Biogeography Book

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BIOGEOGRAPHY
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BIOGEOGRAPHY EDEN IAS
CHAPTER.1
SOIL AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
1.1) Introduction
The topmost thin layer of the earth's surface consisting of rock and mineral particles mixed with decayed
organic matter, which differs from the material below in morphology, physical makeup, chemical proper-
ties and biological composition is known as Soil. Soil is a natural body of organic and inorganic constitu-
ents. Soil is like the skin of the earth and it is indispensible for the existence of life on earth.
Pedology –The word pedology is derived from two Greek words viz “pedon” meaning soil and “logos”
meaning study .Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment. It is one of two main branches
of soil science, the other being edaphology. Pedology deals with Pedogenesis (soil formation), soil morphol-
ogy, and soil classification, while edaphology studies the ecological relation of soil with plants and land cul-
tivation practices. In other words edaphology studies the way soils influence plants and other living beings.
Pedogenesis is the natural process of soil formation that includes a variety of processes such as weathering,
leaching, calcification etc.
Soil geography studies the pattern of distribution of soils on the earth’s surface for the purpose of soil-geo-
graphic regionalization. It can be divided into two sub-types viz general soil geography and regional soil
geography. General soil geography studies the factors that influence soil formation, soil structure and gen-
eral laws that affect geographic distribution of soils. Regional soil geography is concerned with regional-
ization and with the description of the soils in individual regions. Soil geography relies on the comparative
geographic method to study the distribution of soils in relation to the factors influencing soil formation.
1.2 ) EVOLUTION OF SOIL GEOGRAPHY

Soil geography arose at the end of the 19th century and developed in response to the demands of agricul-
tural production and the necessity for classifying and evaluating soils. The principles of soil geography in
Russia were established by V.V. Dokuchaev, who discovered the relationship between soil and the natural
factors that help to form it. He developed the method of profile study of soils combined with soil formation
factors. Instead of the old statistical method of mapping, he used a new technique based on establishing the
relationship between soil and visible soil formation factors (relief and vegetation) and employed the rela-
tionship to determine the boundaries of the soil contours. The new technique was applied in soil surveys
carried out in different regions of European Russia and in the compilation of the country’s soil map. The
data thus obtained enabled Dokuchaev to establish the laws of latitudinal (horizontal) and vertical zonal-
ity of soils (1898-99). Soil geography deals with the distribution of soils as function of the five recognized
soil-forming factors (climate, flora and fauna including Man, relief, parent material, time), either acting
singly or in combination. It forms the basis of such concepts as zonality (i.e. the regional distribution of
soils in zones), first formulated by Dokuchaev on the basis of climate for European Russia, and elaborated
upon further by Glinka and Sibirchev, who introduced the zonal, intrazonal and azonal soils approach.
These idea s were later popularized in the western world by Marbut (1935), Baldwin, Kellogg and Thorp
(1938), and Thorp and Smith (1949). For a long time, various soil classification systems were based on
the zonality concept, especially those developed in large countries like Canada, China, Russia and USA.
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1.3) Soil Forming Processes

The processes ,whether physical, chemical or biological, which help in the formation of soils in a given re-
gion are called pedogenic processes or soil forming processes. The processes contributing to soil formation
involve gains and losses of material to the soil profile, movement of material from one part of the profile to
another and chemical transformations within individual horizons. In this respect soils can be regarded as
an example of open-system. If all gains and losses balance out each other, the soil will remain in a steady
state (Equilibrium).However in pedogenesis not all changes may be towards equilibrium, but may be pro-
gressive and in some cases irreversible. The main soil forming processes include weathering, translocation,
organic changes, gleying, podzolisation and desilication.
SOIL FORMING PROCESSES
ORGANIC CHNAGE GLEYING
WEATHERING DESILICATION
TRANSLOCATION PODZOLISATION
Fig.1.1
A) Weathering
Weathering causes the disintegration of rock near the surface of the earth. Plant and animal life, atmo-
sphere and water are the major causes of weathering. Weathering breaks down and loosens the surface
minerals of rock so they can be transported away by agents of erosion such as water, wind and ice. There
are two types of weathering viz mechanical and chemical. Mechanical weathering is the disintegration of
rock into smaller and smaller fragments. Frost action is an effective form of mechanical weathering. Abra-
sion, Freezing and thawing, Heating and cooling, plant growth and animal activity are the major agents of
mechanical weathering. Exfoliation is a form of mechanical weathering in which curved plates of rock are
stripped from rock below. This results in exfoliation domes or dome-like hills and rounded boulders. Exfo-
liation domes occur along planes of parting called joints, which are curved more or less parallel to the sur-
face. Chemical weathering transforms the original material into a substance with a different composition
and different physical characteristics. The new substance is typically much softer and more susceptible to
agents of erosion than the original material. The rate of chemical weathering is greatly accelerated by the
presence of warm temperatures and moisture. Also, some minerals are more vulnerable to chemical weath-
ering than others. The weathered matter serves as raw material for the soil.
The Soil formation is mainly related to the parent rock material, surface relief, climate and natural vegeta-
tion.The soil is formed by the breaking down of rocks by the action of wind, water and climate.
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B) Translocation
This is not a single process , the term, in fact embraces several kinds of movements of material within the
soil body ,principally by the agent of water. The direction of the movement may vary but it is predominantly
downward especially in humid environments. This downward movement of material in solution or colloi-
dal suspension is referred to as Leaching. The physical downward washing of clay and other fine particles is
known as Eluviation. Surface layers which have lost material due to eluviation are hence called Eluvial hori-
zons. Eluviation and leaching may move material right out of the soil system ,but commonly the solutes
and particles are redeposited in the lower parts of the soil profile, creating illuvial or enriched horizons.
Translocation
MOVEMENT WITHIN THE SOIL
GRAVITY PULLS WATER DOWN FROM TOP TO BOTTOM

EVAPORATING WATER DRAWS MINERALS UP FROM BOTTOM TO TOP
ORGANISMS MOVE THE MATERIALS IN EVERY DIRECTION
In arid and semi-arid environments where potential evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, the move-
ment of soil solution is likely to be upward drawn by Capillary action towards the drying surface. The
ineffectiveness of leaching in such climate ensures that calcium and other solutes remain in the soil. The
concentration of calcium in this way, often in stratas,is known as Calcification. In grasslands calcification
is enhanced by the fact that grass uses calcium, drawing it up from the lower soil layers and returning it to
the soil when the grass dies. Decalcification is the reverse of calcification that is the process of removal of
CaCO3 or calcium ions from the soil by leaching.
In extreme cases where evaporation is very intense, calcium and sodium salts may form a whitish crust at
the soil surface, which is harmful to plant growth. Such excessive accumulations are usually the result of
the capillary rise of water from the water table. This process is known as salinization.
Salinization: It is the process of accumulation of salts, such as sulphates and chlorides of calcium, magne-
sium, sodium and potassium, in soils in the form of a salty (salic) horizon. It is quite common in arid and
semi arid regions. It may also take place through capillary rise of saline ground water and by inundation
with seawater in marine and coastal soils. Salt accumulation may also result from irrigation or seepage in
areas of impeded drainage.
Desalinization: It is the removal by leaching of excess soluble salts from horizons or soil profile (that
contained enough soluble salts to impair the plant growth) by ponding water and improving the drainage
conditions by installing artificial drainage network.
Solonization or Alkalization: The process involves the accumulation of sodium ions in the soil .In such
soils often sodium carbonates and bicarbonates are formed , resulting in the formation of sodic soils (So-
lonetz).
Solodization or dealkalization: The process refers to the removal of Na+ from the exchange sites. This
process involves dispersion of clay. Dispersion occurs when Na+ ions become hydrated.
C) Organic changes
Organic accumulation in the soil profile generally takes place at the the ground surface with the decay of
plant and other organic waste material. This is gradually broken down or degraded by microbial action
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which reduce the surface litter to skeletal remains .The matter is also decomposed and converted into a
dark amorphous mass called humus which is highly resistant to further microbial action and has a high
water retention capacity. Extreme humid conditions may lead to formation of peaty soils. Over a long peri-
od of time , humus itself decomposes in a process called mineralisation, which releases compounds into
the soil. Degradation, Humification and Mineralisation are not separate processes rather they always
accompany each other.
D) Podzolisation (Cheluviation)
It is a process of soil formation resulting in the formation of Podzols and Podzolic soils. In many respects,
podzolization is the negative of calcification. The calcification process tends to concentrate calcium in the
lower part of the B horizon, whereas podzolization leaches the entire solum of calcium carbonates.Apart
from calcium, the other bases are also removed and the whole soil becomes distinctly acidic. In fact, the
process is essentially one of acid leaching.
This occurs in cool, humid climates where the bacterial activity is low. In these regions, a thick, dark organic
surface (having organic compounds or ‘chelating agents’) is left behind which is translocated downwards
by heavy rainfall. The chelating agents are the organic compounds thriving in acidic soils of conifers and
health plant regions whose leaves release acids on decomposition while they are poorest in grass and de-
ciduous tress growing in base-rich conditions. Although podzols are associated with coniferous and heath
land vegetation,they are found in variety of other acidic situations throughout the world ,except in Tundra
climate.
During podzolisation or cheluviation, because of differential solubility of materials, the upper horizons
become rich in silica (tending to pure quartz) and the lower horizons rich in sesquioxides—mainly of iron.
At times, even an iron pan is formed,a thin but tough horizon of iron –oxides . Horizon-A, just below the
humus-rich upper layer, has an ashy-grey appearance.
E) Gleying
The process of gleying takes place under water-logged and anaerobic conditions. Under such conditions,
some specialised bacteria flourish which use up the organic matter. They reduce the ferric- iron into a
soluble ferrous state in a process known as reduction. Reduction of iron compounds leaves behind a thick,
bluish- grey or bleached gley horizon, a compact layer of sticky structure-less clay . Gley horizon generally
occurs within the zone of permanent ground water saturation. Above this where the soil periodically dries
out the ferrous solutes may be oxidized to form ferric iron . Sometimes, intermittent oxidation of iron com-
pounds gives red spots and the surface gets a characteristic ‘blotched’ look-typified by patchy red colours.
Leaching is absent due to ground water saturation.
F) Desilication/Laterisaton:
Such processes are common in hot-wet tropical and equatorial climates. High temperature leaves little or
no humus on the surface. Desilication or laterisation contrasts with podzolisation when iron and alumin-
ium compounds are more mobile. In desilication, silica is more mobile and gets washed out with other
bases.Thus, we get horizon-A with red oxides (which are insoluble) of iron and aluminium—also called
ferralsols(Fe+Al). Laterization is thus the process that removes silica, instead of sesquioxides from the
upper layers and thereby allows sesquioxides to concentrate in the solum. Such soils are generally poor in
organic compounds, because of rapid decomposition by micro-organisms due to favourable environmental
conditions, and are hence normally infertile. Where there is an abundance of iron and aluminium layers
near the surface , these soils are suitable for mining.
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Fig.1.2
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JUST TO ADD TO YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Pedoturbation: Another process that may be operative in soils is pedoturbation. It is
the process of mixing of the soil. Mixing to a certain extent takes place in all soils. The
most common types of pedoturbation are:
a)Faunal pedoturbation: It is the mixing of soil by animals such as ants, earthworms,

moles, rodents, and man himself
b)Floral pedoturbation : It is the mixing of soil by plants as in tree tipping that forms
pits and mounds
c)Argillic pedoturbation: It is the mixing of materials in the solum by the churning pro-
cess caused by swell shrink clays as observed in deep Black Cotton Soils.
FOUR STANDARD PEDOGENIC PROCESSES

ADDITIONS, LOSSES, TRANSLOCATIONS AND TRANSFORMATIONS
Fig.1.3
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1.4) Soil Texture

The look and feel of a soil is referred to as SOIL TEXTURE and is determined by the size and type of parti-
cles that make up the soil (including the organic but mostly referring to the inorganic material).The size of
the ex-rock pieces (now the inorganic soil particles) varies substantially, from large bits of gravel to much
smaller clay pieces. How you refer to the soil particles is actually based on their size:
• Gravel - particles greater than 2 mm in diameter

• Coarse sand - particles less than 2 mm and greater than 0.2 mm in diameter
• Fine sand - particles between 0.2 mm and 0.02 mm in diameter
• Silt - particles between 0.02 mm and 0.002 mm in diameter
• Clay - particles less than 0.002 mm in diameter
Fig.1.4
The soil texture directly affects:
i) The soil water content
ii) Water flow
iii) Retention of nutrients
iv) Extent of aeration
Note-Rather than being one type or the other, most soils are a combination of sand, silt and clay. Generally
speaking, good soils are a combination of clay and humus. The clay-humus complex is essential for a fertile
soil as it provides it with a high water and nutrient holding capacity. Humus acts as a cement binding the
soil particles together and thus reducing the risk of erosion.
1.5) Soil Triangle

The textural triangle represents all possible combinations of soil. The three sides of the textural triangle
represent increasing or decreasing percentages of sand, silt and clay particles. The textural triangle is easy
to use once it is understood. Assume that you have a soil that is 60 percent clay, 20 percent silt and 20 per-
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cent sand. The percent of clay is identified on the left side of the triangle. From the lower left corner to the
top of the triangle, the percent clay increases from 0 to 100 percent. Move along the left side of the triangle
until you reach 60 percent clay. Then draw a line at 60 percent clay that is parallel to the bottom of the trian-
gle. The percent silt is identified along the right side of the triangle. From the top of the triangle to the lower
right, the percent silt increases from 0 percent to 100 percent. Move along the right side of the triangle until
you reach 20 percent silt. Now draw a line at 20 percent silt that is parallel to the left side of the triangle.
The bottom of the triangle identifies the percent sand. From the lower right corner to the lower left corner,
the percent sand increases from 0 percent to 100 percent. Move along the bottom of the triangle until you
reach 20 percent sand. Draw a line at 20 percent sand that is parallel to the right side of the triangle. The
point at which these three lines intersect will define the soil’s texture.
Fig.1.5
1.6) Soil Structure

Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil separates into units called soil aggregates. An aggregate pos-
sesses solids and pore space. Aggregates are separated by planes of weakness and are dominated by clay
particles. Silt and fine sand particles may also be part of an aggregate. The aggregate acts like a larger silt
or sand particle depending upon its size.
The arrangement of soil aggregates into different forms gives a soil its structure. The natural processes that
aid in forming aggregates are:
1) Wetting and drying

2) Freezing and thawing
3) Microbial activity that aids in the decay of organic matter
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4) Activity of roots and soil animals and

5) Adsorbed cations
The wetting/drying and freezing/thawing action as well as root or animal activity push particles back and
forth to form aggregates. Decaying plant residues and microbial byproducts coat soil particles and bind
particles into aggregates. Adsorbed cations help form aggregates whenever a cation is bonded to two or
more particles. Aggregates are described by their shape, size and stability. Aggregate types are used most
frequently when discussing structure.
Various Soil structures
Fig.1.6
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Structure is one of the defining characteristics of a soil horizon. A soil exhibits only one structure per soil
horizon, but different horizons within a soil may exhibit different structures. All of the soil-forming factors,
especially climate, influence the type of structure that develops at each depth. Granular and crumb struc-
ture are usually located at the soil surface in the A horizon. The subsoil, predominantly the B horizon, has
sub- angular blocky, blocky, columnar or prismatic structure. Platy structure can be found in the surface or
subsoil while single grain and structure-less structure are most often associated with the C horizon.
Aggregates are important in a soil because they influence bulk density, porosity and pore size. Pores within
an aggregate are quite small as compared to the pores between aggregates and between single soil parti-
cles. This balance of large and small pores provides for good soil aeration, permeability and water-holding
capacity.
Tillage, falling raindrops and compaction are primarily responsible for destroying aggregates. As the cut-
ting edge of a tillage implement is pulled through the soil, the shearing action at the point of contact breaks
apart aggregates. If tillage is conducted at the same depth for several years, a tillage pan may develop.
This is one form of compaction. Particles that were once part of the aggregates may reorient themselves
and form platy structures. The amount of aggregate destruction that results from tillage depends on the
amount of energy the tillage implement places in the soil.
Aggregation is promoted by root growth and the addition of organic material. Roots excrete compounds
that are used as food by microorganisms. Also, as roots absorb water and dry the soil, cracks form along
planes of weakness. Lastly, when roots decay, root channels serve as conduits for water that facilitate wet-
ting/drying and freezing/thawing. Organic material may be added in the form of crop residue, animal ma-
nure, sludge, and green manure. These additions are usually made to the surface soil and are critical to the
development of granular and crumb structure. As organic material is incorporated by tillage, soil animals
and microorganisms, it aids in subsoil structure development.
1.7) Soil Types

a) Chalky Soil
Sometimes called basic soils, they are always very alkaline. Chalk is a solid, soft rock which breaks down
easily. It is very free draining, and chalky soils hold little water and dry out easily. Chalky soils are fertile,
but many of the nutrients are not available to plants because of the high alkalinity of the soil, which pre-
vents the absorption of iron by plant roots.
b) Clayey Soil
The clay forms a heavy mass which makes it difficult for air, water and plant roots to move through the soil
when wet. Once dry they form rock-hard clots. Blue or grey clays have poor aeration and must be loosened
in order to support healthy growth. Red colour in clay soil indicates good aeration and a "loose" soil that
drains well. Plants can take advantage of the high level of nutrients if drainage is adequate.
c) Loamy Soil
Considered to be the perfect soil, a mix of 40 % sand, 40% silt and 20% clay. Due to mix variations loam can
range from easily workable fertile soils full of organic matter, to densely packed sod. Characteristically they
drain well, yet retain moisture and are nutrient rich, making them ideal for cultivation.
d) Peat Soil
Peat soils are formed from partially decomposed plant material under anaerobic water saturated condi-
tions. They are found in peatlands (also called bogs or mires). Peatlands cover about 3% of the earth’s
land mass; they are found in the temperate (Northern Europe and America) and tropical regions (South
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East Asia, South America, South Africa and the Caribbean) .Peat soils are classified as histosols. These are
soils high in organic matter content. Peat formation is influenced by moisture and temperature. In highly
saturated anaerobic soils, decomposition of plant material by micro organisms is slowed down, resulting
in high carbon accumulation. In colder climates decomposition of plant material by micro organisms is
slowed down leading to quicker peat formation. The carbon content of peat soils makes peatland a major
storage of carbon on the earth surface. This is why its importance in fighting climate change can never be
overemphasized.Provided they are not too acid and have effective sub drainage, these are rich in plant
foods. Converting existing soil into a peat type soil is achieved by adding large amounts of organic matter.
e) Sandy Soils
Sandy soils generally have a fine grained texture. They retain very little in the way of water, fertilizers or nu-
trients which means they are extremely poor. Prone to over-draining and summer dehydration, and in wet
weather can have problems retaining moisture and nutrients and can only be revitalized by the addition of
organic matter. Sandy soils are light and easy to dig, hoe and weed.
f) Silty Soil
Silty soil is considered to be one among the most fertile soils. Silt is often found in river estuaries, because
the fine particles are washed downstream and deposited when the water flows more sluggishly. This soil
is soft and smooth, with individual pieces close together. It too holds a lot of water, but the slightly larger
particles make it a little better at draining than clay.
Soil Scale: Acidity or Alkalinity
An important aspect of soil chemistry is acidity, alkalinity (baseness), or neutrality.

Low pH values indicate an acidic soil, and a high pH indicates alkaline conditions.
Most complex plants grow only in the soils with levels between pH 4 and pH 10 but
optimum pH varies with the plant species.
• In arid and semi-arid regions, soils tend to be alkaline and soils in humid regions
tend to be acidic.
• To correct soil alkalinity and to make the soil more productive, the soil can be
flushed with irrigation water.
• Strongly acidic soils are also detrimental to plant growth, but soil acidity can gen-
erally be corrected by adding lime to the soil.
Fig.1.7 11
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1.8) Soil Profile

The soil profile is an important tool in nutrient management. By examining a soil profile, we can gain valu-
able insight into soil fertility. As the soil weathers and/or organic matter decomposes, the profile of the soil
changes. For instance, a highly weathered, infertile soil usually contains a light-colored layer in the subsur-
face soil from which nutrients have leached away. On the other hand, a highly fertile soil often has a deep
surface layer that contains high amounts of organic matter. With clues provided by soil profile, we can begin
to predict how a soil will perform under certain nutrient management conditions.
The world’s soils are like blankets that cover most of the earth’s land surfaces. We could not survive without
it since most crops would not be able to grow in the dense rock that lies underneath. There is no uniform
depth to our earth’s soils. While it can be absent in places of exposed bedrock, soil may extend up to tens
of meters into the earth’s surface. Although this may not seem insignificant when compared to the depth
to the core of the earth, the soil profile can be very intricate and diverse. In fact, the soil profile is made up
of distinct layers, known as horizons. The five most common horizons are collectively known as the master
horizons.
I) Components of the Soil Profile

A soil horizon makes up a distinct layer of soil. The horizon runs roughly parallel to the soil surface and
has different properties and characteristics than the adjacent layers above and below. The soil profile is a
vertical section of the soil that depicts all of its horizons. The soil profile extends from the soil surface to the
parent rock material.
The regolith includes all of the weathered material within the profile. The regolith has two components:
the solum and the saprolite. The solum includes the upper horizons with the most weathered portion of the
profile. The saprolite is the least weathered portion that lies directly above the solid, consolidated bedrock
but beneath the regolith.
Various Soil Horizons
Fig.1.8
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Five Master Horizons-(O,A,E,B,C)

There are five master horizons in the soil profile. Not all soil profiles contain all 5 horizons; and so, soil
profiles differ from one location to another. The 5 master horizons are represented by the letters: O, A, E,
B, and C.
O: The O horizon is a surface horizon that is comprised of organic material at various stages of decompo-
sition. It is most prominent in forested areas where there is the accumulation of debris fallen from trees.
A: The A horizon is a surface horizon that largely consists of minerals (sand, silt, and clay) and with appre-
ciable amounts of organic matter. This horizon is predominantly the surface layer of many soils in grass-
lands and agricultural lands. The A horizon is often referred to as the topsoil and is the surface layer where
organic matter accumulates. Over time, this layer loses clay, iron, and other materials because of leaching.
E: The E horizon is a subsurface horizon that has been heavily leached. Leaching is the process in which sol-
uble nutrients are lost from the soil due to precipitation or irrigation. The horizon is typically light in color.
It is generally found beneath the O horizon. The E horizon is thus the zone of greatest eluviation. Because
the clay, chemicals, and organic matter are leached, the color of the E horizon is very light. This horizon
usually occurs in sandy forest soils with high amounts of rainfall.
B: The B horizon is a subsurface horizon that has accumulated from the layer(s) above. It is a site of deposi-
tion of certain minerals that have leached from the layer(s) above. The B horizon is often referred to as the
subsoil. It is often called the “zone of accumulation” because chemicals leached from the A and E horizons
accumulate here. The accumulation of organic matter, chemical substances, and mineral particles in the
lower horizons of soil from the upper horizons as a result of the downward movement of water is called
illuviation. The B horizon has less organic matter and more clay than the A horizon. Together, the A, E, and
B horizons are known as the solum. This is where most of the plant roots grow.
C: The C horizon is a subsurface horizon. It is the least weathered horizon. Also known as the saprolite, it is
unconsolidated, loose parent material. The C horizon is called the substratum. It lacks the properties of the
A and B horizons because it is influenced less by the soil-forming processes. It is usually the parent material
of the soil.
II) The Bed Rock- “R” Horizon.

The R horizon is the underlying bedrock, such as limestone, sandstone, or granite. It is found beneath the
C horizon.
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Fig.1.9
1.9) Soil Colour

The colour of the soil is usually the first thing people notice. Mostly this is just the topsoil but it does not
reflect the entire soil. The topsoil is usually darker than lower layers (or horizons) because this is where
organic matter accumulates. Soil colour is usually due to three main pigments:
Black—from organic matter.

Red—from iron and aluminium oxides.
White—from silicates and salt.
Colour can be a useful indicator of some of the general properties of a soil, as well as some of the chemical
processes that are occurring beneath the surface.
JUST TO ADD TO YOUR KNOWLEDGE
The Munsell System-The Munsell System allows for direct comparison of soils anywhere in the
world. The system has three components: hue (a specific color), value (lightness and darkness),
and chroma (color intensity) that are arranged in books of color chips. Soil is held next to the chips
to find a visual match and assigned the corresponding Munsell notation. For example, a brown soil
may be noted as: hue value/chroma (10YR 5/3). With a soil color book with Munsell notations,
one can visually connect soil colors with natural environments of the area, and students can learn
to read and record the color, scientifically.
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Soil Colour Soil characteristics Implications

These soils are often asso- • waterlogging or drainage problems
Black ciated with high levels of • low pH
organic matter (peats). • high denitrification
Black Vertosols (cracking clay • workability and tillage problems

soils)
White/pale/bleached These soils are often re- • leaching of nutrients
ferred to as bleached or • low plant available water
‘washed out’. The iron and
manganese particles have
been leached out due to
high amounts of rainfall or
drainage.
Red This colour indicates good • high phosphorus fixation
drainage. Iron found with- • low plant available water
in the soil is oxidized more
readily due to the higher
oxygen content. This caus-
es the soil to develop a
‘rusty’ colour. The colour
can be darker due to or-
ganic matter.
Yellow to yellow-brown These soils often have • moderate phosphorus fixation
poorer drainage than red • low plant available water
soils. The iron compounds • compaction
in these soils are in a hy-
drated form and therefore
do not produce the ‘rusty’
colour.
Brown Soils associated with mod- • low to moderate phosphorus fixa-
erate organic matter level tion
and iron oxides. • low to moderate plant available
water
Gleyed/grey/green These soils are associated • waterlogging or drainage problems

with very poor drainage or • high denitrification
waterlogging. The lack of
air in these soils provides
conditions for iron and
manganese to form com-
pounds that
give these soils their co- • risk methane emission hazard
lour.
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1.10) Factors Affecting Soil Formation

Soil research has shown that soil profiles are influenced by five separate, yet interacting, factors: parent
material, climate, topography, organisms, and time. Soil scientists call these the factors of soil formation.
These factors give soil profiles their distinctive character.
Fig.1.10
I) Parent Material
Soil parent material is the material that soil develops from, and may be the rock that has decomposed in
place, or material that has been deposited by wind, water, or ice. The character and chemical composition
of the parent material plays an important role in determining soil properties, especially during the early
stages of development.
Soils developed on parent material that is coarse grained and composed of minerals resistant to weather-
ing are likely to exhibit coarse grain texture. Fine grain soil develop where the parent material is composed
of unstable minerals that readily weather.
Parent material composition has a direct impact on soil chemistry and fertility. Parent materials rich in
soluble ions-calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium, are easily dissolved in water and made available
to plants. Limestone and basaltic lava both have a high content of soluble bases and produce fertile soil
in humid climates. If parent materials are low in soluble ions, water moving through the soil removes the
bases and substitutes them with hydrogen ions making the soil acidic and unsuitable for agriculture. Soils
developed over sandstone are low in soluble bases and coarse in texture which facilitates leaching. Parent
material influence on soil properties tends to decrease with time as it is altered and climate becomes more
important.
II) Climate
Soils tend to show a strong geographical correlation with climate, especially at the global scale. Energy and
precipitation strongly influence physical and chemical reactions on parent material. Climate also deter-
mines vegetation cover which in turn influences soil development. Precipitation also affects horizon devel-
opment factors like the translocation of dissolved ions through the soil. As time passes, climate tends to be
a prime influence on soil properties while the influence of parent material is less.
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III) Climate, vegetation, and weathering

Climate affects both vegetative production and the activity of organisms. Hot, dry desert regions have
sparse vegetation and hence limited organic material available for the soil. The lack of precipitation inhib-
its chemical weathering leading to coarse textured soil in arid regions. Bacterial activity is limited by the
cold temperatures in the tundra causing organic matter to build up. In the warm and wet tropics, bacterial
activity proceeds at a rapid rate, thoroughly decomposing leaf litter. Under the lush tropical forest vegeta-
tion, available nutrients are rapidly taken back up by the trees. The high annual precipitation also flushes
some organic material from the soil. These factors combine to create soils lacking much organic matter in
their upper horizons.
Climate, interacting with vegetation, also affects soil chemistry. Pine forests tend to dominate cool, humid
climates. Decomposing pine needles in the presence of water creates a weak acid that strips soluble bases
from the soil leaving it in an acidic state. Additionally, pine trees have low nutrient demands so few soil
nutrients are taken back up by the trees to be later recycled by decaying needle litter. Broadleaf deciduous
trees like oak and maple have higher nutrient demand and thus continually recycle soil nutrients keeping
soils high in soluble bases.
IV) Topography
Topography has a significant impact on soil formation as it determines runoff of water, and its orientation
affects microclimate which in turn affects vegetation. For soil to form, the parent material needs to lie rel-
atively undisturbed so soil horizon processes can proceed. Water moving across the surface strips parent
material away impeding soil development. Water erosion is more effective on steeper, unvegetated slopes.
a) Effect on soil erosion

Slope angle and length affects runoff generated when rain falls to the surface. Examine the diagram below
showing the relationship between hill slope position, runoff, and erosion.
Fig.1.11
The amount of water on a particular hill slope segment is dependent on what falls from precipitation and
what runs into it from an upslope hill slope segment. The hill slope in the above figure has been divided
into several segments and the amount of precipitation falling on each segment is the same. As water runs
down slope, the water that has accumulated in segment A runs off adding to what falls into segment B by
precipitation. The water in B runs into C, and C into D, and so on. The amount of water increases in the
down slope direction as water is contributed of water from upslope segments. The velocity of the water
increases as well as it moves towards the base of the slope. As a result, the amount and velocity of water,
and hence rate of erosion increases as you near the base of the slope. Rather than infiltrating into the soil
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to promote weathering and soil development, water runs off. Erosion causes stripping of the soil thus pre-
venting parent material to stay in place to develop into a soil. So we should expect to find weakly developed
soil at the mid- and near the bottom of the slope.
b) Effect on deposition and soil texture

Water velocity not only determines the rate of erosion but the deposition of soil material in suspension
too. The following figure shows the relationship between location and texture. Sites A, B, and C, are located
progressively further from the base of a slope. A soil texture triangle is used to illustrate the variation in
soil textures at the three sites.
Fig.1.12
first to drop out of suspension (Site A). Fine, clay size particles can be carried further away from the base of
the slope before they are deposited. As a result, coarse textured soils tend to be found near the base of the
mountain and fine textured soils are located further away (Site C).
V) Microclimatic effects
Hill slope orientation affects the microclimate of a place. As the slope of the surface increases, so does the
local sun angle, up to a point. As the local sun angle increases, the intensity of heating increases, causing
warmer surface temperatures and, likely, increased evaporation. Orientation of the hill slope is certainly
important too. Those slopes which face into the sun receive more insolation than those facing away. Thus
inclined surfaces facing into the sun tend to be warmer and drier, than flatter surfaces facing way from the
sun. The microclimate also impact vegetation type.
VI) Organisms
Organism, both plant and animal, play an important role in the development and composition of soil. Or-
ganisms add organic matter, aid decomposition, weathering and nutrient cycling. The richness and diversi-
ty of soil organisms and plant life that grows on the surface is, of course, also tied to climate.
VII) Nutrient cycling

Biotic elements of the environment need life-sustaining nutrients that find their origin in the soil. Upon
their death, organisms return these nutrients to the soil to be taken up again by other plants and animals.
Hence there is a constant cycling of nutrients between organisms and soils. This cycling refreshes and
maintains the nutrient status of soils. Without it, soluble nutrients would be leached from the soil, decreas-
ing the soil's ability to support life.
The degree to which nutrients are cycled depends on the needs of the organism occupying a particular
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place. For instance, broadleaf, deciduous trees like oak and maple generally have high nutrient demand
creating surface litter rich in nutrients when leaves die and fall to the forest floor. Decomposition of the
litter releases the nutrients back into the soil for the tree to take back up. Thus soils under these kinds of
forests tend to be high in soluble bases and nutrients.
Pine trees generally have low nutrient demands. The decaying litter that falls to the forest floor is poor in
nutrients. As a result, little cycling of soluble nutrients like calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium
occurs and are thus leached creating an acidic soil environment.
Fig.1.13
VIII) Organisms and weathering
Soil organisms also affect weathering. The decomposition of pine needles creates a weak acid that can strip
soluble ions from the soil. Burrowing animals create passage ways through the soil to help aerate and allow
water to infiltrate into it. Burrowing animals help translocate materials and fertilize the soil at depth.
IX) Time
As time passes, the weathering processes continue to act on soil parent material to break it down and
decompose it. Horizon development processes continue to differentiate layers in the soil profile by their
physical and chemical properties. As a result, older more mature soils have well-developed sequence of
horizons, though some may undergo so much weathering and leaching that visually distinct layers may be
hard to see. This is a notable characteristic of oxisols. Some geological processes keep soils from developing
by constantly altering the surface and thus not allowing parent material to weather over a significant peri-
od of time. For instance, erosion of hillsides constantly removes material thus impeding soil development.
Along the channels of rivers, new sediment is frequently deposited as the river spills out onto its floodplain
during floods. The constant addition of new material restarts the soil development process.
Climate interacts with time during the soil development process. Soil development proceeds much more
rapidly in warm and wet climates thus reaching a mature status sooner. In cold climates, weathering is im-
peded and soil development takes much longer.
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CHAPTER.2
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
2.1) Introduction
THE ZONAL SYSTEM
The loose material or the upper layer of the Mantle Rock, the soil system, is the product of environmental
and biological processes in interrelation with climate, vegetation (flora), animals (fauna), underlying rocks,
topography and time which affect the biosphere. The concept of zonality (i.e. the regional distribution of
soils in zones), was first formulated by Dokuchaev on the basis of climate for European Russia, which was
elaborated upon further by Glinka and Sibirchev, who introduced the zonal, intrazonal and azonal soils ap-
proach, taking into account other soil-forming factors than climate.
2.1.1) Zonal Soils: The zonal soils are formed on normal sites from ordinary siliceous rocks and show
clearly the impress of climate and vegetation. In short, these are formed under conditions of good soil
drainage through the prolonged action of climate and vegetation, e.g. chestnut soils. This kind of soils have
following types -
Tundra Soils
Podzols
Brown Forest Soils
Laterite Soils/Latosols/Ferralsols
Chernozem/Prairie/Steppe
Grumusol/Reddish Brown Soils
Desert (Seirozems and Red Desert) Soils
Point to remember- Zonal soils are characterised by the dominant influence of climate.
2.1.2) Intrazonal Soils: The intrazonal soils include the soils from less common parent materials and
those influenced by high ground water or under conditions of very poor drainage (such as in bogs, flood-
plain meadows, or in the playa lake basins of the deserts) or upon limestone. Depending on the role played
by water, presence of calcium in the parent material and the location, intra-zonal soils may be –Hydromor-
phic; Calcimorphic; Halomorphic etc.
Point to remember- Intra-zonal soils have some local factor like moisture or parent rock having the dom-
inant influence. The intra-zonal soils occur within broad zonal types on poorly draining sites.
2.1.3) Azonal Soils: The azonal soils are youthful, owing to recent renewal by sedimentation or erosion.
They have no well-developed profile characteristics. These soils are common where the parent material is
being continuously eroded and deposited, e.g. alluvial Soils (newer or younger Khadar and older Bhangar
soils) or lithosols (those at high altitudes on resistant parent material). These soils have poorly developed
horizons due to three reasons:
Lack of Time For instance, in new flood plains alluvium is being continually eroded and deposited.
Parent Material Azonal soils like ‘regosols’ result from loose sand and loess.
Geomorphology ‘Lithosols’ result on steep slopes where soil is eroded as soon as it is deposited.
Point to remember - Azonal soils are poorly developed and occur along the recent alluvium, steep slopes
or sand deposits.
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Major Soil Classification Sub-Orders Soil Groups
Zonal Order Suborder-I Podzol Soils, Brown Podzolic

Light coloured podzolized soils, Grey Brown Podzolic Soils,
soils of the forested regions. Red-Yellow Podzolic Soils.
Suborder-II Latosols: Reddish-brown Later-

Lateritic soils of warm moist itic Soils, Black and Dark Grey
tropical and equatorial re- Tropical Soils.
gions.
Suborder-III Degraded Chemozems. Prai-
Soils of forest-grassland tran- rie Soils, Reddish Prairie Soils,
sitions. Dark coloured soils of Chemozem Soils, Chestnut Soils,
semiarid, sub-humid and hu- Reddish Chestnut and Red-
mid grasslands. dish-Brown Soils.
Suborder-IV Brown Soils. Grey Desert soils
Light coloured soils of des- (Sierozems) and Red Desert
erts. Soils.
Suborder-I Bog Soils, Meadow Soils, Alpine

Intrazonal Order Hydromorphic soils of marsh- Meadow Soils, Planosols.
es, Swamps, bogs and flat up-
lands.
Suborder-II
Halomorphic soils of poor- Saline soils, Alkali soils, Soloth,
ly drained and regions and Rendzlna soils.
coastal deposits, Calcimor-
phic soils.
Azonal Order Suborder Alluvial soils, Dry

(Lithosols) Regosols sands.
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2.2) Classification of World Soils

Unlike plants and animals, which can be identified as separate entities, the world's soil cover is a con-
tinuum. Its components occur in temporal and/or spatial successions. In the early days of soil science,
soil classification was based on the (surmised) genesis of the soils. Many `traditional' soil names refer to
the soil forming factor considered to be dominant in a particular pedogenetic history, for instance `desert
soils' (climate being the dominant factor), `plaggen soils' (human interference), `prairie soils' (vegetation),
`mountain soils' (topography), or `volcanic ash soils' (parent material). Alternatively, soil names referred to
a prominent single factor, for instance `Brown Soils' (colour), àlkali soils' (chemical characteristic), `hydro-
morphic soils' (physical characteristic), `sandy soils' (texture) or `lithosols' (depth).
The many soil classification schemes developed over the years reflect different views held on concepts
of soil formation and mirror differences of opinion about the criteria to be used for classification. In the
1950's, international communications intensified while the number of soil surveys increased sharply both
in temperate regions and in the tropics. The experience gained in those years and the exchange of data be-
tween scientists rekindled interest in (the dynamics of) the world's soil cover. Classification systems were
developed, which aimed at embracing the full spectrum of the soil continuum. In addition, emphasis shifted
away from the genetic approach, which often contained an element of conjecture, to the use of soil prop-
erties as differentiating criteria. By and large, consensus evolved as to the major soil bodies which needed
to be distinguished in broad level soil classification although differences in definitions and terminology
remained.
The FAO-UNESCO Soil Classification System

In 1974, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) published its Soil Map of the
World (SMW). Compilation of the SMW was a formidable task involving collection and correlation of soil
information from all over the world. Initially, the Legend to the SMW consisted of 26 (`first level') "Major
Soil Groupings" comprising a total of 106 (`second level') `Soil Units'.
In 1990, a `Revised Legend' was published and a third hierarchical level of `Soil Subunits' was introduced
to support soil inventory at larger scales. Soil Subunits were not defined as such but guidelines for their
identification and naming were given. De facto this converted the SMW map legend, with a finite number of
entries, into an open-ended, globally applicable `FAO-UNESCO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM'.
The World Reference Base for soil resources

In 1998, the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) officially adopted the World Reference Base for Soil
Resources (WRB) as the Union's system for soil correlation. The structure, concepts and definitions of the
WRB are strongly influenced by (the philosophy behind and experience gained with) the FAO-UNESCO Soil
Classification System. At the time of its inception, the WRB proposed 30 `Soil Reference Groups' accommo-
dating more than 200 (`second level') Soil Units.
The 30 Reference Soil Groups are aggregated in 10 `sets' composed as follows:
(A) First, a separation is made between organic soils and mineral soils; all organic soils are
grouped in Set 1.
(B) The remaining (mineral) Major Soil Groups are each allocated to one of nine sets on the
basis of `dominant identifiers’, i.e. those soil forming factor(s) which most clearly
conditioned soil formation.
SET 1 holds all soils with more than a defined quantity of òrganic soil materials'. These organic soils are
brought together in only one Reference Soil Group: the HISTOSOLS.
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SET 2 contains all man-made soils. These soils vary widely in properties and appearance and can occur in
any environment but have in common that their properties are strongly affected by human intervention.
They are aggregated to only one Reference Soil Group: the ANTHROSOLS.
SET 3 includes mineral soils whose formation is conditioned by the particular properties of their parent
material. The set includes three Reference Soil Groups:
1. the Andosols of volcanic regions,

2. the sandy Arenosols of desert areas, beach ridges, inland dunes, areas with highly weathered
sandstone, etc., and
3. the swelling and shrinking heavy clayey VERTISOLS of backswamps, river basins, lake bottoms,
and other areas with a high content of expanding 2:1 lattice clays.
SET 4 accommodates mineral soils whose formation was markedly influenced by their topographic/phys-
iographic setting. This set holds soils in low terrain positions associated with recurrent floods and/or pro-
longed wetness, but also soils in elevated or accidented terrain where soil formation is hindered by low
temperatures or erosion.
The set holds four Reference Soil Groups:

In low terrain positions:
1. Young alluvial FLUVISOLS, which show stratification or other evidence of recent sedimentation, and
2. Non-stratified GLEYSOLS in waterlogged areas that do not receive regular additions of sediment.
In elevated and/or eroding areas:
1. Shallow LEPTOSOLS over hard rock or highly calcareous material, and

2. Deeper REGOSOLS, which occur in unconsolidated materials and which have only surficial
profile development, e.g. because of low soil temperatures, prolonged dryness or erosion.
SET 5 holds soils that are only moderately developed on account of their limited pedogenetic age or be-
cause of rejuvenation of the soil material. Moderately developed soils occur in all environments, from sea
level to the highlands, from the equator to the boreal regions, and under all kinds of vegetation. They have
not more in common than `signs of beginning soil formation' so that there is considerable diversity among
the soils in this set. Yet, they all belong to only one Reference Soil Group: the CAMBISOLS.
SET 6 accommodates the `typical' red and yellow soils of wet tropical and subtropical regions. High soil
temperatures and (at times) ample moisture promote rock weathering and rapid decay of soil organic mat-
ter. The Reference Soil Groups in this set have in common that a long history of dissolution and transport of
weathering products has produced deep and genetically mature soils:
1. PLINTHOSOLS on old weathering surfaces; these soils are marked by the presence of a mixture
of clay and quartz (`plinthite’) that hardens irreversibly upon exposure to the open air,
2. deeply weathered FERRALSOLS that have a very low cation exchange capacity and are virtually
devoid of weatherable minerals,
3. ALISOLS with high cation exchange capacity and much exchangeable aluminium,
4. deep NITISOLS in relatively rich parent material and marked by shiny, nutty structure elements,
5. strongly leached, red and yellow ACRISOLS on acid parent rock, with a clay accumulation
horizon, low cation exchange capacity and low base saturation, and
6. LIXISOLS with a low cation exchange capacity but high base saturation percentage.
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SET 7 accommodates Reference Soil Groups in arid and semi-arid regions. Redistribution of calcium car-
bonate and gypsum is an important mechanism of horizon differentiation in soils in the dry zone. Soluble
salts may accumulate at some depth or, in areas with shallow groundwater, near the soil surface. The Ref-
erence Soil Groups assembled in set #7 are:
1. SOLONCHAKS with a high content of soluble salts,

2. SOLONETZ with a high percentage of adsorbed sodium ions,
3. GYPSISOLS with a horizon of secondary gypsum enrichment,
4. DURISOLS with a layer or nodules of soil material that is cemented by silica, and
5. CALCISOLS with secondary carbonate enrichment.
SET 8 holds soils that occur in the steppe zone between the dry climates and the humid Temperate Zone.
This transition zone has a climax vegetation of ephemeral grasses and dry forest; its location corresponds
roughly with the transition from a dominance of accumulation processes in soil formation to a dominance
of leaching processes. Set #8 includes three Reference Soil Groups:
1. CHERNOZEMS with deep, very dark surface soils and carbonate enrichment in the subsoil,
2. KASTANOZEMS with less deep, brownish surface soils and carbonate and/or gypsum
accumulation at some depth (these soils occur in the driest parts of the steppe zone), and
3. PHAEOZEMS, the dusky red soils of prairie regions with high base saturation but no visible
signs of secondary carbonate accumulation.
SET 9 holds the brownish and greyish soils of humid temperate regions. The soils in this set show evidence
of redistribution of clay and/or organic matter. The cool climate and short genetic history of most soils in
this zone explain why some soils are still relatively rich in bases despite a dominance of eluviation over en-
richment processes. Eluviation and illuviation of metal-humus complexes produce the greyish (bleaching)
and brown to black (coating) colours of soils of this set. Set #9 contains five Reference Soil Groups:
1. acid PODZOLS with a bleached eluviation horizon over an accumulation horizon of organic
matter with aluminium and/or iron,
2. PLANOSOLS with a bleached topsoil over dense, slowly permeable subsoil,
3. base-poor ALBELUVISOLS with a bleached eluviation horizon tonguing into a clay-enriched
subsurface horizon,
4. base-rich LUVISOLS with a distinct clay accumulation horizon, and
5. UMBRISOLS with a thick, dark, acid surface horizon that is rich in organic matter.
SET 10 holds the soils of permafrost regions. These soils show signs of `cryoturbation' (i.e. disturbance by
freeze-thaw sequences and ice segregation) such as irregular or broken soil horizons and organic matter in
the subsurface soil, often concentrated along the top of the permafrost table. Cryoturbation also results in
oriented stones in the soil and sorted and non-sorted patterned ground features at the surface. All `perma-
frost soils' are assembled in one Reference Soil Group: the CRYOSOLS.
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BE MINDFUL OF
Note that the Reference Soil Groups in sets 6 through 10 represent soils, which occur predominantly
in specific climate zones. Such soils are known as `zonal soils'. Be aware, however, that not all soils in
sets 6 through 10 are zonal soils, nor are soils in other sets always non-zonal. Podzols, for instance, are
most common in (sub)humid temperate climates (set 9) but they are also found in the humid tropics;
Planosols may equally occur in subtropical and steppe climates and Ferralsols may occur as remnants
outside the humid tropics. Soils whose characteristics result from the strong local dominance of a soil
forming factor other than `climate' are not `zonal soils'. They are ìntrazonal soils'. In other words there
are zonal and intrazonal Podzols, zonal and intrazonal Gleysols, zonal and intrazonal Histosols, and
many more. Some soils are too young to reflect the influence of site-specific conditions in their profile
characteristics; these are àzonal soils'. Young alluvial soils (Fluvisols) and soils in recent hillwash (e.g.
Cambisols) are examples of azonal soils. The zonality concept helps to understand (some of) the diver-
sity of the global soil cover but is a poor basis for soil classification. The sets of Reference Soil Groups
presented in this text may therefore not be seen as high level classification units but merely as an illus-
tration how basic principles of soil formation manifest themselves in prominent global soil patterns.
All Reference Soil Groups of the WRB assembled in 10 sets

SET 1 Organic soils HISTOSOLS
SET 2 Mineral soils whose formation ANTHROSOLS
was conditioned by human in-
fluences (not confined to any
particular region)
SET 3 Mineral soils whose formation ANDOSOLS
was conditioned by their par- ARENOSOLS
ent material; VERTISOLS
Soils developed in volcanic
material; Soils developed in
residual and shifting sands
Soils developed in expanding
clays
SET 4 Mineral soils whose formation FLUVISOLS
was conditioned by the topog- GLEYSOLS
raphy/physiography of the ter- LEPTOSOLS
rain REGOSOLS
Soils in lowlands (wetlands)
with level topography
Soils in elevated regions with
non-level topography
SET 5 Mineral soils whose formation CAMBISOLS
is conditioned by their limited
age (not confined to any par-
ticular region)
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SET 6 Mineral soils whose formation PLINTHOSOLS

was conditioned by climate: FERRALSOLS
(sub-)humid tropics NITISOLS
ACRISOLS
ALISOLS
LIXISOLS
SET 7 Mineral soils whose formation SOLONCHAKS
was conditioned by climate: SOLONETZ
arid and semi-arid regions GYPSISOLS
DURISOLS
CALCISOLS
SET 8 Mineral soils whose formation KASTANOZEMS
was conditioned by climate: CHERNOZEMS
steppes regions PHAEOZEMS
SET 9 Mineral soils whose formation PODZOLS
was conditioned by climate: PLANOSOLS
(sub-)humid temperate re- ALBELUVISOLS
gions LUVISOLS
UMBRISOLS
SET 10 Mineral soils whose formation CRYOSOLS
was conditioned by climate:
permafrost regions
Soil Diagnostic Horizons.

The taxonomic units of the WRB are defined in terms of measurable and observable `diag-
nostic horizons', the basic identifiers in soil classification. Diagnostic horizons are defined by
(combinations of) characteristic `soil properties' and/or `soil materials'.
Note that a distinction must be made between the soil horizon designations used in soil pro-
file descriptions and diagnostic horizons as used in soil classification. The former belong to a
nomenclature in which master horizon codes (H, O, A, E, B, C and R) are assigned to the vari-
ous soil horizons in a soil profile when it is described and interpreted in the field. The choice
of horizon code is by personal judgement of the soil surveyor. Diagnostic horizons, on the
other hand, are rigidly defined and their presence or absence can be ascertained on the basis
of unambiguous field and/or laboratory measurements. Some of the diagnostic horizons in
the WRB soil correlation system are special forms of A- or B-horizons, e.g. a `mollic' A-horizon,
or a `ferralic' B-horizon. Other diagnostic horizons are not necessarily A- or B-horizons, e.g. a
`calcic' or a `gypsic' horizon.
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MAJOR ORDERS OF USDA SOIL TAXONOMY

USDA soil taxonomy (ST) developed by United States Department of Agriculture and
the National Cooperative Soil Survey provides an elaborate classification of soil types
according to several parameters (most commonly their properties) and in several
levels: Order, Suborder, Great Group, Subgroup, Family, and Series.
Name Important Properties
Alfisols Mineral soils relatively low in organic matter
with relatively high base saturation. Contains
horizon of illuvial clay. Moisture is available to
mature a crop.
Aridisols Mineral soils relatively low in organic matter.
Contain developed soil horizons. Moisture is
inadequate to mature a crop without irrigation
in most years.
Entisols Mineral soils lacking developed soil horizons.
Moisture content varies.
Histosols Soils composed mostly of organic matter. Mois-
ture content varies.
Inceptisols Mineral soils containing some developed hori-
zons other than one of illuvial clay. Moisture is
available to mature a crop.
Mollisols Mineral soils with thick, dark surface horizons
relatively high in organic matter and with high
base saturation.
Oxisols Mineral soils with no weatherable minerals.
High in iron and aluminum oxides. Contain no
illuvial horizons.
Spodosols Soils that contain an illuvial horizon of amor-
phous aluminum and organic matter, with or
without amorphous iron. Usually moist or well
leached.
Ultisols ineral soils with an illuvial clay horizon. Has low
base saturation. Generally found in humid cli-
mates.
Vertisols Clayey soils with deep wide cracks at some
time in most years. Moisture content varies.
Andisols Soils formed in volcanic ash and defined as soils
containing high proportions of glass and amor-
phous colloidal materials, including allophane,
imogolite and ferrihydrite.In the FAO soil clas-
sification, andisols are known as andosols
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Gelisols Soils that are permanently frozen (contain

“permafrost”) or contain evidence of perma-
frost near the soil surface.
Gelisols are found in the Arctic and Antarctic,
as well as at extremely high elevations.
Permafrost influences land use through its ef-
fect on the downward movement of water and
freeze-thaw activity (cryoturbation) such as
frost heaves. Permafrost can also restrict the
rooting depth of plants.
Gelisols make up about 9% of the world’s gla-
cier-free land surface.
Fig.2.1
2.4) CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN SOILS
According to ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) soils are divided into eight categories.
they are alluvial soils, Black cotton soils, Red soils, Laterite soils, Mountainous or forest soils, Arid or desert
soils, Saline and alkaline soils Peaty and marshy soils.
2.4.1) Alluvial Soils

Alluvial soils are by far the largest and the most important soil group of India. Covering about 15 lakh sq km
or about 45.6 per cent of the total land area of the country, these soils contribute the largest share of our
agricultural wealth and support the bulk of India’s population. Most of the alluvial soils are derived from
the sediments deposited by rivers as in the Indo-Gangetic plain although some alluvial soils in the coastal
areas have been formed by the sea waves. Thus the parent material of these soils is all of transported origin.
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Fig.2.2
The streams bring with them the products of weathering of rocks from the mountains and deposit them in
the low-lying areas. The alluvial soils are yet immature and have weak profiles. They differ in consistency
from drift sand to rich loams and from silts to stiff clays. A few occasional kankar beds are also present.
However, pebbly, stony or gravelly soils are rare in this group. The chemical composition of the alluvial soils
makes this group of soils as one of the most fertile in the world. The proportion of nitrogen is generally low,
but potash, phosphoric acid and alkalies are adequate, while iron oxide and lime vary within a wide range.
The porosity and texture provide good drainage and other conditions favourable for bumper crops. These
soils are easily replenished by the recurrent river floods and support uninterruped crop growth.
The widest occurrence of the alluvial soils is in the Great Indo-Gangetic Plain starting from Punjab in the
west to West Bengal and Assam in the east. They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Cauvery, where they are called deltaic alluvium. Along the coast they are known as coastal
alluvium. Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada and Tapi valleys. Northern parts of Gujarat also have
some cover of alluvial soils.Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India is divided into newer or
younger khadar and older bhangar soils. The khadar soils are found in the low areas of valley bottom which
are flooded almost every year.
They are pale brown, sandy clays and loams, more dry and leached, less calcareous and carbonaceous i.e.
they are less kankary. Bhangar, on the other hand, is found on the higher reaches about 30 metres above
the flood level. It is of a more clayey composition and is generally dark coloured. A few metres below the
surface of the bhangar are beds of lime nodules known as kankar. Along the Shiwalik foothills, there are
alluvial fans having coarse, often pebbly soils. This zone is called bhabar. To the south of the bhabar is a
long narrow strip of swampy lowland with silty soils. It covers an area of 56,600 sq km and is called tarai.
The tarai soils are rich in nitrogen and organic matter but are deficient in phosphate. These soils are gener-
ally covered by tall grasses and forests but are suitable for a number of crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane,
jute and soyabean under reclaimed conditions.Due to their softness of the strata and fertility the alluvial
soils are best suited to irrigation and respond well to canal and well/tube-well irrigation. When properly
irrigated, the alluvial soils yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize, oil-
seeds, vegetables and fruits.
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HIGHLIGHTS
• Alluvial soils cover 24% of land surface in India and is found in Indo Ganga – Brahmaputra plain,
coastal plains and river valleys. These are also found in foothills regions in plenty. It contains
sand, loam and clay in different proportion.
• There are two types of alluvial soils:
1. Khadar – which are newer alluvium. it is the soil deposited by the rivers every year. It
is more fertile than the Bhangar.
2. Bhangar – which are older alluvium. It contains pebbles and calcium carbonates.
• The colour of alluvium soils can be grey, light brown or yellowish. these soils are very rich in
chemicals like Potash, Phosphoric acid, lime and carbon compounds but are deficient in Nitrogen
and humus.
2.4.2) Black Cotton Soils

The black soils are also called regur (from the Telugu word Reguda) and black cotton soils because cotton is
the most important crop grown on these soils. Several theories have been put forward regarding the origin
of this group of soils but most pedologists believe that these soils have been formed due to the solidifaction
of lava spread over large areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau, thousands of years ago.Most
of the black soils are derived from two types of rocks, the Deccan and the Rajmahal trap, and ferruginous
gneisses and schists occurring in Tamil Nadu. The former are sufficiently deep while the later are generally
shallow.
Fig.2.3
Krebs holds that the regur is essentially a mature soil which has been produced by relief and climate, rather
than by a particular type of rock. According to him, this soil occurs where the annual rainfall is between 50
to 80 cm and the number of rainy days range from 30 to 50. The occurrence of this soil in the west deccan
where the rainfall is about 100 cm and the number of rainy days more than 50, is considered by him to be
an exception.In some parts of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu, the origin of black cotton soils is ascribed to old
lagoons in which the rivers deposited the materials brought down from the interior of Peninsula covered
with lava.
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Geographically, black soils are spread over 5.46 lakh sq km (i.e. 16.6 per cent of the total geographical
area of the country) encompassed between 15°N to 25°N latitudes and 72°E to 82°E longitudes. This is
the region of high temperature and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil group of the dry and hot regions of
the Peninsula. These soils are mainly found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.The black colour of these soils has been attributed by some scientists to
the presence of a small proportion of titaniferous magnetite or even to iron and black constituents of the
parent rock. The black colour of this soil may even be derived from crystalline schists and basic gneisses
such as in Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh. Various tints of the black colour such as deep black,
medium black, shallow black or even a mixture of red and black may be found in this group of soils.
The black soil is very retentive of moisture. It swells greatly and becomes sticky when wet in rainy season.
Under such conditions, it is almost impossible to work on such soil because the plough gets stuck in the
mud.However, in the hot dry season, the moisture evaporates, the soil shrinks and is seamed with broad
and deep cracks, often 10 to 15 cm wide and upto a metre deep. This permits oxygenation of the soil to
sufficient depths and the soil has extraordinary fertility.
Remarkably “self¬ploughed” by loosened particles fallen from the ground into the cracks, the soil “swal-
lows” itself and retains soil moisture. This soil has been used for growing a variety of crops for centuries
without adding fertilizers and manures, or even fallowing with little or no evidence of exhaustion.A typical
black soil is highly argillaceous with a large clay factor, 62 per cent or more, without gravel or coarse sand.
It also contains 10 per cent of alumina, 9-10 per cent of iron oxide and 6-8 percent of lime and magnesium
carbonates. Potash is variable (less than 0.5 per cent) and phosphates, nitrogen and humus are low. The
structure is cloddish but occasionally friable.In all regur soils in general, and in those derived from ferro-
magnesian schists in particular, there is a layer rich in kankar nodules formed by segregation of calcium
carbonate at lower depths. As a general rule, black soils of uplands are of low fertility but they are darker,
deeper and richer in the valleys.
Because of their high fertility and retentivity of moisture, the black soils are widely used for producing
several important crops. Some of the major crops grown on the black soils are cotton, wheat, jowar, linseed,
Virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower and millets. Rice and sugarcane are equally important where irrigation
facilities are available. Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also successfully grown on the black soils.
HIGHLIGHTS
• The local ame of cotton soil is regur in Maharastra. it is also known as cotton soil’
• It is formed by weathering and erosion of volcanic lavas and hence found mainly
in Deccan lava plateau. It is the most suitable soil for dry farming.
• These are dark black in colour due to presence of ‘Titaniferrous Magnetite’, a
compond of iron and aluminium.regur soils show high swelling on wetting and
high shrinkage on drying due to the presence of Montmorillonite mineral.
• Regur soils have high moisture retaining capacity, therefore suitable for Cotton,
coarse grains, sunflower and citrus fruits but not suitable for heavy irrigation.
• These soils are deficient in Nitrogen, humus and phosphoric acid but rich in
lime, potash, iron, aluminium, calcium and magnesium.
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2.4.3) Red Soils

This comprehensive term designates the largest soil group of India, comprising several minor types. Most
of the red soils have come into existence due to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
The main parent rocks are acid granites and gneisses, quartzitic and felspathic. The colour of these soils is
generally red, often grading into brown, chocolate, yellow, grey or even black. The red colour is due more to
the wide diffusion rather than to high percentage of iron content.
Fig.2.4
The red soils occupy a vast area of about 3.5 lakh sq km which is about 10.6 per cent of the total geographi-
cal area of the country. These soils are spread on almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, parts of Karnataka, south-
east of Maharashtra, eastern parts of Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Chota
Nagpur in Jharkhand.In the north the red soil area extends in large parts of south Bihar; the Birbhum and
Bankura districts of West Bengal; Mirzapur, Jhansi, Banda and Hamirpur districts of Uttar Pradesh; Araval-
lis and the eastern half of Rajasthan, parts of Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya.
By and large, the red soils are poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen and humus, but are fairly rich in
potash. In their chemical composition they are mainly siliceous and aluminous; with free quartz as sand the
alkali content is fair, some parts being quite rich in potassium.The texture of these soils varies from sand to
clay, the majority being loams. On the uplands, the red soils are thin, poor and gravelly, sandy or stoney and
porous, but in the lower areas they are rich, deep dark and fertile.The red soils respond well to the proper
use of fertilizers and irrigation and give excellent yields of cotton, wheat, rice, pulses, millets, tobacco, oil
seeds, potatoes and fruits.
HIGHLIGHTS
• Red soils develop generally on disintegration of crystalline and metamorphic rocks in the
areas of heavy rainfall. hence are rich in ferro magnesium minerals and the red colour of
these soils is due to excesssive presence of Iron oxide.
• These soils are porus and coarse grained and having low moisture retaining capacity. So, it
is relatively less fertile soil and needs heavy and frequent irrigation for agriculture.
• In the low lying areas, it is found as clay and in the higher land, it is found as unconsolidat-
ed soil. In the higher parts, it is suitable for growing bazra, groundnut and Potato whereas
in low lying areas, rice, ragi and vegetables are grown in it.
• These soils are rich in iron, magnesium and aluminium compounds, but poor in lime, hu-
mus, nitrogen and phosphoric acid.
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2.4.4) Laterite Soils

The word ‘laterite’ (from Latin letter meaning brick) was first applied by Buchanan in 1810 to a clayey
rock, hardening on exposure, observed in Malabar. But many authors agree with Fermor’s restriction of this
term to soils formed as to 90-100 per cent of iron, aluminium, titanium and manganese oxides.According to
majority opinion, the laterite soil is formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with
alternate wet and dry periods. According to Polynov, laterite soils may be “the end products of weathering
given sufficiently long time”.
In the opinion of George Kuriyan, “It is probably the end product of decomposition found in regions of
heavy rainfall, more than 200 cm” Such climatic conditions promote leaching of soil whereby lime and
silica are leached away and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.We have
numerous varieties of laterite which have bauxite at one end and an indefinite mixture of ferric oxides at
the other. Almost all laterite soils are very poor in lime and magnesia and deficient in nitrogen. Sometimes,
the phosphate content may be high, probably present in the form of iron phosphate but potash is deficient.
At some places, there may be higher content of humus.
Fig.2.5
Laterite and lateritic soils are widely spread in India and cover an area of 2.48 lakh sq km. They are mainly
found on the summits of Western Ghats at 1000 to 1500 m above mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the Raja-
mahal Hills, Vindhyas, Satpuras and Malwa Plateau.They also occur at lower levels and in valleys in sever-
al other parts of the country. They are well developed in south Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Kerala, Jharkhand, Assam and Meghalaya.
Due to intensive leaching and low base exchange capacity, typical laterite soils generally lack fertility and
are of little use for crop production. But when manured and irrigated, some laterites and lateritics are
suitable for growing plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc. In low lying
areas paddy is also grown.Some of the laterite soils in Kerala, Karnataka, Chota Nagpur region of Jharkhand,
Orissa and Assam respond well to the application of fertilizers like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In
some areas, these soils support grazing grounds and scrub forests. Laterite and lateritic soils have a unique
distinction of providing valuable building material. These soils can be easily cut with a spade but hardens
like iron when exposed to air. Because it is the end- product of weathering, it cannot be weathered much
further and is indefinitely durable.
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HIGHLIGHTS
• Laterite soils is formed in the areas of heavy rainfall (200cm or more) due to washing away
of lime and silica and these are mainly found on top of hills and mountains in humid climate
such as hills of Deccan plateau, Western Ghats, top of Eastern Ghats, Assam, Mysore, Malabar
& Rajmahal hills.
• These are residual in nature which are formed under typical monsoonal conditions. The
process of formation is called leaching. In leaching process, siliceous compounds of soil are
washed away by heavy rain in hot climate and sloppy terrain, hence such soils are deficient in
siliceous compounds.
• These soils are not very fertile but proved to be suitable for bushes and pastures only. With the
help of fertilizers, this soil can be made suitable for the cultivation of plantation crops such as
coffee, coconut, cashew nut, ragi etc.
• These soils are rich in oxides of iron and aluminium but deficient in nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
lime and potash.
2.4.5) Mountainous or Forest Soils

Such soils are mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests. These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km
which is about 8.67 per cent of the total land area of India. The formation of these soils is mainly governed
by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth.These soils are heteroge-
neous in nature and their character changes with parent rocks, ground-configuration and climate. Conse-
quently, they differ greatly even if they occur in close proximity to one another. In the Himalayan region,
such soils are mainly found in valley basins, depressions, and less steeply inclined slopes. Generally, it is
the north facing slopes which support soil cover; the southern slopes being too precipitous and exposed to
denudation to be covered with soil.
Fig.2.6
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Apart from the Himalayan region, the forest soils occur on Western and Eastern Ghats as well as in some
parts of the Peninsular plateau.The forest soils are very rich in humus but are deficient in potash, phospho-
rus and lime. Therefore, they require good deal of fertilizers for high yields. They are especially suitable for
plantations of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and wheat, maize,
barley and temperate fruits in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal.
HIGHLIGHTS
• Variations are found in these soils due to various climatic and ecological conditions in which they
are found. These soils contain kankars, stone pieces and pebbles, which differ from place to place
depending upon climate. These soils are, yet. under formation process. These are distributed in
Himalayas, Vindhyas, Satpura, Nilgiri and other mountains of India.
• These are acidic in nature due to excessive presence of less decomposed humus. These soils
require fertilizers for agricultural purposes. In the regions of heavy rainfall, it contains more
humus. therefore, in these regions it is suitable for the cultivation of various fruits, wheat, maize,
barley etc.
• These soils are rich in organic matter and humus but poor in potash, phosphoric acid and lime.
2.4.6) Arid and Desert Soils

A large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana lying
between the Indus and the Aravalis, covering an area of 1.42 lakh sq km (or 4.32% of total area) and receiv-
ing less than 50 cm of annual rainfall, is affected by desert conditions.The Rann of Kuchchh in Gujarat is an
extension of this desert. This area is covered by a mantle of sand which inhibits soil growth. This sand has
originated from the mechanical disintegration of the ground rocks or is blown from the Indus basin and the
coast by the prevailing south-west monsoon winds. Barren sandy soils without clay factor are also common
in coastal regions of Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The desert soils consist of aeolian sand (90 to 95 per
cent) and clay (5 to 10 per cent).
Fig.2.7
Some of these soils contain high percentages of soluble salts, are alkaline with varying degree of calcium
carbonate and are poor in organic matter. Over large parts, the calcium content increases downwards and
in certain areas the subsoil has ten times calcium as compared to that of the top soil.The phosphate content
of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils. Nitrogen is originally low but its deficiency is made up
to some extent by the availability of nitrogen in the form of nitrates. Thus, the presence of phosphates and
nitrates make them fertile soils wherever moisture is available.
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There is, therefore, great possibility of reclaiming these soils if proper irrigation facilities are available. The
changes in the cropping pattern in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area are a living example of the utility
of the desert soils. However, in large areas of desert soils, only the drought resistant and salt tolerant crops
such as barley, rape, cotton, wheat, millets, maize and pulses are grown. Consequently, these soils support
a low density of population.
HIGHLIGHTS
• Arid and desert soils are distributed mainly in arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan.
It has sand in large quantities and is suitable for the cultivation of crops like Jowar and
bajra. But, wherever irrigation facilities are available like Sri Ganganagar of Rajasthan,
wheat and cotton are also grown in it.
• These soils are light in colour and contain high soluble salts and phosphorus in large
quantities, but lack in carbon compounds and nitrogen.
Fig.2.8
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2.4.7) Saline and Alkaline Soils

These soils are found in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In the drier parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, there are salt-impregnated or alkaline soils occupying 68,000 sq km
of area. These soils are liable to saline and alkaline efflorescences and are known by different names such
as reh, kallar, usar, thur, rakar, karl and chopan.There are many undecomposed rock and mineral fragments
which on weathering liberate sodium, magnesium and calcium salts and sulphurous acid. Some of the salts
are transported in solution by the rivers, which percolate in the sub-soils of the plains.
In canal irrigated areas and in areas of high sub-soil water table, the injurious salts are transferred from
below to the top soil by the capillary action as a result of evaporation in dry season. The accumulation of
these salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture. It has been estimated that about 1.25
million hectares of land in Uttar Pradesh and 1.21 million hectares in Punjab has been affected by usar. In
Gujarat, the
Fig.2.9
area round the Gulf of Khambhat is affected by the sea tides carrying salt-laden deposits. Vast areas com-
prising the estuaries of the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Sabarmati have thus become infertile.
HIGHLIGHTS
• These soils are found in area of arid and semi arid parts of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Maharastra and Tamil Nadu. These soils are found in patches and are locally
known as Reh, Kallar and Usar. such soils are infertile and not suitable for agriculture.
• These soils can be treated by irrigation with mixing lime and gypsum and by growing anti-salinity
crops like rice and sugar cane, cotton, wheat, tobacco etc.
• Calcium cause alkanity. So, these are unsuitable for agriculture purposes. These are deficient in
Excessive amounts of sodium and magnesium cause salinity in the soil, while higher amount of
nitrogen, poor in water holding capacity.
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2.4.8) Peaty and Marshy Soils

Peaty soils originate in humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amounts of organic matter in the
soils. These soils contain considerable amount of soluble salts and 10-40 per cent of organic matter. Soils
belonging to this group are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala where it is called Kari.
Marshy soils with a high proportion of vegetable matter also occur in the coastal areas of Orissa and Tamil
Nadu, Sunder bans of West Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of Uttaranchal. The peaty soils are black,
heavy and highly acidic. They are deficient in potash and phosphate. Most of the peaty soils are under water
during the rainy season but as soon the rains cease, they are put under paddy cultivation.
Fig.2.10
HIGHLIGHTS
• These soils are formed due to accumulation of large quantity of organic matters under wa-
ter-logged conditions for long periods. These are mainly found in coastal areas like Orissa,
West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala in various patches. In Kerala. Such soils are also called
as Kari.
• These soils are highly saline and deficient in phosphate and potash. So, this soil is useless for
agriculture. The colour of marshy soils is dark grey or black due to presence of organic matter.
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2.5) Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process that affects all landforms. In agriculture, soil erosion refers to
the wearing away of a field's topsoil by the natural physical forces of water and wind or through forces
associated with farming activities such as tillage.
Erosion, whether it is by water, wind or tillage, involves three distinct actions – soil detachment, movement
and deposition. Topsoil, which is high in organic matter, fertility and soil life, is relocated elsewhere "on-
site" where it builds up over time or is carried "off-site" where it fills in drainage channels. Soil erosion re-
duces cropland productivity and contributes to the pollution of adjacent watercourses, wetlands and lakes.
Soil erosion can be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed or can occur at an alarming rate,
causing serious loss of topsoil. Soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of soil structure, poor internal
drainage, salinisation and soil acidity problems are other serious soil degradation conditions that can ac-
celerate the soil erosion process.
2.5.1) Water Erosion

The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by water is controlled by the following factors:
• Rainfall and Runoff

The greater the intensity and duration of a rainstorm, the higher the erosion potential. The impact of rain-
drops on the soil surface can break down soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material. Lighter ag-
gregate materials such as very fine sand, silt, clay and organic matter are easily removed by the raindrop
splash and runoff water; greater raindrop energy or runoff amounts are required to move larger sand and
gravel particles.
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Soil movement by rainfall (raindrop splash) is usually greatest and most noticeable during short-duration,
high-intensity thunderstorms. Although the erosion caused by long-lasting and less-intense storms is not
usually as spectacular or noticeable as that produced during thunderstorms, the amount of soil loss can be
significant, especially when compounded over time.
Surface water runoff occurs whenever there is excess water on a slope that cannot be absorbed into the soil
or is trapped on the surface. Reduced infiltration due to soil compaction, crusting or freezing increases the
runoff. Runoff from agricultural land is greatest during spring months when the soils are typically saturat-
ed, snow is melting and vegetative cover is minimal.
• Soil Erodibility
Soil erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion, based on the physical characteristics
of each soil. Texture is the principal characteristic affecting erodibility, but structure, organic matter and
permeability also contribute. Generally, soils with faster infiltration rates, higher levels of organic matter
and improved soil structure have a greater resistance to erosion. Sand, sandy loam and loam-textured soils
tend to be less erodible than silt, very fine sand and certain clay-textured soils.
Tillage and cropping practices that reduce soil organic matter levels, cause poor soil structure, or result in
soil compaction, contribute to increases in soil erodibility. As an example, compacted subsurface soil layers
can decrease infiltration and increase runoff. The formation of a soil crust, which tends to "seal" the surface,
also decreases infiltration. On some sites, a soil crust might decrease the amount of soil loss from raindrop
impact and splash; however, a corresponding increase in the amount of runoff water can contribute to more
serious erosion problems.
Past erosion also has an effect on a soil's erodibility. Many exposed subsurface soils on eroded sites tend to
be more erodible than the original soils were because of their poorer structure and lower organic matter.
The lower nutrient levels often associated with subsoils contribute to lower crop yields and generally poor-
er crop cover, which in turn provides less crop protection for the soil.
• Slope Gradient and Length

The steeper and longer the slope of a field, the higher the risk for erosion. Soil erosion by water increases
as the slope length increases due to the greater accumulation of runoff. Consolidation of small fields into
larger ones often results in longer slope lengths with increased erosion potential, due to increased velocity
of water, which permits a greater degree of scouring (carrying capacity for sediment).
• Cropping and Vegetation

The potential for soil erosion increases if the soil has no or very little vegetative cover of plants and/or crop
residues. Plant and residue cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and splash, tends to slow down the
movement of runoff water and allows excess surface water to infiltrate.
The erosion-reducing effectiveness of plant and/or crop residues depends on the type, extent and quantity
of cover. Vegetation and residue combinations that completely cover the soil and intercept all falling rain-
drops at and close to the surface are the most efficient in controlling soil erosion (e.g., forests, permanent
grasses). Partially incorporated residues and residual roots are also important as these provide channels
that allow surface water to move into the soil.
The effectiveness of any protective cover also depends on how much protection is available at various pe-
riods during the year, relative to the amount of erosive rainfall that falls during these periods. Crops that
provide a full protective cover for a major portion of the year (e.g., alfalfa or winter cover crops) can reduce
erosion much more than can crops that leave the soil bare for a longer period of time (e.g., row crops), par-
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ticularly during periods of highly erosive rainfall such as spring and summer. Crop management systems
that favour contour farming and strip-cropping techniques can further reduce the amount of erosion. To
reduce most of the erosion on annual row-crop land, leave a residue cover greater than 30% after harvest
and over the winter months, or inter-seed a cover crop (e.g., red clover in wheat, oats after silage corn).
• Tillage Practices
The potential for soil erosion by water is affected by tillage operations, depending on the depth, direction
and timing of plowing, the type of tillage equipment and the number of passes. Generally, the less the
disturbance of vegetation or residue cover at or near the surface, the more effective the tillage practice in
reducing water erosion. Minimum till or no-till practices are effective in reducing soil erosion by water.
Tillage and other practices performed up and down field slopes creates pathways for surface water runoff
and can accelerate the soil erosion process. Cross-slope cultivation and contour farming techniques dis-
courage the concentration of surface water runoff and limit soil movement.
2.5.1.1) Forms of Water Erosion
• Sheet Erosion
Sheet erosion is the movement of soil from raindrop splash and runoff water. It typically occurs evenly over
a uniform slope and goes unnoticed until most of the productive topsoil has been lost. Deposition of the
eroded soil occurs at the bottom of the slope or in low areas. Lighter-coloured soils on knolls, changes in
soil horizon thickness and low crop yields on shoulder slopes and knolls are other indicators.
• Rill Erosion
Rill erosion results when surface water runoff concentrates, forming small yet well-defined channels. These
distinct channels where the soil has been washed away are called rills when they are small enough to not
interfere with field machinery operations. In many cases, rills are filled in each year as part of tillage oper-
ations.
• Gully Erosion
Gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion where surface channels are eroded to the point where they
become a nuisance factor in normal tillage operations. There are farms in central India that are losing large
quantities of topsoil and subsoil each year due to gully erosion. Surface water runoff, causing gully forma-
tion or the enlarging of existing gullies, is usually the result of improper outlet design for local surface and
subsurface drainage systems. The soil instability of gully banks, usually associated with seepage of ground-
water, leads to sloughing and slumping (caving-in) of bank slopes. Such failures usually occur during spring
months when the soil water conditions are most conducive to the problem.
Gully formations are difficult to control if corrective measures are not designed and properly constructed.
Control measures must consider the cause of the increased flow of water across the landscape and be capa-
ble of directing the runoff to a proper outlet. Gully erosion results in significant amounts of land being taken
out of production and creates hazardous conditions for the operators of farm machinery.
• Bank Erosion
Natural streams and constructed drainage channels act as outlets for surface water runoff and subsurface
drainage systems. Bank erosion is the progressive undercutting, scouring and slumping of these drainage-
ways. Poor construction practices, inadequate maintenance, uncontrolled livestock access and cropping
too close can all lead to bank erosion problems.
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Poorly constructed tile outlets also contribute to bank erosion. Some do not function properly because they
have no rigid outlet pipe, have an inadequate splash pad or no splash pad at all, or have outlet pipes that
have been damaged by erosion, machinery or bank cave-ins.The direct damages from bank erosion include
loss of productive farmland, undermining of structures such as bridges, increased need to clean out and
maintain drainage channels and washing out of lanes, roads and fence rows.
2.5.1.2) Effects of Water Erosion
• On-Site
The implications of soil erosion by water extend beyond the removal of valuable topsoil. Crop emergence,
growth and yield are directly affected by the loss of natural nutrients and applied fertilizers. Seeds and
plants can be disturbed or completely removed by the erosion. Organic matter from the soil, residues and
any applied manure, is relatively lightweight and can be readily transported off the field, particularly during
spring thaw conditions. Pesticides may also be carried off the site with the eroded soil.
Soil quality, structure, stability and texture can be affected by the loss of soil. The breakdown of aggregates
and the removal of smaller particles or entire layers of soil or organic matter can weaken the structure and
even change the texture. Textural changes can in turn affect the water-holding capacity of the soil, making
it more susceptible to extreme conditions such as drought.
• Off-Site
The off-site impacts of soil erosion by water are not always as apparent as the on-site effects. Eroded soil,
deposited down slope, inhibits or delays the emergence of seeds, buries small seedlings and necessitates
replanting in the affected areas. Also, sediment can accumulate on down-slope properties and contribute
to road damage.
Sediment that reaches streams or watercourses can accelerate bank erosion, obstruct stream and drain-
age channels, fill in reservoirs, damage fish habitat and degrade downstream water quality. Pesticides and
fertilizers, frequently transported along with the eroding soil, contaminate or pollute downstream water
sources, wetlands and lakes. Because of the potential seriousness of some of the off-site impacts, the con-
trol of "non-point" pollution from agricultural land is an important consideration.
2.5.2) Wind Erosion

Soil particles move in three ways, depending on soil particle size and wind strength – suspension, saltation
and surface creep.The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by wind is controlled by the following factors:
• Soil Erodibility
Very fine soil particles are carried high into the air by the wind and transported great distances (suspen-
sion). Fine-to-medium size soil particles are lifted a short distance into the air and drop back to the soil sur-
face, damaging crops and dislodging more soil (saltation). Larger-sized soil particles that are too large to be
lifted off the ground are dislodged by the wind and roll along the soil surface (surface creep). The abrasion
that results from windblown particles breaks down stable surface aggregates and further increases the soil
erodibility.
• Soil Surface Roughness

Soil surfaces that are not rough offer little resistance to the wind. However, ridges left from tillage can dry
out more quickly in a wind event, resulting in more loose, dry soil available to blow. Over time, soil surfaces
become filled in, and the roughness is broken down by abrasion. This results in a smoother surface suscep-
tible to the wind. Excess tillage can contribute to soil structure breakdown and increased erosion.
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• Climate
The speed and duration of the wind have a direct relationship to the extent of soil erosion. Soil moisture
levels are very low at the surface of excessively drained soils or during periods of drought, thus releasing
the particles for transport by wind. This effect also occurs in freeze-drying of the soil surface during winter
months. Accumulation of soil on the leeward side of barriers such as fence rows, trees or buildings, or snow
cover that has a brown colour during winter are indicators of wind erosion.
• Unsheltered Distance
A lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, crop residue, etc.) allows the wind to put soil particles into motion for
greater distances, thus increasing abrasion and soil erosion. Knolls and hilltops are usually exposed and
suffer the most.
• Vegetative Cover
The lack of permanent vegetative cover in certain locations results in extensive wind erosion. Loose, dry,
bare soil is the most susceptible; however, crops that produce low levels of residue (e.g., soybeans and
many vegetable crops) may not provide enough resistance. In severe cases, even crops that produce a lot of
residue may not protect the soil.
The most effective protective vegetative cover consists of a cover crop with an adequate network of living
windbreaks in combination with good tillage, residue management and crop selection.
2.5.2.1) Effects of Wind Erosion

Wind erosion damages crops through sandblasting of young seedlings or transplants, burial of plants or
seed, and exposure of seed. Crops are ruined, resulting in costly delays and making reseeding necessary.
Plants damaged by sandblasting are vulnerable to the entry of disease with a resulting decrease in yield,
loss of quality and market value. Also, wind erosion can create adverse operating conditions, preventing
timely field activities.
Soil drifting is a fertility-depleting process that can lead to poor crop growth and yield reductions in areas
of fields where wind erosion is a recurring problem. Continual drifting of an area gradually causes a textur-
al change in the soil. Loss of fine sand, silt, clay and organic particles from sandy soils serves to lower the
moisture-holding capacity of the soil. This increases the erodibility of the soil and compounds the problem.
The removal of wind-blown soils from fence rows, constructed drainage channels and roads, and from
around buildings is a costly process. Also, soil nutrients and surface-applied chemicals can be carried along
with the soil particles, contributing to off-site impacts. In addition, blowing dust can affect human health
and create public safety hazards.
2.5.3) Tillage Erosion

Tillage erosion is the redistribution of soil through the action of tillage and gravity. It results in the progres-
sive down-slope movement of soil, causing severe soil loss on upper-slope positions and accumulation in
lower-slope positions. This form of erosion is a major delivery mechanism for water erosion. Tillage action
moves soil to convergent areas of a field where surface water runoff concentrates. Also, exposed subsoil is
highly erodible to the forces of water and wind. Tillage erosion has the greatest potential for the "on-site"
movement of soil and in many cases can cause more erosion than water or wind.
The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by tillage is controlled by the following factors:
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• Type of Tillage Equipment

Tillage equipment that lifts and carries will tend to move more soil. As an example, a chisel plow leaves far
more crop residue on the soil surface than the conventional moldboard plow but it can move as much soil
as the moldboard plow and move it to a greater distance. Using implements that do not move very much
soil will help minimize the effects of tillage erosion.
• Direction
Tillage implements like a plow or disc throw soil either up or down slope, depending on the direction of
tillage. Typically, more soil is moved while tilling in the down-slope direction than while tilling in the up-
slope direction.
• Speed and Depth

The speed and depth of tillage operations will influence the amount of soil moved. Deep tillage disturbs
more soil, while increased speed moves soil further.
• Number of Passes
Reducing the number of passes of tillage equipment reduces the movement of soil. It also leaves more crop
residue on the soil surface and reduces pulverization of the soil aggregates, both of which can help resist
water and wind erosion.
2.5.3.1) Effects of Tillage Erosion

Tillage erosion impacts crop development and yield. Crop growth on shoulder slopes and knolls is slow
and stunted due to poor soil structure and loss of organic matter and is more susceptible to stress under
adverse conditions. Changes in soil structure and texture can increase the erodibility of the soil and expose
the soil to further erosion by the forces of water and wind.
In extreme cases, tillage erosion includes the movement of subsurface soil. Subsoil that has been moved
from upper-slope positions to lower-slope positions can bury the productive topsoil in the lower-slope ar-
eas, further impacting crop development and yield. Research related to tillage-eroded fields has shown soil
loss of as much as 2 m of depth on upper-slope positions and yield declines of up to 40% in corn. Remedia-
tion for extreme cases involves the relocation of displaced soils to the upper-slope positions.
2.6) Soil Degradation

Soil degradation simply means the decline in soil quality which comes about due to aspects such as im-
proper land use, agriculture, and pasture, urban or industrial purposes. It involves the decline of the soil’s
physical, biological and chemical state.
Causes of Soil Degradation

a) Physical Factors
There are several physical factors contributing to soil degradation distinguished by the manners in which
they change the natural composition and structure of the soil. Rainfall, surface runoff, floods, wind erosion,
tillage, and mass movements result in the loss of fertile top spoil thereby declining soil quality.
All these physical factors produces different types of soil erosion (mainly water and wind erosion) and soil
detachment actions, and their resultant physical forces eventually changes the composition and structure
of the soil by wearing away the soil’s top layer as well as organic matter. In the long-term, the physical
forces and weathering processes lead to the decline in soil fertility and adverse changes in the soil’s com-
position/structure.
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b) Biological Factors
Biological factors refer to the human and plant activities that tend to reduce the quality of soil. Some bacte-
ria and fungi overgrowth in an area can highly impact the microbial activity of the soil through bio-chemical
reactions, which reduces crop yield and the suitability of soil productivity capacity. Human activities such
as poor farming practices may also deplete soil nutrients thus diminishing soil fertility. The biological fac-
tors affect mainly lessens the microbial activity of the soil.
c) Chemical Factors
The reduction of soil nutrients because of alkalinity or acidity or water logging are all categorized under
the chemical components of soil degradation. In the broadest sense, it comprises alterations in the soil’s
chemical property that determine nutrient availability. It is mainly caused by salt buildup and leaching of
nutrients which corrupt the quality of soil by creating undesirable changes in the essential soil chemical
ingredients. These chemical factors normally bring forth irreversible loss of soil nutrients and productivity
capacity such as the hardening of iron and aluminum rich clay soils into hardpans.
d) Deforestation
Deforestation causes soil degradation on the account of exposing soil minerals by removing trees and crop
cover, which support the availability of humus and litter layers on the surface of the soil. Vegetation cover
primarily promotes thee binding of the soil together and soil formation, hence when it is removed it con-
siderably affects the capabilities of the soil such as aeration, water holding capacity, and biological activity.
When trees are removed by logging, infiltration rates become elevated and the soil remains bare and ex-
posed to erosion and the buildup of toxicities. Some of the contributing activities include logging and slash
and burn techniques used by individuals who invade forest areas for farming, rendering the soils unpro-
ductive and less fertile in the end.
e) Misuse or excess use of fertilizers

The excessive use and the misuse of pesticides and chemical fertilizers kill organisms that assist in bind-
ing the soil together. Most agricultural practices involving the use of fertilizers and pesticides often entail
misuse or excessive application, thereby contributing to the killing of soil’s beneficial bacteria and other
micro-organisms that help in soil formation.
The complex forms of the fertilizer’s chemicals are also responsible for denaturing essential soil minerals,
giving rise to nutrient losses from the soil. Therefore, the misuse or excessive use of fertilizers increases
the rate of soil degradation by destroying the soil’s biological activity and builds up of toxicities through
incorrect fertilizer use.
f) Industrial and Mining activities

Soil is chiefly polluted by industrial and mining activities. As an example, mining destroys crop cover and
releases a myriad of toxic chemicals such as mercury into the soil thereby poisoning it and rendering it un-
productive for any other purpose. Industrial activities, on the other hand, release toxic effluents and mate-
rial wastes into the atmosphere, land, rivers, and ground water that eventually pollute the soil and as such,
it impacts on soil quality. Altogether, industrial and mining activities degrade the soil’s physical, chemical
and biological properties.
g) Improper cultivation practices

There are certain agricultural practices that are environmentally unsustainable and at the same time, they
are the single biggest contributor to the worldwide increase in soil quality decline. The tillage on agricul-
tural lands is one of the main factors since it breaks up soil into finer particles, which increase erosion rates.
The soil quality decline is exuberated more and more as a result of the mechanization of agriculture that
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gives room for deep plowing, reduction of plant cover, and the formation of the hardpan. Other improper
cultivation activities such as farming on steep slope and mono-cropping, row-cropping and surface irriga-
tion wear away the natural composition of the soil and its fertility, and prevent soil from regenerating.
h) Urbanization
Urbanization has major implications on the soil degradation process. Foremost of all, it denudates the soil’s
vegetation cover, compacts soil during construction, and alters the drainage pattern. Secondly, it covers the
soil in an impermeable layer of concrete that amplifies the amount of surface runoff which results in more
erosion of the top soil. Again, most of the runoff and sediments from urban areas are extremely polluted
with oil, fuel, and other chemicals. Increased runoff from urban areas also causes a huge disturbance to ad-
jacent water sheds by changing the rate and volume of water that flows through them, and impoverishing
them with chemically polluted sediment deposits.
i) Overgrazing
The rates of soil erosion and the loss of soil nutrients as well as the top soil are highly contributed by over-
grazing. Overgrazing destroys surface crop cover and breaks down soil particles, increasing the rates of soil
erosion. As a result, soil quality and agricultural productivity is greatly affected.
2.7) Effects of Soil Degradation

• Land degradation
Soil quality decline is one of the main causes of land degradation and is considered to be responsible for
84% of the ever diminishing acreage. Year after year, huge acres of land lost due to soil erosion, contami-
nation and pollution. About 40% of the world’s agricultural land is severely diminished in quality because
of erosion and the use of chemical fertilizers, which prevent land from regenerating. The decline in soil
quality as a result of agricultural chemical fertilizers also further leads to water and land pollution thereby
lowering the land’s worth on earth.
• Drought and aridity

Drought and aridity are problems highly influenced and amplified by soil degradation. As much as it’s a
concern associated with natural environments in arid and semi-arid areas, the UN recognizes the fact that
drought and aridity are anthropogenic induced factors especially as an outcome of soil degradation. Hence,
the contributing factors to soil quality decline such as overgrazing, poor tillage methods, and deforestation
are also the leading causes of desertification characterized by droughts and arid conditions. On the same
context, soil degradation may also bring about loss of biodiversity.
• Loss of arable land

Because soil degradation contributes to land degradation, it also means that it creates a significant loss of
arable land. As stated earlier, about 40% of the world’s agricultural land is lost on the account of soil quality
depreciation caused by agro-chemicals and soil erosion. Most of the crop production practices result in the
topsoil loss and the damage of soil’s natural composition that make agriculture possible.
• Increased flooding
Land is commonly altered from its natural landscape when it rids its physical composition from soil degra-
dation. For this reason, the transformed land is unable to soak up water, making flooding more frequent. In
other words, soil degradation takes away the soil’s natural capability of holding water thus contributing to
more and more cases of flooding.
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• Pollution and clogging of waterways

Most of the soil eroded from the land together with the chemical fertilizers and pesticides utilized in agri-
cultural fields are discharged into waterways and streams. With time, the sedimentation process can clog
waterways, resulting in water scarcity. The agricultural fertilizers and pesticides also damage marine and
freshwater ecosystems and the limits the domestic uses of the water for the populations that depend on
them for survival.
2.8) Soil conservation

Soil Conservation is the name given to a number of techniques aimed at preserving the soil. Soil loss and
loss of soil fertility can be traced back to a number of causes including over-use, erosion, salinization and
chemical contamination. Unsustainable subsistence farming and the slash and burn clearing methods used
in some less developed regions, can often cause deforestation, loss of soil nutrients, erosion on a massive
scale and sometimes even complete desertification.
• Methods of Soil Conservation
1. Contour Ploughing:
If ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slope, following the natural contour of the hill, the ridges and
furrows break the flow of the water down the hill. This prevents excessive soil loss, as gullies are less likely
to develop and also reduce run-off so that plants receive more water. Row crops and small grains are often
planted in contour pattern so that the plants can absorb much of the rain, and erosion is minimized.
2. Terracing:
Slopes may be cut into a series of terraces with sufficient level ground on each terrace for cultivation, and
an outer wall at the edge to retain the soil and to slow down the flow of rain-water down the slope.
Terracing is widely used in Monsoon Asia for wet paddy cultivation, as the excess water and silt can be
retained at each terrace to form flooded paddy-fields. Many tree crops such as rubber are also planted on
terraces to combat soil erosion. Terraces are also used in temperate and semi arid regions where slopes are
steep. Terracing enables farmers in mountainous regions to utilize the steep ground on the favoured ‘sunny
slopes’ of valleys for vines or other crops.
Fig.2.11
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3. Strip Cropping:
Crops may be cultivated in alternate strips, parallel to one another. Some strips may be allowed to lie fallow
while others are sown to different kinds of crops, e.g. grains, legumes, small tree crops.The various crops
ripen at different times of the year and are harvested at intervals. This ensures that at no time will the en-
tire area be left bare or exposed. The tall-growing crops act as windbreaks and the strips, which are often
parallel to the contours, help to increase water absorption by the soil by slowing down run-off.
4. Fallowing:
Sometimes it is important to allow much used land to rest or lie fallow, so that the natural forces can act on
the soil. The decayed natural vegetative matter helps to increase the plant nutrients in the soil. Fallowing
also increases the sub-soil moisture and improves the general structure of the soil.
Winter fallow is commonly practised in temperate regions after the harvest, but cultivation is resumed in
the spring after the snow and frost have weathered the top soil. Long periods of fallow cannot be allowed,
however, in intensively run farms as farmers cannot afford it.
In semi-arid areas fields may be allowed to lie fallow for several years, though they are often ploughed or
mulched, i.e. spread with straw or the stubble of the previous year’s harvests. This enables them to build
up a sufficient supply of moisture by reducing evaporation, and a crop can be grown every few years. This
system of dry farming is practised in western U.S.A. and in parts of Mediterranean Europe.
5. Cover Cropping:
In some cases, as in plantations, where the gestation period of tree crops is long, cover crops may be in-
ter-planted between the young trees. Creepers are preferred because they spread around and form a useful
cover that protects the top soil from the full force of the tropical downpours.
Care must be taken that the cover crop does not compete with the young trees for the essential plant nu-
trients, and leguminous crops are often used because they add nitrogen to the soil. Cover crops may be
grown simply to protect the soil or may consist of other valuable plants such as vegetables which provide
an income while the plantation crop matures. Some such catch crops, e.g. cotton, maize or tobacco, should
be avoided because they exhaust the soil or promote soil erosion instead of preventing it.
6. Crop Rotation:
It is not advisable to grow the same crop in the same field for more than two years in succession as the crop
will tend to exhaust one particular kind of mineral nutrient. For example potatoes require much potash, but
wheat requires nitrates.
Thus it is best to alternate crops in the fields. Legumes such as peas, beans, clover, vetch and many other
plants, add nitrates to the soil by converting free nitrogen in the air into nitrogenous nodules on their roots.
Thus if they are included in the crop rotation nitrogenous fertilizers can be dispensed with.
By rotating different types of crops in successive years, soil fertility can be naturally maintained. The best
known crop rotation is the Norfolk Rotation which involves the growing of four crops in a given field over
a period of four years.
These crops are wheat (cereal); clover or beans (legume); barley (another cereal); and turnips or sug-
ar-beet (root crops). In fact on most temperate mixed farms all these crops will be grown on some of the
fields each year but the fields in which they are grown will be different in each year so as to maintain the
rotation for any particular field. The land can be much more profitably used by employing rotation systems
than simply allowing it to lie fallow if moisture and other conditions allow this practice.
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7. Crop Diversification:
This practice is often like crop rotation in that it helps to maintain soil fertility. Where annually-harvest-
ed crops are grown they can be alternated in the field. Where perennial crops like tree crops are grown,
however, the chief importance of crop diversification to the farmer is economic. In particular it reduces the
danger of depending on a single crop (monoculture) when world commodity prices are falling.
All the primary commodities, e.g. rubber, oil palm, cocoa, cotton, are subject to great fluctuation in prices,
much depending on the demand of the western world. Over-dependence on one crop can be disastrous to
the national economy as well as to the individual farmer, as in the case of Brazil’s coffee, Ghana’s cocoa, or
Malaysia’s rubber, when prevailing prices for the major money-earning crop are low.
Crop diversification overcomes this difficulty as when one crop is only fetching low prices another may be
in good demand. Another great advantage of crop diversification is that all types of land can be used, e.g.
rubber can be grown on hill slopes, oil palm on flat plains, coconuts on sandy soils. Thorough crop diversi-
fication on a national and local level can lead to the most economic use of land.
8. Water Management:
One of the major ways in which land can be improved for farming is by water management. By regulating
the amount of water in the soil aeration can be improved, activity by useful bacteria can be stimulated and
crop yields can be improved. In addition, by draining or irrigating land, areas which are marginal or useless
in their natural state, such as deserts or swamps can be brought into agricultural production –
It should be emphasized that drainage and irrigation are interdependent. Where irrigation is used it is im-
portant also to provide drainage facilities, so that the irrigation water can be kept moving and not become
stagnant. Similarly in drained areas, irrigation must be applied to prevent unwanted sea-water from seep-
ing into the drained land. In other words a balance must be carefully maintained.
(a) Irrigation:
When a region does not have sufficient natural precipitation to meet the plants’ moisture requirements,
an artificial supply of water is necessary. This is known as irrigation. The amount of extra water needed
depends much on the type of crops grown the prevailing temperature and humidity, the kind of soil and
the physical conditions of the surrounding districts. Irrigation is one of the oldest agriculture techniques
practised by men, and has many advantages over simple reliance on natural water supplies.
(i) The supply of water by irrigation is regular and reliable, whereas rainfall is often seasonal or unpredict-
able. In desert areas the use of irrigation allows cultivation to take place where it would not otherwise be
possible.
(ii) Irrigation water supplied by rivers in flood often carries much silt which adds to the soil of the fields,
enhancing fertility and thus crop yields.
(iii) With irrigation, cultivation can be done all the year round and not only during the rainy season. This
allows better use to be made of the land.
(iv) In desert areas the constant flow of irrigation water through the soil helps to reduce the salinity of the
soil. If, however, the water is allowed to evaporate in the fields this increases the salt content.
(v) Modern multi-purpose dams not only provide water for irrigation but also help to control floods, gener-
ate hydro-electric power and improve the navigability of the rivers. Water for irrigation may be obtained in
a number of ways of varying complexity. The various types of irrigation are described below:
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(i) Lifting Devices:

Water may be simply lifted from a well, river or canal by a bucket to the fields. Such devices as the shaduf
the Archimedean screw and various kinds of water wheel or treadmill have been in use for thousands of
years. In modern times diesel steam or electrically operated pumps can be used. They are especially useful
where water is obtained front a deep well rather than from canals.
(ii) Basin Irrigation:

This method has been practised in Egypt for many centuries but is of less importance today. When the Nile
rises in summer, part of the flood-water is allowed to flood basin-like fields on either side of the river. The
water is controlled by sluices. Basin irrigation, using canal-water rather than river water is also used to
grow paddy In the U.S.A.
(iii) Tanks:
Tanks are small reservoirs used for storing water which falls in the rainy season. They are common in
southern India and Sri Lanka. The water stored is rarely sufficient for use all the year round but does
lengthen the growing season.
(iv) Canal Irrigation:

Canals which lead irrigation water from rivers or storage lakes are the most important feature of irrigated
lands. Inundation canals lead off water from a river in time of flood.
These are simple but do not provide water all the year round. Perennial canals are fed by water stored be-
hind a large dam or barrage and can thus be supplied all the year round. Storage barrages feed canals not
only below the dam but also above because, by raising the level of the river behind the dam, water can be
led into higher level canals.
(v) Overhead Irrigation:

This is a modern system and is now practised in many parts of the world. Sprays and sprinklers are set up
in the fields and supplied with water by hoses from public water supplies. The initial cost of the equipment
is high and water must be continually pumped. The method is however a common one in the U.S.A., Britain
and Europe.
(b) Drainage and Land Reclamation:

In very wet or low-lying areas it improves the land if drainage work is undertaken to remove excess water.
Drainage not only removes unwanted water but also helps to fin-prove soil porosity and aeration, reduces
soil acidity or sourness and makes the soil easier to work.
Plant roots can penetrate deeper into the soil giving bigger crops and better quality harvests. Nitrification
and nitrogen-fixing by leguminous plants and by bacteria are encouraged and at the same time the plants’
liability to fungus attack is reduced. Drainage is carried out by a network of pipes open drains and ditches
which carry off the unwanted water.
Open drains are used in swampy areas or on damp, peaty uplands but pipes are often laid 0.3 to 1.2 metres
(2 to 4 ft) below the ground in temperate farmlands. They are more expensive than open ditches to con-
struct at first but are inexpensive to maintain and do not interfere with farm work. Open ditches are easily
and cheaply dug but must be constantly cleared of weeds and unwanted animal or insect life, and they in-
terrupt the fields, hindering ploughing or harvesting.
It is also possible in low-lying areas fringing the sea to reclaim additional land by using drainage tech-
niques. This has been done in the Netherlands, the Fens of Britain and in many other flood-prone coastal
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areas and river basins all over the world. The land is first ringed with dykes and sea-walls which keep out
the water, and then pumped dry by means of windmills (in the past) or diesel pumps.
When the land is dry it must be flushed with water to remove salt from the soil and is then used for pasture
or arable land. The polders or reclaimed lands form much of the best farmland in the Netherlands, support-
ing dairying, horticulture and arable farming.
Care has to be taken to prevent sea-water seeping in underground and impregnating the soil with salt, and
another difficulty is that, as the ‘new’ land gradually becomes drier over the years, it shrinks and compacts
so that it lies well below sea-level. Sea walls and dykes have to be carefully maintained to prevent flooding
of such low-lying lands.
(c) Contour Bunding:

Contour bunding is the construction of small bunds across the slopes of the land on a contour so that the
long slope is cut into a series of small ones and earth contour bunds act as a barrier to the flow of water,
thus, making it ‘walk’ rather than ‘run’ and at the same time impounding a greater part of water against the
bund to increase the soil moisture.
(d) Control of Gully Erosion:

Gully control by the diversion of runoff proved to be an economical measure. The best method of con-
trolling existing gullies is to re-establish vegetation. Two of the most important types are the sod strip
eroded earth till.
(e) Wind Break:

The principal method of reducing surface velocity of wind, upon which would depend the abrasive and
transportation capacity, are vegetal measures.
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CHAPTER.3
DEFORESTATION
3.1) Introduction
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-for-
est use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. The
most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests. About 30% of Earth's land surface is cov-
ered by forests.
3.2) Causes of deforestation and forest degradation

There are various reasons for deforestation, some of which are mentioned below:
• Agricultural expansion
A combination of forces is responsible for deforestation and the biggest among them is agricultural ex-
pansion. Forests are being cleared on an alarming rate due to rising global demand of food grain and the
commodities like soybeans and palm oil. Since the beginning of agriculture, there has been a mass reduc-
tion in the forests worldwide for agricultural expansion. As per an estimate, over 40% of the forests have
already been cleaned worldwide to obtain land to meet the demands for agriculture and wood. Agricultural
expansion has left the world much devoid of its original forests. Forest areas are eliminated for raising
commercial crops such as plantation for palm oil. In simple terms, deforestation takes place because forest
land is not financially viable.
Due to this trend, there has been widespread destruction of Savannah grasslands as the Savannah vege-
tation has been cleaned and the wide area has been converted into agricultural land. The grasslands and
trees of temperate tropical regions (e.g. the prairies of North America, and the steppes of Russia) have been
cleaned. Forests have been cleared on a large scale and converted into gardens, agricultural lands. Likewise,
forest areas have been destroyed in a big way to expand the agricultural land to eradicate the hunger of the
rapidly growing population in the monsoon areas of south and south-east Asia.
• Increasing Urbanization and Industrialization

For the purpose of development work the cutting of trees has been going on for years. Increased urban-
ization is one of the major causes of deforestation. To meet residential and industrial requirements, such
as for the development of housing on a mass scale besides, construction of roads, mineral exploitation and
industrial expansion, forests are being cleared on a large scale.
The road expansions also leads to illegal logging, where the people take benefits of doubt and slash down
trees without obtaining permission from authorities.
• Growth in Population
Deforestation is taking place at a faster rate to cater to explosive growth in population. Due to rapid in-
crease in human population in developing countries, it has become necessary that the vast areas of forests
should be cleaned and farmed so that the needs of the growing population can be met. Demand for timber
is increasing day by day. As a result, there is a steady increase in tree cutting. Equatorial mangrove forests
are being eliminated by 20 million hectares annually.
More and more collection of wood for fodder and burning wood by the rural masses in developing and un-
developed countries also leads to depletion of forests.
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• Diverse Human Needs

Tree and forests have been burnt or cut for centuries to meet various human needs: to obtain wood for fuel,
to build houses, boats, match boxes, furniture etc and the requirement of wood for use in many works.
Since the beginning of this century, deforestation has occurred at such a fast pace that many environmental
problems have arisen. The greedy man has forgotten that the vast destruction of forests would endanger
his own existence.
• Livestock Ranching and Logging

Forests in major parts of the world have already been cleared for livestock ranching, or cattle farming. Cat-
tle ranchers have burned huge tracts of rainforests converting them into pastures for the cattle. They clear
vast swaths of forest lands for cattle grazing. Later when the land prices increase, they sell the land and
make profit. This kind of deforestation is very common in developing countries.
Forests have decayed due to grazing of animals in the normal density forests of hot and subtropical and dry
and semi-arid regions. It is known that in the developing and undeveloped countries of these areas, milch
animals feed on bushes, and plants, scattered on the ground and in open forests. They also trample upon
the land with their hooves so that plants do not bloom there. In most countries, large herds of sheep have
completely wiped out the grass.
Logging is another major driver of deforestation. Some greedy people are indulging in activities leading to
deforestation to earn money from wood. Illegal logging operations which are very common in developing
countries also destroy the livelihood of the people who depend on forests.
• Changes of Forests into Pastures

Forests have been converted into pastures for livestock for widespread expansion and development of
dairy farming in temperate regions of the world, particularly in North and South America and Africa.
• Multipurpose River-Valley Projects

During the implementation of multipurpose river valley projects, vast forest areas are lost, because in the
large reservoirs built behind the dams, the extensive area covered with forest is submerged in water, due
to which not only the natural forest wealth but the ecological balance of that area is also disturbed.
Jhum (Shifting) Cultivation

Jhum Agriculture is one of the major reasons for the decay and destruction of forests in the mountainous
areas of southern and south-eastern Asia. Under this practice of agriculture, the land is cleaned by burning
forests on hillsides. When the productivity of that land decreases, farmers shift to another place, burning
the jungle again.
Mining Operations
The people are cutting forests for oil and coal mining operations as well. Large-scale mining operations,
result into major deforestation through clearing of forests. The construction of roads into the forests for
such purposes is also responsible for deforestation.
Paper Production
Paper is made from pulp of trees. Rising consumption of paper and cutting down trees for manufacturing
paper throughout the world has already attracted major attention of the environmentalists. In the past four
decades, the use of paper has gone up by 400%. It takes twelve to seventeen full-grown trees to make one
ton of good quality paper.
• For Fuel
Extensive deforestation takes place due to requirement of wood for fuel.
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Due to Corruption
Forest contractors and forest mafia resort to massive cutting of forests for their ulterior motives. To earn
more money, they do large-scale cutting of trees and smuggle the wood.
Lack of Awareness
Deforestation takes place as people, by and large, lack adequate knowledge about the need to conserve
forests.
Other causes
Natural Causes of Deforestation are global warming, landslides, earthquakes, hail, strong winds, hurricanes,
lighting etc. also lead to loss of forest cover, apart from fires that erupt in the forests.
3.3) Various Effects of Deforestation

Floods and Droughts: Soil erosion increases the soil flows, due to which the specific cycle of flood and
drought is started. Cutting forests on mountain slopes obstructs the flow of rivers towards the plains, which
have an impact on their water efficiency, so that the water rapidly comes downwards. Deforestation leads
to land erosion arises because the trees play an important role in maintaining the surface of the mountains
and cause natural barriers to the rapidly rising rain water. Consequently the water level of the rivers in-
creases suddenly, causing floods.
Loss of Soil Fertility: When the fuel becomes inadequate, the cow dung and the vegetable residue are used
like fuels to make food. Because of this, every part of the plant is gradually used and nothing goes back in
the soil. After some time the drift of this nutrition influences the productivity of the soil, it causes degra-
dation of soil-fertility.With the elimination of forests, the fertile soil above the ground flows through rain
water to those places where it is not used.
Air Pollution: There are grave consequences for forest destruction. Its biggest disadvantage is in the form
of air pollution. The air where there is lack of trees gets polluted. And the problem of air pollution is the
highest in the cities. There people suffer from many diseases, especially breathing problems such as asth-
ma.
Extinction of species: Due to the destruction of forests, wildlife is disappearing. Many species have dis-
appeared (such as Asiatic cheetah, Namdapha flying squirrel, Himalayan wolf, Elvira rat, Andaman shrew,
Jenkins’ shrew, Nicobar shrew, etc) and many are on the verge of extinction.
Global Warming: Deforestation has a direct impact on the natural climate change, thereby increasing the
global temperature. With the decreasing area of forests, the rain is also becoming irregular. This contrib-
utes to ‘global warming’, which has direct impact on humans.
Spread of deserts: Due to continuous decrease in the area of forests, and the erosion of the land, the desert
is spreading on a big scale.
Depletion in Water Resources: Today, the water of rivers is becoming shallow, less deep and polluted
because of the indiscriminate harvest of trees and plants on their shores, exits and mountains. Due to this
there is insufficient rainfall, the water source is getting contaminated, and the environment is also becom-
ing polluted and fatal.
Ill-Effects of Industrialisation: Trees and plants prevent the environment from being polluted by pre-
venting those toxic gases from dissolving in the atmosphere, and preventing the particles of ash and sand
etc. from rising too. Nowadays, there is a flood of industries in the cities, even towns and villages. The
smoke emanating from them fills the environment with different types of toxic gases.
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Damage to ozone layer: The normal environment of the Earth as a result of deforestation has become pol-
luted. It is posing grave danger to the ozone layer, which is necessary for the overall defence of the Earth.
Imagine that bad day (may it never come), when the ozone layer disappears.
Endangering Tribals: Forest is essential for the survival of tribals or Adivasis. The thinking of modern
society has made life an object of profit, but for the tribals, the jungle is a complete lifestyle. It is the means
of their livelihood. Their approach is very important in forest conservation, which is neither being imple-
mented nor is it being recognized. They have been protecting the forest from the time of their forefathers.
Adivasis take as much as they need from the forest, and in exchange, they give something to them. They
have deep respect towards the forest. The ways and the rules of the tribals in the use of the forest are inher-
ently sustainable as forest conservation is in their blood.
It is noteworthy that the forest is not only the economic base of the tribals, but they also use wild herbs
in the treatment of their diseases. ‘Baiga tribals’ of Mandla and Dindori districts are considered to have
the best knowledge of herbs and herbal remedies throughout the country.Baiga tribals use barks of trees
during maternity (delivery). Before removing the bark, they offer rice, pulses to the tree. Then they worship
the tree with incense and chant mantras in the praise of the tree god. After that, they pluck out with their
sickle only that much bark that is used as the medicine. According to these knowledgeable tribals, only a
little bark is removed in this way. They believe that if bark is removed without any rules, then people will
start using it arbitrarily.
Unavailability of herbal medicines: Today the mountains and forests have become deserted due to the
loss of tree cover. With this, getting medicinal flora has become rare.Because of lack of tree plantation, this
precious natural property is eroding fast. This is spoiling the balance of life and environment. Mountain
cliffs are getting deserted by breaking of stones and the rainfall is decreasing in the nearby areas.
Homeless Animals: Due to endless deforestation, destitute animals are taking shelter in villages. As a result,
incidents of wild animals entering villages and towns of the country are happening quite frequently, posing
a grave danger to human life.
3.4) CONSERVATION OF FORESTS

Some of the steps we can take to conserve our forest resources are as follows:
3.4.1) Regulated and Planned Cutting of Trees:

One of the main reasons of deforestation is commercial felling of trees. According to an estimate, about
1,600 million cubic metres of wood have been used for various purposes in the world. Although trees are
considered as perennial resource, when exploited on a very large scale, their revival cannot be possible.
Therefore, cutting should be regulated by adopting methods like:

(i) Clear cutting,
(ii) Selective cutting, and
(iii) Shelter wood cutting.
The clear cutting method is useful for those areas where the same types of trees are available over a large
area. In that case, trees of same age group can be cut down in a selected area and then marked for replanta-
tion. In selective cutting only mature trees are selected for cutting. This process is to be followed in rotation.
The time gap between these cuttings is helpful in re-growth of trees. In regulated cutting only one-tenth of
the forest area is selected for use and rotational system is always followed for their protection. The forest
can be managed in such a way that a timber crop may be harvested indefinitely year after year without be-
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ing depleted. This technique is called the ‘sustained yield’ method adopted by many countries.
3.4.2) Control over Forest Fire:

Destruction or loss of forest by fire is fairly common; because trees are highly exposed to fire and once
started it becomes difficult to control. Sometimes, the fire starts by natural process, i.e., by lightning or by
friction between trees during speedy winds, while in most cases it is also by man either intentionally or
unintentionally.
In order to save forests from fire, it is necessary to adopt latest techniques of fire fighting. Some of the fire
suppression techniques are to develop three metre wide fire lanes around the periphery of the fire, back
fires, arrangement of water spray, fire retardant chemicals should be sprayed from back tank and if possible
by helicopters. There must be trained staff of fire fighters to control the fire.
3.4.3) Reforestation and Afforestation:

The sustained yield concept dictates that whenever timber is removed, either by block cutting or by se-
lective cutting, the denuded area must be reforested. This may be done by natural or artificial methods.
Similarly, any forested land, which has been destroyed by fire or mining activities, should be reforested. In
rugged terrain aerial seeding is the method of choice.
Besides all this, fresh afforestation programmes should be started. New plantations will not only increase
the forest cover but also help in making up the eco-balance. For afforestation, selection of trees should be
done according to local geographical conditions and care must be taken during initial growth of the trees.
3.4.4) Check over Forest Clearance for Agricultural and Habitation Purposes:
Most of the present-day agricultural land was once forested and then cleared for the use of agriculture. But
now it has reached the stage where further clearance will be dangerous for the entire ecosystem. There
are tribals in some parts of Asia, Africa and South America, where shifting cultivation is still a part of their
system of land procurement.
3.4.5) Protection of Forests:

The existing forests should be protected. Apart from commercial cutting, unorganised grazing is also one of
the reasons. There are several forest diseases resulting from parasitic fungi, rusts, mistletoes, viruses and
nematodes which cause the destruction of trees. The forests should be protected either by use of chemical
spray, antibiotics or by development of disease resistant strains of trees.
3.4.6) Proper Utilisation of Forest and Forests Products:

Generally, trees are cut for logs and the rest, including stump, limbs, branches and foliage, etc., is left out as
worthless debris. Further waste occurs at the saw mills. There is thus need to utilise this waste material.
Today, several uses have been developed and products like waterproof glues, boar r etc., can be obtained.
Similarly, forests can be used or developed as tourist centres. By using them as tourist centres the country
can earn substantial foreign exchange. This practice has been adopted by many countries, both developed
and developing. The concepts of ‘national park’ and ‘game sanctuary’ have now become popular and every
country has developed its unique forest area as a ‘national park’.
3.4.7) Role of Government in Forest Conservation:

Although the government of every country is very particular about conservation of its forest resources and
has several rules and laws for the protection of forests but, they are not implement in an effective manner.
Both national and provincial governments can take some steps in this direction, such as:
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(i) Pass acts for the conservation of forests,

(ii) Survey of the forest resources,
(iii) Categorization of forest areas and proper delimitation of reserved forest areas,
(iv) Find out the areas where reforestation can be done,
(v) Regulate the commercial use of forest products,
(vi) Protect forest from fire, mining and other natural calamities,
(vii) Develop national parks,
(viii) Encourage forests developmental activities like social forestry, agro-forestry, etc., and
(ix) Prepare master plans, both for long-term and short-term period, etc.
3.4.8) Forest Management:

Management of forest resources is the key to all conservation efforts. In forest management, the following
aspects should be taken into consideration:
(i) Survey of forest,

(ii) Categorisation of forest.
(iii) Economic use of forest,
(iv) Administrative setting for forest management,
(v) Training programmes for persons engaged in forest conservation activities,
(vi) Use of forest land as tourist centers,
(vii) Social and agro-forestry,
(viii) Development of new techniques for the conservation of forests,
(ix) Research for efficient use and conservation of forest, and
(x) Policy decisions and their proper implementation.
3.5) SOCIAL FORESTRY

Social forestry means the management and protection of forest and afforestation of barren and deforested
lands with the purpose of helping environmental, social and rural development.The term, Social Forestry,
was first used in India in 1977 by The National Commission on Agriculture, Government of India. It was
then that India embarked upon a social forestry project with the aim of taking the pressure off currently
existing forests by planting trees on all unused and fallow lands.
3.5.1) Objectives of Social Forestry

1. Increasing Forest Area and Restoring Ecological Balance
(i) Moisture conservation—trees take water from the lower soil strata and bring it to the upper layers
through long tap root system and, also, trees check evaporation of water;
(ii) Soil conservation—trees help in checking erosion by wind and water;
(iii) Natural habitat conservation—trees provide habitat to many birds and animals, some of which are
agro-friendly.
2. Meeting Basic Rural Needs:

Social forestry satisfies the basic rural needs referred to as ‘five Fs’—food, fuel, fodder, fertiliser (green
manure) and fibre. The large-scale depletion of easily accessible forests has resulted in acute scarcity of fu-
el-wood and fodder. What is disturbing is that the deficit in fuel wood is met by using cow-dung cakes, thus
wasting a rich and cheap source of manure.Trees also supply the raw material for various small and village
industries through small timber and minor forest produce.
3. Ensuring Better Land Use:

Social forestry helps achieve a balanced and viable land use by checking soil erosion, facilitating reclama-
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tion of marginal lands, checking waterlogging and by bringing about monolithic integration of forestry,
agriculture and animal husbandry.
4. Generation of Employment:
Social forestry operations have the potential of improving the employment situation in rural areas espe-
cially during the lean agricultural season. This helps in stabilising incomes of weaker sections of Society.
5. Controlling Pollution:
Trees are known to absorb harmful gases and release oxygen. This way they help reduce air pollution es-
pecially in urban areas.
3.6) AGRO-FORESTRY
Agroforestry is the management and integration of trees, crops and/or livestock on the same plot of land
and can be an integral component of productive agriculture. It may include existing native forests and for-
ests established by landholders. It is a flexible concept, involving both small and large-sized land holdings
Scientifically speaking, agroforestry is derived from ecology and is one of the three principal land-use sci-
ences, the other two being agriculture and forestry. Agroforestry differs from the latter two principals by
placing an emphasis on integration of and interactions among a combination of elements rather than just
focussing on each element individually.
Agroforestry has a lot in common with intercropping (the practice of planting two or more crops on the
same plot) with both practices placing an emphasis on interaction between different plant species. Gener-
ally speaking, both agrofrestry and intercropping can result in higher overall yields and reduced operation-
al costs.
3.6.1) The Benefits of Agroforestry

Over the past two decades, a number of studies have been carried out analysing the viability of agroforest-
ry. The combined research has highlighted that agroforestry can reap substantial benefits both econom-
ically and environmentally, producing more output and proving to be more sustainable than forestry or
agricultural monocultures. Agroforestry systems have already been adopted in many parts of the world.
According to the Agroforestry Research Trust, Agroforestry Systems can include the
following benefits
1. They can control runoff and soil erosion, thereby reducing losses of water, soil material, organic
matter and nutrients.
2. They can maintain soil organic matter and biological activity at levels satisfactory for soil fertility.
This depends on an adequate proportion of trees in the system- normally at least 20%
crown cover of trees to maintain organic matter over systems as a whole.
3. They can maintain more favourable soil physical properties than agriculture, through organic mat
ter maintenance and the effects of tree roots.
4. They can lead to more closed nutrient cycling than agriculture and hence to more efficient use of
nutrients. This is true to an impressive degree for forest garden/farming systems.
5. They can check the development of soil toxicities, or reduce exiting toxicities-both soil acidification
and salinization can be checked and trees can be employed in the reclamation of polluted soils.
6. They utilize solar energy more efficiently than monocultural systems different height plants, leaf
shapes and alignments all contribute.
7. They can lead to reduced insect pests and associated diseases.
8. They can be employed to reclaim eroded and degraded land.
9. Agro forestry can augment soil water availability to land use systems. In dry regions, though, com
petition between trees and crops is a major problem.
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10. Nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs can substantially increase nitrogen inputs to agro forestry systems.
11. Trees can probably increase nutrient inputs to agro forestry systems by retrieval from lower soil
horizons and weathering rock.
12. The decomposition of tree and pruning can substantially contribute to maintenance of soil fertility.
The addition of high-quality tree prunings leads to large increase in crop yields.
13. The release of nutrients from the decomposition of tree residues can be synchronized with the re
quirements for nutrient uptake of associated crops. While different trees and crops will all have
different requirement, and there will always be some imbalance, the addition of high quality
prunings to the soil at the time of crop planting usually leads to a good degree of synchrony
between nutrient release and demand.
14. In the maintenance of soil fertility under agro forestry, the role of roots is at least as important as
that of above-ground biomass.
15. Agro forestry can provide a more diverse farm economy and stimulate the whole rural economy,
leading to more stable farms and communities. Economics risks are reduced when systems
produce multiple products.
JUST TO ADD
Agroforestry Farming Systems
Silvopasture
Silvopasture combines trees with livestock and their forages on one piece of land. The trees provide
timber, fruit, or nuts as well as shade and shelter for livestock and their forages, reducing stress on the
animals from the hot summer sun, cold winter winds, or a downpour.
Alley cropping
Alley cropping means planting crops between rows of trees to provide income while the trees mature.
The system can be designed to produce fruits, vegetables, grains, flowers, herbs, bioenergy feedstocks,
and more.
Forest farming
Forest farming operations grow food, herbal, botanical, or decorative crops under a forest canopy
that is managed to provide ideal shade levels as well as other products. Forest farming is also called
multi-story cropping.
Linear Agroforestry Practices

Windbreaks
Windbreaks shelter crops, animals, buildings, and soil from wind, snow, dust, and odors. These areas can
also support wildlife and provide another source of income. They are also called shelterbelts, hedgerows,
or living snow fences.
Riparian Forest Buffers

Riparian forest buffers are natural or re-established areas along rivers and streams made up of trees,
shrubs, and grasses. These buffers can help filter farm runoff while the roots stabilize the banks of
streams, rivers, lakes and ponds to prevent erosion. These areas can also support wildlife and provide
another source of income.
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CHAPTER.4
FACTORS INFLUENCING WORLD DISTRIBUTION
OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
4.1) Introduction
Biogeography is closely tied to both ecology and phylogenetic biology and its main areas of interest
are ecological biogeography,i.e. the study of factors influencing the present distribution, and historical bio-
geography, i.e. the study of causes that have operated in the past (Wiens & Donoghue). Ecological and
historical biogeography therefore applies different concepts in order to explain the distribution of or-
ganisms. The former deals with functional groups of species and environmental constraints, whereas the
latter focuses on taxonomic groups and historical biogeographical events . One of the main objectives
of historical biogeography is to investigate relationships between areas. In biogeography, ‘areas of en-
demism’ were proposed as crucial units and traditionally defined as areas where numerous species are
endemic (Szumik & Goloboff);however, their definition and delimitation are still controversial. An alter-
native to ‘areas of endemism’ is the ‘biotic elements’ approach (Hausdorf) which considers a group of
taxa whose ranges are significantly more similar to each other than to those of taxa of other similar groups.
The identification of ‘areas of endemism’ is reputedly remarkable for its application in the development
and implementation of conservation strategies . Recently, the division between historical and ecolog-
ical biogeography has been con-sidered as an obstacle to the progress of biogeography and some authors
have stressed the benefits of integrating these two points of view.
The effect of Continental Drift

The rearrangement and displacement of huge landmasses has helped create the diversity which we see
present in modern day animals. Without these effects, the life present on earth today would have been very
different. The earth is filled with so many different types of creatures. We can say, that "Speciation" led to
this amazing diversity. Speciation is a phenomenon that normally takes place when a group of animals of
the same species find themselves isolated from one another. Isolation can occur geographically by great
distances, rising mountains or large bodies of water. They can also occur from biological or behavioral
barriers.
One species is distinguished from another by their inability to create viable offspring together, and this is
the precise effect that isolation can have on an animal species. Once a group of animals of the same species
becomes split apart or isolated, they begin to be changed, molded and fashioned by the hand of natural
selection to more properly fit in with their surroundings. After a period of time these two groups begin to
be so different anatomically and genetically that soon it becomes impossible for them to procreate. This
inability for two animals, that were once the same species, to create viable offspring is called speciation.
The movement of continents has had a profound influence on how land animals evolved.
1. If two continents split, the populations of animals on both evolve in different directions than they would
have had they stayed a single population.
2. If two continents collide or form a land bridge between them, the two different populations of animals
on those lands begin to mix. Sometimes, that results in extinctions of many species of one population by
competition with members of the other population.
3. A continent moving up or down a series of latitudes along the Earth exposes the population of animals
on it to constantly changing environments, resulting in much faster evolution than there would be if the
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continent moved along the same latitudes.
Charles Darwin and his supporters supplied one critical element, evolution, to explain the history of life on
Earth, and Alfred Wegner and his successors supplied the other, continental drift.
4.2) What factors influence the distribution of plants and animals?

Temperature - the ability to withstand extremes in temperature varies widely among plants & ani-
mals
Animals respond to variation in temperature both physiologically and behaviorally. Birds and mammals are
endotherms ('hot-blooded') & maintain relatively high body temperatures using the heat by their own me-
tabolism. Other animals (such as reptiles, amphibians, fish, & insects) are called ectotherms & their body
temperatures are largely set by the ambient (surrounding) temperature.
Ectoderms - use sources of heat such as solar radiation (direct and indirect) & conduction to help adjust
their body temperature .Endotherms - may maintain body temperature by: changing the position of fur or
feathers , sweating & panting, shivering, behavioral means such as seeking shade or water, burrowing, or
varying periods of activity. Endotherms - may avoid extended periods of low or high temperatures by hi-
bernating or estivating (Hibernation - winter dormancy, Estivation - summer dormancy). Common among
some desert animals (permits conservation of water).
Water
Precipitation determines, along with mean temperature, the world-wide distribution of biomes. Prima-
ry problem for plants in areas like deserts is a lack of water. Plants adapted for arid conditions include:
Xerophytes, such as cacti and Joshua trees ,that usually have special means of storing and conserving water.
They often have few or no leaves, which reduces transpiration. Phreatophytes - plants that grow extremely
long roots, allowing them to acquire moisture at or near the water table.
Perennials, such as the Ocotillo, survive by becoming dormant during dry periods, then springing to life
when water becomes available. Ephemerals, such as the Desert Sand Verbena, that usually germinates in
the spring following winter rains. They grow quickly, flower and produce seeds before dying. These seeds
are extremely hardy. They remain dormant, resisting drought and heat, until the following spring -- some-
times two or three springs -- when they repeat the cycle, germinating after winter rains to bloom again in
the spring. Animals survive in hot, dry areas by avoiding the heat, for example: Hummingbirds breed in
desert areas of the American southwest in late winter, then leave in late spring when temperatures become
extreme. Many animals (especially mammals and reptiles) are crepuscular (active only at dusk and dawn).
Bats, many snakes, most rodents and some larger mammals like foxes and skunks, are nocturnal, sleeping
in a cool den, cave or burrow by day. Dissipating heat, for example: the large ears of jackrabbits (like the
black-tailed jackrabbit shown to the right) have lots of blood vessels that release heat when the animal is
resting in a cool, shady location. Acquiring water, for example: from plants, particularly succulent ones,
such as cacti. Many species of insects thrive in the deserts this way. Some insects tap plant fluids such as
nectar or sap from stems, while others extract water from the plant parts they eat, such as leaves and fruit.
Fire:
Historically, humans have thought that all fires were detrimental because they blackened landscapes and
burned trees. In fact, plants and animals evolved together with fire, making it a necessary element in the
survival of many ecosystems. Tall grass prairie - Fires are important in the tall grass prairie because they
eliminate woody vegetation & foreign plant species.
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Effects of fire:
Plants - Many plants depend on fire to heat and scar their seeds as a process for germination. Decaying
trees release nutrients into the soil and serve as a base for new plants to sprout. Much of the plant life in the
United States has evolved to use fire directly as a catalyst for reproduction or benefited by the nourishment
left in its path.
Animals - The specific effects of fire on animals depends on what kind of fire, the type of vegetation, and the
individual animal. Larger animals generally survive more often than smaller ones; although a burrowed
animal can escape burning, usually it suffocates in the meantime.
Many birds also thrive after a fire when the seeds of many trees are dispersed. Birds, like woodpeckers,
take advantage of burned out trees to make nests or forage for dead insects. Insects usually do not survive
fires well because their escape range is too small. This can affect birds if the specific insects are a food
source for the aviators. Trees can benefit from the death of insects that reside in their trunks. Many insects,
in this case the mountain pine beetle in lodgepole forests, kill the trees in which they inhabit. A lot of these
forest pests, like the beetle, or the spruce bud worm, which resides in Douglas and subalpine fir forests, are
burned out by fires.
Fig.4.1
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Light
Light influences daily and seasonal activity patterns of plants and animals necessary for photosynthesis
which, in turn, is the source of energy in almost all ecosystems.
Other factors include Soil pH; Salinity; and Mineral availability.
4.3) BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD

A biogeographical regionalisation is a hierarchical system that categorises geographical areas in terms of
their biotas.During the past two centuries,several biogeographical regionalisations have been proposed for
the world and for particular areas. Initially, they were done intuitively, although as early as 1820, de Candolle
proposed that kingdoms should harbour a minimum of endemic species and genera so as to be accepted
(de Candolle 1820). Wallace (1876) discussed some principles that should be applied for obtaining natural
regionalisations (Rueda et al.2013). Drude (1884) postulated that phytogeographic kingdoms should be
based on endemic families. The past decades have witnessed efforts for producing biogeographical region-
alisations in a more objective way, although there is little agreement on the use of different methods, such
as, for example, similarity measures, species turnover, track analyses, parsimony analysis of endemicity,
cladistic biogeography, phylogenetic similarity, provinciality and higher-order presence–absence patterns.
Some authors consider that to produce natural biogeographical regionalisations, succesively nested ende-
mism should be the only criterion used, as has been the case traditionally (e.g. Sclater 1858;Wallace 1876;
Engler 1879).
The shaded portions show the various transition zones
Fig.4.2
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A biogeographical regionalisation attempting some consensus is proposed, recognising the following three
kingdoms and nine regions:
1. Holarctic kingdom (Nearctic and Palearctic regions)

2. Holotropical kingdom (Neotropical, Ethiopian and Oriental regions) and
3. Austral kingdom (Cape, Andean, Australian and Antarctic regions).
Additionally, the following five transition zones are recognized:
a) Mexican (Nearctic–Neotropical transition)

b) Saharo-Arabian (Palearctic–Ethiopian transition)
c) Chinese (Palearctic–Oriental transition)
d) South American (Neotropical–Andean transition)
e) Indo-Malayan (Oriental–Australian transition)
• Holarctic kingdom
This corresponds to North America, Greenland, Europe,northern Africa and Asia north of the Himalayan
mountains.It has been recognised as a region or a kingdom . From a palaeogeographic viewpoint, the Hol-
arctic kingdom corresponds to the palaeocontinent of Laurasia. San martín analysed patterns of disper-
sal, vicariance and diversification on the basis of the phylogenetic trees of 57 animal taxa, documenting
biogeographical events from the Late Mesozoic to the present. They found phylogenetically determined
biogeographical patterns, where dispersal within the Nearctic and within the Palearctic was more common
than between these regions, although there were some trans-Atlantic dispersal (eastern Nearctic–westen
Palearctic) in the Early–Mid Tertiary.Two regions belong to this kingdom: Nearctic and Palearctic.
• Nearctic region
This region corresponds to Canada, USA, northern Mexico and Greenland . It has been treated as a re-
gion(Wallace) a subregion (Smith) or a kingdom (Udvardy). Its southernmost limit is rather variable ac-
cording to different authors. Escalante et al.(2013) recently analysed the regionalization of the Nearctic
region on the basis of an endemicity analysis of distributional models of mammal species. They recognised
three subregions, namely, Canadian, Alleghanian and Californian–Rocky Mountains.
• Palearctic region
This region corresponds to Arctic and temperate Eurasia, the Mediterranean and Africa north of the Sahara,
including also the islands from the Arctic, the sea of Japan, the eastern half of the North Atlantic and Maca-
ronesia. It has been usually treated as a region and rarely as a subregion or a kingdom.
• Holotropical kingdom
This corresponds to the tropical areas of the world, approximately between 30S and 30N. It was original-
ly described by Rapoport as a region combining the Neotropical and Paleotropical regions of previous
authors and posteriorly treated as a kingdom. From a palaeogeographical viewpoint, it corresponds to
the eastern portion of the Gondwana palaeocontinent.It comprises the following three regions: Neotropi-
cal,Ethiopian and Oriental.
• Neotropical region
This region corresponds to tropical South America, Central America, southern central Mexico and the West
Indies. It has been treated as a region , a kingdom (Engler) or a subregion (Schmidt ).Morrone (2014) pro-
vided a regionalisation of the Neotropical region. Three subregions are recognised, namely, Antillean,Bra-
zilian and Chacoan.
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• Ethiopian region
This region corresponds to the African continent south of the Sahara (excluding South Africa), the northern
part of the Arabian peninsula, Madagascar and the West Indian Ocean islands. It has been treated as a, a
subregion (Smith) or a kingdom (Udvardy).The affinities between the Ethiopian and Oriental regions led
some authors to treat them as a single Paleotropical kingdom (Good ; Müller; Takhtajan); however, as noted
by Cox , biotic affinities of the African flora lie with both the Neotropical and Oriental floras. Cox and Kreft
and Jetz placed the northern boundary of the Ethiopian region much further north, but Ribeiro situated it
in the same position as did the Wallace–Sclater’s system.
• Oriental region
This region corresponds to the tropical areas of Eurasia and South-east Asia, comprising India, Himalaya,
Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Micronesia, Polynesia and Hawaii (Udvardy 1975). It has
been treated as a region or a kingdom (Udvardy ).Ribeiro did not recover the Oriental region as a separate
area, but instead merged with the East Palearctic.The tropical Pacific islands have been assigned to the Ori-
ental or the Australian region.
• Austral kingdom
This corresponds to the southern temperate areas in South America, South Africa, Australasia and Antarc-
tica . The relationships among these widely separated areas have been noted earlier by Treviranus who
recognised an ‘Antarctic flora’distributed in Chile, Magallanes, Tierra del Fuego and New Zealand. From a
palaeogeographical viewpoint,the Austral kingdom corresponds to the western portion of the palaeoconti-
nent of Gondwana .Sanmartín and Ronquist examined a large dataset of plant and animal taxa by applying
tree-reconciliation analysis, assessing the relative roles of vicariance and dispersal in the biogeographical
evolution of the Austral kingdom.
They postulated that the break-up of Gondwana has played an important role in moulding the vicariance
patterns of the animal Gondwanan groups, which may be old taxa, presumably Mesozoic. Plants, in con-
trast, conflict with continental fragmentation patterns, so it is possible that the plant taxa analysed were
too young to have been affected or they once fragmented in response to Gondwanan splits but their original
patterns were subsequently lost because of dispersal and extinction events.The Austral kingdom compris-
es four regions,namely, Cape, Andean, Australian and Antarctic.
• Cape region
This region corresponds to the south-western portion of South Africa. It has been recognised as a separate
kingdom , a subregion of the Austral region ,or a region of the Austral kingdom (Morrone ). Its boundaries
are unclear, and some recent studies (e.g. Van Rooy and Van Wyk 2012) have suggested the existence of a
Greater Cape region, including also other adjacent areas. Rapoport postulated that the early detachment
of this area from the other southern continents and the strong influence of tropical Africa have diluted its
Austral relationships. The evidence provided by some recent phytogeographical analyses is contradictory.
Galley and Linder found a complex pattern, with both Austral and tropical plant clades coexisting, but
no conclusive evidence to separate the Cape region from the rest of the Ethiopian region. Born evaluated
Cape’s plant endemism and suggested its recognition as a separate phytogeographic region. Galley found
that the Cape hosts several lineages that have evolved in situ and posteriorly dispersed into tropical Africa.
Moreira-Muñoz) analysed the affinities of the Cape region with other Austral areas, concluding that it could
be excluded from the Austral kingdom. The analysis of Verboom of dated phylogenies by using a relaxed
Bayesian approach detected considerable recent speciation within the area, concluding that it hosts a mix
of ancient and recently radiated groups. A zoogeographical analysis of amphibian taxa .suggested that it
would be inappropriate to classify the Cape fauna as Afrotropical. Additionally, molecular phylogenetic
analyses of animal taxa with poor dispersal capabilities placed Cape taxa in an Austral clade.
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• Andean region
This region corresponds to southern South America,extending through the Andean highlands north of this
latitude.It was considered as a subregion (Wallace)or a region (Engler). Müller identified the southern-
most portion of the Andean region (the Subantarctic subregion) as a transition zone, but this is clearly not
the case because of its endemic and distinctive biota. Morrone provided a regionalisation of the Andean
region. Three subregions were recognised, namely, Central Chilean, Subantarctic and Patagonian
• Australian region
This region corresponds to Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia and New Zealand. It was treated as a
region (Sclater), a kingdom (Good ). or a subregion (Kuschel). Morrone distinguished the Australo-tem-
perate,Australotropical, Neoguinean and Neozelandic regions, but none of the reviewed regionalisations
recognised them as separate regions. Fleming has already noted the inconvenience of splitting Australia
from New Zealand. They may eventually be treated as subregions.
• Antarctic region
This region corresponds to Antarctica. It has been treated as a region( Morrone) or a kingdom (Udvardy).
Most of the Subantarctic islands do not belong to this region.The Snares, Auckland, Campbell and Chatham
Islands belong to the Australian region (New Zealand subregion), and the Falkland Islands to the Ande-
an region (Subantarctic subregion). Kerguelen, Heard, Crozet, Marion and Prince Edward Islands (Indian
Ocean) belong to the Ethiopian region. Tristan da Cunha, Gough, Inaccessible and Nightingale Islands (At-
lantic ocean) have no clear relationships
4.4) Transition zones

In the boundaries between the regions, five main biogeographic transition zones are recognized.
The Mexican transition zone includes the mountainous areas of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Sal-
vador and Nicaragua. It corresponds to the boundary between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, and
comprises the Sierra Madre Occidental, Sierra Madre Oriental, Sierra Madre del Sur, Trans-Mexican Volca-
nic Belt and Chiapas Highlands provinces.
The Saharo-Arabian transition zone comprises the Sahara desert and the Arabian peninsula . It corre-
sponds to the boundary between the Palearctic and Ethiopian regions. Müller provided some examples of
taxa from this transition zone.
The Chinese transition zone corresponds to the boundary between the Palearctic and Oriental regions.
The Indo-Malayan, Indonesian or Wallace’s transition zone corresponds to the boundary between the
Oriental and Australian regions. Müller discussed its boundaries and gave examples of Oriental and Austra-
lian taxa with overlapping distributions in this transition zone.
The South American transition zone comprises the Andean highlands between western Venezuela and
northern Chile and central western Argentina . It corresponds to the boundary between the Neotropical
and Andean regions
DO YOU KNOW?
A South African transition zone, which would correspond to
the boundary between the Ethiopian and Cape regions, has been
discussed by many scholars but has not been proposed yet.
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CHAPTER.5
MAJOR GENE POOL CENTRES
5.1) Introduction
GENE POOL CENTRES

A large gene pool indicates extensive genetic diversity , which is associated with robust populations that
can survive bouts of intense selection . Meanwhile, low genetic diversity can cause reduced biological fit-
ness and an increased chance of extinction , although as explained by genetic variants, that may cause an
increase in the fiyness of organisms, are more likely to fix in the population if it is rather small. The centre
of origin is a geographical area where a group of organisms, either domesticated or wild,first developed
its distinctive properties. Many authorities believe centre of origin are also centres of diversity.. But at the
same time many scientists argue that It is already almost impossible to assemble meaningful information
on the origin and evolution of certain crops as the evidence dims and fades away with each passing year.
The first person to pose the question of the geographic origin of cultivated plants was Alphonse de Can-
dolle.. Based on the evolutionary concepts of Darwin and taking the findings of Candolle as points of depar-
ture, the Russian scientist Nicolay Ivanovich Vavilov developed his hypotheses on the centres of origin of
cultivated plants in the early 1920s.Vavilov Gene Pool Centres.
Vavilov assumed that most of the main agricultural species could be traced back to one particular region,
which would be its centre of origin. Furthermore, he assumed that these centres would be common for a
range of crops, and that such regions could be universal centres of origin and of type formation, i.e. genetic
diversification. One of Vavilov’s first findings was that it was possible to distinguish between primary and
secondary groups of cultivated plants . The primary crops were the basic ancient cultivated plants that
were known to humanity only in their cultivated state (e.g. wheat, barley, rice, soybeans, flax and cotton).
The secondary crops comprised all the plants that were derived from weeds that infested the primary crop
fields, and were found to be useful on their own (e.g. rye, oats, false flax).The region of maximum variation,
usually including endemic types and characteristics, could also be the centre of origin. The centres of origin
would, asa rule, be characterised by many endemic variable traits and could comprise characteristics of
entire genera . Within the centres of origin, Vavilov determined so-called foci of type formation of the most
important cultivated plants i.e. hearts of the centres with regard to genetic diversification and type forma-
tion. Whereas Vavilov’s principles were strengthened throughout the period of empirical investigations,
the numbers and borders of the centres of origin of cultivated plants changed continuously. In the end, he
suggested the following centres of origin of cultivated plants.
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Fig.5.1
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The theory discussed above have first and foremost provided us with insights into the complexities of crop
evolution and the many hurdles and questions involved in any attempt to determine countries of origin.
What we can say with relative assurance, is that there are some groups of agricultural plant species for
which it may be possible to identify the country or countries of origin. In any endeavour to determine the
country of origin of a crop, Vavilov’s map of the centres of origin may be of great value, but not without the
corrections of his successors in the field of phytogeography.
Fig.5.2
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Disclaimer
The Booklet is only a compilation of the various research work done in Geography by various
scholars and authors under the aegis of any National or International publication house,
university or independently or in any other capacity. The object of this booklet is to assist the
preparation of aspirants preparing for UPSC CSE. EDEN IAS neither intends to take away the
credit, nor cause financial damage to various scholars, publication houses or Universities (Both
Indian and Foreign). A following non-exhaustive list has been produced in this booklet to give
due credit to the original research scholars in geography. (Though the list is non–exhaustive).
Although the compiler and the academy have made every effort to ensure that the information
in this booklet is correct at press time, the academy do not assume and hereby disclaim any
liability to any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether
such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause.
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LIST OF REFERENCES (NON-EXHAUSTIVE LIST) - BIOGEOGRAPHY

 Biogeography by James Brown
 Basic biogeography by Nigel Pears
 Foundations of Biogeography: Classic Papers with Commentaries
 Biogeography, the University of Manchester
 Savindra Singh (Physical geography)
 Communities and Ecosystems- by David A. Wardle
 Biogeography by Mark V. Lomolino and Brett R. Riddle
 Ecology and Biogeography in India by M.S. Mani
 Ecology and Biogeography in India – Research Gate
 Environmental Geography by Savindra Singh.
 Dictionary in Physical Geography-Penguin.
 Physical Geography-Made Simple [Rupa Publications]
THIS BOOKLET IS NOT A SUBSTITUTE BUT ONLY AN APPENDAGE TO CLASS NOTES
FOR BEST RESULTS STUDENTS MUST COMBINE THE MATERIAL OF THESE BOOKLETS WITH EDEN IAS
GEOGRAPHY OPTIONAL REGULAR CLASSES, CLASS-NOTES, GEO CLASS TEST QUESTIONS, DAILY
GEOGRAPHY MAINS ANSWER WRITING QUESTIONS AND GEOGRAPHY MAINS TEST SERIES (ADVANCED
LEVEL) QUESTIONS, MODEL ANSWERS AND TEST DISCUSSIONS.
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EDEN IAS

1.2 ) EVOLUTION OF SOIL GEOGRAPHY

1.3) Soil Forming Processes

SOIL FORMING PROCESSES

ORGANIC CHNAGE GLEYING

GRAVITY PULLS WATER DOWN FROM TOP TO BOTTOM

JUST TO ADD TO YOUR KNOWLEDGE

a)Faunal pedoturbation: It is the mixing of soil by animals such as ants, earthworms,

FOUR STANDARD PEDOGENIC PROCESSES

1.4) Soil Texture

• Gravel - particles greater than 2 mm in diameter

1.5) Soil Triangle

1.6) Soil Structure

1) Wetting and drying

4) Activity of roots and soil animals and

1.7) Soil Types

Soil Scale: Acidity or Alkalinity

An important aspect of soil chemistry is acidity, alkalinity (baseness), or neutrality.

1.8) Soil Profile

I) Components of the Soil Profile

Five Master Horizons-(O,A,E,B,C)

II) The Bed Rock- “R” Horizon.

1.9) Soil Colour

Black—from organic matter.

JUST TO ADD TO YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Soil Colour Soil characteristics Implications

Black Vertosols (cracking clay • workability and tillage problems

Gleyed/grey/green These soils are associated • waterlogging or drainage problems

1.10) Factors Affecting Soil Formation

III) Climate, vegetation, and weathering

a) Effect on soil erosion

b) Effect on deposition and soil texture

VII) Nutrient cycling

Major Soil Classification Sub-Orders Soil Groups

Zonal Order Suborder-I Podzol Soils, Brown Podzolic

Suborder-II Latosols: Reddish-brown Later-

Suborder-I Bog Soils, Meadow Soils, Alpine

Azonal Order Suborder Alluvial soils, Dry

2.2) Classification of World Soils

The FAO-UNESCO Soil Classification System

The World Reference Base for soil resources

The 30 Reference Soil Groups are aggregated in 10 `sets' composed as follows:

1. the Andosols of volcanic regions,

The set holds four Reference Soil Groups:

In elevated and/or eroding areas:

1. Shallow LEPTOSOLS over hard rock or highly calcareous material, and

1. SOLONCHAKS with a high content of soluble salts,

All Reference Soil Groups of the WRB assembled in 10 sets

SET 6 Mineral soils whose formation PLINTHOSOLS

Soil Diagnostic Horizons.

MAJOR ORDERS OF USDA SOIL TAXONOMY

Gelisols Soils that are permanently frozen (contain

2.4.1) Alluvial Soils

• There are two types of alluvial soils:

2.4.2) Black Cotton Soils

2.4.3) Red Soils

2.4.4) Laterite Soils

2.4.5) Mountainous or Forest Soils

2.4.6) Arid and Desert Soils

2.4.7) Saline and Alkaline Soils

2.4.8) Peaty and Marshy Soils

2.5) Soil Erosion

2.5.1) Water Erosion

• Rainfall and Runoff