Acute/Cronic

Sr. NO Damage Type DM Description Description Materials Ph/Temperature Mechanical property change Damage Mode Inspection Techniques C.R Critical factors Prevention
 Metal loss rates depend on the velocity and concentration of impacting medium
(i.e., particles, liquids, droplets, slurries, two-phase flow), the size and hardness
of impacting particles, the hardness and corrosion resistance of material subject
Erosion is the accelerated mechanical removal of surface material as a to erosion, and the angle of impact. Erosion-corrosion is best mitigated by using more corrosion-
result of relative movement between, or impact from solids, liquids, vapor Above threshold Velocity. resistant alloys and/or altering the process environment to reduce
or any combination thereof. Factors which contribute to an increase in localized loss in thickness in the form of pits, Visual maily corrosivity, for example, deaeration, condensate injection or the
Erosion-corrosion is a description for the damage that occurs when corrosivity of the environment, such as grooves, gullies, waves, rounded holes and valleys. UT checks or RT can be used to detect the extent Softer alloys such as copper and aluminum alloys that are easily worn from addition of inhibitors.
14 Mechanical and Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms Erosion/Erosion – Corrosion corrosion contributes to erosion by removing protective films or scales, or All metals, alloys and refractories. temperature, pH, etc., can increase susceptibility These losses often exhibit a directional pattern. of metal loss. mechanical damage may be subject to severe metal loss under high velocity Resistance is generally not improved through increasing substrate
by exposing the metal surface to further corrosion under the combined to metal loss. Failures can occur in a relatively short time. IR scans for refractory loss on stream conditions. hardness alone.
action of erosion and corrosion. The size, shape, density and hardness of the impacting medium affect the metal Higher molybdenum containing alloys are used for improved
loss rate.
Although increasing hardness of the metal substrate is a common approach to resistance to naphthenic acid corrosion.
minimize damage, it is not always a good , where corrosion plays a significant
role.
 Critical factors include the physical location (industrial, marine, rural); moisture
(humidity), particularly designs that trap moisture or when present in a cooling
tower mist; temperature; presence of salts, sulfur compounds and dirt.
Attack will be general or localized
A form of corrosion that occurs from moisture associated with General-if no coating. Marine environments can be very corrosive (20 mpy) as are industrial
atmospheric conditions. Marine environments and moist polluted Metal loss may not be visually evident, although environments (5-10 mpy). Surface preparation and proper coating application are critical for
22 Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness . Atmospheric Corrosion industrial environments with airborne contaminants are most severe. Dry CS, Low alloy and copper alloyed aluminum up to about 250°F (121°C) VT and UT Inland locations are moderately corrosive environments (~1-3 mpy) long-term protection in corrosive environments.
normally a distinctive iron oxide (red rust) scale
rural environments cause very little corrosion. forms Dry rural environments usually have (<1 mpy).
Chlorides, H2S, fly ash and other airborne contaminates from cooling tower drift,
furnace stacks and other equipment accelerate corrosion.
Bird turds can also cause accelerated corrosion and unsightly stains.

Design of insulation system, insulation type, temperature and environment are Mitigation is best achieved by using appropriate paints/coatings and
CS and alloy-localized pitting/corrosion VT, UT, UT (guided wave), EC critical factors. maintaining the insulation/sealing/vapor barriers to prevent
300SS and Duplex localized pitting corrosion and SCC. Real-time profile x-ray (for small bore piping). Corrosion becomes more severe at 212°F (100°C) and 350°F (121°C) moisture ingress.
300 Series SS are also subject to Stress Corrosion Neutron backscatter techniques for wet insulation Flame-sprayed aluminum coatings have been used on carbon steels.
Cracking (SCC) if chlorides are present, while the IR thermography looking for wet insulation and/or Cyclic thermal operation or intermittent service can increase corrosion. The coating corrodes preferentially by galvanic action.
10°F (–12°C) and 350°F (175°C) for carbon and low duplex SS are less susceptible. damaged and missing insulation under the jacket. Equipment that operates below the water dewpoint tends to condense water High quality non-metallic coatings, properly applied to the surfaces
Corrosion of piping, pressure vessels and structural components resulting alloy steels, After insulation is removed from carbon and low Considerations for insulation removal; on the metal surface thus providing a wet environment and increasing the risk of to be insulated can provide long term protection.
23 Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness . Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI) from water trapped under insulation or fireproofing. CS, Low alloy, 300 SS and Duplex 140ºF (60°C) and 400ºF (205°C) for 300SS and corrosion.
alloy steels, CUI damage often appears as loose, 1) History of CUI (comparison) Thin Al foil wrapped on SSl piping and equipment has been used on
duplex SS Damage is aggravated by contaminants that may be leached out of the
flaky scale covering the corroded component. 2) condition of covering and insulation. insulation, such as chlorides. SS as an effective barrier under insulation.
Damage may be highly localized. 3) Evidence of fluid leakage, e.g. stains. Environments that provide airborne contaminants such as chlorides (marine Careful selection of insulating materials is important. Closed-cell
Tell tale signs of insulation and paint/coating damage 4) Equipment in intermittent service. environments, cooling tower drift) or SO2 (stack emissions) can accelerate foam glass materials will hold less water against the vessel/pipe wall
often accompany CUI 5) Condition/age of coating than mineral wool and potentially be less corrosive.
corrosion. It is not usually possible to modify operating conditions.

If the process side temperature is above 140°F
(60°C), a scaling potential exists with fresh water
and becomes more likely as process temperatures
increase and as cooling water inlet temperatures
rise. Brackish and salt water outlet temperatures
General or localized corrosion of carbon steels and other metals caused by above about 115°F (46°C) may cause serious
24 Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness . Cooling Water Corrosion dissolved salts, gases, organic compounds or microbiological activity. CS, all SS, Cu, Al, Ti and Ni alloy scaling.
When connected to a more anodic material,
titanium may suffer severe hydriding
embrittlement. Generally, the problem occurs at
temperatures above 180°F (82°C) but can occur at
lower temperatures.
Cooling water corrosion can result in many different
forms of damage including general corrosion,
pitting ,MIC, SCC and fouling.
For CS general corrosion when O2 is dissolved.
Localized corrosion result from underdeposite,
Creivce and MIC,
Wavy or smooth corrosion at nozzle inlets/outlets
and tube inlets may be due to flow induced
corrosion, erosion or abrasion.
Corrosion at ERW weld areas will appear as grooving
along the weld fusion lines.
Metallurgical analysis of tube samples may be
required to confirm the mode of failure.
CW should be monitored for variables that affect
corrosion and fouling including, pH, oxygen
content, cycles of conc., biocide residual,
biological activity, cooling water outlet temp.,HC
contamination and process leaks.
Periodic calculation of U-factors (heat exchanger
performance measurement) will provide
information on scaling and fouling.
Ultrasonic flow meters can be used to check the
velocity of water in the tubes.
EC or IRIS inspection of tubes.
Splitting representative tubes.
Cooling water corrosion and fouling are closely related and should be considered
together. Fluid temperature, type of water (fresh, brackish, salt water) and the
type of cooling system (once-through, open circulating, closed circulating),
oxygen content, and fluid velocities are critical factors.
Increasing cooling water outlet temp. and or process side inlet temp. tend to
increase C.R as well as fouling tendency.
Increasing oxygen content tends to increase carbon steel corrosion rates.
Velocity limits depend on the tube material and water quality.
Low velocities can promote increased corrosion. Velocities below about 3 fps (1
m/s) are likely to result in fouling, sedimentation and increased corrosion in fresh chloride content, low velocity, high process temperatures, and/or
and brackish water systems.
Copper/zinc alloys can suffer dezincification in fresh, brackish and salt water
systems. The copper/zinc alloys can suffer SCC if any ammonia or ammonium
compounds are present in the water or on the process side.
Cooling water corrosion (and fouling) can be prevented by proper
design, operation and chemical treatment of cooling water systems.
Design for process side inlet temperatures below 140°F (60°C).
Minimum and maximum water velocities must maintained,
particularly in salt water systems.
The metallurgy of heat exchanger components may need to be
upgraded for improved resistance, especially in waters with high
poorly maintained water chemistry.
With very few exceptions, cooling water should be on the tube side
to minimize stagnant areas.

The partial pressure of CO2, pH and temperature are critical factors.

Carbon di oxide (CO2) corrosion results when CO2 dissolves in water to
form carbonic acid (H2CO3). The acid may lower the pH and sufficient
26 Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness . CO2 Corrosion quantities may promote general corrosion and/or pitting corrosion of
carbon steel.
CS and low alloy steels.
400 Series SS and duplex SS are also resistant.
Increasing condensate pH above 6 can reduce
corrosion in steam condensate systems.
When effluent stream drops below the dew
point, approximately 300°F (149°C)
Localized thinning and/or pitting corrosion of CS.
CS may suffer deep pitting and grooving in areas of
turbulence.
“Mesa” type corrosion typical of CO2 corrosion.
Corrosion may occur along the bottom surface of the
pipe if there is a separate water phase, at the top
surface of the pipe if condensation in wet gas
systems is anticipated, and in the turbulent flow
areas at elbow and tees.
VT, UT and RT-where water wetting is anticipated.
Monitor water analyses (pH, Fe, etc.) to determine
changes in operating conditions.
1000mpy-Acute
Preferential corrosion of weld seams may require
angle probe UT or RT.
Increasing partial pressures of CO2 result in lower pH condensate and higher
rates of corrosion.
Corrosion occurs in the liquid phase, often at locations where CO2 condenses
from the vapor phase.
Increasing temperatures increase corrosion rate up to the point where CO2 is
vaporized.
Increasing the level of chromium in steels offers no major improvement in
resistance until a minimum of 12% is reached.
Vapor phase inhibitors may be required to protect against
condensing vapors.
Increasing condensate pH above 6 can reduce corrosion in steam
condensate systems.
Steam condensate systems that experience CO2 corrosion are
usually the result of operating problems.
The 300 Series SS are highly resistant to corrosion in most
applications. Selective upgrading to SS is usually required in
operating units designed to produce and/or remove CO2 (such as
hydrogen plants and CO2 removal units).

Localized corrosion due to the concentration of caustic or alkaline salts
that usually occurs under evaporative or high heat transfer
30 Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness . Caustic Corrosion
conditions. However, general corrosion can also occur depending on
alkali or caustic solution strength.
Carbon steel and 300 Series SS have serious
corrosion problems in high strength caustic
Primarily CS, low alloy and 300 SS. solutions above about 150°F (66°C).
Alloy 400 and some other nickel base alloys exhibit much CS- For high solution strength caustic can result in
lower corrosion rates. general corrosion above 175°F (79°C) and very
high corrosion rates above 200°F (93°C).
Localized metal loss as grooves in a boiler tube or
locally thinned areas under insulating deposits.
Deposits may fill corroded depressions and mask
damage below.
In vertical tubes, localized gouging may appear as a
circumferential groove.
In horizontal or sloped tubes, grooving may appear
at the top of the tube or as longitudinal grooves on
opposite sides of the tube
For process equipment, UTG is useful. However,
localized losses due to caustic corrosion may be
difficult to locate.
Injection points should be inspected in accordance
with API 570.
UT scans and radiography can be used.
Steam generation equipment may require visual
inspection with the use a boroscope.
Major contributing factors are the presence of caustic (NaOH or KOH).
Some process units utilize caustic solutions for neutralizing, for removal of sulfur
compounds, or for removal of chloride compounds.
A concentrating mechanism must exist to build up the caustic strength.
Caustic may become concentrated by departure from DNB, evaporation and
deposition.
In steam generating equipment, caustic corrosion is best prevented
through proper design. Damage can be minimized by reducing the
amount of free caustic, by ensuring adequate water flooding and
water flow, by ensuring proper burner management to minimize hot
spots on heater tubes, and by minimizing the ingress of alkaline
producing salts into condensers.
In process equipment, caustic injection facilities should be designed
to allow proper mixing and dilution of caustic in order to avoid the
concentration of caustic on hot metal surfaces.
 Surface breaking cracks can occur from the process VT,UT
When hydrotesting, use low chloride content water and dry out
side or externally under insulation. PT or phase analysis EC techniques are the thoroughly and quickly.
The material usually shows no visible signs of preferred methods Chloride content, pH, temperature, stress, presence of oxygen and alloy Properly applied coatings under insulation.
All 300 Series SS are highly susceptible. corrosion. Eddy current inspection methods have also been composition are critical factors. Avoid designs that allow stagnant regions where chlorides can
Duplex stainless steels are more resistant. SCC usually occurs at pH values above 2. At lower pH used on condenser tubes as well as piping and Increasing temperatures and Cl increase the susceptibility to cracking. concentrate or deposit.
Surface initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of 300 Series SS Nickel base alloys are highly resistant, but not immune. SCC usually occurs at pH values above 2 values, uniform corrosion. pressure vessels. No thershold limit for Cl and O2, they increase SCC.
and some nickel base alloys under the combined action of tensile stress, Low-nickel stainless steels, such as the duplex (ferrite- SCC tendency decreases toward the alkaline pH Characteristic stress corrosion cracks have many Extremely fine cracks may be difficult to find with Heat transfer conditions significantly increase cracking susceptibility because A high temperature stress relief of 300 Series SS after fabrication
40 Environment – Assisted Cracking Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking (Cl-SCC) temperature and an aqueous chloride environment. The presence of austenite) stainless steels, have improved region. branches and may be visually detectable by a PT. Special surface preparation methods, including they allow chlorides to concentrate. Alternate exposures to wet-dry conditions may reduce residual stresses. However, consideration should be
dissolved oxygen increases propensity for cracking. resistance over the 300 Series SS but are not immune. Above about 140 F (60C) craze-cracked appearance of the surface. polishing or high-pressure water blast, may be or steam and water are also conducive to cracking. given to the possible effects of sensitization that may occur,
Carbon steels, low alloy steels and 400 Series SS are not Usually branched transgranular but somtime required in some cases, especially in high pressure Ni alloy-The greatest susceptibility is at a nickel increasing susceptibility to polythionic SCC, possible distortion
problems and potential reheat cracking.
susceptible to Cl-SCC intergranular for sensitized 300 SS services. content of 8% to 12%. Alloys with nickel contents above 35% are highly resistant Welds in 300 Series SS usually contain some ferrite, producing a
Fracture surfaces often have a brittle appearance. Often, RT is not sufficiently sensitive to detect and alloys above 45% are nearly immune. duplex structure that is usually more resistant to Cl–SCC.
Corrosion-resistant nickel-based alloys are also cracks except in advanced stages where a Nickel base alloys are highly resistant but not immune
susceptible to cracking under severe conditions significant network of cracks has developed.

Susceptibility to caustic embrittlement in caustic soda (NaOH) and caustic potash

Caustic embrittlement is a form of stress corrosion cracking characterized
by surface-initiated cracks that occur in piping and equipment exposed to
Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking
42 Environment – Assisted Cracking (Caustic Embrittlement) caustic, primarily adjacent to non-PWHT’d welds.
Special care must be taken with steam tracing design and steamout of
non-PWHT’d carbon steel piping and equipment
CS, low alloy steels and 300 SS are susceptible.
Nickel base alloys are more resistant
A heat treatment at 1150°F (621°C) is considered
an effective stress relieving heat treatment for
carbon steel.
Example-15% to 20% caustic service at 140°F to
240°F (60°C to 115°C).
Propagates parallel to the weld in adjacent base (KOH) solutions is a function of caustic strength, metal temperature and stress Cracking can be effectively prevented by means of a stress-relieving
metal but can also occur in the weld deposit or heat- Crack detection is best performed with WFMT, EC, levels. heat treatment (e.g. PWHT)at 1150°F (621°C).
affected zones. RT or ACFM. Increasing caustic concentration and increasing temperatures increase the 300 Series SS offer little advantage in resistance to cracking over CS.
Described as a spider web of small cracks PT may not be effective for finding tight, scale- likelihood and severity of cracking.
filled cracks and should not be used as the only Cracking can occur at low caustic levels if a concentrating mechanism is present.
Cracks can be confirmed through metallographic means of detection. Nickel base alloys are more resistant to cracking and may be
examination as surface breaking flaws that are Fine cracks may be difficult to find with RT.
In such cases, caustic conc. of 50 to 100 ppm are sufficient to cause required at higher temperatures and/or caustic conc.
predominantly intergranular. very fine, oxide-filled Crack depths-UT technique including external cracking. Steamout of non-PWHT’d carbon steel piping and equipment should
cracks. SWUT It is generally accepted that stresses approaching yield are required for SCC so be avoided.
Cracking in 300 Series SS is typically transgranular that thermal stress relief (PWHT) is effective in preventing caustic SCC Proper design and operation of the injection system is required to
and is very difficult to distinguish from chloride stress AET for monitoring crack growth and locating Crack propagation rates increase dramatically with temperature. Concentration ensure that caustic is properly dispersed before entering the high-
corrosion cracking growing cracks temperature crude preheat system.
can occur as a result of alternating wet and dry conditions, localized hot spots or
high temperature steamout.

Amine corrosion refers to the general and/or localized corrosion that
occurs principally on carbon steel in amine treating processes. Corrosion is
not caused by the amine itself, but results from dissolved acid gases (CO2
and H2S), amine degradation products, Heat Stable Amine Salts (HSAS)
Uniform or Localized Loss in Thickness Amine Corrosion
48 Phenomena-Refinery and other contaminants.
Note: Ammonia, H2S and HCN accelerate corrosion in the regenerator
overhead condenser and outlet piping as well as reflux piping, valves and
pumps.
Note-2 causes Under Deposite corrosion.
Aggressive corrosion occurring in hydroprocessing reactor effluent
Uniform or Localized Loss in Thickness Ammonium Bisulfide Corrosion (Alkaline Sour streams and in units handling alkaline sour water.
49 Phenomena-Refinery Water) Several major failures have occurred in hydroprocessing reactor effluent
systems due to localized corrosion.
Note-2 causes Under Deposite corrosion.
in order of increasing resistance: CS, low alloy, 300 Series well above the water dewpoint [> 300°F (149°C)]
General or localized corrosion, often pitting, normally occurring under
50 Uniform or Localized Loss in Thickness Ammonium Chloride Corrosion ammonium chloride or amine salt deposits, often in the absence of SS, Alloys 400, duplex SS, 800, and 825, Alloys 625 and
Phenomena-Refinery C276 and titanium.
a free water phase.
Corrosion of steel due to acidic sour water containing H2S at a pH
between 4.5 and 7.0. Carbon dioxide (CO2) may also be present.
Uniform or Localized Loss in Thickness Sour Water Corrosion (Acidic) Sour waters containing significant amounts of ammonia, chlorides or
57
Phenomena-Refinery cyanides may significantly affect pH but are outside the scope of this
section.
Note-Under Deposite Corrosion.
Amine cracking is a common term applied to the cracking of steels under
the combined action of tensile stress and corrosion in aqueous
alkanolamine systems used to remove/absorb H2S and/or CO2 and
Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking their mixtures from various gas and liquid hydrocarbon streams.
61 Environment-Assisted Cracking-Refinery Amine cracking is a form of alkaline stress corrosion cracking. It is most Carbon steel and low alloy steels.
often found at or adjacent to non-PWHT’d carbon steel weldments or in
highly cold worked parts.
Amine cracking should not be confused with several other types of SCC
that can occur in amine environments like Wet H2S and Carbonate SCC.
Hydrogen Blistering: Blistering results from hydrogen generated by
corrosion, not hydrogen gas from the process stream.
HIC: Interconnecting cracks between the blisters often have a stair step
appearance, and so HIC is sometimes referred to as “stepwise cracking”.
SOHIC: similar to HIC but is a potentially more damaging form of cracking
which appears as arrays of cracks stacked on top of each other. The result
is a through-thickness crack that is perpendicular to the surface and is
Wet H2S Damage (Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)Wet driven by high levels of stress (residual or applied). They usually appear in
62 Environment-Assisted Cracking-Refinery H2S the base metal adjacent to the weld heat affected zones where they Carbon steel and low alloy steels.
initiate from HIC damage or other cracks or defects including sulfide stress
cracks.
SSC: cracking of metal under the combined action of tensile
stress and corrosion in the presence of water and H2S. SSC is a form of
hydrogen stress cracking resulting from absorption of atomic hydrogen
that is produced by the sulfide corrosion process on the metal surface.
SSC can initiate on the surface of steels in highly localized zones of high
hardness in the weld metal and heat affected zones.
Corrosion rates increase with increasing
Primarily carbon steel. temperature, particularly in rich amine service.
Temperatures above about 220°F (104°C) can
300 Series SS are highly resistant. result in acid gas flashing and severe localized
corrosion due to 2-phase flow, if the pressure drop
is high enough.
In hydroprocessing reactors, FCC reactors and
coker furnaces, nitrogen in the feed is converted
to ammonia and reacts with H2S to form NH4HS.
NH4HS precipitates out of the gas phase in the
Carbon steel is less resistant. reactor effluent stream at temperatures below
300 Series SS, duplex SS, aluminum alloys and nickel base about 150°F (66°C), depending on the
alloys are more resistant, depending on ammonium concentration of NH3 and H2S, and may cause
bisulfide (NH4HS) concentration and velocity. fouling and plugging unless flushed away with
wash water.
NH4HS salts precipitate in the reactor effluent
streams when temperatures drop to within the
range of 120°F to 150°F (49°C to 66°C).
Corrosion rates increase with increasing
temperature.
Primarily affects carbon steel.
At a given pressure, the H2S concentration in the
SS, copper and nickel alloys are usually resistant.
sour water decreases as temperature increases.
Copper alloys are vulnerable to corrosion in environments
with ammonia.
Cracking has been reported down to ambient
temperatures with some amines.
PH-
>50 wppm dissolved H2S in the free water.
free water with pH <4 and some dissolved H2S
present.
free water with pH >7.6 and 20 wppm dissolved
hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the water S present.
>0.0003 MPa (0.05 psia) partial pressure of H
and some dissolved H2S in the gas phase.
Temperature
Blistering, HIC, and SOHIC- between ambient and
300F (150oC) or higher.
SSC-generally occurs below about 180oF (82oC).
Hydrogen charging potential increases with
increasing temperature if the aqueous phase is not
eliminated by elevated temperature.
Carbon steel and low alloy steels suffer general
uniform thinning, localized corrosion or localized
underdeposit attack
Thinning will be uniform in nature when the process return line, the hot lean/rich amine piping, and the
stream velocity is low while it will be localized for
high velocities associated with turbulence.
General loss in thickness of carbon steel, with the
potential for extremely high localized rates of wall
loss can occur at changes in direction or turbulent
flow areas above 2 wt % concentration.
Low velocities may result in extremely localized
under-deposit corrosion if insufficient water is
available to dissolve the NH4HS salts that
precipitated.
Heat exchangers may show plugging and loss of duty
due to fouling.
NH4HS rapidly corrodes admiralty brass tubes and
other copper alloys.
The salts have a whitish, greenish or brownish
appearance. Water washing and/or steamout will
remove deposits so that evidence of fouling may not
be evident during an internal visual inspection.
Corrosion underneath the salts is typically very
localized and results in pitting.
The presence of deposits is often detected when the
pressure drop increases or the thermal
performance of exchangers has deteriorated.
Typically general thinning.
However, localized corrosion or localized
underdeposit attack can occur, especially if oxygen is
present.
300 Series SS are susceptible to pitting attack and
may experience crevice corrosion and/or chloride
stress corrosion cracking
Surface breaking flaws that initiate on the ID of
weld HAZ but has also been found in weld metal and
high stress areas adjacent to the HAZ.
develops parallel to the weld and there may be
parallel cracks.
At set-on nozzles, the cracks are radial in the base
metal, i.e., they fan out from the bore. At set-in
nozzles, the cracks are usually parallel to the weld.
On Surface, similar to H2S cracking.
Since the driving force for cracking is residual stress,
cracks are often found on the process side, opposite
external attachment welds.
Positive identification of amine cracking can be
confirmed by metallographic analysis. The cracking
is typically intergranular, oxide filled with some
branching
Hydrogen blisters appear as bulges on the ID or OD Crack detection is best performed with WFMT, EC,
surface of the steel and can be found anywhere in
the shell plate or head of a pressure vessel. Blistering PT cannot find tight cracks.
has been found on rare occasions in pipe and very
rarely in the middle of a weld.
In pressure-containing equipment, SOHIC and SSC
damage is most often associated with the for measuring crack depth.
weldments. SSC can also be found at any location For the development of more detailed inspection
where zones of high hardness are found in vessels or plans including methods, coverage and surface
in high strength steel components.
Internal-Visual examination and UT thickness.
External-UT scans or PRT.
orrosion coupons and/or corrosion probes in hot
areas of the unit such as the reboiler feed and
stripper overhead condenser piping.
Fouling of exchangers and filters can be a sign of
corrosion problems on the unit.
Determine ammonium bisulfide content
through sampling and calculation.
Frequent UT scanning and/or RT profile thickness
of high and low velocity areas.
UT downstream of control valves at high NH4HS
concentrations.
IRIS, RFEC and flux leakage inspection of steel air Acute-Aggressive corrosion
cooler tubes.
EC inspect non-magnetic air cooler tubes.
Monitor water injection facilities and flow meters
to ensure proper operation.
Accumulation of ammonium chloride salts can be
very localized and the corrosion may be difficult
to detect.
RT or UT
Monitoring of the feed streams and effluent
waters will give an indication of the amount of
ammonia and chlorides present. If the ammonium Corrosion rates can be extremely high.
chloride salt deposition temperature has been
calculated, temperature monitoring and control
may be effective
Corrosion probes or coupons
Scanning ultrasonic thickness methods and PRT.
Process and corrosion monitoring.
corrosion probes and corrosion coupons.
The water draws of overhead accumulators should
be monitored periodically to measure pH.
Properly placed corrosion probes and corrosion
coupons provide additional information on the
rate and extent of potential damage.
Although cracks may be seen visually, crack
detection is best performed with WFMT or ACFM
techniques. Surface preparation by grit blasting,
high pressure water blasting or other methods is
required for WFMT but may not be necessary for
ACFM.
PT is usually not effective in finding tight and/or
scale filled cracks.
If the cracks have minimum branching, crack
depths can be measured with a suitable UT
technique including external SWUT.
AET can also be used for monitoring crack growth
and locating growing cracks.
Inspection for wet H2S damage generally focuses
on weld seams and nozzles.
RT or ACFM techniques.
SWUT is especially useful for volumetric inspection
and crack sizing.
Electrical resistance instruments are not effective
AET can be used for monitoring crack growth
preparation, the reader is directed to extensive
recommendations on detection and repair
outlined in NACE RP0296
High C.R [>100 mpy (>2.5 mm/y]
Corrosion depends on design and operating practices, the type of amine, amine
concentration, contaminants, temperature and velocity.
Amine corrosion is very closely tied to the operation of the unit.
type of amine used most to least corrosive as follows: monoethanolamine
(MEA), diglycolamine (DGA), diisopropylamine (DIPA), diethanolamine (DEA), and
methyldiamine (MDEA).
Lean amine solutions are generally not corrosive, However, HSAS above about
2%, significantly increase corrosion rates.
Lean amine solutions contain a small amount of H2S which helps to maintains a
stable iron sulfide film. Overstripped lean solutions can be corrosive if there is
inadequate H2S present to maintain the protective iron sulfide film.
Process stream velocity will influence rate and nature of attack.For CS, 3 to 6 fps
for rich amine and about 20 fps for lean amine.
Good design practice should consist of symmetrical and
NH4HS concentration, H2S partial pressure, velocity and/or localized turbulence, hydraulically balanced flow in and out of air cooled exchangers.
pH, temperature, alloy composition and flow distribution are all critical factors
Carefully review design and localized velocities as process conditions
to consider. change, particularly as NH4HS conc. exceed 2 wt % and begin to
Corrosion increases with increasing NH4HS concentration and increasing
approach 8 wt % or higher.
velocity. Above 2 wt % NH4HS, solutions are increasingly corrosive. Maintain velocities within industry guidelines of 10 to 20 fps for
NH4HS salt deposits lead to underdeposit corrosion and fouling. The salts are carbon steel. CS - high C.Rs above about 8 wt % NH4HS
not corrosive unless they become hydrated at which point they are very concentration
corrosive. Use resistant materials of construction (e.g. Alloy 825, duplex SS)
Oxygen and iron leads to increased corrosion. at velocities above 20 fps.
Presence of cyanides increases severity of corrosion by destroying the normally
protective sulfide film. Titanium and Alloy C276 are used in SWS.
Aluminum exchanger tubes are extremely susceptible to erosion-
corrosion damage.
Concentration (NH3, HCl, H2O or amine salts), temperature and water availability
are the critical factors.
Ammonium chloride salts may precipitate from high temp. streams as they are
cooled, depending upon the conc. of NH3 and HCl, and may corrode piping and Alloys that are more pitting resistant will have improved resistance
equipment at to ammonium chloride salts but even the most corrosion resistant
temp. well above the water dewpoint [> 300°F (149°C)] nickel base alloys and titanium alloys may
Ammonium chloride salts are hygroscopic, and readily absorb water. A small Limit salts by limiting chlorides.
amount of water can lead to very aggressive corrosion [>100 mpy (>2.5 mm/y] . Water wash
Ammonium chloride and amine hydrochloride salts are highly water soluble, Filming amine inhibitors a
highly corrosive and form an acidic solution when mixed with water.
The presence of deposits is often detected when the pressure drop increases or
the thermal performance of exchangers has deteriorated.
H2S content, pH, temperature, velocity and oxygen concentration are all critical Other contaminants have a significant affect on water pH. For
factors. example, HCl and CO lower pH (more acidic). Ammonia significantly
The H2S conc. in the sour water is dependent on the H2S partial pressure in the
gas phase as well as temp. and pH. increases pH and is more often associated with alkaline sour water
Increasing concentrations of H2S tend to decrease solution pH down to about where the main concern is ammonia bisulfide corrosion
4.5.
Preventions
Above a pH of about 4.5, a protective, thin iron sulfide layer limits the corrosion
300 Series SS can be used at temperatures below about 140
rate. oF (60oC) where Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking (CSCC) is not
In some instances at a pH above 4.5, a thicker, porous sulfide film layer can form. likely.
This can promote pitting under sulfide deposits. Typically, this does not affect Copper alloys and nickel alloys are generally not susceptible to acid
the general corrosion rate. sour water corrosion. However,
The presence of air or oxidants may increase the corrosion and usually produces
pitting orunderdeposit attacks. copper alloys are vulnerable to corrosion in environments with
ammonia.
The critical factors are the level of tensile stress, amine concentration and
temperature.
Cracking is associated with residual stresses from welding, cold working or
fabrication.
Some refiners believe cracking will not occur below an amine
Cracking is more likely to occur in lean MEA and DEA services but is also found concentration of about 2% to 5%. However, local enrichment and
in most amines including MDEA and DIPA (ADIP).
steamout can reduce this limit and some plants have used lower
Increasing temperature and stress levels increases the likelihood and severity of limits down to 0.2%.
cracking. Refer to API RP 945 for guidelines on PWHT requirements for various Preventions
amine services. PWHT all carbon steel welds in piping and equipment in accordance
Amine cracking is most often associated with lean amine with API RP 945. The same requirement applies to repair welds and
services. The pure alkanolamine does not to internal and external attachment welds.
cause cracking.Cracking in rich amine services are most often associated with Use solid or clad stainless steel, Alloy 400 or other corrosion
wet H2S problems. resistant alloys in lieu of carbon steel.
Amine concentration does not appear to have a significant effect on the Water wash non-PWHT carbon steel piping and equipment prior to
propensity for cracking. welding, heat treatment or steamout.
Steelmaking:Blistering and HIC damage are strongly affected by the
All damage mechanisms are related to the absorption and permeation of presence of inclusions and laminations.
hydrogen in steels. HIC resistant steels outlined in NACE Publication 8X194.
pH: minimal at pH 7 and increase at both higher and lower pH. The presence of Improving steel cleanliness and processing to minimize blistering
HCN in the water phase significantly increases permeation in alkaline (high pH) and HIC damage may still leave the steel susceptible to SOHIC.
sour water. HIC is often found in so-called “dirty” steels.
Increasing levels of ammonia may push the pH higher
PWHT: Blistering and HIC damage develop without applied or
H2S: Hydrogen permeation increases with increasing H2S partial pressure. An residual stress so that PWHT will not prevent them from occurring.
arbitrary value of 50 wppm H2S in the water phase. The presence of as little as 1
Somewhat effective in reducing SOHIC damage.
wppm of H2S in the water found to be sufficient PWHT is highly effective in preventing or eliminating SSC
Susceptibility to SSC increases with increasing H2S partial press. above about Preventions
0.05 psi(0.0003 Mpa) H2S in steels with a tensile strength above 90 ksi or in alloy cladding and coatings.
steels with localized zones of weld or weld HAZ hardness above 237 HB. Process changes that affect the pH of the water phase and/or
Hardness:is primarily an issue with SSC. ammonia or cyanide concentration can help to reduce damage.A
Typical low-strength carbon steels should be controlled to produce weld common practice is to utilize wash water injection to dilute the HCN.
hardness <200 HB in accordance with NACE RP0472. These steels are not Cyanides can be converted to harmless thiocyanates by injecting
generally susceptible to SSC unless localized zones of hardness above 237 HB are dilute streams of ammonium polysulfides.
present. Blistering, HIC and SOHIC damage are not related to steel hardness. Small zones of hardness up to 22 HRC should be resistant to SSC.
Refer to NACE RP0472 for additional details.
PWHT can also help to minimize susceptibility to SOHIC.
Affected Equipments Related DM
All types of equipment exposed to moving fluids and/or catalyst are subject to
erosion and erosion-corrosion.
Hydroprocessing reactor effluent piping may be subject to erosion-corrosion
by ammonium bisulfide. Cavitation
Crude and vacuum unit piping and vessels exposed to naphthenic acids in
some crude oils may suffer severe erosion-corrosion metal loss depending on
the temperature, velocity, sulfur content and TAN level.
A paint or coating system in poor condition.
Equipment may be susceptible if cycled between ambient and higher or lower
operating temperatures.
Tanks and piping are particularly susceptible. Piping that rests on pipe
supports is very prone to attack due to water entrapment between the pipe CUI
and the support.
Piers and docks are very prone to attack.
Bimetallic connections such as copper to aluminum electrical connections

All insulated piping and equipment are susceptible to CUI under conditions
noted above even on piping and equipment where the insulation system
appears to be in good condition and no visual signs of corrosion are present.
Piping or equipment with damaged/leaking steam tracing.
Localized damage at paint and/or coating systems.
Vibrating piping systems,
Deadlegs (vents, drains, and other similar items).
Pipe hangers and other supports. Atmospheric, Chloride SCC
The first few feet of a horizontal pipe run adjacent to the bottom of a vertical and oxidation
run.
Termination of insulation in a vertical pipe.
Insulation jacketing seams located on the top of horizontal piping or
improperly lapped or sealed insulation jacketing.
Steam tracer tubing penetrations.
Termination of insulation at flanges and other piping components

MIC,
Cooling water corrosion is a concern with water-cooled heat exchangers and Cl SCC
cooling towers in all applications across all industries. galvanic corrosion

Boiler feedwater and condensate systems in all units are affected.

Effluent gas streams of the shift converters in hydrogen plants can be affected.
Corrosion usually occurs when the effluent stream drops below the dew point, Boiler water condensate corrosion
approximately 300°F (149°C). Corrosion rates as high as 1000 mpy have been and carbonate cracking
observed.
Overhead systems of regenerators in CO2 removal plants are affected.
Caustic corrosion is most often associated with boilers and steam generating
equipment including heat exchangers.
Similar concentrating effects of caustic may occur where caustic is added to
crude unit charge. Referred to as caustic gouging or ductile gouging.
Accelerated localized corrosion can occur in preheat exchangers, furnace Departure from Nucleate Boiling (DNB)
tubes and transfer lines, unless the caustic is effectively mixed in the oil
stream.
Units that use caustic for removing sulfur compounds from product streams.
Cracking has occurred in water-cooled condensers and in the process side of
crude tower overhead condensers.
Drains in hydroprocessing units are susceptible to cracking during
startup/shutdown if not properly purged.
Bellows and instrument tubing, particularly those associated with hydrogen Caustic SCC and polythionic acid SCC
recycle streams contaminated with chlorides, can be affected.
External Cl–SCC has also been a problem on insulated surfaces when
insulation gets wet.
Cracking has occurred in boiler drain lines.

Failures have occurred in improperly heat-traced piping or equipment as well

as heating coils and other heat transfer equipment.
Caustic embrittlement may occur in equipment as a result of steam cleaning
after being in caustic service. Amine cracking and carbonate cracking
Traces of caustic can become concentrated in BFW and can result in caustic
embrittlement of boiler tubes that alternate between wet and dry conditions
due to overfiring.
Crude, coker, FCC, hydrogen reforming, hydroprocessing, and tail gas units.
The regenerator reboiler and the regenerator are areas where the
temperature and turbulence of the amine stream are the highest and can
cause significant corrosion problems. Amine stress corrosion cracking
The rich amine side of the lean/rich exchangers, hot lean amine piping, hot
rich amine piping, the amine solution pumps, and the reclaimers are also areas
where corrosion problems occur.

Hydroprocessing Units.
FCC Units.
Sour Water Strippers (SWS)
Amine Units. Erosion/erosion corrosion
Delayed Coker

Crude Tower Overheads

Hydroprocessing
Catalytic Reforming
FCCU and coker fractionator overheads HCl corrosion, chloride SCC
Usally,Top pumparound streams,Reactor effluent streams are subject to
corrosion.

Acid sour water corrosion is a concern in overhead systems of FCC and coker Other factors to consider in these environments include wet
H2S damage and carbonate SCC.
gas fractionation plants with high H2S levels and low NH levels.

Cracking can occur in non-PWHT’d piping and equipment as a result exposure

to steamout and to short-term amine carryover.
All non-PWHT carbon steel piping and equipment in lean amine service Caustic stress corrosion cracking and carbonate stress
including contactors, absorbers, strippers, regenerators and heat exchangers corrosion cracking are two other forms of ASCC that are
as well as any equipment subject to amine carryover. similar in appearance.

In hydroprocessing units, increasing concentration of ammonium bisulfide

above 2% increases the potential for blistering, HIC and SOHIC.
Cyanides significantly increase the probability and severity of blistering, HIC
and SOHIC damage.
SSC is most likely found in hard weld and heat affected zones and in high
strength components including bolts, relief valve springs, 400 Series SS valve
trim, compressor shafts, sleeves and
springs.
Sour water stripper and amine regenerator overhead systems are especially
prone to wet H2S damage because of generally high ammonia bisulfide
concentrations
and cyanides.
SSC is a form of hydrogen stress cracking (hydrogen
embrittlement).
Amine cracking
and carbonate cracking can also occur in wet H2S
environments, may be similar in appearance, and are
sometimes confused with the various forms of wet H2S
damage.
Sr. NO Damage Type DM Description Description Materials Temperature Mechanical property change Damage Mode Inspection Techniques Remarks Additional Remarks Affected Equipments

1 Mechanical and Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms
Temper embrittlement is the reduction in toughness due to a metallurgical Temper embrittlement cannot be prevented if the material
contains critical levels of the embrittling impurity elements and is The best way to minimize the likelihood and extent of temper
change that can occur in some low alloy steels as a result of long term catastrophic brittle embrittlement is to limit the acceptance levels of manganese,
Temper Embrittlement exposure in the temperature range of about 650°F to 1070°F (343°C to Low alloy steels 650°F to 1070°F (343°C to 577°C). reduction in toughness fracture Impact testing exposed in the embrittling temperature range. silicon, phosphorus, tin, antimony, and arsenic in the base metal
577°C). This change causes an upward shift in the ductile-to-brittle Damage due to temper embrittlement may result in catastrophic and welding consumables.
transition temperature as measured by Charpy impact testing. Although brittle fracture.
the loss of toughness is not evident at operating temperature, equipment
that is temper embrittled may be susceptible to brittle fracture during
start-up and shutdown.

2 Mechanical and Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms
3 Mechanical and Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms
4 Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness .
5 Environment – Assisted Cracking
6 Environment – Assisted Cracking
7 Environment-Assisted Cracking-Refinery
Sigma Phase Embrittlement
Reheat Cracking
Dealloying
Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking (
Sulfate Stress Corrosion Cracking
Polythionic Acid Stress Corrosion
Cracking (PASCC)
Formation of a metallurgical phase known as sigma phase can result in a
loss of fracture toughness in some stainless steels as a result of high
temperature exposure.
Cracking of a metal due to stress relaxation during Post Weld Heat
Treatment (PWHT) or in service at elevated temperatures above 750°F
(399°C). It is most often observed in heavy wall sections.
Primarily copper alloys (brass, bronze, tin) as well as
Dealloying is a selective corrosion mechanism in which one or more
Alloy 400 and cast iron.
constituents of an alloy are preferentially attacked leaving a lower density
(dealloyed) often porous structure.
Component failure may occur suddenly and unexpectedly because
mechanical properties of the dealloyed material are significantly
degraded.
Surface initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of 300 Series SS
and some nickel base alloys under the combined action of tensile stress,
temperature and an aqueous chloride environment. The presence of
dissolved oxygen increases propensity for cracking.
Surface initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of copper alloys
in sulfate solutions over many years. Most commonly found in heat
exchanger tubes, primarily in cooling water services.
A form of stress corrosion cracking normally occurring during shutdowns,
startups or during operation when air and moisture are present. Cracking
is due to sulfur acids forming from sulfide scale, air and moisture acting on
sensitized austenitic stainless steels.
b) Usually adjacent to welds or high stress areas.
c) Cracking may propagate rapidly through the wall thickness of piping and
components in a matter of minutes or hours.
300,400 and duplex SS
Low alloy steels, especially the Cr-Mo steels with vanadium added
(2 ¼ Cr-1 Mo-V), as well as 300 SS and Ni base alloys such as Alloy above 750°F (399°C)
800H.
All 300 Series SS are highly susceptible.
Duplex stainless steels are more resistant.
Nickel base alloys are highly resistant, but not immune
some copper alloys, especially admiralty brass.
The 90/10 and 70/30 copper nickel alloys are more resistant
300 Series SS, Alloy 600/600H and Alloy 800/800H.
cracking
cracking in both wrought and cast (welded) metals
1000°F to 1700°F (538°C to 927°C). during turnarounds, or during startup or shutdown metallographic and impact testing
when the material is below about 500°F (260°C) and
the effects of embrittlement are most pronounced.
lack of fracture toughness
Intergranular and can be surface breaking or
embedded depending on the state of stress and
geometry
There is often a significant color change or a deep
etched (corroded) appearance . However,
depending on the alloy, the outward appearance of
the affected material may not be noticeable upon
visual inspection, even where the full wall thickness
is degraded.
reduction in hardness Attack may be uniform through the cross-section
can be cut or gouged with a knife (layer-type) or it can be localized (plug-type)
SCC usually occurs at pH values above 2. At lower pH
values, uniform corrosion.
Surface breaking cracks, process side or externally
under insulation
craze-cracked
usually branched transgranular but somtime
intergranular forsensitized 300 SS
Fracture surfaces often have a brittle appearance.
Above about 140 F (60C)
Like Ammonia SCC.
Single or highly branched cracks on the surface.
branched, transgranular.
slow leaks as opposed to tube rupture.
Cracking is quite localized and may not be evident
until a leak appears during start-up or, in some cases, operation is not usually practical.
operation
Sensitization occurs in the 750oF to1500oF (400°C Cracking propagates intergranularly.
to 815°C) temperature range. Corrosion or loss in thickness is usually negligible.
for Surface cracks (CS and low alloy) UT
and MT
For 300SS and Ni UT and PT
For Embedded cracks only UT
For 2 ¼ Cr-1 Mo-V reactors during
fabrication,
TOFD or manual shearwave UT with the
demonstration block having defects as
small as 3 mm side drilled holes
Metallographic examination
Acoustic techniques (loss of “metallic
ring”) and ultrasonic attenuation are
applicable, but UT thickness
measurements are not.
VT
PT or phase analysis EC are the preferred
methods.
UT
Often, RT is not sufficiently sensitive to
detect cracks
nspect heat exchanger tubes for cracking Ammonia is usually present, often at very low concentrations.
using EC or visual inspection.
Physical bending of sample tubes
PASCC cracking can be an inspection
challenge because the cracking may not
occur until well into a turnaround.
Monitoring for PASCC cracking during
PT can be used However,
flapper disc sanding may be needed to
improve the PT sensitivity.
In susceptible alloys, the primary factor that affects sigma phase
formation is the time of exposure at
elevated temperature.
The best way to prevent sigma phase embrittlement is to use
alloys that are resistant to sigma formation or to avoid exposing
the material to the embrittling range.
Important parameters include the type of material, grain size,
residual stresses , section thickness, notches and stress
concentrators, weld metal and base metal strength, welding and
heattreating conditions.
For 2 ¼ Cr-1 Mo-V SAW weld materials, prequalification screening
tests for reheat cracking such as high temperature (650oC)
Gleeble tensile tests should be considered.
Factors which influence dealloying include the composition of the prevented by altering the exposure conditions or replacing it with
alloy and exposure conditions including temperature, degree of a resistant material.
aeration, pH and exposure time.
Chloride content, pH, temperature, stress, presence of oxygen
and alloy composition are critical factors.
SCC usually occurs at pH values above 2. At lower pH values,
uniform corrosion generally predominates. SCC tendency
decreases toward the alkaline pH region.
No thershold limit for Cl and O2, they increase SCC.
Ni alloy-The greatest susceptibility is at a nickel
content of 8% to 12%. Alloys with nickel contents above 35% are
highly resistant and alloys above 45% are nearly immune.
The combination of stress and the presence of sulfate
chemical compounds. Residual stresses are sufficient to promote
cracking.
Taking as long as 10 to 15 years to cause tube leaks.
A combination of environment, material, and stress are required. several hours above about 1000oF (538oC) or long term above
Affected alloys become sensitized “Sensitization” refers to the
composition/time/temperature dependent formation of
chromium carbide in the grain boundaries of the metal.
The carbon content and the thermal history of the alloy have a
significant effect on sensitization susceptibility.
Regular and controlled carbon grades of SS such as types
304/304H and 316/316H are particularly susceptible to sensitizing and PTA susceptibility.
in the weld HAZ. Low carbon ”L” grades (<0.03% C) are less
susceptible and usually can be welded without sensitizing.
Stainless steels with sigma can normally withstand normal
operating stresses, but upon cooling to temperatures below
about 500°F (260°C) may show a complete lack of fracture
toughness as measured in a Charpy impact test. Laboratory tests
of embrittled weld metal have shown a complete lack of fracture
toughness below 1000°F (538°C)
The 300 Series SS can be de-sigmatized by solution annealing at
1950°F (1066°C) for four hours
followed by a water quench
For Alloy 800H (operate >540C), the risk of in-service cracking
can be reduced by using base metal and matching weld metal
with Al+Ti <0.7%.
For thick-wall SS piping, PWHT should be avoided whenever
possible
Resistance to dealloying can sometimes be improved by the
addition of certain alloying elements
Continued degradation of a dealloyed component can only be
Depending on the alloy-environment combination, cathodic
protection or barrier coatings may be effective
Carbon steels, low alloy steels and 400 Series SS are not
susceptible
A high temperature stress relief of 300 Series SS after fabrication
may reduce residual stresses. However, consideration should be
given to the possible effects of sensitization that may occur,
increasing susceptibility to polythionic SCC, possible distortion
problems and potential reheat cracking.
Periodic cleaning once every five years can increase life.
Alloys that are highly resistant to ammonia stress corrosion
cracking such as the 90-10CuNi and 70-30CuNi alloys are also Tubes in heat exchanger bundles in overhead distillation
highly resistant to sulfate SCC. systems.
Non-copper based alloys are immune from this form of damage. Crude tower overhead exchangers
Flushing with alkaline or soda ash solution or purging with dry
nitrogen or nitrogen/ammonia. Refer to guidelines in NACE
RP0170.
Low carbon grades such as 304L/316L/317L provide some
measure of improvement over controlled
carbon grades. The L grades will sensitize if exposed more than
750oF (400oC).
alloy containing small amounts of Ti and Nb(austenitic stainless All units where sensitized alloys are used in sulfur-containing
steel types 321 and 347 and nickel base Alloys 825 and 625). environments.
A thermal stabilization heat treatment at 1650oF (899oC) may be Severe cases have been found in FCC units.
applied to chemically stabilized austenitic stainless steel welds In hydroprocessing units (heater tubes, hot feed/effluent
after all welding is complete in an attempt to reduce sensitization exchanger tubes, bellows).
Crude and coker units (piping).
Susceptibility to PASCC can be determined by laboratory Boilers and high temperature equipment exposed to sulfur-
corrosion testing according to ASTM A262 Practice C. containing combustion products.
Related DM
Graphitic corrosion
leaching

Caustic SCC and polythionic acid

SCC

Not applicable.

Also known as Polythionic Acid

Stress Corrosion Cracking (PTA
SCC), Intergranular Corrosion
(IGC) and Intergranular Attack
(IGA).
Sr. NO DM Description
1 Graphitization
2 Softening (Spheroidization)
3 Temper Embrittlement
4 Strain Aging
5 885°F (475oC) Embrittlement
6 Sigma Phase Embrittlement
7 Brittle Fracture
8 Creep and Stress Rupture
9 Thermal Fatigue
10 Short Term Overheating – Stress Rupture
Permanent deformation occurring at relatively low stress levels as a result of localized
overheating. This usually results in bulging and eventually failure by stress rupture.
11 Steam Blanketing
12 Dissimilar Metal Weld (DMW) Cracking
Description Materials Temperature Damage Mode Inspection Techniques
Graphitization is a change in the microstructure of certain carbon steels and 0.5Mo steels
after longterm operation in the 800°F to 1100°F (427°C to 593°C) range that may cause a microfissuring/microvoid
loss in strength, ductility, and/or creep resistance. CS and 0.5Mo 800°F to 1100°F (427°C to 593°C) formation, subsurface cracking or surface connected metallographic techniques.
At elevated temperatures, the carbide phases in these steels are unstable and may cracking.
decompose into graphite nodules. This decomposition is known as graphitization.
Spheroidization is a change in the microstructure of steels after exposure in the 850°F to
1400°F (440°C to 760°C) range, where the carbide phases in carbon steels are unstable
and may agglomerate from their normal plate-like form to a spheroidal form, or from
small, finely dispersed carbides in low alloy steels like 1Cr-0.5Mo to large agglomerated CS and Low alloys Steels 850°F to 1400°F (440°C to 760°C) - metallography
carbides. Spheroidization may cause a loss in strength and/or creep resistance
Temper embrittlement is the reduction in toughness due to a metallurgical change that catastrophic brittle
can occur in some low alloy steels as a result of long term exposure in the temperature Low alloy steels 650°F to 1070°F (343°C to 577°C). Impact testing
fracture
range of about 650°F to 1070°F (343°C to 577°C). This change causes an upward shift in
the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as measured by Charpy impact testing.
Although the loss of toughness is not evident at operating temperature, equipment that is
temper embrittled may be susceptible to brittle fracture during start-up and shutdown.
Strain aging is a form of damage found mostly in older vintage carbon steels and C-0.5 Mo
low alloy steels under the combined effects of deformation and aging at an intermediate Intermediate Temperature,
CS and Low alloys Steels Brittle Cracks metallography
temperature. This results in an increase in hardness and strength with a reduction in cold worked
ductility and toughness.
400 SS (e.g., 405, 409, 410, 410S, 430 and
446). metallography but can
885°F(475°C) embrittlement is a loss in toughness due to a metallurgical change that can Duplex SS such as Alloys 2205, 2304 and 600°F to1000°F (316°C to 540°C) cracking during turnarounds, or during startup or be confirmed through bend or impact testing
occur in alloys containing a ferrite phase, as a result of exposure in the temperature range 2507. shutdown when the material is below about 200°F
600°F to1000°F (316°C to 540°C). (93°C)
300 Series SS. 300 including the HK and
HP alloys are especially susceptible because cracking
of their high (10% to 40%) ferrite content. cracking in both wrought and cast (welded) metals
Formation of a metallurgical phase known as sigma phase can result in a loss of fracture
The 400 Series SS and other ferritic and 1000°F to 1700°F (538°C to 927°C). during turnarounds, or during startup or shutdown metallographic and impact testing
toughness in some stainless steels as a result of high temperature exposure.
martensitic SS with 17% Cr or more are also when the material is below about 500°F (260°C) and the
susceptible (e.g., Types 430 and 440). effects of embrittlement are most pronounced.
Duplex stainless steels.
at temperatures below the Charpy impact
Mainly, CS and Low alloy steels, Inspection is not normally used to mitigate brittle fracture.
400 SS also succeptible transition temperature (or ductile-to-brittle Straight Cracks Susceptible vessels should be inspected for pre-existing flaws/defects.
Brittle fracture is the sudden rapid fracture under stress (residual or applied) where the transition temperature)
material exhibits little or no evidence of ductility or plastic deformation.
At high temperatures, metal components can slowly and continuously deform under load Creep voids typically show up at the grain boundaries
below the yield stress. This time dependent deformation of stressed components is All metals and alloys 343°C (650°F) to 649°C (1200°F) and in later stages form A combination of techniques (UT, RT, EC,dimensional measurements and
known as creep. fissures and then cracks replication) should be employed. Destructive sampling and
Deformation leads to damage that may eventually lead to a rupture. metallographic examination are used to confirm damage.
temperature swings exceeds about 200°F wide and oxide filled cracks intiaite at surface
Thermal fatigue is the result of cyclic stresses caused by variations in temperature. All materials of construction. They propagate transverse to the stress ,
(93°C).
Damage is in the form of cracking that may occur anywhere in a metallic component transgranular, and oxide filled. However, cracking may
where relative movement or differential expansion is constrained, particularly under be axial orcircumferential, or both, at the same location
repeated thermal cycling.
All fired heater tube and commen materials Local overheating above the design visual observation, IR monitoring of
Bulgining tubes and tubeskin thermocouples
of construction. temperature.
open fishmouth ruptures heat indicating paints for refractory
The operation of steam generating equipment is a balance between the heat flow from
the combustion of the fuel and the generation of steam within the waterwall or Open burst with the fracture edges
generating tube. The flow of heat energy through the wall of the tube results in the CS and Low alloys Steels Burners should be properly maintained to prevent flame impingement.
drawn to a near knife-edge
formation of discrete steam bubbles (nucleate boiling) on the ID surface. The moving fluid
sweeps the bubbles away. When the heat flow balance is disturbed, individual bubbles
join to form a steam blanket, a condition known as Departure From Nucleate Boiling
(DNB). Once a steam blanket forms, tube rupture can occur rapidly, as a result of short
term overheating, usually within a few minutes.
For Butt welds
Mainy carbon steel and low alloy steels 100% PT after buttering and completion
Any material combinations that have For Ferritic/austenitic joints at 100% UT on butter layer after PWHT
widely differing thermal temperatures greater than 510°F (260°C). 100% RT
Cracking of dissimilar metal welds occurs in the ferritic (carbon steel or low alloy steel) expansion coefficients. For Carbon dissusion, concern is above cracks form at the toe of the weld HAZ 100% UT – recordable
side of a weld between an austenitic (300 Series SS or Nickel base alloy) and a ferritic 800°F to 950°F (427°C to 510°C) for CS and Welds joining tubes are the most common problem PMI
material operating at high temperature. Cracking can result from creep damage, from low alloy steels,respectively. area, b For dissimilar welds
fatigue cracking, from sulfide stress cracking or hydrogen disbonding. RT and UT (shear wave)
Sr. NO DM Description Description Materials Temperature Damage Mode Inspection Techniques

A form of thermal fatigue cracking – thermal shock – can occur when high and non- Surface initiating cracks may also appear as “craze” Highly localized and difficult to locate.
13 Thermal Shock uniform thermal stresses develop over a relatively short time in a piece of equipment due All metals and alloys cracks. PT and MT can be used to confirm cracking.
to differential expansion or contraction. If the thermal expansion/contraction is High temperature exposure during a fire.
restrained, stresses above the yield strength of the material can result. Thermal shock temperature changes that can result from
usually occurs when a colder liquid contacts a warmer metal surface. water quenching as a result of rain deluges

Visual maily
14 Erosion/Erosion – Corrosion Erosion is the accelerated mechanical removal of surface material as a result of relative All metals, alloys and refractories. UT checks or RT can be used to detect the extent of metal loss.
movement between, or impact from solids, liquids, vapor or any combination thereof. IR scans for refractory loss
Erosion-corrosion is a description for the damage that occurs when corrosion contributes Factors which contribute to an increase in localized loss in thickness in the form of pits,
to erosion by removing protective films or scales, or by exposing the metal surface to corrosivity of the environment, such as grooves, gullies, waves, rounded holes and valleys.
further corrosion under the combined action of erosion and corrosion. temperature, pH, etc., can increase These losses often exhibit a directional pattern.
susceptibility to metal loss. Failures can occur in a relatively short time.

Cavitation is a form of erosion caused by the formation and instantaneous collapse of

innumerable tiny vapor bubbles. Cu and brass, cast iron, CS, low alloy Cavitation damage generally looks like sharp-edged
Visual maily
15 Cavitation The collapsing bubbles exert severe localized impact forces that can result in metal loss steels, 300 SS, 400 SS and nickel base pitting but may also have a gouged appearance in
UT checks or RT can be used to detect the extent of metal loss.
referred to as cavitation damage. alloys. rotational components.
The bubbles may contain the vapor phase of the liquid, air or other gas entrained in the Temperatures approaching the boiling point
liquid medium. of the liquid

The signature mark of a fatigue failure is a “clam shell”

type fingerprint that has concentric rings
called “beach marks” emanating from the crack VT, PT, MT and SWUT can be used to detect fatigue cracks at known areas
16 Mechanical Fatigue All initiation site. of stress concentration.
A surface stress concentration or defect will typically
Fatigue cracking is a mechanical form of degradation that occurs when a component is result in a single “clam shell”
exposed to cyclical stresses for an extended period, often resulting in sudden, unexpected Cracks resulting from cyclical overstress of a component
failure. without significant stress concentration will result
These stresses can arise from either mechanical loading or thermal cycling and are multiple “clam shell”
typically well below the yield strength of the material. Cyclic fingerprints

Crack initiating at a point of high stress or discontinuity

such as a thread or weld joint VT, PT, MT
17 Vibration-Induced Fatigue All visible damage resulting from the
failure of the refractory and/or the anchoring system.
A form of mechanical fatigue in which cracks are produced as the result of dynamic High skin temperatures may result from
loading due to vibration, water hammer, or unstable fluid flow. refractory damage.

Refractory materials include insulating

18 Refractory Degradation Both thermalinsulating and erosion resistant refractories are susceptible to various forms ceramic fibers, castables, refractory brick Refractory may show signs of excessive cracking,
of mechanical damage (cracking, spalling and erosion) as well as corrosion due to and plastic refractories spalling or lift-off from the substrate, softening or VT-off stream
oxidation, sulfidation and other high temperature mechanisms. general degradation from exposure to moisture. IR to monitor hot spots

Low alloy steels, especially the Cr-Mo steels Intergranular and can be surface breaking or embedded for Surface cracks (CS and low alloy) UT and MT
Cracking of a metal due to stress relaxation during Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) or For 300SS and Ni UT and PT
19 Reheat Cracking with vanadium added (2 ¼ Cr-1 Mo-V), as above 750°F (399°C) depending on the state of stress and geometry
in service at elevated temperatures above 750°F (399°C). It is most often observed in well as 300 SS and Ni base alloys such as For Embedded cracks only UT
heavy wall sections. For 2 ¼ Cr-1 Mo-V reactors during fabrication,
Alloy 800H.
TOFD or manual shearwave UT with the demonstration block having
defects as small as 3 mm side drilled holes

Many metals are flammable in oxygen and enriched air (>25% oxygen) services even at
Succeptible; CS, low alloy, Al, Ti
20 Gaseous Oxygen-Enhanced Ignition low pressures, whereas they are non-flammable in air. The spontaneous ignition or
combustion of metallic and nonmetallic components can result in fires and explosions in Resistant; 300SS(below 200 psig),Cu, Ni
and Combustion
certain oxygen-enriched gaseous environments if not properly designed, operated and 400SS
maintained. Once ignited,
metals and non-metals burn more vigorously with higher oxygen purity, pressure and
temperature.

In Gavanized Steel, anode-to-cathode The more active material can suffer generalized loss in
All metals with the exception of most noble
21 Galvanic Corrosion relationship reverses at water temperatures thickness or may have the appearance of acrevice, Visual inspection and UTG
A form of corrosion that can occur at the junction of dissimilar metals when they are metals groove or pitting corrosion, depending on the driving
over about 150°F (66°C)
joined together in a suitable electrolyte, such as a moist or aqueous environment, or soils force, conductivity and relative
containing moisture. anodic/cathodic areas ratio.

A form of corrosion that occurs from moisture associated with atmospheric conditions.
22 Atmospheric Corrosion CS, Low alloy and copper alloyed aluminum up to about 250°F (121°C) Attack will be general or localized
Marine environments and moist polluted industrial environments with airborne
General-if no coating
contaminants are most severe. Dry rural environments cause very little corrosion.
VT and UT
Sr. NO DM Description Description Materials Temperature Damage Mode Inspection Techniques

UT, UT, UT (guided wave), EC

Corrosion of piping, pressure vessels and structural components resulting from water CS and alloy-localized pitting/corrosion Real-time profile x-ray (for small bore piping).
23 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI) CS, Low alloy, 300 SS and Duplex 10°F (–12°C) and 350°F (175°C) for carbon Neutron backscatter techniques for wet insulation
trapped under insulation or fireproofing. 300SS and Duplex localized pitting corrosion and SCC
and low alloy steels, IR thermography looking for wet insulation and/or damaged and missing
140ºF (60°C) and 400ºF (205°C) for 300SS insulation under
and duplex SS the jacket.

For CS general corrosion which O2 is dissolved

24 Cooling Water Corrosion General or localized corrosion of carbon steels and other metals caused by dissolved salts, CS, SS, Cu, Al, Ti and Ni alloy For fresh water, process side 140°F (60°C) Localized corrosion result from underdeposite, Creivce
gases, organic compounds or microbiological activity. salt and brackish water outlet above about and MIC, Periodic calculation of U-factors
115°F (46°C) EC or IRIS inspection of tubes.
For Ti above 180F (82C)
Water analysis to check pH, conductivity,
General corrosion and pitting in the boiler system and condensate chlorine or residual biocide, and total
return piping. dissolved solids to check for leaks in
Primarily CS, some low alloy steel, 300 SS Piping corrosion - Oxygen the form of organic compounds
25 Boiler Water Condensate Corrosion Corrosion in boiler feedwater and condensate return systems is usually the result of
dissolved gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide, which lead to oxygen pitting corrosion and and Cu alloys. smooth grooves - CO2 No proactive inspection methods
carbonic acid corrosion, respectivley WFMP

VT, UT and RT
Monitor water analyses (pH, Fe, etc.) to determine changes in operating
conditions.
26 CO2 Corrosion CS and low alloy steels. Localized thinning and/or pitting corrosion of CS Steam condensate systems that experience CO2 corrosion are usually the
result of operating problems.
Carbon di oxide (CO2) corrosion results when CO2 dissolves in water to form carbonic acid
(H2CO3). The acid may lower the pH and sufficient quantities may promote general When effluent stream drops below the dew
corrosion and/or pitting corrosion of carbon steel. 2CO3 point, approximately 300°F (149°C)

Sulfur and chlorine species in fuel will form sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide and hydrogen
27 Flue-Gas Dew-Point Corrosion chloride within the combustion products. CS,low alloy and SS For CS and Low alloy, general wastage often with broad,
At low enough temperatures, these gases and the water vapor in the flue gas will The dewpoint of sulfuric acid is 280°F shallow pits.
condense to form sulfurous acid, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid which can lead to (138°C). For 300 SS, SCC with surface breaking cracks and UT for Wall thickness
severe corrosion. The dewpoint of HCl is about 130°F (54°C). somewhat crazed VT and PT for SCC

localized pitting under deposits or tubercles

28 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion CS,low alloy, 300/400 SS, Al, Cu, and Ni alloys Cup-shaped pits within pits in CS or subsurface cavities effectiveness of treatment is monitored by measuring biocide residual,
A form of corrosion caused by living organisms such as bacteria, algae or fungi. It is often in SS microbe counts and visual appearance.
associated with the presence of tubercles or slimy organic substances. rom 0°F to 235°F (–17°C to 113°C)

Cathodic protection in accordance with NACE RP 0169.

guided UT , indirectly by pressure
29 Soil Corrosion CS, cast iron and ductile iron. testing, or visually by evaluation
The most effective protection is a combination of a corrosion resistant
external thinning with localized losses due to coating and a cathodic
The deterioration of metals exposed to soils is referred to as soil corrosion. Increases with temp. pitting protection system

localized metal loss as grooves in a boiler tube or locally

Primarily CS, low alloy and 300 SS. thinned areas under insulating deposits.
Alloy 400 and some other nickel base alloys Deposits may fill corroded depressions and mask
30 Caustic Corrosion
exhibit much lower corrosion rates. CS- For high solution strength caustic can damage below.
result in general corrosion above In vertical tubes, localized gouging may appear as a
175°F (79°C) and very high corrosion rates circumferential groove.
Localized corrosion due to the concentration of caustic or alkaline salts that usually occurs above 200°F (93°C). In horizontal or sloped tubes, grooving may appear at UT thickness gauging
under evaporative or high heat transfer conditions. However, general corrosion can also in high strength caustic solutions the top of the tube or as longitudinal grooves on UT scans and radiography can be used.
occur depending on alkali or caustic solution strength. above about 150°F (66°C) opposite sides of the tube visual inspection with the use a boroscope for steam generating system

31 Dealloying
Dealloying is a selective corrosion mechanism in which one or more constituents of an
alloy are preferentially attacked leaving a lower density (dealloyed) often porous
structure.
Component failure may occur suddenly and unexpectedly because mechanical properties
of the dealloyed material are significantly degraded.
Primarily copper alloys (brass, bronze, tin) There is often a significant color change or a deep
as well as etched (corroded) appearance . However, depending
Alloy 400 and cast iron. on the alloy, the outward appearance of the affected
material may not be noticeable upon visual inspection, Metallographic examination
even where the full wall thickness is degraded. Acoustic techniques (loss of “metallic ring”) and ultrasonic attenuation are
Attack may be uniform through the cross-section (layer- applicable, but UT thickness measurements are not.
type) or it can be localized (plug-type)
Sr. NO DM Description Description Materials Temperature Damage Mode Inspection Techniques

Cast irons are comprised of graphite particles embedded in an iron matrix. Graphitic Primarily gray cast iron, but also nodular
corrosion is a form of dealloying in which the iron matrix is corroded, leaving corrosion and malleable cast irons experience
32 Graphitic Corrosion products and porous graphitic corrosion. White iron is not
graphite. subject to this damage because there is no Same like dealloying
Attack results in a porous structure with a loss of strength, ductility and density. It usually free graphite Damage may be widespread or it may also occur in Same like dealloying
occurs under low pH and stagnant conditions, especially in contact with soils or waters localized areas in which the majority of the component
high in sulfates. below 200°F (93°C) is unaffected

Oxygen reacts with carbon steel and other alloys at high temperature converting the CS, low alloys both cast and wrought Tubeskin thermocouples and/or infrared thermography for temp.
33 Oxidation metal to oxide scale. above about 1000°F (538°C) For CS, low alloy-suffer general thinning monitoring
300 SS, 400 SS and nickel base alloys
It is most often present as oxygen is in the surrounding air (approximately 20%) used for For 300 Series SS up to about 1500°F 300 Series SS and nickel alloys generally have a very thin external ultrasonic thickness
combustion in fired heaters and boilers. (816°C) dark scale measurements

All iron based materials including CS and

low alloy, 300 SS and 400 SS.
34 Sulfidation b) Nickel base alloys are also affected
Corrosion of carbon steel and other alloys resulting from their reaction with sulfur c) Copper base alloys form sulfide at lower Often in the form of uniform thinning but can also
compounds in high temperature environments. The presence of hydrogen accelerates temperatures than carbon steel. Iron-based alloys usually above 500°F occur as localized corrosion or high velocity erosion- tubeskin thermocouples and/or infrared thermography
corrosion. This mechanisms is also known as sulfidic corrosion. (260°C) corrosion damage external UT measurements and PRT

CS and low alloy, 300 SS and 400 SS, cast

SS, nickel hardness testing and field metallography
35 Carburization above 1100°F (593°C)
alloys with significant iron content (e.g., increase in hardness and loss in ductility EC
Carbon is absorbed into a material at elevated temperature while in contact with a Alloys 600 and 800) and HK/HP alloys. Change (increase) in the level of ferromagnetism can When cracking has initiated, RT, UT and some magnetic techniques may be
carbonaceous material or carburizing environment. occur in some alloys used.

36 Decarburization A condition where steel loses strength due the removal of carbon and carbides leaving CS and low alloy steels
only an iron matrix.
Decarburization occurs during exposure to high temperatures, during heat treatment, Field Metallography and Replication (FMR)
from exposure to fires, or from high temperature service in a gaseous environment decarburized layer will be free of carbide phases softening that can be confirmed by hardness testing

Low alloy, 300 SS, nickel base alloys and In low alloy, uniform but usually is in the form of small
37 Metal Dusting heat resisting alloys. There is currently no pits filled with a crumbly residue of metal oxides and
Metal dusting is form of carburization resulting in accelerated localized pitting which known metal alloy that is immune to metal carbides.
occurs in carburizing gases and/or process streams containing carbon and hydrogen. Pits dusting under all conditions. temperature range of 900°F to 1500°F In stainless and high alloy steels, the attack is frequently compression wave UT for heater tubes
usually form on the surface and may contain soot or graphite dust. (482°C to 816°C). local, appearing as deep, round pits RT

Fuel ash corrosion is accelerated high temperature wastage of materials that occurs when For oil ash, melting points Circumferential cracking in waterwall tubes (similar to
contaminants in the fuel form deposits and melt on the metal surfaces of fired heaters, All conventional alloys used for process below 1000°F (538°C) are possible thermal fatigue).
boilers and gas turbines. heater and boiler For waterwall corrosion, melting points as The “alligator hide” morphology of liquid coal-ash
38 Fuel Ash Corrosion
Corrosion typically occurs with fuel oil or coal that is contaminated with a combination of Alloys of the 50Cr-50Ni family show low as 700°F (371°C) corrosion Visual inspection is usually sufficient to detect hot ash corrosion.
sulfur, sodium, potassium and/or vanadium. improved resistance For coal ash, melt between 1030°F and The alligator-hide morphology of superheaters and ubes need to be grit blasted in order to remove the tenacious glass-like ash
The resulting molten salts (slags) dissolve the surface oxide and enhance the transport of 1130°F (544°C and 610°C) reheaters and the circumferential cracking deposit.
oxygen to the surface to re-form the iron oxide at the expense of the tube wall or on waterwalls in coal-fired boilers is caused by a similar UT may be useful
component. mechanism as oil-fired boilers. Metallographic examination.

CS and low alloy, 300 SS and 400 SS, cast dull, dark gray appearance.
39 Nitriding SS. Nitriding of low alloy steels containing up to 12%
Nickel base alloys are more resistant. Above 600°F (316°C) and becomes severe chromium is accompanied by an increase in
above 900°F (482°C). volume. The nitrided layer tends to crack and flake. Hardness testing and metallography.
A hard, brittle surface layer will develop on some alloys due to exposure to high Above 770°F (410°C), preferential grain Nitrogen diffuses into the surface and forms needle-like 300 Series SS should be checked for magnetism as an initial screening.
temperature process streams containing high levels of nitrogen compounds such boundary nitriding may lead to particles of iron nitrides (Fe3N or Fe4N ). EC testing.
ammonia or cyanides, particularly under reducing conditions. microcracking and embrittlement. In the advanced stages PT, RT and UT

SCC usually occurs at pH values above 2. At lower pH

All 300 Series SS are highly susceptible. values, uniform corrosion.
Duplex stainless steels are more resistant. Surface breaking cracks, process side or externally
40 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking (C under insulation
Nickel base alloys are highly resistant, but
not immune craze-cracked
Surface initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of 300 Series SS and some usually branched transgranular but somtime VT
nickel base alloys under the combined action of tensile stress, temperature and an intergranular forsensitized 300 SS PT or phase analysis EC are the preferred methods.
aqueous chloride environment. The presence of dissolved oxygen increases propensity Fracture surfaces often have a brittle appearance. UT
for cracking. Above about 140 F (60C) Often, RT is not sufficiently sensitive to detect cracks
Sr. NO DM Description Description Materials Temperature Damage Mode Inspection Techniques

The fatigue fracture is brittle and the cracks are most

All metals and alloys. often transgranular, as in stress-corrosion cracking, but
41 Corrosion Fatigue not branched, and often results in propagation of
multiple parallel cracks.
A form of fatigue cracking in which cracks develop under the combined effects of cyclic In cycling boilers, circular cracks Rotating Equipment; UT and MT
loading and corrosion. Cracking often initiates at a stress concentration such as a pit in multiple Deaerators; tight cracks with WFMT
the surface. Cracking can initiate at multiple sites. lobes, and may branch to form “rabbit ears Cycling Boilers; pinhole leak- UT or EMATS

Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking
42
(Caustic Embrittlement)
CS, low alloy steels and 300 SS are Crack detection is best performed with WFMT, EC, RT or ACFM
Caustic embrittlement is a form of stress corrosion cracking characterized by surface- susceptible. A heat treatment at 1150°F (621°C) is Propagates parallel to the weld RT not good for fine cracks
initiated cracks that occur in piping and equipment exposed to caustic, primarily adjacent Nickel base alloys are more resistant considered an effective stress relieving heat Described as a spider web of small cracks intergranular Crack depths-UT technique including external SWUT
to non-PWHT’d welds. treatment for carbon steel. Cracking in 300 SS is similar to CL-SCC AET for monitoring crack growth and locating growing cracks

Some copper alloys in environments with Copper Alloy; Monitor pH and ammonia of water, EC ot VT for exchanger
aqueous ammonia and/or ammonium Copper Alloy; Any Temperature Copper Alloy; single or highly branched cracks, surface tubes, espatially rolled area.
43 Ammonia Stress Corrosion Cracking
Aqueous streams containing ammonia may cause Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) in some compounds. CS; low as -27°F(-33°C) in laboratory testing, breaking, blueish corrosion products. Both trans or CS; WFMT welds inside tanks.
copper alloys. Carbon steel in anhydrous ammonia. can occur at ambient or refrigerated intergranular External UT Shear wave inspection using TOFD.
Carbon steel is susceptible to SCC in anhydrous ammonia. conditions CS; primarly intergranular 3) AET.

Many commonly used materials including

CS, low alloy steels, high strength steels, brittle cracks in an otherwise ductile material.
44 Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME)
Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME) is a form of cracking that results when certain molten 300 SS, nickel alloys and the copper alloys, intergranular cracks, usually filled with MT for ferritic steel and PT for 300 and Ni alloy.RT for Hg.
metals come in contact with specific alloys. Cracking can be very sudden and brittle in aluminum alloys and titanium alloys. the low melting metal. spectrographic analysis may be required to confirm the presence of the
nature. molten metal species

A loss in ductility of high strength steels due to the penetration of atomic hydrogen can CS and low alloy , 400 SS, Precipitation For surface cracking inspection use PT, MT or WFMT.
45 Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE) lead to brittle cracking. Hardenable (PH) SS and some high strength UT may b useful.
Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE) can occur during manufacturing, welding, or from services nickel base alloys. From ambient to about 300°F (149°C). HE can initiate sub-surface, but in most cases is surface RT not sensitive.
that can charge hydrogen into the steel in an aqueous, corrosive, or a gaseous Effects decrease with increasing breaking. If the source of hydrogen is a low temperature aqueous environment,
environment. temperature. Cracking is often intergranula hydrogen flux can be monitored using specialized instruments.

SCC in all grades of CS only.

aluminum, copper and copper alloys, lead Parallel to the weld or transverse to the weld.
and zinc cause genral corrosion. Cracks are typically tight and may be filled with
46 Ethanol Stress Corrosion Cracking (S FGE and blends with gasoline may corrosion product.
adversely affect non-metallic materials (e.g. Field failures tend to be intergranular, while laboratory Same methods as other SCC.
Surface-initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of carbon steel under the coatings and seals) causing swelling, testing has produced all crack morphologies. WFMT is the preferred.
combined action of tensile stress and a fuel grade ethanol (FGE, ASTM D 4806) or FGE / hardness changes, etc. With increased chloride content tending to shift the Shear wave UT 2nd option.
gasoline blend environment. Dissolved oxygen and the presence of variable stresses such cracking from intergranular to transgranular or mixed ACFM can be used with less surface preparation than WFMT.
as cyclic stress or component flexing, increase the propensity for cracking. mode. EC is unproven.
some copper alloys, especially admiralty
brass. Like Ammonia SCC.
47 Sulfate Stress Corrosion Cracking Surface initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of copper alloys in sulfate Single or highly branched cracks on the surface.
The 90/10 and 70/30 copper nickel alloys
solutions over many years. Most commonly found in heat exchanger tubes, primarily in are more resistant branched, transgranular. nspect heat exchanger tubes for cracking using EC or visual inspection.
cooling water services. slow leaks as opposed to tube rupture. Physical bending of sample tubes

Internal-Visual examination and UT thickness.

General uniform thinning, localized corrosion or
Amine corrosion refers to the general and/or localized corrosion that occurs principally on particularly in rich amine External-UT scans or PRT.
Primarily carbon steel. localized underdeposit attack.
Amine Corrosion carbon steel in amine treating processes. Corrosion is not caused by the amine itself, but above about 220°F (104°C) orrosion coupons and/or corrosion probes in hot areas of the unit such as
48 300 Series SS are highly resistant. Uniform in nature when the process stream velocity is
results from dissolved acid gases (CO2 and H2S), amine degradation products, Heat Stable severe localized corrosion due to 2-phase low while it will be localized for the reboiler feed and return line, the hot lean/rich amine piping, and the
Amine Salts (HSAS) and other contaminants. flow, if the pressure drop is high enough. stripper overhead condenser piping.
high velocities associated with turbulence
Fouling of exchangers and filters.
Sr. NO DM Description Description Materials Temperature Damage Mode Inspection Techniques

Carbon steel is less resistant.

300 Series SS, duplex SS, aluminum alloys
Ammonium Bisulfide Corrosion Below about 150°F (66°C).
and nickel base alloys are more resistant, General of CS, extremely high localized rates of wall loss can occur at
49 (Alkaline Sour Water) In Hydroprocessing Units, range of 120°F to
depending on ammonium bisulfide changes in direction or turbulent flow areas above 2 wt % concentration.
(NH4HS) concentration and velocity. 150°F (49°C to 66°C).
Aggressive corrosion occurring in hydroprocessing reactor effluent streams and in units Low velocities, extremely localized under-deposit corrosion if insufficient
handling alkaline sour water. water is available.
Several major failures have occurred in hydroprocessing reactor effluent systems due to NH4HS rapidly corrodes admiralty brass tubes and other copper alloys.
localized corrosion.
in order of increasing resistance: CS, low
alloy, 300 Series SS, Alloys 400, duplex SS, well above the water dewpoint [> 300°F difficult to detect.
50 Ammonium Chloride Corrosion 800, and 825, Alloys 625 and C276 and (149°C)] salts have a whitish, greenish or brownish appearance. RT or UT
titanium. Corrosion rates increase with increasing underneath the salts is typically very localized and Monitoring of the feed streams and effluent waters will give an indication
General or localized corrosion, often pitting, normally occurring under ammonium temperature. results in pitting. of the amount of ammonia and chlorides present.
chloride or amine salt deposits, often in the absence of a free water phase. Corrosion rates can be extremely high. Corrosion probes or coupons

All common materials of construction used

Hydrochloric acid (aqueous HCl) causes both general and localized corrosion and is very in refineries. Locally thinned- automatic UTS or PRT.
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Corrosion aggressive to most common materials of construction across a wide range of CSl and low alloy - general uniform thinning, localized The pH of the water in the boot of the atmospheric tower overhead
51 Alloy 400, titanium and some other nickel
concentrations. base alloys have good resistance to dilute corrosion or underdeposit attack. accumulator is normally checked
Damage in refineries is most often associated with dew point corrosion in which vapors HCl acid in many refinery applications. For CS-usually general thinning but may be highly every shift.
containing water and hydrogen chloride condense from the overhead stream of a localized where a water phase is condensing. Cl and Fe content are checked on a less frequent basis but do need to be
distillation, fractionation or stripping tower. The first water droplets that condense can be The severity of corrosion increases with 300 SS and 400 SS will often suffer pitting attack and monitored regularly.
highly acidic (low pH) and promote high corrosion rates. increasing temperature 300 SS may experience CL-SCC corrosion probes and/or corrosion coupons.

The presence of hydrogen in H2S-containing hydrocarbon streams increases the severity Uniform loss in thickness from the process side and is
order of increasing resistance:CS, low alloy, UT, VT and RT.
of high temperature sulfide corrosion at temperatures above about 500°F (260°C). This accompanied by the formation of an iron sulfide scale.
52 High Temp H2/H2S Corrosion 400 SS, 300 SS above about 500°F (260°C) Actual operating temperatures should be verified in the field to compare
form of sulfidation Note; a different case in which 400ss is C.R increases with increasing temperature Scale is about 5 times the volume of lost metal and may against design.
usually results in a uniform loss in thickness associated with hot circuits in be in multiple layers.
more resistant that 300 SS. Process simulations should be checked periodically
hydroprocessing units.

CS, copper-nickel alloys, Alloy 400.

Other nickel base alloys such as Alloy C276.
Low alloy, 300 SS and the 400 SS are
53 Hydrofluoric (HF) Acid Corrosion
susceptible to corrosion and/or cracking
and are generally not suitable for HF
service.
Corrosion by HF acid can result in high rates of general or localized corrosion and may be
accompanied by hydrogen cracking, blistering and/or HIC/SOHIC
CS-localized general or severe thinning.
Corrosion may be accompanied by cracking. UT and RT.
above 150°F (66°C) Significant fouling due to iron fluoride scales may also Special emphasis programs to monitor small bore piping, flange face
accompany corrosion. corrosion, blistering and HIC/SOHIC are recommended as outlined in API
Alloy 400 is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking RP 751.
when in contact with moist HF vapors in the presence of Track and monitor RE (Residual element-C, Cu, Ni, Cr) content of carbon
oxygen. steel components in accordance with API 751 guidelines.

CS, low alloy, 300 SS, 400 SS and nickel

base.
Alloys containing increasing amounts of
54 Naphthenic Acid Corrosion (NAC) molybdenum show improved resistance. A
minimum of 2% to 2.5% is required
A form of high temperature corrosion that occurs primarily in crude and vacuum units, depending on the TAN of the whole crude
and downstream units that process certain fractions or cuts that contain naphthenic and its side cuts.
acids.
NAC normally occurs in hot streams above
425oF (218oC) but has been reported as
low as350F(177oC). Severity increases with
temperature up to about 750oF (400oC),
however, NAC has beenobserved in hot
coker gas oil streams up to 800oF (427oC)
localized corrosion, pitting corrosion, or flow induced
grooving in high velocity areas.
In low velocity condensing conditions, many alloys RT should be the primary method followed by UTG.
including carbon steel, low alloy steels and 400 SS may Electrical resistance corrosion probes and corrosion coupon.
show uniform loss in thickness and/or pitting. Streams can be monitored for Fe and Ni content.
Hydrogen probes

Above 250°F (121°C).

Phenol (Carbolic Acid) Corrosion In order of increasing resistance: CS, 304L, CSand 304/304L SS corrode rapidly above
55
316L and Alloy C276.
Corrosion of carbon steel can occur in plants using phenol as a solvent to remove 450°F (232°C) CS-general or localized. UT and RT.
aromatic compounds from lubricating oil feedstocks. Localized due to erosion-corrosion may occur. ER corrosion probes and corrosion coupons.

Type 304L SS is satisfactory for phosphoric

In order of increasing resistance: CS, 304L acid concentration of 100% up to about
56 Phosphoric Acid Corrosion 120°F (49°C). General or localized thinning of carbon steel.
SS, 316L SS and Alloy 20
Type 316L SS is required from 120°F to UT and RT.
Phosphoric acid is most often used as a catalyst in polymerization units. It can cause both 225°F (49°C to 107°C)). Sample iron in water from first column overhead receiver.
pitting corrosion and localized corrosion of carbon steels depending on water content. ER probes and/or corrosion coupons in the water draw
Sr. NO DM Description Description Materials Temperature Damage Mode Inspection Techniques

Primarily affects carbon steel.

SS, copper and nickel alloys are usually Typically general thinning.
Sour Water Corrosion (Acidic)
57 Corrosion of steel due to acidic sour water containing H2S at a pH between 4.5 and 7.0. resistant. However, localized corrosion or localized underdeposit
Carbon dioxide (CO2) may also be present. Copper alloys are vulnerable to corrosion in At a given pressure, the H2S concentration attack can occur, especially if oxygen is present. UTG and RT.
Sour waters containing significant amounts of ammonia, chlorides or cyanides may environments with ammonia. in the sour water decreases as temperature 300 Series SS are susceptible to pitting attack. Process and corrosion monitoring.
significantly affect pH but are outside the scope of this section. increases. corrosion probes and corrosion coupons.
water draws of overhead accumulators

In order of increasing resistance: CS, 316L

Sulfuric Acid Corrosion SS, Alloy 20, high silicon cast iron, high Mostly general in nature, but attacks carbon steel weld
58
nickel cast iron, Alloy B-2 and Alloy C276. heat affected zones rapidly.
Sulfuric acid promotes general and localized corrosion of carbon steel and other alloys. Hydrogen grooving may occur in low flow or stagnant UT or RT
Carbon steel heat affected zones may experience severe corrosion. areas such as in storage tanks or rail cars. Corrosion monitoring with coupons and ER probes.

corroded surface smooth and damage may be

Aqueous Organic Acid Corrosion Organic compounds present in some crude oils decompose in the crude furnace to form difficult to distinguish from corrosion by other acids in UT and RT are most common.
59 low molecular weight organic acids which condense in distillation tower overhead All grades of carbon steel are affected. the overhead system. Long range UT can b used.
systems. They may also result from additives used in upstream operations or desalting. Sometimes mistaken for HCl corrosion or carbonic acid Process monitoring should include pH and analysis of water in the crude
These naturally occurring acids may contribute significantly to aqueous corrosion corrosion. tower overhead drum.
depending on the type and quantity of acids, and the presence of other contaminants. corrosion probes and/or corrosion coupons

Polythionic Acid Stress Corrosion A form of stress corrosion cracking normally occurring during shutdowns, startups or
60 Cracking (PASCC) during operation when air and moisture are present. Cracking is due to sulfur acids
forming from sulfide scale, air and moisture acting on sensitized austenitic stainless steels.
b) Usually adjacent to welds or high stress areas.
c) Cracking may propagate rapidly through the wall thickness of piping and components in
a matter of minutes or hours.
300 Series SS, Alloy 600/600H and Alloy
800/800H.
Cracking is quite localized and may not be evident until PASCC cracking can be an inspection challenge because the cracking may
a leak appears during start-up or, in some cases, not occur until well into a turnaround.
operation Monitoring for PASCC cracking during operation is not usually practical.
Sensitization occurs in the 750oF to1500oF Cracking propagates intergranularly. PT can be used However,
(400°C to 815°C) temperature range. Corrosion or loss in thickness is usually negligible. flapper disc sanding may be needed to improve the PT sensitivity.

Surface breaking flaws that initiate on the ID of weld

Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
61
Amine cracking is a common term applied to the cracking of steels under the combined
action of
tensile stress and corrosion in aqueous alkanolamine systems used to remove/absorb H2S
and/or CO2 and their mixtures from various gas and liquid hydrocarbon streams.
Amine cracking is a form of alkaline stress corrosion cracking. It is most often found at or
adjacent to non-PWHT’d carbon steel weldments or in highly cold worked parts.
Amine cracking should not be confused with several other types of SCC that can occur in
amine
environments which are further described
HAZ but has also been found in weld metal and high
stress areas adjacent to the HAZ.
develops parallel to the weld and there may be parallel
Carbon steel and low alloy steels.
cracks.
At set-on nozzles, the cracks are radial in the base
metal, i.e., they fan out from the bore. At set-in
nozzles, the cracks are usually parallel to the weld. crack detection is best performed with WFMT or ACFM techniques.
similar to H2S cracking. Surface preparation by grit blasting, high pressure water blasting or other
Since the driving force for cracking is residual stress, methods is
cracks are often found on the process side, opposite required for WFMT but may not be necessary for ACFM.
external attachment welds. PT is usually not effective in finding tight and/or scale filled cracks.
Positive identification of amine cracking can be minimum branching, crack depths can be measured with a suitable UT
confirmed by metallographic analysis. The cracking is technique including external SWUT.
typically intergranular, oxide filled with some branching AET can also be used for monitoring crack growth and locating growing
down to ambient temperatures cracks
Sr. NO DM Description Description Materials Temperature Damage Mode Inspection Techniques

Hydrogen Blistering: Blistering results from hydrogen generated by corrosion, not

hydrogen gas from the process stream.
HIC: Interconnecting cracks between the blisters often have a stair step appearance, and
S Damage so HIC is sometimes referred to as “stepwise cracking”.
(Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)Wet H SOHIC: similar to HIC but is a potentially more damaging form of cracking which appears
62 as arrays of cracks stacked on top of each other. The result is a through-thickness crack Carbon steel and low alloy steels. Hydrogen blisters appear as bulges on the ID or OD
2S
that is perpendicular to the surface and is driven by high levels of stress (residual or surface of the steel and can be found anywhere in the
applied). They usually appear in the shell plate or head of a pressure vessel.
base metal adjacent to the weld heat affected zones where they initiate from HIC damage Blistering has been found on rare occasions in pipe and Inspection for wet H2S damage generally focuses on weld seams and
or other cracks or defects including sulfide stress cracks. very rarely in the middle of a weld. nozzles.
SSC: cracking of metal under the combined action of tensile In pressure-containing equipment, SOHIC and SSC Crack detection is best performed with WFMT, EC, RT or ACFM techniques.
stress and corrosion in the presence of water and H2S. SSC is a form of hydrogen stress damage is most often associated with the PT cannot find tight cracks.
cracking resulting from absorption of atomic hydrogen that is produced by the sulfide Blistering, HIC, and SOHIC- between weldments. SWUT is especially useful for volumetric inspection and crack sizing.
corrosion process on the metal surface. ambient and 300F (150oC) or higher. SSC can also be found at any location where zones of Electrical resistance instruments are not effective for measuring crack
SSC can initiate on the surface of steels in highly localized zones of high hardness in the SSC-generally occurs below about 180oF high hardness are found in vessels or in high strength depth.
weld metal and heat affected zones. (82oC). steel components. AET can be used for monitoring crack growth

Carbon steel and low alloy steels.

Hydrogen Stress Cracking is a form of environmental cracking that can initiate on the ASTM A193 grade B7M bolts are softer and This mode of cracking can only be confirmed by
63 Hydrogen Stress Cracking - HF
surface of high strength low alloy steels and carbon steels with highly localized zones of lower strength than B7 bolts and are more metallographic examination. Surface breaking cracks can be found by WFMT.
high hardness in the weld metal and HAZ as a result of exposure to aqueous HF acid resistant to cracking. intergranular. Hardness testing is the best method to determine the susceptibility of
environments. breaking cracks, usually associated with weldments. suspect material

Carbonate cracking typically propagates parallel to the

weld in the HAZ, or adjacent base metal within 2 inches
Carbonate Stress Corrosion (50 mm) of the weld.
64 Cracking (ACSCC) Carbonate stress corrosion cracking (often referred to as carbonate cracking) is the term Carbon steel and low alloy steels. On the steel surface is sometimes described as a spider
applied to surface breaking cracks that occur adjacent to carbon steel welds under the web of small cracks.
combined action of tensile stress in systems containing a free water phase with These cracks may be easily mistaken for SSC or SOHIC, Monitoring the pH of FCC sour waters is the fastest and most practical and
carbonate, where some amount of H2S is also present. It is a form of Alkaline Stress In CO2 removal units, cracking may occur however, the carbonate cracks are usually further from cost effective method.
Corrosion Cracking (ACSCC). when the CO2 content is above 2% and the toe of the weld and have multiple parallel cracks. Crack detection is best performed with WFMT or ACFM techniques.
This type of damage has also been observed in other environments which are outside the temperatures exceed 200oF (93oC). Surface breaking flaws,intergranular in nature and PT cannot find tight cracks.
scope of this discussion. Those environments include the outside surface of buried Application of a post-fabrication stress- typically occur in as-welded CS fabrications as a network SWUT is especially useful for crck depth.
pipelines; and piping and equipment containing aqueous carbonate solutions (e.g., relieving heat treatment of 1200oF to of very fine, oxide-filled cracks Electrical resistance instruments are not effective for measuring crack
potassium carbonate) used in the carbon dioxide (CO2) removal facilities associated with 1225°F(649C to663oC) in accordance with similar in appearance to caustic stress corrosion depth.
hydrogen reformers. WRC 452- Prevention. cracking and amine stress corrosion cracking. AET can be used for monitoring crack growth
sporadic and rapid cracking

In order of increasing resistance: carbon

High temperature hydrogen attack results from exposure to hydrogen at elevated steel, C-0.5Mo, Mn-0.5Mo, 1Cr-0.5Mo,
temperatures andpressures. The hydrogen reacts with carbides in steel to form methane 1.25Cr-0.5Mo, 2.25Cr1Mo, The hydrogen/carbon reaction can cause surface Inspection is very difficult because problems have occurred
(CH4) which cannot diffuse through the steel. The loss of carbide causes an overall loss in 2.25Cr-1Mo-V, 3Cr-1Mo, 5Cr-0.5Mo and decarburization of steel. If the diffusion of carbon to the in weld heat affected zones as well as base metal away from welds.
High Temperature Hydrogen Attack strength. similar steels Normal design practice is to use a 25o F to surface is limiting, the reaction can result in internal UT (magnification of 1500X or lower)using a combination of velocity ratio
65 (HTHA) Methane pressure builds up, forming bubbles or cavities, microfissures and fissures that with variations in chemistry. 50oF (14oC to 28oC) safety factor approach decarburization, methane formation and and AUBT have been the most successful in finding fissuring and/or serious
maycombine to form cracks. 300 Series SS, as well as 5Cr, 9Cr and 12 Cr when using the API RP 941 curves. cracking. cracking.
Failure can occur when the cracks reduce the load carrying ability of the pressure alloys, are not susceptible to HTHA at Early stages of HTHA (bubbles/cavities) can only be Bulging of the cladding away from the underlying base metal may be a tell
containing part. conditions confirmed through advanced metallographic analysis of tale sign.
normally seen in refinery units. damaged areas. WFMT and RT, are severely limited in their ability
In later stages of damage, decarburization and/or to detect anything except the advanced stages of damage where cracking
fissures can be seen by a microscope and may has already developed.
sometimes be seen by in-situ metallography. AET is not a proven method
Cracking and fissuring are intergranular

A quick test for embrittlement is a bend test or a crush

Titanium Hydriding test in a vice. embrittled components will crack and/or
66 Titanium alloys.
shatter with little or no sign of ductility.
The tubes crack as the bundle flexes when it is Specialized eddy current techniques are reported to have been able to
Hydriding of titanium is a metallurgical phenomenon in which hydrogen diffuses into the above 165F (74oC). removed. detect hydriding damage.
titanium and reacts to form an embrittling hydride phase. This can result in a complete in hydrogen atmospheres at temperatures Another possible damage mode that has occurred is metallurgical and/or mechanical methods mentioned above only.
loss of ductility with no noticeable sign of corrosion or loss in thickness. >350°F (177°C), ignition and fire of titanium tubes.
Name
SP0472-2010 (formerly RP0472)

Nace RP 0170-2012

ASTM A262 Practice C.

API RP 945
NACE RP 0169.
ASTM STP 741
API RP 751
Description
, Methods and Controls to Prevent In-Service Environmental
Cracking of Carbon Steel Weldments in Corrosive Petroleum Refining Environments

Protection of Austenitic Stainless Steels and Other Austenitic Alloys from Polythionic Acid
Stress Corrosion Cracking During a Shutdown of Refinery Equipment .
Standard Practices for Detecting Susceptibility to Intergranular Attack in Austenitic Stainless Steels
Avoiding Environmental Cracking in Amine Units
"Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems"
Underground Corrosion
Safe Operation of Hydrofluoric Acid Alkylation Units
Recommended in DM
Hydrogen Stress Cracking - HF

Polythionic Acid Stress

Corrosion Cracking (PASCC)

Amine SCC
Soil Corrosion
Soil Corrosion
Hydrofluoric (HF) Acid Corrosion
Sr. NO DM Description Description Critical factors Preventions

Graphitization is a change in the microstructure of certain carbon steels and 0.5Mo steels after longterm
operation in
the 800°F to 1100°F (427°C to 593°C) range that may cause a loss in strength, ductility, and/or creep Below 800°F (427°C), the rate is
1 Graphitization
resistance. extremely slow. The rate increases with increasing temperature
At elevated temperatures, the carbide phases in these steels are unstable and may decompose into graphite Spheroidization and graphitization are competing mechanisms that occur at overlapping temperature
nodules. This decomposition is known as graphitization. ranges. Spheroidization tends to occur preferentially above 1025°F (551°C), while graphitization
predominates below this temperature.
At temperatures above about 1025°F (552°C), graphitization may occur after spheroidization. Below
Spheroidization is a change in the microstructure of steels after exposure in the 850°F to 1400°F (440°C to 1025°F (552°C), graphitization occurs before the steel is fully spheroidized.
760°C) range, where the carbide phases in carbon steels are unstable and may agglomerate from their
2 Softening (Spheroidization) normal plate-like form to a spheroidal form, or from small, finely dispersed carbides in low alloy steels like Spheroidization can occur in a few hours at
1300°F (552°C), but may take several years at 850°F (454°C).
1Cr-0.5Mo to large agglomerated carbides. Spheroidization may cause a loss in strength and/or creep
resistance

3 Temper Embrittlement
Temper embrittlement is the reduction in toughness due to a metallurgical change that can occur in some
low alloy steels as a result of long term exposure in the temperature range of about 650°F to 1070°F (343°C Temper embrittlement cannot be prevented if the material contains critical levels of the embrittling The best way to minimize the likelihood and extent of temper embrittlement is to limit the acceptance
to 577°C). This change causes an upward shift in the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as measured impurity elements and is exposed in the embrittling temperature range. levels of manganese, silicon, phosphorus, tin, antimony, and arsenic in the base metal and welding
by Charpy impact testing. Although the loss of toughness is not evident at operating temperature, Damage due to temper embrittlement may result in catastrophic brittle fracture. consumables.
equipment that is temper embrittled may be susceptible to brittle fracture during start-up and shutdown.

Strain aging is a form of damage found mostly in older vintage carbon steels and C-0.5 Mo low alloy steels In general, steels made by BOF and fully killed with aluminum will not be susceptible. The effect is
4 Strain Aging under the combined effects of deformation and aging at an intermediate temperature. This results in an found in rimmed and capped steels with higher levels of nitrogen and carbon, but not in the modern
increase in hardness and strength with a reduction in ductility and toughness. fully killed carbon steels manufactured to a fine grain practice.

The best way to prevent 885°F embrittlement is to use low ferrite or non-ferritic alloys, or to avoid
885°F(475°C) embrittlement is a loss in toughness due to a metallurgical change that can occur in alloys exposing the susceptible material to the embrittling range.
885°F (475oC) occur in a relatively short period of time, it is often assumed that susceptible materials that have been
5 containing a ferrite phase, as a result of exposure in the temperature range 600°F to1000°F (316°C to 885°F embrittlement is reversible by heat treatment to dissolve precipitates, followed by rapid cooling.
Embrittlement exposed to temperatures in the 700°F to 1000°F (371°C to 538°C) range are affected
540°C). The de-embrittling heat treatment temperature is typically 1100°F (593°C) or higher

In susceptible alloys, the primary factor that affects sigma phase formation is the time of exposure at
elevated temperature.
6 Sigma Phase Embrittlement Formation of a metallurgical phase known as sigma phase can result in a loss of fracture toughness in some The best way to prevent sigma phase embrittlement is to use alloys that are resistant to sigma
stainless steels as a result of high temperature exposure. formation or to avoid exposing the material to the embrittling range.
Stainless steels with sigma can normally withstand normal operating stresses, but upon cooling to
temperatures below about 500°F (260°C) may show a complete lack of fracture toughness as measured
in a Charpy impact test. Laboratory tests of embrittled weld metal have shown a complete lack of
fracture toughness below 1000°F (538°C)
The 300 Series SS can be de-sigmatized by solution annealing at 1950°F (1066°C) for four hours
followed by a water quench

7 Brittle Fracture
Equipment manufactured to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, prior
Most processes run at elevated temperature so the main
Brittle fracture is the sudden rapid fracture under stress (residual or applied) where the material exhibits to the December 1987 Addenda.
concern is for brittle fracture during startup, shutdown, or hydrotest/tightness testing. Thick wall
little or no evidence of ductility or plastic deformation. Equipment made to the same code after this date were subject to the requirements of UCS 66 (impact
equipment on any unit should be considered.
exemption curves)

At high temperatures, metal components can slowly and continuously deform under load below the yield Preventions
The level of creep damage is a function of the material and the coincident temperature/stress level at
8 Creep and Stress Rupture stress. This time dependent deformation of stressed components is known as creep. Minimize metal temperature, avoid stress concentration during design and febrication.
which the creep deformation occurs.
Deformation leads to damage that may eventually lead to a rupture. Higher PWHT temp. for low creep ductality

9 Thermal Fatigue
Thermal fatigue is the result of cyclic stresses caused by variations in temperature. Damage is in the form of
Thermal fatigue is best prevented through design and operation to minimize thermal stresses and
cracking that may occur anywhere in a metallic component where relative movement or differential
thermal cycling
expansion is constrained, particularly under repeated thermal cycling.

Time to failure will increase as internal pressures or loading decrease. However, bulging and distortion Fired heaters require proper burner management and fouling/deposit control to minimize hot spots
Permanent deformation occurring at relatively low stress levels as a result of localized overheating. This
10
Short Term Overheating – Stress Rupture can be significant at low stresses, as temperatures increase. and localized overheating.
usually results in bulging and eventually failure by stress rupture.
Sr. NO DM Description Description Critical factors Preventions

The operation of steam generating equipment is a balance between the heat flow from the combustion of
Failure occurs as a result of the hoop stress in the tube from the internal steam pressure at the
the fuel and the generation of steam within the waterwall or generating tube. The flow of heat energy
Heat flux and fluid flow are critical factors. elevated temperature
through the wall of the tube results in the formation of discrete steam bubbles (nucleate boiling) on the ID
1. Flame impingement from misdirected or damaged burners
11 Steam Blanketing surface. The moving fluid sweeps the bubbles away. When the heat flow balance is disturbed, individual
2. anything that restricts fluid flow (for example, pinhole leaks lower in the steam circuit or dented
bubbles join to form a steam blanket, a condition known as Departure From Nucleate Boiling (DNB). Once a
tubes from slag falls)
steam blanket forms, tube rupture can occur rapidly, as a result of short term overheating, usually within a
few minutes.

Cracking of dissimilar metal welds occurs in the ferritic (carbon steel or low alloy steel) side of a weld
between an austenitic (300 Series SS or Nickel base alloy) and a ferritic material operating at high
12Dissimilar Metal Weld (DMW) Cracking
temperature. Cracking can result from creep damage, from fatigue cracking, from sulfide stress cracking or
hydrogen disbonding.
Important factors include the type of filler metal used to join the materials, heating and cooling rate, For high temperature applications, nickel base filler metals which have a coefficient of thermal
metal temperature, time at temperature, weld geometry and thermal cycling. expansion closer to carbon steel and low alloy steels may dramatically increase the life of the joint,
PWHT of the weldment will not prevent environmental cracking if the weld is exposed to wet H2S because of the significant reduction in thermal stress acting on the steel (ferritic) side of the joint.
conditions

Stainless steels have higher coefficients of thermal expansion than carbon and alloy steels or nickel
A form of thermal fatigue cracking – thermal shock – can occur when high and non-uniform thermal stresses The magnitude of the temperature differential and the coefficient of thermal expansion of the base alloys and are more likely to see higher stresses.
13 Thermal Shock develop over a relatively short time in a piece of equipment due to differential expansion or contraction. If material Materials that have lost ductility, such as CrMo equipment (temper embrittlement) are particularly
the thermal expansion/contraction is restrained, stresses above the yield strength of the material can result. determine the magnitude of the stress. susceptible to thermal shock.
Thermal shock usually occurs when a colder liquid contacts a warmer metal surface. Thick sections can develop high thermal gradients

Erosion is the accelerated mechanical removal of surface material as a result of relative movement
between, or impact from solids, liquids, vapor or any combination thereof.
Erosion-corrosion is a description for the damage that occurs when corrosion contributes to erosion by
14 Erosion/Erosion – Corrosion
removing protective films or scales, or by exposing the metal surface to further corrosion under the
combined action of erosion and corrosion.
Erosion-corrosion is best mitigated by using more corrosion-resistant alloys and/or altering the
process environment to reduce corrosivity, for example, deaeration, condensate injection or the
Higher molybdenum containing alloys are used for improved resistance to naphthenic acid corrosion.
addition of inhibitors. Resistance is generally not improved through increasing substrate hardness
alone.

Cavitation is a form of erosion caused by the formation and instantaneous collapse of innumerable tiny
Cavitation is best prevented by avoiding conditions that allow the absolute pressure to fall below the
vapor bubbles. Damage occurs only in localized low-pressure zones.
vapor pressure of the liquid or by changing the material properties
15 Cavitation The collapsing bubbles exert severe localized impact forces that can result in metal loss referred to as Resistance to cavitation damage in a specific environment may not be significantly improved by a
Excessively hard materials may not be suitable if they lack the toughness required to withstand the
cavitation damage. material change. A mechanical modification, design or operating change is usually required.
high local pressures and impact (shear loads) of the collapsing bubbles.
The bubbles may contain the vapor phase of the liquid, air or other gas entrained in the liquid medium.

Fatigue cracking is a mechanical form of degradation that occurs when a component is exposed to cyclical Geometry, stress level, number of cycles, and material properties (strength, hardness, microstructure) The ratio of endurancelimit over UTS is typically between 0.4 and 0.5.
stresses for an extended period, often resulting in sudden, unexpected failure. are the predominant factors in determining the fatigue resistance of a component. The best defense against fatigue cracking is good design that helps minimize stress concentration
16 Mechanical Fatigue
These stresses can arise from either mechanical loading or thermal cycling and are typically well below the CS and Ti has endurance limit while 300/400 SS and Al not and frecture depends on no. of cycles not ofcomponents that are in cyclic service.
yield strength of the material. stress applitude . usually 106 to 107 cycles

Can be eliminated or reduced through design and the use of supports and vibration dampening
Vibration-Induced A form of mechanical fatigue in which cracks are produced as the result of dynamic loading due to vibration, The amplitude and frequency of vibration as well as the fatigue resistance of the components are
17 equipment. Material upgrades are not usually a solution.
Fatigue water hammer, or unstable fluid flow. critical factors.

Both thermalinsulating and erosion resistant refractories are susceptible to various forms of mechanical
18 Refractory Degradation damage (cracking, spalling and erosion) as well as corrosion due to oxidation, sulfidation and other high Refractory selection, design and installation are the keys to minimizing damage. Proper selection of refractory, anchors and fillers and their proper design and installation are the keys
to minimizing refractory damage.
temperature mechanisms.

Important parameters include the type of material, grain size, residual stresses , section thickness,
notches and stress concentrators, weld metal and base metal strength, welding and heattreating
For Alloy 800H (operate >540C), the risk of in-service cracking can be reduced by using base metal and
Cracking of a metal due to stress relaxation during Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) or in service at conditions.
19 Reheat Cracking matching weld metal with Al+Ti <0.7%.
elevated temperatures above 750°F (399°C). It is most often observed in heavy wall sections. For 2 ¼ Cr-1 Mo-V SAW weld materials, prequalification screening tests for reheat cracking such as
For thick-wall SS piping, PWHT should be avoided whenever possible
high temperature (650oC) Gleeble tensile tests should be considered.

Many metals are flammable in oxygen and enriched air (>25% oxygen) services even at low pressures,
whereas they are non-flammable in air. The spontaneous ignition or combustion of metallic and Many factors affect the likelihood of combustion and ignition in oxygen services including the system The primary concern under high velocity oxygen is the entrainment of particulate
Gaseous Oxygen-
nonmetallic components can result in fires and explosions in certain oxygen-enriched gaseous environments pressure, oxygen content of the stream, line velocity, component thickness, design and piping Published ignition temperatures for most alloys are near the alloy’s melting temperature.
20 Enhanced Ignition
if not properly designed, operated and maintained. Once ignited, configuration, cleanliness and temperature. he primary concern under high velocity oxygen is the entrainment of particulate
and Combustion
metals and non-metals burn more vigorously with higher oxygen purity, pressure and temperature. Published ignition temperatures for most alloys are near the alloy’s melting temperature.
Sr. NO DM Description Description Critical factors Preventions

The farther the alloys are apart in the table, the higher the driving force for corrosion.
A form of corrosion that can occur at the junction of dissimilar metals when they are joined together in a The best method for prevention/mitigation is through good design.
21 Galvanic Corrosion
suitable electrolyte, such as a moist or aqueous environment, or soils containing moisture. Coatings can be helpful, but the more noble material should be coated
Corrosion rates of the anode can be high, if there is a small anode to cathode ratio and vice versa

Marine environments can be very corrosive (20 mpy) as are industrial environments (5-10 mpy).
A form of corrosion that occurs from moisture associated with atmospheric conditions. Marine
Inland locations are moderately corrosive environments (~1-3 mpy)
22 Atmospheric Corrosion environments and moist polluted industrial environments with airborne contaminants are most severe. Dry
Dry rural environments usually have (<1 mpy).
rural environments cause very little corrosion.

Mitigation is best achieved by using appropriate paints/coatings and maintaining the

Design of insulation system, insulation type, temperature and environment are critical factors.
Corrosion of piping, pressure vessels and structural components resulting from water trapped under insulation/sealing/vapor barriers to prevent moisture ingress
23 Corrosion Under Insulation Corrosion becomes more severe at 212°F (100°C) and 350°F (121°C)
insulation or fireproofing. High quality non-metallic coatings, properly applied to the surfaces to be insulated can provide long
term protection.

Low velocities can promote increased corrosion. Velocities below about 3 fps (1 m/s) are concern
Cooling water corrosion and fouling are closely related and should be considered together. Fluid
24 Cooling Water Corrosion General or localized corrosion of carbon steels and other metals caused by dissolved salts, gases, organic 300 SS can suffer pitting/crevice corrosion and SCC in fresh, brackish and salt water systems.
temperature, type of water (fresh, brackish, salt water) and the type of cooling system (once-through,
compounds or microbiological activity. The copper/zinc alloys can suffer SCC if any ammonia or ammonium compounds are present in the
open circulating, closed circulating), oxygen content, and fluid velocities are critical factors
water or on the process side.

General corrosion and pitting in the boiler system and condensate Corrosion protection in the boiler is accomplished by laying
25 Boiler Water Condensate Coreturn piping. Critical factors are the concentration of dissolved gas (oxygen and or carbon dioxide), pH, down and continuously maintaining a layer of protective Fe3O4 (magnetite)
Corrosion in boiler feedwater and condensate return systems is usually the result of dissolved gases, oxygen temperature, quality of the feedwater, and the specific feedwater treating system. Ammonia SCC of Cu-Zn alloys can occur due to hydrazine, neutralizing amines or ammonia-containing
and carbon dioxide, which lead to oxygen pitting corrosion and carbonic acid corrosion, respectivley compounds

The partial pressure of CO2, pH and temperature are critical factors. Increasing the level of Cr in steels offers no major improvement in resistance until a minimum of 12%
Carbon di oxide (CO2) corrosion results when CO2 dissolves in water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). The
Increasing partial pressures of CO2 result in lower pH condensate and higher rates of corrosion. is reached.
26 CO2 Corrosion acid may lower the pH and sufficient quantities may promote general corrosion and/or pitting corrosion of
Corrosion rates as high as 1000 mpy have been observed
carbon steel. 2CO3
Increasing condensate pH above 6 can reduce corrosion in steam condensate systems

Sulfur and chlorine species in fuel will form sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide and hydrogen chloride within the
The concentration of contaminants (sulfur and chlorides) in the fuel and the operating temperature of
27 Flue-Gas Dew-Point Corrosicombustion products. flue gas metal surfaces determine the likelihood and severity of corrosion.
At low enough temperatures, these gases and the water vapor in the flue gas will condense to form
sulfurous acid, sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid which can lead to severe corrosion.

Because there are several types, organisms can survive and grow under severe conditions including
Wrapping and cathodically protecting underground structures have been effective in preventing MIC.
lack of oxygen, light or dark, high salinity, pH range of 0 to 12, and temperatures from 0°F to 235°F (–
28 Microbiologically Induced CA form of corrosion caused by living organisms such as bacteria, algae or fungi. It is often associated with 17°C to 113°C).
Effective mitigation of established organisms requires complete removal of deposits and organisms
the presence of tubercles or slimy organic substances. using a combination of pigging, blasting, chemical cleaning and biocide treatment.
In-leakage of process contaminants such as hydrocarbons or H2S may lead to a massive increase in
biofouling and corrosion.

The severity of soil corrosion is determined by many factors including OP, moisture and oxygen
availability, soil resistivity (soil condition and characteristics), soil type (water drainage), and
29 Soil Corrosion The deterioration of metals exposed to soils is referred to as soil corrosion. homogeneity (variation in soil type), cathodic protection, stray current drainage, coating type, age,
and condition.
to estimate soil corrosivity, ASTM STP 741 as well as API RP 580 and API RPl 581
Soil resistivity is related to soil moisture content and dissolved electrolytes in the soil water.
Soil-to-air interface areas are often much more susceptible to corrosion than the rest of the structure
because of moisture and oxygen availability
Other factors that affect soil corrosion include galvanic corrosion, dissimilar soils, stray currents,
differential aeration corrosion cells, and MIC

In steam generating equipment, caustic corrosion is best prevented through proper design. Damage
can be minimized by reducing the amount of free caustic, by ensuring adequate water flooding and
Localized corrosion due to the concentration of caustic or alkaline salts that usually occurs under
30 Caustic Corrosion A concentrating mechanism must exist to build up the caustic strength. water flow, by ensuring proper burner management to minimize hot spots on heater tubes, and by
evaporative or high heat transfer conditions. However, general corrosion can also occur depending on alkali
Caustic may become concentrated by departure from DNB, evaporation and deposition. minimizing the ingress of alkaline producing salts into condensers.
or caustic solution strength.
In process equipment, caustic injection facilities should be designed to allow proper mixing and dilution
of caustic in order to avoid the concentration of caustic on hot metal surfaces.
Sr. NO DM Description Description Critical factors Preventions

Resistance to dealloying can sometimes be improved by the addition of certain alloying elements
Dealloying is a selective corrosion mechanism in which one or more constituents of an alloy are
Factors which influence dealloying include the composition of the alloy and exposure conditions Continued degradation of a dealloyed component can only be prevented by altering the exposure
preferentially attacked leaving a lower density (dealloyed) often porous structure.
31 Dealloying including temperature, degree of aeration, pH and exposure time. conditions or replacing it with a resistant material.
Component failure may occur suddenly and unexpectedly because mechanical properties of the dealloyed
Depending on the alloy-environment combination, cathodic protection or barrier coatings may be
material are significantly degraded.
effective

Cast irons are comprised of graphite particles embedded in an iron matrix. Graphitic corrosion is a form of Damage may take many months or years to progress but can increase in severity if the pH drops. Much
dealloying in which the iron matrix is corroded, leaving corrosion products and porous Usually limited to very specific microstructure-environment combinations. of the damage occurs during stagnant conditions when high concentrations of sulfates are present.
32 Graphitic Corrosion graphite. Factors that influence graphitic corrosion include the composition of the alloy and exposure Graphite is cathodic to the iron matrix.
Attack results in a porous structure with a loss of strength, ductility and density. It usually occurs under low conditions including temperature, degree of aeration, pH and exposure time. graphitic corrosion can be prevented by coatings and/or cement linings and external cathodic
pH and stagnant conditions, especially in contact with soils or waters high in sulfates. protection.

Resistance to oxidation is best achieved by upgrading to a more resistant alloy.

The primary factors are metal temperature and alloy
Cr is the primary alloying element that affects resistance to oxidation. Other alloying
Oxygen reacts with carbon steel and other alloys at high temperature converting the metal to oxide scale. composition.
like Si and Al, are effective but their concentrations are limited due to adverse affects on mechanical
33 Oxidation It is most often present as oxygen is in the surrounding air (approximately 20%) used for combustion in fired The resistance of carbon steel and other alloys is determined by the chromium content of the
properties.
heaters and boilers. material. Increasing chromium levels produce a more protective oxide scale

Major factors affecting sulfidation are alloy composition, temperature and concentration of corrosive
sulfur compounds.
Resistance to sulfidation is generally achieved by upgrading to a higher chromium alloy.
Corrosion of carbon steel and other alloys resulting from their reaction with sulfur compounds in high Susceptibility is determined by its ability to form protective sulfide scales.
34 Sulfidation solid or clad 300 SS or 400 SS can provide significant resistance to corrosion
temperature environments. The presence of hydrogen accelerates corrosion. This mechanisms is also the resistance of iron and nickel base alloys is determined by the chromium content.
It can be misleading to predict corrosion rates based on weight percent sulfur alone
known as sulfidic corrosion. Sulfidation is primarily caused by H2S

Select alloys with adequate resistance to carburization including alloys with a strong surface oxide or
sulfide film formers (silicon and aluminum).
Carbon is absorbed into a material at elevated temperature while in contact with a carbonaceous material Conditions favoring carburization include a high gas phase carbon activity (hydrocarbons, coke, gases
35 Carburization Reduce the carbon activity of the environment through lower temperatures and higher oxygen/sulfur
or carburizing environment. rich in CO, CO2, methane, ethane) and low oxygen potential (minimal O or steam)
partial pressures. Sulfur inhibits carburization and is often added in the process stream in small
amounts in steam/gas cracking in olefin and thermal hydrodealkylation units.

Time, temperature and carbon activity of the process stream are the critical factors
A condition where steel loses strength due the removal of carbon and carbides leaving only an iron matrix. The material must be exposed to a gas phase that has a low carbon activity so that carbon in the steel Can be controlled by controlling the chemistry of the gas phase and alloy selection (API RP 941).
36 Decarburization Decarburization occurs during exposure to high temperatures, during heat treatment, from exposure to will diffuse to the surface to react with gas phase constituents. Alloy steels with Cr and Mo are more resistant.
fires, or from high temperature service in a gaseous environment The extent and depth of decarburization is a function of the temperature and exposure time.

Process stream composition, operating temperature and alloy composition are critical factors.
Metal dusting is preceded by carburization and is characterized by rapid metal wastage. Sulfur in the carburizing atmosphere (usually as H2S), forms a protective sulfide that minimizes
Metal dusting is form of carburization resulting in accelerated localized pitting which occurs in carburizing
Metal Dusting Metal dusting involves a complex series of reactions involving a reducing gas such as hydrogen, carburization and metal dusting.
37 gases and/or process streams containing carbon and hydrogen. Pits usually form on the surface and may
methane, propane or CO. For protection, sufficient H2S must always be present.
contain soot or graphite dust.
In high nickel alloys, formation of metal carbides not required. aluminum diffusion treatment can be beneficial
Can also occur under alternating reducing and oxidizing conditions.

Fuel ash corrosion is accelerated high temperature wastage of materials that occurs when contaminants in
the fuel form deposits and melt on the metal surfaces of fired heaters, boilers and gas turbines.
Corrosion typically occurs with fuel oil or coal that is contaminated with a combination of sulfur, sodium,
38 Fuel Ash Corrosion
potassium and/or vanadium.
The resulting molten salts (slags) dissolve the surface oxide and enhance the transport of oxygen to the
surface to re-form the iron oxide at the expense of the tube wall or component.
The severity of damage depends on the type of fuel (i.e., the concentrations of contaminants in the
Unburned coal causes carburization.
fuel), sulfur content and metal temperature.
corrosion rates of 100 to 1000 mpy may be experienced.
The corrosion rates differ depending on the alloy and location within the heater.
In some cases, the characteristics and melting points of the slags can be changed by firing with low
For oil ash, mixtures of vanadium pentoxide and sodium oxide, or vanadium pentoxide and sodium
excess oxygen or by injecting special additives into the fuel.
sulfate.
Corrosion of some components, such as tube hangers and supports, can be minimized by changingto a
For waterwall corrosion, the liquid species are mixtures of sodium and potassium pyrosulfates.
50%Cr-50%Ni alloy, such as Alloy 657.
For coal ash, superheater and reheater corrosion is caused by sodium and potassium iron trisulfates

Nitriding is a diffusion controlled process dependent on temperature, time, partial pressure of

A hard, brittle surface layer will develop on some alloys due to exposure to high temperature process
nitrogen and metal composition. Changing to more resistant alloys with 30% to 80% nickel is usually required. It is usually not practical
39 Nitriding streams containing high levels of nitrogen compounds such ammonia or cyanides, particularly under
High gas phase nitrogen activity (high partial pressures of nitrogen) promotes nitriding to modify the process conditions to reduce the nitrogen partial pressure or to lower temperatures.
reducing conditions.
Alloys containing 30% to 80% nickel are more resistant

Surface initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of 300 Series SS and some nickel base alloys
40 Chloride Stress Corrosion Crunder the combined action of tensile stress, temperature and an aqueous chloride environment. The
presence of dissolved oxygen increases propensity for cracking.
Chloride content, pH, temperature, stress, presence of oxygen and alloy composition are critical
factors.
SCC usually occurs at pH values above 2. At lower pH values, uniform corrosion generally Carbon steels, low alloy steels and 400 Series SS are not susceptible
predominates. SCC tendency decreases toward the alkaline pH region. A high temperature stress relief of 300 Series SS after fabrication may reduce residual stresses.
No thershold limit for Cl and O2, they increase SCC. However, consideration should be given to the possible effects of sensitization that may occur,
Ni alloy-The greatest susceptibility is at a nickel increasing susceptibility to polythionic SCC, possible distortion problems and potential reheat cracking.
content of 8% to 12%. Alloys with nickel contents above 35% are highly resistant and alloys above
45% are nearly immune.
Sr. NO DM Description Description Critical factors Preventions

The critical factors are the material, corrosive environment, cyclic stresses and stress raisers. Rotating Equipment: Minimize galvanic couple effects.
A form of fatigue cracking in which cracks develop under the combined effects of cyclic loading and
Contrary to a pure mechanical fatigue, there is no fatigue limit load in corrosion-assisted fatigue. Deaerators; Minimize residual welding and fabrication stresses through PWHT.
41 Corrosion Fatigue corrosion. Cracking often initiates at a stress concentration such as a pit in the surface. Cracking can initiate
Crack initiation sites include concentrators such as pits, notches, surface defects, changes in section or Cycling Boilers; Slow start up with the chemistry of the boiler water under proper control
at multiple sites.
fillet welds.

Susceptibility to caustic embrittlement in caustic soda (NaOH) and caustic potash (KOH) solutions is a
function of caustic strength, metal temperature and stress levels.
Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking can occur at low caustic levels if a concentrating mechanism is present. In such cases, caustic Cracking can be effectively prevented by means of a stress-relieving heat treatment (e.g. PWHT).
Caustic embrittlement is a form of stress corrosion cracking characterized by surface-initiated cracks that
42 Cracking concentrations of 50 to 100 ppm are sufficient to cause cracking. Nickel base alloys are more resistant to cracking.
occur in piping and equipment exposed to caustic, primarily adjacent to non-PWHT’d welds.
(Caustic Embrittlement) It is generally accepted that stresses approaching yield are required for SCC so that thermal stress Steamout of non-PWHT’d carbon steel piping and equipment should be avoided.
relief (PWHT) is effective in preventing caustic SCC
Crack propagation rates increase dramatically with temperature

Copper Alloy; improved resistance as zinc content decreases below 15%.

Copper Alloy: Zinc content of brasses affects susceptibility, especially as zinc increases above 15%.
The 90-10CuNi and 70-30CuNi alloys are nearly immune.
Oxygen is necessary, but trace amounts are sufficient.
300 Series SS and nickel base alloys are immune
pH above 8.5.
CS; SCC of steel can be prevented through the addition of small quantities of water to the ammonia
43 Ammonia Stress Corrosion Aqueous streams containing ammonia may cause Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) in some copper alloys. CS; Anhydrous ammonia with <0.2% water may cause cracking.
(0.2% minimum).
Carbon steel is susceptible to SCC in anhydrous ammonia. PWHT- (<70 ksi tensile strength).
Low strength steels (<70 ksi tensile strength) should be used.
Contamination with air or oxygen increases tendency
Weld hardness should not exceed 225 BHN.
Low levels of oxygen (< 10 ppm)-couase cracking

LME occurs in very specific combinations of metals in contact with low melting point metals such as
zinc, mercury, cadmium, lead, copper and tin.
LME can only be prevented by protecting metal substrates from coming into contact with the low
Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME) is a form of cracking that results when certain molten metals come in High tensile stress promotes cracking, Very small quantities of the low melting point metal are
44 Liquid Metal Embrittlement melting metal.
contact with specific alloys. Cracking can be very sudden and brittle in nature. sufficient to cause LME.
Once cracking from LME has initiated, grinding out the affected area is not an acceptable fix
Cracking under load can be extremely rapid.
Cracking can occur after long periods of time

Three conditions
1) Hydrogen must be present at a critical concentration within the steel/alloy.
During welding, use low hydrogen, dry electrodes and preheating methods. If hydrogen is expected to
A loss in ductility of high strength steels due to the penetration of atomic hydrogen can lead to brittle 2) The strength level and microstructure of the steel/alloy must be susceptible to embrittlement.
have diffused into the metal, an elevated temperature bake out [400°F or higher (204°C or higher)].
cracking. 3) A stress above the threshold for HE must be present.
45 Hydrogen Embrittlement (H In corrosive aqueous services, apply a protective lining, SS cladding or weld overlay to prevent the
Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE) can occur during manufacturing, welding, or from services that can charge Thick wall components are more vulnerable.
surface hydrogen reactions.
hydrogen into the steel in an aqueous, corrosive, or a gaseous environment. In general, as strength increases, susceptibility to HE increases. Certain microstructures, such as
untempered martensite and pearlite, are more susceptible at the same strength level than tempered
martensite.

Surface-initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of carbon steel under the combined action of
tensile stress and a fuel grade ethanol (FGE, ASTM D 4806) or FGE / gasoline blend environment. Dissolved
46 Ethanol Stress Corrosion Cr
oxygen and the presence of variable stresses such as cyclic stress or component flexing, increase the
propensity for cracking.
Field observations; Stress may be applied or residual. Variable stresses, such as those produced by
loading and unloading of tanks, have led to cracking in tank bottoms and floating roofs.
In ontrolled laboratory; using conservative Slow Strain
Rate Test (SSRT). The likelihood of ethanol SCC can be reduced though PWHT (when possible) or by applying coatings.
Aeration is most important factor.Cracking has not been found under deaerated conditions. Avoid the usage of lap seam welds that may concentrate strain in components.
water content between 0.1 and 4.5 vol%. Minimize cold working during fabrication.
as little as 20 vol% FGE.
Galvanic coupling increases SCC.
Increasing the chloride, increase the severity of cracking and changes the crack type from mainly
intergranular found in the field to transgranular cracking.

The combination of stress and the presence of sulfate

Periodic cleaning once every five years can increase life.
chemical compounds. Residual stresses are sufficient to promote cracking.
Surface initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of copper alloys in sulfate solutions over many Alloys that are highly resistant to ammonia stress corrosion cracking such as the 90-10CuNi and 70-
47 Sulfate Stress Corrosion Cra Ammonia is usually present, often at very low concentrations.
years. Most commonly found in heat exchanger tubes, primarily in cooling water services. 30CuNi alloys are also highly resistant to sulfate SCC.
Taking as long as 10 to 15 years to cause tube leaks.
Non-copper based alloys are immune from this form of damage.

Amine corrosion refers to the general and/or localized corrosion that occurs principally on carbon steel in
Amine Corrosion
48 amine treating processes. Corrosion is not caused by the amine itself, but results from dissolved acid gases
(CO2 and H2S), amine degradation products, Heat Stable Amine Salts (HSAS) and other contaminants.
Corrosion depends on design and operating practices, the type of amine, amine concentration,
contaminants, temperature and velocity.
Amine corrosion is very closely tied to the operation of the unit.
type of amine used most to least corrosive as follows: monoethanolamine (MEA), diglycolamine
(DGA), diisopropylamine (DIPA), diethanolamine (DEA), and methyldiamine (MDEA).
Lean amine solutions are generally not corrosive, However, HSAS above about 2%, significantly
increase corrosion rates.
Process stream velocity will influence the amine corrosion rate and nature of attack.For carbon steel,
common velocity limits are generally limited to 3 to 6 fps for rich amine and about 20 fps for lean
amine.
Proper operation of the amine system is the most effective way to control corrosion, with particular
attention to acid gas loading levels.
Avoid the buildup of HSAS to unacceptable levels.
control local pressure drop (by design) to minimize flashing.
Oxygen inleakage causes high corrosion rates and contributes to heat stable salt formation.
Corrosion inhibitors may be required
Sr. NO DM Description Description Critical factors Preventions

NH4HS concentration, H2S partial pressure, velocity and/or localized turbulence, pH, temperature,
alloy composition and flow distribution are all critical factors to consider.
Good design practice should consist of symmetrical and hydraulically balanced flow.
Corrosion increases with increasing NH
Maintain velocities within industry guidelines of 10 to 20 fps for carbon steel. CS - high C.Rs above
Ammonium Bisulfide Aggressive corrosion occurring in hydroprocessing reactor effluent streams and in units handling alkaline HS concentration and increasing velocity. ive. Above 2 wt % NH4HS, solutions are increasingly
about 8 wt % NH4HS concentration
Corrosion (Alkaline Sour sour water. corrosive.
49 Use resistant materials of construction (e.g. Alloy 825, duplex SS) at velocities above 20 fps.
Water) Several major failures have occurred in hydroprocessing reactor effluent systems due to localized corrosion. The salts are not corrosive unless they become hydrated.
Titanium and Alloy C276 are used in SWS.
Oxygen and iron leads to increased corrosion.
Aluminum exchanger tubes are extremely susceptible to erosion-corrosion damage.
Presence of cyanides increases severity of corrosion

Concentration (NH3, HCl, H20 or amine salts), temperature and water availability are the critical
factors. Limit salts by limiting chlorides.
General or localized corrosion, often pitting, normally occurring under ammonium chloride or amine salt
50 Ammonium Chloride Corros A small amount of water can lead to very aggressive corrosion [>100 mpy (>2.5 mm/y] . Water wash
deposits, often in the absence of a free water phase.
The presence of deposits is often detected when the pressure drop increases or the thermal Filming amine inhibitors a
performance of exchangers has deteriorated.

Crude Unit- A common target is 20 ppm or fewer chlorides in the overhead accumulator water.
Water washing
Caustic injection downstream of the desalter
HCl acid concentration, temperature and alloy composition.
Various combinations of ammonia, neutralizing amines and filming amines can be injected in
Hydrochloric acid (aqueous HCl) causes both general and localized corrosion and is very aggressive to most The severity of corrosion increases with increasing HCl concentration and increasing temperature.
the atmospheric tower overhead
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) common materials of construction across a wide range of concentrations. CS and low alloy-excessive corrosion when exposed to any
51 Hydrodroprocessing
Corrosion Damage in refineries is most often associated with dew point corrosion in which vapors containing water concentration of HCl at pH below about 4.5.
Minimize HCl in H2 streams
and hydrogen chloride condense from the overhead stream of a distillation, fractionation or stripping tower. The presence of oxidizing agents (oxygen, ferric and cupric ions) will increase the corrosion rate,
corrosion resistant nickel base alloys.
The first water droplets that condense can be highly acidic (low pH) and promote high corrosion rates. particularly for alloy 400 and Alloy B-2. Titanium performs well in oxidizing conditions but fails rapidly
Catalytic Reforming
in dry HCl service.
Almost same as hydroprocessing
water washing.
Special adsorbents in chloride beds and chloride treaters

the temperature, the presence of hydrogen, the concentration of H2S and the alloy composition.
The presence of hydrogen in H2S-containing hydrocarbon streams increases the severity of high Higher corrosion rates are found more in gas oil desulfurizers and hydrocrackers than naphtha There is little improvement with increasing chromium content until about 7-9Cr.
52 High Temp H2/H2S Corrosi temperature sulfide corrosion at temperatures above about 500°F (260°C). This form of sulfidation desulfurizers by a factor of almost ‘2’. Chromium-containing nickel base alloys are similar to stainless steel.
usually results in a uniform loss in thickness associated with hot circuits in hydroprocessing units. Susceptibility to sulfidation is determined by the chemical composition of the alloy. The 300 Series SS such as Types 304L, 316L, 321 and 347 are highly resistant at service temperatures

HF acid concentration (water content), temperature, alloy composition and the presence of
Industry guidelines regarding RE content (in CS);
contaminants including oxygen and sulfur compounds are the controlling factors.
For Base Metal: %C > 0.18 wt.% and %Cu + %Ni < 0.15 wt.%
CS forms a protective fluoride scale in dry conc. acid. Loss of the protective scale through high
For Weld Metal: %Cu + %Ni + %Cr < 0.15 wt.%
Corrosion by HF acid can result in high rates of general or localized corrosion and may be accompanied by velocities or turbulence, presence of water, cause high C.Rs.
53 Hydrofluoric (HF) Acid Corr Oxygen increases the C.R of CS and SCC of Alloy 400.
hydrogen cracking, blistering and/or HIC/SOHIC The primary concern is“HF-in-water” conc. of the acid phase.
Careful operation of the unit to minimize water, oxygen, sulfur and other contaminants in the feed.
Conc. is determined by water (usually 1% to 3%)present in the acid phase.
Alloy 400 (solid or clad) can eliminate problems of blistering and HIC/SOHIC alongwith PWHT.
C.Rs increase with increasing temp.and decreasing HF conc. (increasing water content).
Alloy C276 has been used where there have been cracking problems with Alloy 400.

Total Acid Number (TAN) is a measure of the acidity (organic acid content) as determined by various
NAC is a function of the naphthenic acid content (neutralization number orTAN-total acid number),
test methods such as ASTM D-664. However, NAC corrosion is associated with hot dry hydrocarbon
temperature, sulfur content, velocity and alloy composition.
streams that do not contain a free water phase.
A form of high temperature corrosion that occurs primarily in crude and vacuum units, and downstream NAC is determined by the acidity of the actual stream not the crude charge.
54 Naphthenic Acid Corrosion NAC can be reduced by blending crude to reduce the TAN and/or increase the sulfur content.
units that process certain fractions or cuts that contain naphthenic acids. Sulfur promotes iron sulfide formation and has an inhibiting effect on NAC, up to a point.
High temperature NAC inhibitors have been used with moderate success.
NAC can be a particular problem with very low sulfur crudes with TAN’s as low as 0.10.
For severe conditions, Type 317L stainless steel or other alloys with higher molybdenum content may
be required.

Corrosion is best prevented through proper materials selection and control of phenol solvent
Temperature, water content, alloy chemistry and velocity are the critical factors. chemistry.
Phenol (Carbolic Acid) Overhead piping circuits should be designed for a maximum velocity of 30 fps in the recovery section.
Corrosion of carbon steel can occur in plants using phenol as a solvent to remove aromatic compounds from Corrosion is usually minimal in the treating section when the temperature is below 250°F (121 °C).
55 Corrosion Recovery tower overhead temperatures should be maintained to at least 30°F (17°C) above the dew
lubricating oil feedstocks. Sulfur and organic acids may lead to naphthenic acid attack and sulfidation in the hot extract circuit. point.
Dilute aqueous solutions (5-15% phenol) are very corrosive to the extract dryer condensers. Tubes and headers in extract furnaces should be 316L.
Sr. NO DM Description Description Critical factors Preventions

Selective upgrading to corrosion resistant materials is the only option where water cannot be
Acid concentration, temperature and contaminants.
eliminated.
Solid phosphoric acid catalysts are not corrosive to carbon steel unless free water is present. When
Phosphoric acid is most often used as a catalyst in polymerization units. It can cause both pitting corrosion Type 316L SS and Alloy 20 are effective at concentrations up to 85% at boiling temperatures.
56 Phosphoric Acid Corrosion water is present, severe corrosion of carbon steel may occur.
and localized corrosion of carbon steels depending on water content. Corrosion rates increase with increasing temperature.
Corrosion can penetrate a 1/4-inch thick steel tube in eight hours
Contaminants, such as chlorides, can increase phosphoric acid corrosion.

Corrosion of steel due to acidic sour water containing H2S at a pH between 4.5 and 7.0. Carbon dioxide H2S content, pH, temperature, velocity and oxygen concentration are all critical factors.
The presence of air or oxidants may increase the corrosion and usually produces pitting orunderdeposit
Sour Water Corrosion (CO2) may also be present. Increasing concentrations of H2S tend to decrease solution pH down to about 4.5.
57 attacks.
(Acidic) Sour waters containing significant amounts of ammonia, chlorides or cyanides may significantly affect pH Above a pH of about 4.5, a protective, thin iron sulfide layer limits the corrosion rate.
300 Series SS can be used at temperatures below about 140
but are outside the scope of this section. Other contaminants have a significant affect on water pH. For example, HCl and CO lower pH (more
oF (60oC) where Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking (CSCC) is not likely.
acidic). Ammonia significantly increases pH.

Acid concentration, temperature, alloy content, velocity, contamination and presence of oxidizers.
Carbon steel corrosion rates increase significantly if the flow velocity exceeds about 2 to 3 fps (0.6 to
58 Sulfuric Acid Corrosion Sulfuric acid promotes general and localized corrosion of carbon steel and other alloys. Carbon steel heat 0.9 m/s) or at acid concentrations below 65%.
affected zones may experience severe corrosion. High corrosion rates can occur where the acid becomes diluted.
Corrosion of steel by dilute acid is usually in the form of overall metal loss or pitting and becomes
more severe with increasing temperature and velocity.
The presence of oxidizers can greatly increase the corrosion rate.
Corrosion is minimized through materials selection and proper operation within design velocities.
Alloys such as Alloy 20, Alloy 904L and Alloy C-276 resist dilute acid corrosion and form a protective
iron sulfate film on the surface.

Organic compounds present in some crude oils decompose in the crude furnace to form low molecular
Aqueous Organic Acid weight organic acids which condense in distillation tower overhead systems. They may also result from
59 Corrosion additives used in upstream operations or desalting. These naturally occurring acids may contribute
significantly to aqueous corrosion depending on the type and quantity of acids, and the presence of other
contaminants.
Corrosion is a function of the type and quantity of organic acids, metal temperature, fluid velocity,
Corrosion caused can be minimized through the injection of a chemical neutralizing additive. However,
system pH, and presence of other acids.
when frequent changes in crude blends lead to changes in neutralizer demand.
The low molecular weight organic acids include formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric
The TAN of the crudes being processed can be used as an initial guide to setting the neutralizer by
acid.
anticipating an increase in the acid concentration in the overhead system.
Corrosion is most likely to be a problem where relatively ‘non-corrosive’ conditions exist in an
Filming amines can be used if the filming amine selected does not react with the organic acid.
overhead system.
However, it is not as effective as neutralization.
The type and quantity of organic acids formed in the overhead system are crude specific.
Upgrading to corrosion-resistant alloys will prevent organic acid corrosion but the selection of suitable
In general, these light organic acids do not generate the severity of corrosion associated with
materials should account for other potential damage mechanisms in the overhead system.
inorganic acids such as HCl.

Flushing with alkaline or soda ash solution or purging with dry nitrogen or nitrogen/ammonia. Refer to
guidelines in NACE RP0170.
A combination of environment, material, and stress are required. Low carbon grades such as 304L/316L/317L provide some measure of improvement over controlled
A form of stress corrosion cracking normally occurring during shutdowns, startups or during operation when
Affected alloys become sensitized “Sensitization” refers to the composition/time/temperature carbon grades. The L grades will sensitize if exposed more than several hours above about 1000oF
air and moisture are present. Cracking is due to sulfur acids forming from sulfide scale, air and moisture
Polythionic Acid Stress dependent formation of chromium carbide in the grain boundaries of the metal. (538oC) or long term above 750oF (400oC).
acting on sensitized austenitic stainless steels.
Corrosion Cracking The carbon content and the thermal history of the alloy have a significant effect on sensitization alloy containing small amounts of Ti and Nb(austenitic stainless steel types 321 and 347 and nickel base
60 b) Usually adjacent to welds or high stress areas.
(PASCC) susceptibility. Alloys 825 and 625).
c) Cracking may propagate rapidly through the wall thickness of piping and components in a matter of
Regular and controlled carbon grades of SS such as types 304/304H and 316/316H are particularly A thermal stabilization heat treatment at 1650oF (899oC) may be applied to chemically stabilized
minutes or hours.
susceptible to sensitizing in the weld HAZ. Low carbon ”L” grades (<0.03% C) are less susceptible and austenitic stainless steel welds after all welding is complete in an attempt to reduce sensitization and
usually can be welded without sensitizing. PTA susceptibility.
Susceptibility to PASCC can be determined by laboratory corrosion testing according to ASTM A262
Practice C.

Amine cracking is a common term applied to the cracking of steels under the combined action of
tensile stress and corrosion in aqueous alkanolamine systems used to remove/absorb H2S and/or CO2 and
Amine Stress Corrosion their mixtures from various gas and liquid hydrocarbon streams.
61 Cracking Amine cracking is a form of alkaline stress corrosion cracking. It is most often found at or adjacent to non-
PWHT’d carbon steel weldments or in highly cold worked parts.
Amine cracking should not be confused with several other types of SCC that can occur in amine
environments which are further described
The critical factors are the level of tensile stress, amine concentration and temperature.
Cracking is associated with residual stresses from welding, cold working or fabrication.
Some refiners believe cracking will not occur below an amine concentration of about 2% to 5%.
Cracking is more likely to occur in lean MEA and DEA services.
However, local enrichment and steamout can reduce this limit and some plants have used lower limits
Increasing temperature and stress levels increases the likelihood and severity of cracking. Refer to
down to 0.2%.
API RP 945 for guidelines on PWHT requirements for various amine services.
PWHT all carbon steel welds in piping and equipment in accordance with API RP 945. The same
Amine cracking is most often associated with lean amine services. Cracking in rich amine services are
requirement applies to repair welds and to internal and external attachment welds.
most often associated with wet H2S problems.
Use solid or clad stainless steel, Alloy 400 or other corrosion resistant alloys in lieu of carbon steel.
Amine concentration does not appear to have a significant effect on the propensity for cracking.
Water wash non-PWHT carbon steel piping and equipment prior to welding, heat treatment or
steamout.
Sr. NO DM Description Description Critical factors Preventions

All damage mechanisms are related to the absorption and permeation of hydrogen in steels.
pH: minimal at pH 7 and increase at both higher and lower pH. The presence of HCN in the water
phase significantly increases permeation in alkaline (high pH) sour water.
>50 wppm dissolved H2S in the free water.
free water with pH <4 and some dissolved H2S present.
free water with pH >7.6 and 20 wppm dissolved hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the water S present. Steelmaking:Blistering and HIC damage are strongly affected by the presence of inclusions and
Hydrogen Blistering: Blistering results from hydrogen generated by corrosion, not hydrogen gas from the >0.0003 MPa (0.05 psia) partial pressure of H laminations.
process stream. and some dissolved H2S in the gas phase. HIC resistant steels outlined in NACE Publication 8X194.
HIC: Interconnecting cracks between the blisters often have a stair step appearance, and so HIC is Increasing levels of ammonia may push the pH higher Improving steel cleanliness and processing to minimize blistering and HIC damage may still leave the
sometimes referred to as “stepwise cracking”. H2S: Hydrogen permeation increases with increasing H2S partial pressure. steel susceptible to SOHIC.
SOHIC: similar to HIC but is a potentially more damaging form of cracking which appears as arrays of cracks An arbitrary value of 50 wppm H2S in the water phase. HIC is often found in so-called “dirty” steels.
S Damage
stacked on top of each other. The result is a through-thickness crack that is perpendicular to the surface The presence of as little as 1 wppm of H2S in the water PWHT: Blistering and HIC damage develop without applied or residual stress so that PWHT will not
(Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC
62 and is driven by high levels of stress (residual or applied). They usually appear in the found to be sufficient to cause hydrogen charging of the steel. prevent them from occurring.
)Wet H
base metal adjacent to the weld heat affected zones where they initiate from HIC damage or other cracks or Susceptibility to SSC increases with increasing H2S partial pressures above about 0.05 psi(0.0003 Mpa) somewhat effective in reducing SOHIC damage.
2S
defects including sulfide stress cracks. H2S in steels with a tensile strength above about 90 ksi or in steels with Preventions
SSC: cracking of metal under the combined action of tensile localized zones of weld or weld HAZ hardness above 237 HB. Process changes that affect the pH of the water phase and/or ammonia or cyanide concentration can
stress and corrosion in the presence of water and H2S. SSC is a form of hydrogen stress cracking resulting Temperature: help to reduce damage.
from absorption of atomic hydrogen that is produced by the sulfide corrosion process on the metal surface. Hardness:is primarily an issue with SSC. A common practice is to utilize wash water injection to dilute the HCN.
SSC can initiate on the surface of steels in highly localized zones of high hardness in the weld metal and heat Typical low-strength carbon steels should be controlled to produce weld hardness <200 HB in Small zones of hardness up to 22 HRC should be resistant to SSC. Refer to NACE RP0472 for additional
affected zones. accordance details.
with NACE RP0472. These steels are not generally susceptible to SSC unless localized zones of PWHT can also help to minimize susceptibility to SOHIC.
hardness above 237 HB are present.
The time to failure by SSC decreases as material strength, applied tensile stress, and environmental
charging potential increase.
Blistering, HIC and SOHIC damage are not related to steel hardness.

Steel hardness, strength and stress are the critical factors.
Hardness levels above Rockwell C 22 (237 BHN) are highly susceptible. Time-to-failure decreases as
Hydrogen Stress Cracking is a form of environmental cracking that can initiate on the surface of high the hardness increases (higher strength materials).
Hydrogen Stress Cracking
63 strength low alloy steels and carbon steels with highly localized zones of high hardness in the weld metal Cracking may occur very rapidly, within hours after exposure to the HF environment, or considerable
- HF
and HAZ as a result of exposure to aqueous HF acid environments. time may pass before cracking initiates.
Alloy 400 is not susceptible to this form of cracking but may be susceptible to intergranular stress
corrosion cracking, particularly in the non-stress relieved condition
PWHT is beneficial in reducing the hardness and residual stresses.
Typical low-strength carbon steels used in refinery applications should be controlled to produce weld
hardness <200 HB in accordance with NACE SP0472. These steels are not generally susceptible to SCC
unless localized zones of hardness above 237 HB are present.
Use carbon steels with Carbon Equivalents (CE) less than 0.43.
CE = %C + %Mn/6+ %(Cr + Mo + V)/5 + %(Cu + Ni)/15

The residual stress level of carbon steel and the water chemistry are the critical factors.
Water Chemistory:
Carbonate stress corrosion cracking (often referred to as carbonate cracking) is the term applied to surface pH 8 to 10.
breaking cracks that occur adjacent to carbon steel welds under the combined action of tensile stress in H2S not threshold level.
systems containing a free water phase with carbonate, where some amount of H2S is also present. It is a NH3: Ammonia - (e.g., 4,800 ppmw vs. 2,500 pmmw). Increasing NH3 and decreasing H2S together Cracking can be eliminated through the use of effective barrier coatings, solid or clad 300 Series SS,
Carbonate Stress
form of Alkaline Stress Corrosion Cracking (ACSCC). increase the likelihood of ACSCC. Alloy 400 or other corrosion resistant alloys in lieu of carbon steel.
Corrosion Cracking
64 This type of damage has also been observed in other environments which are outside the scope of this Carbonate ion concentration: suggested that levels above 100 ppmw can cause ACSCC. Water wash non-PWHT piping and equipment prior to steamout or heat treatment in hot carbonate
(ACSCC)
discussion. Those environments include the outside surface of buried pipelines; and piping and equipment Cyanides and Polysulfides- no effect systems.
containing aqueous carbonate solutions (e.g., potassium carbonate) used in the carbon dioxide (CO2) FCCU feed quality and unit operation; A metavanadate inhibitor can be used in hot carbonate systems in CO2 removal units.
removal facilities associated with hydrogen reformers. Feed Nitrogen- increases-(e.g., 2,645 ppmw vs. 940 ppmw).
Feed Sulfur; low sulfur cause more cracking.
N to S ratio; FCCU feed of 0 to 70.
Full burn vs. partial burn-same

Use alloy steels with chromium and molybdenum to increase carbide stability thereby minimizing
For a specific material, HTHA is dependent on temperature, hydrogen partial pressure, time and
High temperature hydrogen attack results from exposure to hydrogen at elevated temperatures methane formation. Other carbide stabilizing elements include tungsten and vanadium.
stress. Service exposure time is cumulative.
andpressures. The hydrogen reacts with carbides in steel to form methane (CH4) which cannot diffuse While the curves have served the industry well, there have been several failures of C-0.5Mo steels in
The incubation period is the time period during which enough damage has occurred to be measured
High Temperature through the steel. The loss of carbide causes an overall loss in strength. refinery service under conditions that were previously considered safe.
with available inspection techniques and may vary from hours at very severe conditions to many
65 Hydrogen Attack (HTHA) Methane pressure builds up, forming bubbles or cavities, microfissures and fissures that maycombine to 300 Series SS overlay and/or roll bond clad material is used in hydrogen service where the base metal
years.
form cracks. does not have adequate sulfidation resistance. they will decrease the hydrogen partial pressure seen
The curves are reasonably conservative for carbon steel up to about 10,000 psi hydrogen partial
Failure can occur when the cracks reduce the load carrying ability of the pressure containing part. by
pressure.
the underlying metal, most refiners make sure the base metal has adequate resistance to HTHA
Additional information on HTHA can be found in API RP 941.
under service conditions.
Sr. NO DM Description Description Critical factors
The critical factors are metal temperature, solution chemistry and alloy composition.
This is a phenomenon that occurs in specific environments at temperatures above 165F (74C) and
at a pH below 3, pH above 8 or neutral pH with high H
2S content.
Hydriding of titanium is a metallurgical phenomenon in which hydrogen diffuses into the titanium and reacts
Titanium Hydriding Galvanic contact between titanium and more active materials such as carbon steel and 300 Series
66 to form an embrittling hydride phase. This can result in a complete loss of ductility with no noticeable sign of
SS promotes damage. However, hydriding can occur in the absence of a galvanic coupling.
corrosion or loss in thickness.
Hydriding has also occurred in some chemical environments as a result of the corrosion of iron which
has been accidentally embedded into the surface of titanium during fabrication.
Preventions
The solubility of hydrogen in pure titanium and alpha-beta alloys is limited (50 - 300 ppm) and once
this is exceeded, hydride is formed. Beta alloys, on the other hand, are more tolerant of hydrogen
and 2000 ppm can be tolerated.
Prevention
Titanium should not be used in known hydriding services such as amine or sour water, where the
possibility of a leak is not acceptable.
Where galvanic contact has promoted hydriding, the problem can be avoided by using all titanium
construction or by electrically isolating the titanium from non-titanium components.
Eliminating the galvanic couple may not prevent hydriding in alkaline sour water environments.
Sr. NO Damage Type DM Description Description Materials Temperature Mechanical property change Damage Mode Inspection Techniques Remarks Additional Remarks Affected Equipments
Caustic Corrosion Localized corrosion due to the concentration of caustic or alkaline salts
that usually occurs under evaporative or high heat transfer conditions.
However, general corrosion can also occur depending on alkali or caustic
solution strength.

Primarily CS, low alloy and 300 SS. localized metal loss as grooves in a boiler tube or In steam generating equipment, caustic corrosion is best
Alloy 400 and some other nickel base alloys exhibit much lower locally thinned areas under insulating deposits. prevented through proper design. Damage can be minimized by
30 Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness .
corrosion rates. Deposits may fill corroded depressions and mask reducing the amount of free caustic, by ensuring adequate water
CS- For high solution strength caustic can result in damage below. flooding and water flow, by ensuring proper burner management
general corrosion above In vertical tubes, localized gouging may appear as a to minimize hot spots on heater tubes, and by minimizing the
175°F (79°C) and very high corrosion rates above circumferential groove. UT thickness gauging A concentrating mechanism must exist to build up the caustic ingress of alkaline producing salts into condensers.
200°F (93°C). In horizontal or sloped tubes, grooving may appear UT scans and radiography can be used. strength. In process equipment, caustic injection facilities should be
in high strength caustic solutions at the top of the tube or as longitudinal grooves on visual inspection with the use a boroscope Caustic may become concentrated by departure from DNB, designed to allow proper mixing and dilution of caustic in order
above about 150°F (66°C) opposite sides of the tube for steam generating system evaporation and deposition. to avoid the concentration of caustic on hot metal surfaces.
Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking Caustic embrittlement is a form of stress corrosion cracking characterized
(Caustic Embrittlement) by surface-initiated cracks that occur in piping and equipment exposed to
caustic, primarily adjacent to non-PWHT’d welds.

Cracking can be effectively prevented by means of a stress-

Susceptibility to caustic embrittlement in caustic soda (NaOH) and relieving heat treatment (e.g. PWHT).
CS, low alloy steels and 300 SS are susceptible. caustic potash (KOH) solutions is a function of caustic strength, Nickel base alloys are more resistant to cracking.
42 Environment – Assisted Cracking Nickel base alloys are more resistant metal temperature and stress levels. Steamout of non-PWHT’d carbon steel piping and equipment
Crack detection is best performed with Cracking can occur at low caustic levels if a concentrating should be avoided.
WFMT, EC, RT or ACFM mechanism is present. In such cases, caustic concentrations of 50
RT not good for fine cracks to 100 ppm are sufficient to cause cracking.
Propagates parallel to the weld Crack depths-UT technique including It is generally accepted that stresses approaching yield are
A heat treatment at 1150°F (621°C) is considered Described as a spider web of small cracks external SWUT required for SCC so that thermal stress
an effective stress relieving heat treatment for intergranular AET for monitoring crack growth and relief (PWHT) is effective in preventing caustic SCC
carbon steel. Cracking in 300 SS is similar to CL-SCC locating growing cracks Crack propagation rates increase dramatically with temperature
 Related DM

referred to as caustic gouging or

ductile gouging.
Departure from Nucleate Boiling
(DNB)

Amine cracking and carbonate

cracking
Sr. NO Damage Type DM Description Description Materials Temperature Mechanical property change Damage Mode Inspection Techniques Remarks Additional Remarks Affected Equipments

45 Environment – Assisted Cracking Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE)
A loss in ductility of high strength steels due to the penetration of atomic
hydrogen can lead to brittle cracking.
Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE) can occur during manufacturing, welding, or
from services that can charge hydrogen into the steel in an aqueous,
corrosive, or a gaseous environment.
63 Environment-Assisted Cracking-Refinery Hydrogen Stress Cracking - HF
Hydrogen Stress Cracking is a form of environmental cracking that can
initiate on the surface of high strength low alloy steels and carbon steels
with highly localized zones of high hardness in the weld metal and HAZ as
a result of exposure to aqueous HF acid environments.
High temperature hydrogen attack results from exposure to hydrogen at
elevated temperatures and pressures. The hydrogen reacts with carbides
in steel to form methane (CH4) which cannot diffuse through the steel.
High Temperature Hydrogen The loss of carbide causes an overall loss in strength.
65 Other Mechanisms-Refinery Attack (HTHA) Methane pressure builds up, forming bubbles or cavities, microfissures
and fissures that maycombine to form cracks.
Failure can occur when the cracks reduce the load carrying ability of the
pressure containing part.
CS and low alloy , 400 SS, Precipitation Hardenable (PH) SS and
some high strength nickel base alloys.
Carbon steel and low alloy steels.
ASTM A193 grade B7M bolts are softer and lower strength than
B7 bolts and are more resistant to cracking.
In order of increasing resistance: carbon steel, C-0.5Mo, Mn-
0.5Mo, 1Cr-0.5Mo, 1.25Cr-0.5Mo, 2.25Cr1Mo,
2.25Cr-1Mo-V, 3Cr-1Mo, 5Cr-0.5Mo and similar steels
with variations in chemistry.
300 Series SS, as well as 5Cr, 9Cr and 12 Cr alloys, are not
susceptible to HTHA at conditions
normally seen in refinery units.
From ambient to about 300°F (149°C). Effects
decrease with increasing temperature.
Normal design practice is to use a 25o F to 50oF
(14oC to 28oC) safety factor approach when using loss in strength.
the API RP 941 curves.
HE can initiate sub-surface, but in most cases is
surface breaking.
Loss in ductality Cracking is often intergranula
This mode of cracking can only be confirmed by
metallographic examination.
intergranular.
hardness breaking cracks, usually associated with weldments.
The hydrogen/carbon reaction can cause surface
decarburization of steel. If the diffusion of carbon to fissuring and/or serious cracking.
the surface is limiting, the reaction can result in
internal decarburization, methane formation and
cracking.
Early stages of HTHA (bubbles/cavities) can only be WFMT and RT, are severely limited in their with available inspection techniques and may vary from hours at
confirmed through advanced metallographic analysis ability
of damaged areas.
In later stages of damage, decarburization and/or
fissures can be seen by a microscope and may
sometimes be seen by in-situ metallography.
Cracking and fissuring are intergranular
Three conditions
1) Hydrogen must be present at a critical concentration within the
steel/alloy.
For surface cracking inspection use PT, MT 2) The strength level and microstructure of the steel/alloy must
or WFMT. be susceptible to embrittlement.
UT may b useful. 3) A stress above the threshold for HE must be present.
RT not sensitive. Thick wall components are more vulnerable.
If the source of hydrogen is a low In general, as strength increases, susceptibility to HE increases.
temperature aqueous environment, Certain microstructures, such as untempered martensite and
hydrogen flux can be monitored using pearlite, are more susceptible at the same strength level than
specialized instruments. tempered martensite.
Steel hardness, strength and stress are the critical factors.
Hardness levels above Rockwell C 22 (237 BHN) are highly
susceptible. Time-to-failure decreases as the hardness increases
(higher strength materials).
Cracking may occur very rapidly, within hours after exposure to
Surface breaking cracks can be found by the HF environment, or considerable time may pass before
WFMT. cracking initiates.
Hardness testing is the best method to Alloy 400 is not susceptible to this form of cracking but may be
determine the susceptibility of suspect susceptible to intergranular stress corrosion cracking, particularly
material in the non-stress relieved condition
Inspection is very difficult because
problems have occurred
in weld heat affected zones as well as
base metal away from welds.
UT (magnification of 1500X or lower)using
a combination of velocity ratio and AUBT
have been the most successful in finding For a specific material, HTHA is dependent on temperature,
hydrogen partial pressure, time and
Bulging of the cladding away from the stress. Service exposure time is cumulative.
underlying base metal may be a tell tale The incubation period is the time period during which enough
sign. damage has occurred to be measured
very severe conditions to many
to detect anything except the advanced years.
stages of damage where cracking has The curves are reasonably conservative for carbon steel up to
already developed. about 10,000 psi hydrogen partial
AET is not a proven method pressure.
Additional information on HTHA can be found in API RP 941.
During welding, use low hydrogen, dry electrodes and preheating
methods. If hydrogen is expected to have diffused into the
metal, an elevated temperature bake out [400°F or higher (204°C
or higher)].
In corrosive aqueous services, apply a protective lining, SS
cladding or weld overlay to prevent the surface hydrogen
reactions.
PWHT is beneficial in reducing the hardness and residual
stresses.
Typical low-strength carbon steels used in refinery applications
should be controlled to produce weld
hardness <200 HB in accordance with NACE SP0472. These steels
are not generally susceptible to SCC unless localized zones of
hardness above 237 HB are present.
Use carbon steels with Carbon Equivalents (CE) less than 0.43.
CE = %C + %Mn/6+ %(Cr + Mo + V)/5 + %(Cu + Ni)/15
Use alloy steels with chromium and molybdenum to increase
carbide stability thereby minimizing
methane formation. Other carbide stabilizing elements include
tungsten and vanadium.
While the curves have served the industry well, there have been
several failures of C-0.5Mo steels in refinery service under
conditions that were previously considered safe.
300 Series SS overlay and/or roll bond clad material is used in
hydrogen service where the base metal does not have adequate
sulfidation resistance. they will decrease the hydrogen partial
pressure seen by
the underlying metal, most refiners make sure the base metal
has adequate resistance to HTHA
under service conditions.
Services where HE is a concern include carbon steel piping and
vessels in wet HS services in FCC, hydroprocessing, amine, sour
water services and HF alkylation units.
mild steel not applicable
Alloys that have a tensile
strength above 150 ksi can absorb hydrogen during
electroplating and crack.
Cr-Mo- if hardness exceeds 235 BHN
All piping and equipment exposed to HF acid at any
concentration with hardness levels above the
recommended limit are subject to hydrogen stress cracking
.High strength low alloy steels such as ASTM A193-B7 bolts and
compressor components are susceptible.
ASTM A193B7M bolts are also susceptible if overtorqued.
Hydroprocessing units, such as hydrotreaters (desulfurizers) and
hydrocrackers, catalytic reformers, hydrogen producing units
and hydrogen cleanup units, such as pressure swing absorption
units, are
all susceptible to HTHA.
Boiler tubes in very high pressure steam service.
Related DM
HIC/SOHIC/SCC

This is the same mechanism that

is responsible for sulfide stress
corrosion cracking in wet HS
environments except that HF acid
is generating the hydrogen.
Blistering, HIC and SOHIC damage
is
similar to that found in wet H2S

A form of HTHA can occur in

boiler tubes and is referred to by
the fossil utility industry as
hydrogen
damage.
Sr. NO Damage Type DM Description Description Materials Temperature Mechanical property change Damage Mode Inspection Techniques Remarks Additional Remarks Affected Equipments

Some copper alloys in environments with aqueous ammonia Copper Alloy; improved resistance as zinc content decreases
43 Environment – Assisted Cracking Ammonia Stress Corrosion Crackin and/or ammonium compounds. Copper Alloy: Zinc content of brasses affects susceptibility, below 15%.
Carbon steel in anhydrous ammonia. especially as zinc increases above 15%. The 90-10CuNi and 70-30CuNi alloys are nearly immune.
Copper Alloy; Monitor pH and ammonia of Oxygen is necessary, but trace amounts are sufficient. 300 Series SS and nickel base alloys are immune
water, EC ot VT for exchanger tubes, pH above 8.5. CS; SCC of steel can be prevented through the addition of small
espatially rolled area. CS; Anhydrous ammonia with <0.2% water may cause cracking. quantities of water to the ammonia (0.2% minimum).
Copper Alloy; Any Temperature Copper Alloy; single or highly branched cracks, CS; WFMT welds inside tanks. PWHT- (<70 ksi tensile strength). Low strength steels (<70 ksi tensile strength) should be used.
Aqueous streams containing ammonia may cause Stress Corrosion CS; low as -27°F(-33°C) in laboratory testing, surface breaking, blueish corrosion products. Both External UT Shear wave inspection using Contamination with air or oxygen increases tendency Weld hardness should not exceed 225 BHN. Copper-zinc alloy tubes in heat exchangers.
Cracking (SCC) in some copper alloys. can occur at ambient or refrigerated trans or intergranular TOFD. Low levels of oxygen (< 10 ppm)-couase cracking ammonia refrigeration units as well as some lube oil refining
Carbon steel is susceptible to SCC in anhydrous ammonia. conditions CS; primarly intergranular 3) AET. processes
 Corrosion depends on design and operating practices, the type of
amine, amine concentration, contaminants, temperature and
velocity.
Internal-Visual examination and UT Amine corrosion is very closely tied to the operation of the unit. Proper operation of the amine system is the most effective way Crude, coker, FCC, hydrogen reforming, hydroprocessing, and tail
thickness. type of amine used most to least corrosive as follows: to control corrosion, with particular attention to acid gas loading gas units.
Amine corrosion refers to the general and/or localized corrosion that particularly in rich amine General uniform thinning, localized corrosion or External-UT scans or PRT. monoethanolamine (MEA), diglycolamine (DGA), levels. The regenerator reboiler and the regenerator are areas where
Uniform or Localized Loss in Thickness Amine Corrosion occurs principally on carbon steel in amine treating processes. Corrosion is Primarily carbon steel. above about 220°F (104°C) localized underdeposit attack. orrosion coupons and/or corrosion probes diisopropylamine (DIPA), diethanolamine (DEA), and Avoid the buildup of HSAS to unacceptable levels. the temperature and turbulence of the amine stream are the
48 not caused by the amine itself, but results from dissolved acid gases (CO2 300 Series SS are highly resistant. Uniform in nature when the process stream velocity in hot areas of the unit such as the
Phenomena-Refinery and H2S), amine degradation products, Heat Stable Amine Salts (HSAS) severe localized corrosion due to 2-phase flow, if is low while it will be localized for reboiler feed and return line, the hot methyldiamine (MDEA). control local pressure drop (by design) to minimize flashing. highest and can cause significant corrosion problems.
and other contaminants. the pressure drop is high enough. high velocities associated with turbulence lean/rich amine piping, and the stripper Lean amine solutions are generally not corrosive, However, HSAS Oxygen inleakage causes high corrosion rates and contributes to The rich amine side of the lean/rich exchangers, hot lean amine
overhead condenser piping. above about 2%, significantly increase corrosion rates. heat stable salt formation. piping, hot rich amine piping, the amine solution pumps, and the
Fouling of exchangers and filters. Process stream velocity will influence the amine corrosion rate Corrosion inhibitors may be required reclaimers are also areas where corrosion problems occur.
and nature of attack.For carbon steel, common velocity limits are
generally limited to 3 to 6 fps for rich amine and about 20 fps for
lean amine.

Carbon steel is less resistant. NH4HS concentration, H2S partial pressure, velocity and/or Good design practice should consist of symmetrical and
Ammonium Bisulfide Corrosion 300 Series SS, duplex SS, aluminum alloys and nickel base alloys Below about 150°F (66°C). General of CS, extremely high localized localized turbulence, pH, temperature, alloy composition and flow hydraulically balanced flow.
Uniform or Localized Loss in Thickness rates of wall loss can occur at changes in distribution are all critical factors to consider. Maintain velocities within industry guidelines of 10 to 20 fps for
49 Phenomena-Refinery (Alkaline Sour Water) are more resistant, depending on ammonium bisulfide (NH4HS) In Hydroprocessing Units, range of 120°F to 150°F
concentration and velocity. (49°C to 66°C). direction or turbulent flow areas above 2 Corrosion increases with increasing NH carbon steel. CS - high C.Rs above about 8 wt % NH4HS
wt % concentration. HS concentration and increasing velocity. ive. Above 2 wt % concentration Hydroprocessing Units.
Low velocities, extremely localized under- NH4HS, solutions are increasingly corrosive. Use resistant materials of construction (e.g. Alloy 825, duplex SS) FCC Units.
deposit corrosion if insufficient water is The salts are not corrosive unless they become hydrated. at velocities above 20 fps. Sour Water Strippers (SWS)
Aggressive corrosion occurring in hydroprocessing reactor effluent available. Oxygen and iron leads to increased corrosion. Titanium and Alloy C276 are used in SWS. Amine Units.
streams and in units handling alkaline sour water. NH4HS rapidly corrodes admiralty brass Presence of cyanides increases severity of corrosion Aluminum exchanger tubes are extremely susceptible to erosion- Delayed Coker
Several major failures have occurred in hydroprocessing reactor effluent tubes and other copper alloys. corrosion damage.
systems due to localized corrosion.

in order of increasing resistance: CS, low alloy, 300 Series SS, difficult to detect. Concentration (NH3, HCl, H20 or amine salts), temperature and Crude Tower Overheads
Uniform or Localized Loss in Thickness Alloys 400, duplex SS, 800, and 825, Alloys 625 and C276 and RT or UT water availability are the critical factors. Hydroprocessing
50 Ammonium Chloride Corrosion salts have a whitish, greenish or brownish Monitoring of the feed streams and A small amount of water can lead to very aggressive corrosion Catalytic Reforming
Phenomena-Refinery titanium.
well above the water dewpoint [> 300°F (149°C)] appearance. effluent waters will give an indication of [>100 mpy (>2.5 mm/y] . FCCU and coker fractionator overheads
General or localized corrosion, often pitting, normally occurring under Corrosion rates increase with increasing underneath the salts is typically very localized and the amount of ammonia and chlorides The presence of deposits is often detected when the pressure Limit salts by limiting chlorides. Usally,Top pumparound streams,Reactor effluent streams are
ammonium chloride or amine salt deposits, often in the absence of a free temperature. results in pitting. present. drop increases or the thermal performance of exchangers has Water wash subject to corrosion.
water phase. Corrosion rates can be extremely high. Corrosion probes or coupons deteriorated. Filming amine inhibitors a

Surface breaking flaws that initiate on the ID of weld

Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking
61 Environment-Assisted Cracking-Refinery
Amine cracking is a common term applied to the cracking of steels under
the combined action of
tensile stress and corrosion in aqueous alkanolamine systems used to
remove/absorb H2S and/or CO2 and their mixtures from various gas and
liquid hydrocarbon streams.
Amine cracking is a form of alkaline stress corrosion cracking. It is most
often found at or adjacent to non-PWHT’d carbon steel weldments or in
highly cold worked parts.
Amine cracking should not be confused with several other types of SCC
that can occur in amine
environments which are further described
HAZ but has also been found in weld metal and high
stress areas adjacent to the HAZ.
develops parallel to the weld and there may be
Carbon steel and low alloy steels. parallel cracks.
At set-on nozzles, the cracks are radial in the base
metal, i.e., they fan out from the bore. At set-in
nozzles, the cracks are usually parallel to the weld.
similar to H2S cracking.
Since the driving force for cracking is residual stress,
cracks are often found on the process side, opposite
external attachment welds.
Positive identification of amine cracking can be
confirmed by metallographic analysis. The cracking
is typically intergranular, oxide filled with some
branching
down to ambient temperatures
crack detection is best performed with
WFMT or ACFM techniques. Surface
preparation by grit blasting, high pressure
water blasting or other methods is
required for WFMT but may not be
necessary for ACFM.
PT is usually not effective in finding tight
and/or scale filled cracks.
minimum branching, crack depths can be
measured with a suitable UT technique
including external SWUT.
AET can also be used for monitoring crack
growth and locating growing cracks
The critical factors are the level of tensile stress, amine
concentration and temperature.
Cracking is associated with residual stresses from welding, cold
working or fabrication. Some refiners believe cracking will not occur below an amine
Cracking is more likely to occur in lean MEA and DEA services. concentration of about 2% to 5%. However, local enrichment
Increasing temperature and stress levels increases the likelihood and steamout can reduce this limit and some plants have used
and severity of cracking. Refer to API RP 945 for guidelines on lower limits down to 0.2%.
PWHT requirements for various amine services. PWHT all carbon steel welds in piping and equipment in
Amine cracking is most often associated with lean amine services. accordance with API RP 945. The same requirement applies to
Cracking in rich amine services are most often associated with wet repair welds and to internal and external attachment welds.
H2S problems. Use solid or clad stainless steel, Alloy 400 or other corrosion
Amine concentration does not appear to have a significant effect resistant alloys in lieu of carbon steel. All non-PWHT carbon steel piping and equipment in lean amine
on the propensity for cracking. Water wash non-PWHT carbon steel piping and equipment prior service including contactors, absorbers,
to welding, heat treatment or strippers, regenerators and heat exchangers as well as any
steamout. equipment subject to amine carryover.
 Related DM

Not applicable.
Amine stress corrosion cracking

Erosion/erosion corrosion

HCl corrosion, chloride SCC

Caustic stress corrosion cracking

and carbonate stress corrosion
cracking are two other forms of
ASCC that are similar in
appearance.
Sr. NO Damage Type DM Description Description Materials Temperature Mechanical property change Damage Mode Inspection Techniques Remarks Additional Remarks Affected Equipments

3 Mechanical and Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms
Temper embrittlement is the reduction in toughness due to a metallurgical Temper embrittlement cannot be prevented if the material
contains critical levels of the embrittling impurity elements and is The best way to minimize the likelihood and extent of temper
change that can occur in some low alloy steels as a result of long term catastrophic brittle embrittlement is to limit the acceptance levels of manganese,
Temper Embrittlement exposure in the temperature range of about 650°F to 1070°F (343°C to Low alloy steels 650°F to 1070°F (343°C to 577°C). reduction in toughness fracture Impact testing exposed in the embrittling temperature range. silicon, phosphorus, tin, antimony, and arsenic in the base metal
577°C). This change causes an upward shift in the ductile-to-brittle Damage due to temper embrittlement may result in catastrophic and welding consumables.
transition temperature as measured by Charpy impact testing. Although brittle fracture.
the loss of toughness is not evident at operating temperature, equipment
that is temper embrittled may be susceptible to brittle fracture during
start-up and shutdown.

5 Mechanical and Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms
885°F (475oC) Embrittlement
885°F(475°C) embrittlement is a loss in toughness due to a metallurgical
change that can occur in alloys containing a ferrite phase, as a result of
exposure in the temperature range 600°F to1000°F (316°C to 540°C).
ferrite phase (400 SS and Duplex SS)
600°F to1000°F (316°C to 540°C)
loss in toughness
cracking during turnarounds, or during startup or
shutdown when the material is below about 200°F
(93°C)
metallography but can
be confirmed through bend or impact
testing
occur in a relatively short period of time, it is often assumed that The best way to prevent 885°F embrittlement is to use low ferrite
susceptible materials that have been exposed to temperatures in or non-ferritic alloys, or to avoid exposing the susceptible
the 700°F to 1000°F (371°C to 538°C) range are affected material to the embrittling range.
885°F embrittlement is reversible by heat treatment to dissolve
precipitates, followed by rapid cooling. The de-embrittling heat
treatment temperature is typically 1100°F (593°C) or higher

6 Mechanical and Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms
42 Environment – Assisted Cracking
44 Environment – Assisted Cracking
Sigma Phase Embrittlement
Formation of a metallurgical phase known as sigma phase can result in a
loss of fracture toughness in some stainless steels as a result of high
temperature exposure.
Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking
(Caustic Embrittlement)
Caustic embrittlement is a form of stress corrosion cracking characterized
by surface-initiated cracks that occur in piping and equipment exposed to
caustic, primarily adjacent to non-PWHT’d welds.
Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME)
Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME) is a form of cracking that results when
certain molten metals come in contact with specific alloys. Cracking can
be very sudden and brittle in nature.
300,400 and duplex SS
CS, low alloy steels and 300 SS are susceptible.
Nickel base alloys are more resistant
Many commonly used materials including CS, low alloy steels, high
strength steels, 300 SS, nickel alloys and the copper alloys,
aluminum alloys and titanium alloys.
cracking
cracking in both wrought and cast (welded) metals
1000°F to 1700°F (538°C to 927°C). during turnarounds, or during startup or shutdown metallographic and impact testing
when the material is below about 500°F (260°C) and
the effects of embrittlement are most pronounced.
lack of fracture toughness
Propagates parallel to the weld
A heat treatment at 1150°F (621°C) is considered Described as a spider web of small cracks
an effective stress relieving heat treatment for intergranular
carbon steel. Cracking in 300 SS is similar to CL-SCC
brittle cracks in an otherwise ductile material.
intergranular cracks, usually filled with
the low melting metal.
Crack detection is best performed with
WFMT, EC, RT or ACFM
RT not good for fine cracks
Crack depths-UT technique including
external SWUT
AET for monitoring crack growth and
locating growing cracks
MT for ferritic steel and PT for 300 and Ni
alloy.RT for Hg.
spectrographic analysis may be required
to confirm the presence of the molten
metal species
In susceptible alloys, the primary factor that affects sigma phase
formation is the time of exposure at
elevated temperature.
The best way to prevent sigma phase embrittlement is to use
alloys that are resistant to sigma formation or to avoid exposing
the material to the embrittling range.
Susceptibility to caustic embrittlement in caustic soda (NaOH) and
caustic potash (KOH) solutions is a function of caustic strength,
metal temperature and stress levels.
Cracking can occur at low caustic levels if a concentrating
mechanism is present. In such cases, caustic concentrations of 50
to 100 ppm are sufficient to cause cracking.
It is generally accepted that stresses approaching yield are
required for SCC so that thermal stress
relief (PWHT) is effective in preventing caustic SCC
Crack propagation rates increase dramatically with temperature
LME occurs in very specific combinations of metals in contact with
low melting point metals such as zinc, mercury, cadmium, lead,
copper and tin.
High tensile stress promotes cracking, Very small quantities of the LME can only be prevented by protecting metal substrates from
low melting point metal are sufficient to cause LME.
Cracking under load can be extremely rapid.
Cracking can occur after long periods of time
Stainless steels with sigma can normally withstand normal
operating stresses, but upon cooling to temperatures below
about 500°F (260°C) may show a complete lack of fracture
toughness as measured in a Charpy impact test. Laboratory tests
of embrittled weld metal have shown a complete lack of fracture
toughness below 1000°F (538°C)
The 300 Series SS can be de-sigmatized by solution annealing at
1950°F (1066°C) for four hours
followed by a water quench
Cracking can be effectively prevented by means of a stress-
relieving heat treatment (e.g. PWHT).
Nickel base alloys are more resistant to cracking.
Steamout of non-PWHT’d carbon steel piping and equipment
should be avoided.
melted zinc galvanizing, cadmium electrical housings, tin or lead
from solders, and melted copper components.
Hg-atmospheric tower overhead.
coming into contact with the low melting metal. LME of aluminum components has occurred in LNG facilities and
Once cracking from LME has initiated, grinding out the affected cryogenic gas plant components due to condensation of liquid
area is not an acceptable fix mercury.
 Three conditions
1) Hydrogen must be present at a critical concentration within the
steel/alloy. Services where HE is a concern include carbon steel piping and
CS and low alloy , 400 SS, Precipitation Hardenable (PH) SS and For surface cracking inspection use PT, MT 2) The strength level and microstructure of the steel/alloy must During welding, use low hydrogen, dry electrodes and preheating vessels in wet HS services in FCC, hydroprocessing, amine, sour
45 Environment – Assisted Cracking Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE) some high strength nickel base alloys. or WFMT. be susceptible to embrittlement. methods. If hydrogen is expected to have diffused into the water services and HF alkylation units.
UT may b useful. 3) A stress above the threshold for HE must be present. metal, an elevated temperature bake out [400°F or higher (204°C mild steel not applicable
A loss in ductility of high strength steels due to the penetration of atomic RT not sensitive. Thick wall components are more vulnerable. or higher)]. Alloys that have a tensile
hydrogen can lead to brittle cracking. If the source of hydrogen is a low In general, as strength increases, susceptibility to HE increases. In corrosive aqueous services, apply a protective lining, SS strength above 150 ksi can absorb hydrogen during
Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE) can occur during manufacturing, welding, or HE can initiate sub-surface, but in most cases is temperature aqueous environment, Certain microstructures, such as untempered martensite and cladding or weld overlay to prevent the surface hydrogen electroplating and crack.
from services that can charge hydrogen into the steel in an aqueous, From ambient to about 300°F (149°C). Effects surface breaking. hydrogen flux can be monitored using pearlite, are more susceptible at the same strength level than reactions. Cr-Mo- if hardness exceeds 235 BHN
corrosive, or a gaseous environment. decrease with increasing temperature. Loss in ductality Cracking is often intergranula specialized instruments. tempered martensite.
Related DM
Amine cracking and carbonate
cracking

nickel-nickel sulfide eutectic that

forms at 1157°F (625°C).
HIC/SOHIC/SCC
Sr. NO Damage Type DM Description Description Materials Temperature Mechanical property change Damage Mode Inspection Techniques Remarks Additional Remarks Affected Equipments

All iron based materials including CS and low alloy, 300 SS and 400 Major factors affecting sulfidation are alloy composition,
SS. temperature and concentration of corrosive sulfur compounds.
34 High Temperature Corrosion [>400°F (204°C)] Sulfidation b) Nickel base alloys are also affected Susceptibility is determined by its ability to form protective sulfide Resistance to sulfidation is generally achieved by upgrading to a
c) Copper base alloys form sulfide at lower temperatures than scales. higher chromium alloy.
carbon steel. the resistance of iron and nickel base alloys is determined by the solid or clad 300 SS or 400 SS can provide significant resistance to
Corrosion of carbon steel and other alloys resulting from their reaction chromium content. corrosion
with sulfur compounds in high temperature environments. The presence Often in the form of uniform thinning but can also tubeskin thermocouples and/or infrared Sulfidation is primarily caused by H2S It can be misleading to predict corrosion rates based on weight
of hydrogen accelerates corrosion. This mechanisms is also known as occur as localized corrosion or high velocity erosion- thermography percent sulfur alone
sulfidic corrosion. Iron-based alloys usually above 500°F (260°C) corrosion damage external UT measurements and PRT

some copper alloys, especially admiralty brass. The combination of stress and the presence of sulfate
47 Environment – Assisted Cracking Sulfate Stress Corrosion Cracking chemical compounds. Residual stresses are sufficient to promote Periodic cleaning once every five years can increase life.
The 90/10 and 70/30 copper nickel alloys are more resistant
Like Ammonia SCC. cracking. Alloys that are highly resistant to ammonia stress corrosion
Surface initiated cracks caused by environmental cracking of copper alloys Single or highly branched cracks on the surface. nspect heat exchanger tubes for cracking Ammonia is usually present, often at very low concentrations. cracking such as the 90-10CuNi and 70-30CuNi alloys are also Tubes in heat exchanger bundles in overhead distillation
in sulfate solutions over many years. Most commonly found in heat branched, transgranular. using EC or visual inspection. Taking as long as 10 to 15 years to cause tube leaks. highly resistant to sulfate SCC. systems.
exchanger tubes, primarily in cooling water services. slow leaks as opposed to tube rupture. Physical bending of sample tubes Non-copper based alloys are immune from this form of damage. Crude tower overhead exchangers

Acid concentration, temperature, alloy content, velocity,

Uniform or Localized Loss in Thickness Sulfuric Acid Corrosion In order of increasing resistance: CS, 316L SS, Alloy 20, high silicon contamination and presence of oxidizers.
58 Phenomena-Refinery cast iron, high nickel cast iron, Alloy B-2 and Alloy C276. Carbon steel corrosion rates increase significantly if the flow
velocity exceeds about 2 to 3 fps (0.6 to 0.9 m/s) or at acid The presence of oxidizers can greatly increase the corrosion rate.
concentrations below 65%. Corrosion is minimized through materials selection and proper Sulfuric acid alkylation units and waste water treatment plants
Mostly general in nature, but attacks carbon steel High corrosion rates can occur where the acid becomes diluted. operation within design velocities. are affected.
Sulfuric acid promotes general and localized corrosion of carbon steel and weld heat affected zones rapidly. UT or RT Corrosion of steel by dilute acid is usually in the form of overall Alloys such as Alloy 20, Alloy 904L and Alloy C-276 resist dilute Areas of vulnerability in sulfuric acid alkylation units include
other alloys. Carbon steel heat affected zones may experience severe Hydrogen grooving may occur in low flow or Corrosion monitoring with coupons and metal loss or pitting and becomes more severe with increasing acid corrosion and form a protective iron sulfate film on the reactor effluent lines, reboilers, deisobutanizer overhead systems
corrosion. stagnant areas such as in storage tanks or rail cars. ER probes. temperature and velocity. surface. and the caustic treating section

Flushing with alkaline or soda ash solution or purging with dry

nitrogen or nitrogen/ammonia. Refer to guidelines in NACE
RP0170.
Polythionic Acid Stress Corrosion Low carbon grades such as 304L/316L/317L provide some
300 Series SS, Alloy 600/600H and Alloy 800/800H. measure of improvement over controlled
60 Environment-Assisted Cracking-Refinery Cracking (PASCC)
carbon grades. The L grades will sensitize if exposed more than
A combination of environment, material, and stress are required. several hours above about 1000oF (538oC) or long term above
Affected alloys become sensitized “Sensitization” refers to the 750oF (400oC).
A form of stress corrosion cracking normally occurring during shutdowns, PASCC cracking can be an inspection composition/time/temperature dependent formation of alloy containing small amounts of Ti and Nb(austenitic stainless All units where sensitized alloys are used in sulfur-containing
startups or during operation when air and moisture are present. Cracking challenge because the cracking may not chromium carbide in the grain boundaries of the metal. steel types 321 and 347 and nickel base Alloys 825 and 625). environments.
is due to sulfur acids forming from sulfide scale, air and moisture acting on occur until well into a turnaround. The carbon content and the thermal history of the alloy have a A thermal stabilization heat treatment at 1650oF (899oC) may be Severe cases have been found in FCC units.
sensitized austenitic stainless steels. Cracking is quite localized and may not be evident Monitoring for PASCC cracking during significant effect on sensitization susceptibility. applied to chemically stabilized austenitic stainless steel welds In hydroprocessing units (heater tubes, hot feed/effluent
b) Usually adjacent to welds or high stress areas. until a leak appears during start-up or, in some cases, operation is not usually practical. Regular and controlled carbon grades of SS such as types after all welding is complete in an attempt to reduce sensitization exchanger tubes, bellows).
c) Cracking may propagate rapidly through the wall thickness of piping and operation PT can be used However, 304/304H and 316/316H are particularly susceptible to sensitizing and PTA susceptibility. Crude and coker units (piping).
components in a matter of minutes or hours. Sensitization occurs in the 750oF to1500oF (400°C Cracking propagates intergranularly. flapper disc sanding may be needed to in the weld HAZ. Low carbon ”L” grades (<0.03% C) are less Susceptibility to PASCC can be determined by laboratory Boilers and high temperature equipment exposed to sulfur-
to 815°C) temperature range. Corrosion or loss in thickness is usually negligible. improve the PT sensitivity. susceptible and usually can be welded without sensitizing. corrosion testing according to ASTM A262 Practice C. containing combustion products.
 Related DM

sulfidic corrosion

Not applicable.

Not applicable.

Also known as Polythionic Acid

Stress Corrosion Cracking (PTA
SCC), Intergranular Corrosion
(IGC) and Intergranular Attack
(IGA).