Equality of Opportunity - Psychology Workshop - Jul 22 Vasilena Bethan Teresa

Equality of opportunity in Psychology:
Research, practice and importance
within and beyond academia

Dr Vasilena Stefanova
Psychology Lecturer, Birmingham
City University
Bethan Iley
PhD Student & Teaching Assistant,
Queen's University Belfast
Dr Teresa Gomes Arrulo-Clarke

Assistant Lecturer in Psycholoy, Arden
University
Who are we?

Dr Vasilena Stefanova Bethan Iley Dr Teresa Gomes

Psychology Lecturer,
PhD Student & Teaching Assistant,
Arrulo-Clarke
Birmingham City University Queen's University Belfast Assistant Lecturer, Arden University
Friendly Reminders
Here are some tips on how to make the most of
this session.
1 Your participation is highly encouraged,
whether you are attending online or on-
site!
If possible, feel free to type any

2 questions in the chat box and one of
us will answer as soon as possible
3 ... though there will be a Q&A session

at the end of the workshop!
13:00-13:10 Introduction
Workshop
Psychological theory and research on equality
13:10-13:45
and discrimination (V Stefanova)
Agenda
13:45-13:50 Break
13:50-14:25 Backlash against equality initiatives (B Iley)
14:25-14:35 Break
Psychological contributions to hiring

14:35-15:10
strategies (T Gomes Arrulo-Clarke)
15:10-15:15 Break
15:15-15:45 Group-based activity
15:45-16:00 Q&A
Psychological
theory and research
on equality and
discrimination
Definitions, theory and research
methods
Equality – fairness and elimination of discriminatory
practices. “The state of being equal, especially in status, rights and
opportunities” (Equality and Human Rights

Commission)
Diversity - recognising, respecting and celebrating each
other's differences
Inclusion - relates to our individual experiences
and the extent to which we are included in different groups and
structures

The Equality Act Protected

2010
characteristics
•Age
•Disability
•Gender reassignment
•Marriage and civil partnership
•Pregnancy and maternity
•Race
•Religion or belief
•Sex
•Sexual orientation
Why is equality of
opportunity important in
organisational settings?
•Creates a positive environment
where everyone feels valued
•Employees’ talents are fully
explored
•Diverse perspectives
What are the psychological
mechanisms behind
discrimination?
- Stereotypes - generalised beliefs about a
certain group
- Ingroup (a group one identifies as being a
part of) vs outgroup (a group one does not
identify with)
- Cognitive function of stereotypes -
information is more easily identified and
recalled
- Social functions of stereotypes - social
categorisation
Levels of discrimination
Institutional/
Personal Systemic
discrimination discrimination
When individuals have Discriminatory practices
prejudice, ideas and beliefs embedded in the policies
about different groups, often and systems within an
attributing superiority to one institution
group over another
Theoretical frameworks
Psychological theories of equality and
discrimination
Social role theory (Eagly &

Wood, 1999) - inferences about
which characteristics are
needed to be successful in a
1
specific role by examining the
characteristics of individuals
who predominantly occupy the
role
Theoretical frameworks
Psychological theories of equality and
discrimination
Stereotype content model

(Fiske et al., 2002) - evaluates
2 stereotyped groups in relation
to warmth and competence
The two types of bias
Implicit bias Explicit bias
- Involves discriminatory - Reflects conscious,
attitudes and stereotypes overtly expressed attitudes
that are outside of - Measured through self-
conscious awareness report, e.g. surveys and
- Measured using implicit other direct assessments
association tasks (IAT)
How do we study
equality within
psychology?
Qualitative research Quantitative

methods research methods
- Experiments
- Interviews
- Surveys with rating
- Focus groups
scales
- Surveys with open-
- Secondary research e.g.
ended questions national surveys or records

Quiz time!
You can complete the
quiz to test your
knowledge of the
psychological approach
to studying equality and
discrimination:
https://view.genial.ly/62c5abfb7fb
a780012d864d7/interactive-
content-genial-quiz
My research - bias
against caregivers Bias against
in academic
settings caregivers in
academia
- The Motherhood penalty and
Fatherhood premium
- Bias in hiring and promotion
decisions
- Does bias occur due to parent-
academia stereotypes?
Do stereotypes about parents predict career
outcomes in academia?

- Hiring decision task, mock job candidate files

- Associations between ‘mother’/ ‘father’ and academia-
related/ family-related words

Stefanova & Latu (under review)
Main findings
- Bias against parents in hiring
decisions - non-parents were
more likely to be hired than
parents
- Academics who endorsed
stereotypes were less likely to
hire parents compared to non-
parents
- Biased attitudes about
parents can result in biased
decisions in a hiring context
Backlash against
equality

Backlash
Resistance against progressive social /
organisational change
Response to actual or perceived
challenges to existing hierarchies
Generally stems from the
historically privileged group
Almost guaranteed any time
change is successful
Can be active or passive; across
levels of analysis
Flood et al. (2021)

Backlash
Resistance against progressive social /
organisational change 48%
Response to actual or perceived persuadables
challenges to existing hierarchies
Generally stems from the
historically privileged group
42% true 10%
Almost guaranteed any time
change is successful believers detractors
Can be active or passive; across
levels of analysis Coqual (2020)
Flood et al. (2021)

Why care?
48%
persuadables
42% true 10%

believers detractors
Coqual (2020)
Flood et al. (2021)

Why care?
1 Minority influence: A loud minority 48%
(detractors) can have a big effect on the
people around them (persuadables).
persuadables
42% true 10%

Coqual (2020)
Flood et al. (2021)

Why care?
persuadables
2 Hostile climate: Can push minorities out

of the field, leading to reduced role
models and a smaller talent pool
42% true 10%
Coqual (2020)
Flood et al. (2021)

Why care?
persuadables
2 Hostile climate: Can push minorities out

of the field, leading to reduced role
models and a smaller talent pool
42% true 10%
Intersectionality: We do not know
3
detractors' identities or experiences. believers detractors
Coqual (2020)
Flood et al. (2021)

Types of backlash
Flood et al. (2021)

Types of backlash
Denying the
issue
Flood et al. (2021)

Types of backlash
Denying the
issue
Co-opting
language /
initiatives
Flood et al. (2021)
Types of backlash
Denying the Disavowing

issue responsibility
Co-opting
language /
initiatives
Flood et al. (2021)
Types of backlash
Denying the Disavowing

issue responsibility
Co-opting Reversing or
language / dismantling
initiatives change
Flood et al. (2021)
Types of backlash
Denying the Disavowing Refusing to

issue responsibility take part
Co-opting Reversing or
language / dismantling
initiatives change
Flood et al. (2021)
Types of backlash

Co-opting Reversing or Active

language / dismantling attacks
initiatives change
Flood et al. (2021)
Types of backlash
Appeasing
to limit
impact
Co-opting Reversing or Active

language / dismantling attacks
initiatives change
Flood et al. (2021)
Causes: Status quo bias
Implicit preference to maintain status quo,
rather than choose alternatives.
Often makes sense:

fits experience (e.g. gravity, colours…)
known to be safe (e.g. food, routine)
saves cognitive effort; why take a risk?
Eidelman & Crandall (2012)

rather than choose alternatives. Characteristics of heuristic
thinking (“mental shortcuts”):
Often makes sense: 1. Over-application
fits experience (e.g. gravity, colours…) 2. Efficiency (used under high
known to be safe (e.g. food, routine) load)
saves cognitive effort; why take a risk? 3. Lack of awareness

rather than choose alternatives. Characteristics of heuristic
thinking (“mental shortcuts”):
Often makes sense: 1. Over-application
fits experience (e.g. gravity, colours…) 2. Efficiency (used under high
known to be safe (e.g. food, routine) load)
saves cognitive effort; why take a risk? 3. Lack of awareness
Solution: Frame the default as a loss

Causes: Reactance
Freedom of behaviour is important to us
When that freedom is (perceived to be)
threatened, we are motivated to restore it
Need to be (1) aware of the freedom and (2) feel
capable of enacting it
Persuasion attempts & restrictions on behaviour

trigger reactance
Brehm (1966); Legault et al. (2011)

Causes: Reactance Solution:
Promote
Freedom of behaviour is important to us autonomy &
When that freedom is (perceived to be) self-
threatened, we are motivated to restore it determination
Need to be (1) aware of the freedom and (2) feel
capable of enacting it
Persuasion attempts & restrictions on behaviour

trigger reactance
Brehm (1966); Legault et al. (2011)

Causes: Intergroup threat
Intergroup threat theory: two kind of perceived threat cause
negative outgroup attitudes
Realistic threat - competition for resources and/or status
(e.g. jobs, promotions, prototypicality)
Symbolic threat - threats to norms or values (e.g. shared
beliefs, traditions, cultural norms)
Zero-sum beliefs about equality: their gain = our loss
Stephan et al. (2016); Stefaniak et al. (2020)

Causes: Intergroup threat
Intergroup threat theory: two kind of perceived threat cause
negative outgroup attitudes
Realistic threat - competition for resources and/or status
(e.g. jobs, promotions, prototypicality)
Symbolic threat - threats to norms or values (e.g. shared
beliefs, traditions, cultural norms)
Zero-sum beliefs about equality: their gain = our loss Solution:

Reduce perceived
intergroup threat
Stephan et al. (2016); Stefaniak et al. (2020)
Individual-level factors
Social dominance orientation: Preference for society to be structured around a
hierarchy (and for their own group to dominate that hierarchy).
Collective narcissism: Inflated view of in-group which requires constant external

validation (literally: narcissism at the group level).
Beliefs about specific groups or society generally:

Meritocracy
Colourblindness
Biological determinism
Pratto et al. (1994); Golec de Zavala et al. (2009); Whitley & Webster (2018)
Individual-level factors
Social dominance orientation: Preference for society to be structured around a
hierarchy (and for their own group to dominate that hierarchy).
Collective narcissism: Inflated view of in-group which requires constant external

validation (literally: narcissism at the group level).
Beliefs about specific groups or society generally:

Meritocracy
Colourblindness
Biological determinism
Solution:
Pratto et al. (1994); Golec de Zavala et al. (2009); Whitley & Webster (2018)
Adjust to the audience
Activity
So far we talked about:
Reactance
Status quo bias
The Gilette advertisement you just watched
Intergroup threat
received a lot of backlash. realistic threat
symbolic threat
Individual-level
How did you personally feel about the ad? Please
factors:
provide 1-3 words. social
dominance
What do you think drove this backlash? orientation
collective
Post your answers here:
narcissism
https://www.menti.com/8bap24bcac beliefs about
groups / society
OR go to menti.com and enter the code 8854 7431
Tackling
backlash
Persuasion
Persuasion
SOURCE

Credibility
Attractiveness
Similarity
Confidence
etc.
Persuasion
SOURCE AUDIENCE

Credibility Personality
Attractiveness Prior beliefs
Similarity Group identities
Confidence Attention
etc. etc.
Persuasion
SOURCE AUDIENCE CONTENT

Credibility Personality Evidence

Attractiveness Prior beliefs Narratives
Similarity Group identities Similarity
Confidence Attention Emotion
etc. etc. etc.
Persuasion
SOURCE AUDIENCE CONTENT DELIVERY

Credibility Personality Evidence Framing

Attractiveness Prior beliefs Narratives Repetition
Similarity Group identities Similarity Length
Confidence Attention Emotion Consistency
etc. etc. etc. etc.
Elaboration likelihood model
Petty & Briñol (2011)

CENTRAL ROUTE

Requires:
(1) motivation
(2) cognitive ability (no distractions, etc.)

High-effort
Analytical information processing

Involves assessment of argument

quality and strength

CENTRAL ROUTE PERIPHERAL ROUTE

Requires: Default when:

(1) motivation (1) unmotivated, and/or
(2) cognitive ability (no distractions, etc.) (2) complex information processing is not

possible
High-effort
Analytical information processing Low effort, not analytical

Involves assessment of argument Relies on cues and heuristics

quality and strength (e.g. liking, similarity, confirmation bias...)

ELM: Central route
Use the central route when:
1. Working with populations who
value analytic information
processing.
2. They have motivation and ability to
think analytically.
Examples: STEM workers, policy

advisors, university staff.
Farrell et al. (2021)

ELM: Central route
Use the central route when:
1. Working with populations who
value analytic information Use evidence about inequality to
processing. make your argument stronger:
2. They have motivation and ability to Empirical results, statistics, logical
think analytically. arguments...

Examples: STEM workers, policy Use narratives (storytelling) to

advisors, university staff. enhance memorability

ELM: Peripheral route
Always consider the peripheral route!
This is especially important if...
participants will not have the
motivation to take part
participants will not have the ability
to process complex information
Examples: Taking part in mandatory

training; employees with a high
workload; anyone disinterested.

ELM: Peripheral route
Always consider the peripheral route!
This is especially important if...
For positive impressions, signal:
participants will not have the
- Inclusion of majority group members
motivation to take part
(using framing)
participants will not have the ability - Management and organisational support
to process complex information - Authenticity (e.g. minority group leadership
of initiative)
Examples: Taking part in mandatory - Promote empathy via perspective taking
training; employees with a high
workload; anyone disinterested.

Remember: Always test!
1 You need to know if your intervention is
actually working. Collect data before, during
and after administering it.
2 Use validated methods and measures when

testing your intervention. This will give you the
best quality data.
2 Use validated methods and measures when

testing your intervention. This will give you the
best quality data.
3 Interventions can have unintended

consequences, including backlash. Monitor
closely for these.
Psychological
contributions to
hiring strategies
Advantages, Disadvantages
& Moving Forward
Psychology
Human
Resource
Science of the mind &
behaviour
Management
Effective management of
people in an organisation
to help achieve its overall
goals/needs
Psychology
Human
Resource
Science of the mind &
behaviour
Management
Effective management of
people in an organisation
Hiring
to help achieve its overall
goals/needs
Hiring
Recruitment Selection
attracting qualified job
choosing the best-qualified
candidates to a company candidate(s) from pool of
(Lussier, 2015) applicants (Lussier, 2015)

Hiring
Recruitment Selection
Aim: To ensure prospective employees that fit the organisation's needs are found
and employed (Ahmad & Schroeher, 2002)

Recruitment
Job Advertisement

Person Specification

Informative and attractive way

Personal attributes being sought
of reaching potential suitable

from applicants to ensure that
candidates for a specific role they are suitable for the role
Job Advertisement




Reach can be limited/inaccessible
Omission of key "perks" may deter
suitable candidates from

applying (e.g., flexible working
hours)
Job Advertisement




Reach can be limited/inaccessible Excessive use of masculine-coded
language (Gaucher et al., 2011)

Omission of key "perks" may deter
suitable candidates from

Minimum requirements may
applying (e.g., flexible working

exclude suitable candidates
hours) (Caccavale, 2020)

Selection
CVs/Resumes Cover Letters Application

Forms Interviews

Helps determine
Snapshot of key
Elevator pitch;
Captures information
compatibility
skills, experience &

opportunity to
directly relevant to
between applicant
qualifications stand out the role/company

and role/company

Forms Interviews

Helps determine
Snapshot of key
Elevator pitch;
compatibility

opportunity to
between applicant

and role/company
Activity
Please go to www.menti.com and use the code
72568026

Forms Interviews

Helps determine
Snapshot of key
Elevator pitch;
compatibility

opportunity to
between applicant

and role/company
‘White-sounding’
names get up to 75%
more responses in UK
(Caccavale, 2020)
Prone to bias against
mothers/caregivers

Education &
experience - poor
predictors of job
performance (Schmidt
& Hunter, 1998)


Forms Interviews

Helps determine
Snapshot of key
Elevator pitch;
compatibility

opportunity to
between applicant

and role/company
Not all jobs require
names get up to 75%
good written
communication skills
(Caccavale, 2020)
Assumption that if
one is not submitted,

mothers/caregivers

candidate is less

Education &
experience - poor
'passionate'
predictors of job
& Hunter, 1998)


Forms Interviews

Helps determine
Snapshot of key
Elevator pitch;
compatibility

opportunity to
between applicant

and role/company

Often implies a need
names get up to 75%
good written
for digital literacy
communication skills Wording can often
(Caccavale, 2020)
Assumption that if
deter certain groups

from applying
mothers/caregivers

candidate is less

Education &
experience - poor
'passionate'
predictors of job
& Hunter, 1998)


Forms Interviews

Helps determine
Snapshot of key
Elevator pitch;
compatibility

opportunity to
between applicant

and role/company

Often implies a need
High risk of
names get up to 75%
good written
for digital literacy unconscious bias
communication skills Wording can often

Order effects
(Caccavale, 2020)
Assumption that if
deter certain groups

from applying
mothers/caregivers

candidate is less

Education &
experience - poor
'passionate'
predictors of job
& Hunter, 1998)

Psychometric Tests
Objective, convenient & impersonal - minimising unconscious bias and
unfair hiring decisions

Reliable indicators of future job performance and training success -
maximising organisations' cost- and time-efficiency
Psychology
Bertua et al., 2005

Types of Psychometric Tests
Aptitude Tests Personality Tests

Provide an indication of how well an
Provide an indication of how well an
applicant's skillset fits the role/organisation. applicant's 'character' fits the
Scores are usually compared to a standard

role/organisation, by assessing habitual
(must achieve a certain score to pass). patterns of emotion/behaviour in a variety
of situations.
Aptitude Tests Personality Tests
A. B. C. D.
(www.jobtestprep.co.uk) (www.assessmentcentrehq.com)
... but they are not exactly a
definitive solution!
The role of socially aversive personality
traits in the context of stress

- Stress can have a damaging effect on everyday performance
(Gomes Arrulo et al., 2021)
- Job stress has been found to be negatively related to job performance
(Jamal, 2011; Muse et al., 2003)

Therefore, it is in organisations' best interest to:
- promote effective stress-coping strategies
- minimise job stress
- hire individuals who have a well-developed stress-coping ability or may be
predisposed to perform well under stress/pressure


- Though there is extensive literature on the links between personality and
stress management, socially aversive traits have been under-researched in
relation to stress, possibly due to their perceived undesirability outside this
context
(Gomes Arrulo-Clarke et Personality
al., 2021) & Stress Review
(N = 150)
Resilience + Mental Toughness (83%)
vs
Dark Triad (DT) (17%; mixed findings)

(Narcissism, Psychopathy, Machiavellianism)


- 70 UK-based adults (M = 22.8, SD = 6.6)
- Laboratory-based
- completed measures of DT traits, music habits, and undertook a stress-
inducing procedure involving a series of arithmetic tasks

(Gomes Arrulo-Clarke et al., 2021)
Accuracy & Calculation Time
(Performance Indicators)

Main Findings

Narcissism predicted:
- lower stress when classical music preference was high
- greater stress but also enhanced performance when
participants did not frequently used music for stress
management
(Gomes Arrulo-Clarke et al., 2021)


- 90 UK-based adults (M = 30.3, SD = 9.0)
- Online survey
- completed measures of narcissism, music habits, and undertook a
remote stress-inducing procedure

Main Findings
- Participants who scored high on narcissism experienced
lower stress after stress induction
(Gomes Arrulo-Clarke et al., under review)

What does this tell us?
Impact on equality of
Underrepresentation opportunity
Individuals with potentially
The contextual benefits of
advantageous habitual
stereotypically negative traits
behavioural patterns may be
may not be considered in
overlooked or not sought after

psychometric tests
Moving Forward
1 Psychometric tests are often used alongside CVs,
cover letters, application forms, and interviews to
help reduce risk of bias

Moving Forward
2 ...but it's only through research advancements and
the monitoring of flawed systems that we can
maximise equality of opportunity

Moving Forward
2 ...but it's only through research advancements and
the monitoring of flawed systems that we can
maximise equality of opportunity
3 We must actively identify ways to tackle
issues related to equality of opportunity within
and beyond hiring contexts

What can you do
to help?

What can you do to help?

In your groups, keeping in mind the content covered in this
session, discuss ways in which you could help contribute to
equality of opportunity within your own circles and environment
You should try to:

1. Identify a potentially flawed system/procedure
2. Brainstorm a potential viable solution
3. Consider what could go wrong & how to minimise it
Thank you for
listening!
Any questions?

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Equality of opportunity in Psychology:

Research, practice and importance

within and beyond academia

Queen's University Belfast

Dr Teresa Gomes Arrulo-Clarke

Dr Vasilena Stefanova Bethan Iley Dr Teresa Gomes

1 Your participation is highly encouraged,

whether you are attending online or on-

If possible, feel free to type any

3 ... though there will be a Q&A session

Psychological theory and research on equality

13:50-14:25 Backlash against equality initiatives (B Iley)

Psychological contributions to hiring

15:15-15:45 Group-based activity

practices. “The state of being equal, especially in status, rights and

opportunities” (Equality and Human Rights

The Equality Act Protected

Social role theory (Eagly &

Stereotype content model

Qualitative research Quantitative

- Hiring decision task, mock job candidate files

related/ family-related words

Flood et al. (2021)

Flood et al. (2021)

42% true 10%

Flood et al. (2021)

42% true 10%

Flood et al. (2021)

2 Hostile climate: Can push minorities out

Flood et al. (2021)

2 Hostile climate: Can push minorities out

Flood et al. (2021)

Flood et al. (2021)

Flood et al. (2021)

Denying the Disavowing

Denying the Disavowing

Denying the Disavowing Refusing to

Denying the Disavowing Refusing to

Co-opting Reversing or Active

Co-opting Reversing or Active

Often makes sense:

Eidelman & Crandall (2012)

Eidelman & Crandall (2012)

Solution: Frame the default as a loss

Eidelman & Crandall (2012)

Persuasion attempts & restrictions on behaviour

Brehm (1966); Legault et al. (2011)

Persuasion attempts & restrictions on behaviour

Brehm (1966); Legault et al. (2011)

Zero-sum beliefs about equality: their gain = our loss

Stephan et al. (2016); Stefaniak et al. (2020)

Zero-sum beliefs about equality: their gain = our loss Solution:

Collective narcissism: Inflated view of in-group which requires constant external

Beliefs about specific groups or society generally:

Collective narcissism: Inflated view of in-group which requires constant external

Beliefs about specific groups or society generally:

SOURCE AUDIENCE CONTENT

Credibility Personality Evidence

SOURCE AUDIENCE CONTENT DELIVERY

Credibility Personality Evidence Framing

Petty & Briñol (2011)

Involves assessment of argument