%
 Reduce weed growth
 Saves labour
 Fertilizers can also be applied
 Suitable even under problem water condition
Disadvantages
 High initial cost

 Clogging of equipments
 No uniform wetting throughout the field
 Most suitable for perennial crops
61
Components
1. Pump to lift water 2. Head unit, a tank to maintain required pressure for water
circulation 3. Central distribution system to regulate water pressure and quantity
4. Fertilizer tank 5. Filter 6. Mains (PVC pipe) 7. Sub-mains and laterals 8. Drippers.
b. Sprinkler irrigation
Known as overhead method of irrigation. Water is applied as a spray or as
raindrops over the crop. Conveyance loss is eliminated. Ensures uniform wetting and
distribution of water throughout the field. Water saving upto 25-50%. Reduce surface
run off and suitable for sandy soils also.
Not suitable under heavy windy area. Not suitable when the irrigation water
contain large quantities of soluble salts. Initial cost is high.
Components
1. Pumping unit 2. Main, sub-mains and laterals 3. An aspirator or a container for
fertilizer application 4. Raisers 5. Spray head or boom
Exercise
1. List out the different methods of irrigation you have observed in the class.
2. Draw the diagram of important irrigation methods
62
63
EX NO. 14. PRACTICING HARVESTING OPERATIONS IN MAJOR FIELD CROPS

Date:
______________________________________________________________________
Harvesting
The operation of cutting, picking, plucking or digging or a combination of all these
for removing the useful and economic part from the plants.
The time of harvest is more important. Early harvest will have more moisture, ill
filled and immature grains, which reduce yield. Late harvest results in shattering of
grains and germination even before harvest.
Tools used for harvesting
a. Sickle: Plain edged and serrated sickle
b. Reaper harvest: Facilitate quicker coverage and timely harvest for crops like wheat,
rice, soybean and finger millet
c. Combine (combine harvester): It does both the operations of harvesting and
threshing.
Post harvest technologies/operations
Threshing
The processes of separating the grain from either the entire crop or from the ear
heads. The ears are spread out on a hard floor and the grain is separated by beating or
striking with sticks. The ears are also at times trodden by cattle. Threshing machines are
also used to handle large quantities of harvest.
Winnowing
It is the processes of separating the grain from the chaff and other inert material.
Seed cleaning and grading
It is very essential to clean and grade the seeds to ensure good crop stand after
sowing.
Drying
Drying or dehydration is the process wherein moisture is removed from a food
product to enhance its storability, transportability, flavour or texture. By reduction of
moisture content of grains to very low levels, the opportunity for microbial deterioration is
eliminated.
Method of drying can be broadly divided into 1. Sun drying or solar drying and 2.
Mechanical drying.
Exercise:
1. Practice harvesting of crops and write in brief about harvesting
64
65
EX NO. 15. PARTICIPATION IN ON-GOING FIELD OPERATIONS DURING

Date: ON- CAMPUS / OFF-CAMPUS VISIT
______________________________________________________________________
66
EX NO.16. VISIT TO NEARBY AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH STATION

Date:
______________________________________________________________________
67
68

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Fundamentals of Agronomy and Agricultural Heritage

PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

Certified that this is the bonafide record of work done by

External examiner Course Teacher

Ex. Date of Remarks

EX NO. 1. OBSERVING WETLAND FARMING SYSTEMS AND IDENTIFICATION

Crops grown in Wetlands

I Common Name Botanical name

1 Black gram (Urd bean/ Ulundhu) : Vigna mungo

1 Sesame (Gingelly) / Til : Sesamum indicum

1 Cotton (Rice fallow) : G . hirsutum (American cotton)

1 Sugarcane : Saccharum officinarum

1 Dhaincha : Sesbania aculeate

EX. NO. 2. OBSERVING GARDEN LAND AND DRYLAND FARMING SYSTEMS

Dry land based integrated farming system

Crops grown under gardenland and drylands

Common Name Botanical name

IV. OIL SEEDS

VII. FORAGE CROPS

EX. NO. 3. IDENTIFICATION OF SEEDS, MANURES, FERTILIZERS, GREEN

EX. NO.4. IDENTIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS

Implements - Power tillers operated

EX. NO.5. ACQUIRING SKILL IN HANDLING PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

 Opening soil and preparing seed bed

 It ploughs deep and pulverizes the soil

Sub-soil plough / Chisel plough

In addition to savings in cost and time more uniformity, thoroughness in the

EX No. 6. PRACTICING DIFFERENT METHODS OF LAND CONFIGURATION FOR

 It should be in an elevated area having good drainage facility

EX NO. 7. PRACTICING DIFFERENT METHODS OF LAND CONFIGURATION FOR

 Can ensure optimum plant population

 Nursery raising is expensive

Nursery bed preparation

Nursery area requirement

Sorghum : 7.5 cents/ha (300 m2)

Fingermillet : 12.5 cents/ha (500 m2)

Age of seedlings at planting

Sorghum : 17-18 days

1. Prepare the nursery bed for one irrigated crop.

EX NO.8. PRACTICING DIFFERENT METHODS OF SEED TREATMENTS,

 To protect the seeds from the pest and diseases

Soaking in water of 75 to 80C. The volume should be 4 to 5 times that of seed

No. Line sowing Random sowing

4. Drill sowing (or) Drilling

Different crop geometries are available for crop production

EX NO.10. WORKING OUT MANURE AND FERTILIZER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS

 It contains 5.5: 4.0: 2.0 per cent N, P2O5 and K2O.

WORKING OUT OF FERTILIZER SCHEDULE

Quantity of fertilizer to be 100

Conversion factors to workout quantity of fertilizer from nutrient

EX NO.11. PRACTICING METHODS OF APPLICATION: MANURES AND

EX NO.12. IDENTIFICATION OF WEEDS, WEEDING PRACTICES AND HANDLING

a. Adapted to waterlogged condition

Weeds commonly observed under wetland conditions

B. GARDENLAND / IRRIGATED DRYLAND WEEDS

Merits of physical methods

 Oldest, effective and economical method

C. BIOLOGICAL WEED CONTROL

 It is profitable where labour is scarce and expensive

EX NO.13. OBSERVATION OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF IRRIGATION

ii. Graded & semi graded

II. Subsurface irrigation

III. Pressurized irrigation