BULLDLN CU ERE CAs DETAILED CONTENTS et 001-016 Chapt -RODUCTION preret oretaete 7 AipeSOnSodOusS J 1 Group G: Industrial buildings & ryper of B BS Group H: Storage puldines en ose ‘A: Residential buildings Group I: Hazardous buildings © Structural system of building - Comparison of load bearing structure with framed structure 12 1 2 Group B: Educational buildings 8 Group C: Institutional buildings 8 Group D: Assembly buildings 8 9 2-4. ee Group E: Business buildings 1-5. Loads on foundations @ be Group F: Mercantile buildings 9 Questions 1 ..---+ 6 chapter 2 FUNCTIONAL PLANNING OF BUILDINGS ....--------017-030 gi. General .......... ee: Bye-laws of the locality . 2B $2. Principles of Site Selection ... 17 Climate and its effects ....... 28 23, Site Plan. 8 Materials and methods of 2 94, Planning regulatio ee evel laws 18 construction ..<.--2202+1:000 25 25. Principles of planning . 9 27-4. People and their requirements 25 26. Modern architecture .. ene 2-8. Orientation ...---- + B 27, Main considerations of 29. Essential factors of planning . 26 architectural design .......... 2B Questions 2 es Chapter 3 IMPORTANT BUILDINGS COMPONENTS . $1, General 31 3.3, Important Building fe ic functional requirements of Components 36 a building . 31 Questions 3. 40 Chapter 4 SITE INVESTIGATION AND GROUND TECHNIQUES . 41, General 4 4-6. Methods for determining the 42. Depth of exploration . Al bearing capacity of soil ...... 43. Methods of site exploration .. 42 47. Increasing the bearing Ketoacty 44. Choice of the method ....... 48 of soil 45, Bearing Capacity of soil 49 Chapter 5 FOUNDATIONS ... $1. General... 52. Objects of foundations . 3. Essential requirements of @ good foundation . Shallow foundations . Design of shallow foundations Special foundations .... 60 wee e eee e eee e eee nee s 1063-094 5-13, Foundations on reclaimed soil or made-up ground , . 5-14. Foundations on cavities and old wells ......... ih alates « . 86 5-15. Foundations near existing adjacent old structures 5-16. Foundations for machines 5-17. Causes of failure of foundations and . Preventive measures -........ 89 5-18. Method of settin out the 63. 64 on 64 65, 7 7 80 83 83, 85.be attended jo lerpinnin, 1621, Formwork Chapter 17 ARCHES: 1 General - Detailed Contents9632. Ingredients of a varn) Chapter 27 STRUCTURAL STEELWORK Chapter 28 We Acoustics 5. Ss eee ae). General... Bn2. Velocy of round Gis. requency & ltcna‘engineer is mainly concerned with the constr + 6) Eggontial for him to acquire good knowledge of construry of any family to have a house 1as led to the formation of detached may also include A detached house at places whereApartment or flat Fig, 1-4Thickness of load bearing walls in any case i not less than 200 mm. 6 | A Toad bearing wall when once constructed shall remain in posit and should never be dismant! Z| Too many openings for doors, windows, Ventilators, etc are not permissible. & | Plans for different floors remain same | xs every wall on the upper floors must ‘be a corresponding wall in continuation ‘of the wall of lower floor. 9. | It requires soll of good bearing capaci Uke teks Sandy sdk gravely soil, etc. ‘10. | Best suited for small residential houses, rural houses and houses up to three scree 1-5. LOADS ON FOUNDATIONS 7 Following are the three types of loads on the foundations: (1) Dead toad 5 (2) Live toad ~ Wind load, } ead load: This is the load of the materials used for the various component! ‘such as walls, floors, roofs, etc. All permanent loads are thus included ee ; the provision for the future construction of a ‘ dead jed and high complexes, Joad of 0.10 kN/m? of the floor area. load of ‘constructed in future under this provisio® ‘the allowance made. oe materials, depending about 20 % to 50 % weer NOES ERE Brick masonry Plain concrete Reinforced concrete Lime concrete Stone masonry cKnown 2s the of fara Testaped oe PR dew tae 8 Pee a 4: This is the movable load oF imposed SeeeeniTAnce REDUCTION OF SUPERIMPOSED LOADS [ xo. | Sees Percentage reduction rel of superimposed load Topmoxt storey No reduction ‘Neat storey from topmost storey 10 Next storey below 2 20 30 0 wD loa to snow will depend upon tht the snow. The rainwater load will depend ‘water to accumulate, et for the design purpose ‘with the horizontal shapes shape factor to the val factors to be adoptedrc Se ee 5 2 FUNCTIONAL PLANNING OF QUESTIONS 4 | 2 Sea impartsted in such 2 jad_ working con! (ix) The site should be si creates health The site should be away from qu “ivy Moods, water logsed Jocation of the area belon, should be prepared before yund the building }) The shape ofthe plot and the boundary of the Setback line at the front, back and sides. sections, back may be defined as frontage margin or road, The land contained in set-back ed 10 as a building line and is s by the local authority, beyond vundaries. Certain buildings ike Targe number of vehicles, should jine. ‘This Kine after this extra a fine depends upon the site of the proposed building; width and future widening requirements. : ing line ot set-backs are as follows: {ii) Any permanent boundaries or marks if any existing on site, Us) Type of exiting see o ad longi i name and width shouldbe ing (0) Grade elevation a the cere line should also be indicated. Grade el ae Silke corners of the plot and at the corners of the house shewia'™ sted by means of conto. s. eae fand location of detached garage or a i) North line and wind direction should be indicated clearly. ii) Widih and type of footpaths, if any. underground drainage ti 1ains, ventilating pipes reliced lowing are the advantages of the bui bsolutely necessary, part of the setbacks may be acquired for the purpose ‘widening the road the buildings are constructed in one line in improvement of road. Its into better conditions of air, (iv) The (®) The space of setbacks can be conveniently used ‘or for developing as garden. + ‘They are necessary for the protection of the buildings from (ii) They reduce the danger of fire by increasing opposite buildings. j cand with respect to its weather , it becomes economical22 nese 7. MAIN CON! BYE-LAWS OF THE LOCALITY The concept of architecture was predominant in old days in publi (ke religious places such as temples, churches, etc. The industrial rev ‘ompletely the concept of standard of living and it also gave birth system. lea to develop the urban property in the of rural people 10 the usban area led to th of construction and accordiny teel which are suitable for framed structures werethe privacy of individual rooms ‘paces can be fruitflly utilized forIMPORTANT BUILDINGS COMPONENTS 16. What is meant by oric ‘good orientation of the bui back or building line (5) Modern architecture been discussed in previous chapter of basic requirements of a building and (2) Bye-taws and regu Horizontal circulation and cy ees (2) Wind and breeze External privacy and (8) Cancer and eapricom (8) Privacy (8) Hotdry and hot-wet (5) Aspect and elegance 19. Give reasons for the following: (1) A good planning of a building is beneficial to national (2) Every locality prepares of frames certain rules and r the development of area under its command. (3) The provision of set-back or building line is necessary. (4) ESI. can be used as a measure to check density of population satisfy the following requirements in its design and construction: (5) The architect should have thorough knowledge of the building byelm (1) Comfort and convenience (6) There is 2 temperature gradient from equal poles. (2) Dimensional stability e (3) Durability Vertical circa ‘internal privacy (9) Marine climate and continental cimae ‘growth and ps ations conta the efficiency of the structure to its intended purpose. From the performance point of view, the building should be well planned to give maximum comfort and convenience to the occupants of the building. ‘To achieve the above three basic fundamental requicements, a building. should Fire protection feat or thermal insulation Light and ventilation (8) Moisture or ee c ne (9) Security against ee, ‘at site of the proposed work. i ical architect is expected to know the climate of the locality. ‘case of multi-storied buildings accommodating lifts, ais ample light is: of primary’ significance. stairs, &Wy olfect of glare. in of natural air and (iti) Due weightage should be of the occupants of the (W) Grouping of the rooms should Pedeuciitlization’ of space, and’ maxivne’, eff @) Dimensional stability: The changes i, the dimension: are caused due to the followi v Elastic and plastic deformation or EFeep due to ap, i) Expansion and contraction due temperature vari in the Mnosphere, which res (iil) Chemical Following are the W) The effect of be to living, working i Working: ing. be 40 planned as to ensy 1 materials and m measures. to prevent dimensional changes: elast deformation is taken care fe BY considering tic deformation is taken into account Hon against failure in design, © °""' PY consida, t modulus of elastic fey which are deformed due to moistur, hecessary restraint to shrinkage or expansion of the mate, misls ‘which have a large extensibility, means x tensile strength to avoid cracking, ime upto which the building remai of a building depends upon following fa “* to weathering which ite, aspect and height of and windows should be in such mai og a building in ‘rials and in the protection of a bt ings egg: ‘spect should be considered yssod structurally sound: rm a ace oC fe ean ded wih ie’ a uh re en, Th canes esa be ih saci plenlagof Walla oreonn edited ic an insulating material. In the construction of walls, roofs, floors ele, to building should be provided with chhalja, eanopy, w > anaes sirden dle Wo nchleverneat ulin : (lv) Top terrace of the building should be insulated against heat economically. by using special flooring method. aA rn In every building position, number and sizes of door (7) Light and ventilation: In every st ee i High eons Suite: daylight should Tech ling, to erate pleasing environment to work a eintislad Ge giieg reqetcemea vis ise(\) The proper an he iterence (8) Moisture or damp prevention: One of the all the buildings i that the’ st poamcee results in reduction entry of damp inlo ‘of entry of damp into a bui Rec ocen |e rooting, The prov walls, floor the buildings are given the tr rovision of damp-proof courses prevents the entry of f a building. er leakage. The common problem and is concentrated on the walls should be strong enough. Also window openings should be MS. Grill or concrete jal or by any other means. In important bi high security is required, automatic alarm systems are also provided. 10) Sound insulation: It is necessary to give attention to the sound i uildings because of various factors such as increase in population, increase in noise pollution, improvement The function of sound insulating construction is © materials are used for sound ‘ovér structural floors, insulation inthe building jeous structure, hollow walls naterials like fiber boards, miner! ‘transmissions through wall partitions: “i and rigid the sound jumen, asbestos, ould be planned andards or as per the 45 10.50 45 10 55 50 to 60 60 10 65, designing structure. es are popularly known as while ants a3 they of the ants is longer than their rs are equal. There are over 2300 species je species are responsible for the damage of the buildings i ina colony and they are very fast in eating wood and other food. The forms their basic nutrient. They also damage household artic furniture, furnishings, clothing, stationery, plastic, leather, rubber, etc. ‘The termites are not only nuisance but they affect structural safety and durability of the building. Once the termites enter the building, it becomes v difficult rid of them, . ‘The removal of termites from a building is not an supplies of food in a buildi ich as text vegetable products, plastic insulation by termites their strength and Itis therefore advisable to adopt the pre-portions of masonry These 3-3. IMPORTANT BUILDING COMPONENTS. Usually a building is divided into three parts the part of a building constcucted below level and which is in direct contact with s nd transmits all the is the building above the ground ind Upto the floor immediacy abe te grun ae alge mech Be known as plinth area. oe gin ah pn, oes level (iii) Masonry or R.C.C. walls and columns in superstructure iv) Basement, Ground fl ills, lintels and weather sheds Doors, windows and ventilators (is) Building finishes like plastering, painting, whitewashing, flooring, etc. (&) Utility fixtures. carefully as most of the failures are prot lesign oe than any other cause. Various types of foundatioo ose ign. princi dis in the chapter ebadatons ta ta Seep Ples are dlscassed in detail in the chapte! A Part of superstructure located between the ground level and the wn as the plinth. The height of the plinth should es im First oor slab Sopersimetare RCC limel +f Ground for: Plinth leve hoor rE Plinth [VericalD.P.. 7 Foundation: Subst Foundation’ 2. J+—Wian of foundationConstruction, Coping» Perea RCC. root sab —| Catling} tc Watershed oe 4 hha Window—,| — ed OF . rick wall Dany retin Wid a Flooring c= hess z i setae, Sand ig ee Foundation (Z ted level Components of a building Fic 3-2 (iv) Fase) ground floor and upper floors: \ floor pi Ort to th ‘cupants, tures and fh ¢ of nonal divide the liferen aus pereeeiiee ad on a given plot of land, The floor of « building imm ve thy ground is known as ground floor. All other floors above the ground flo known as upper floors, The floor below the ground level is known y Sement floor or lower level flor. ) tke pl : ea Every floor ara they improve the appearance of the struct 8S (0) Sub-ftor: ie ce suring. Thay also rectly the defective workmanship i ring, whitewashing, Plastering, pointing, painting, varnishing, dist 1, whitewashi our weahingy Mooring es are considered finishes. strength damp prevention, (b) Flooring: 1t consists of suitable floor durabl wear-resisting surface. which imparts clean, smoot, are provided between th tue ral erase ae Pointing is the process of finishing of mortar or brick masonry. The joints are raked out then these spaces are filled up by a suitabChapter 4 \ SITE INVESTIGATION ‘i AND | GROUND TECHNIQUES | 4. Why are the changes in 5. What is durability? On 8, Why is ventilation essential in every building? 9. What are the effects of moisture or dampness in a building? 10. Why is sound insulation in a building necessary? \ sound insulation in a building? I, Discuss three main parts of a building. 12, Write down the structural components of a building and expla 13, Draw a neat sketch showing all important components of a bu 14, Write short notes on: (1) Functional requirements of the building (2) Fire protection in a building (3) Heat and sound insulation (4) Termite control in a building (5), Lepesant iret! components of the building 15. Differentiate between the following: 1M brig study would a a building of the structure in selecting an economical but safe design for cs of the foundation sol i.e, it behavior under loading and also Conditions, ate very important and it governs the selection indation to be selected e.g. black cotton soil which is typically, dation and in most of the cases, Therefore, site i (1). Roof decking and roof covering (2) Ramp and escalator forms the most important part in finding 0 that needs to be used in the design of the foundation. The sub-soil exploration gives precise information with respect to the following conditions at site of the proposed work: Jocation of ground water and its variation; nature and engineering characteristics of the soil and rock formation; and order of occurrence and extent of different soit strata. Fa building should be, constructed as cavity walls. 4-2. DEPTH OF EXPLORATION secrete nels aE CI ion will have to be decided very carefully. The term a building should be designed very carefully. ae eR Cald UaREeIs tic essesa eeeeeeeroe 5 a icate the depth upto which the pi Pecans is to be finished with plastering, painting, whitewash ase’ peceepile setlement or shertflure of se foundations, The general be adopted to d of exploration for | fixtures are avoided, various types of structures and site condit i tis | insulation of a buildingToot spacin, igs with clear é gation and Ground Techalanes | the wits 82 orice 1 & should be dg on the te to know the the expoted levels of the ground Fee our ar soon athe excavation of The tent pis ou eu and eesdoneerea ce cee Sees Be oo ns coe to ee See es aoe ee thickness im th into the ground fod of weal or feu Lavine < develo eae ee cae teas ne eee ee ta Be regs ed Renseay withdtrn nad te masta ego end is examined. '‘This method is based on th by artificial explosions lie to the fact that the velocity o line. Some of the waves, kn . The oF TALE 42 MAXIMUM SAFE_BEARING CAPACITY OF VARIOUS SOILS Wet, pasty or muddy cay cotton toil in dry condition (50% saturation) y clay and sand.elay mixture || Medi clay Compact Wales 200 150 mm jecomes essential to cofferdam. The double ». under as shown in fig. 8 ion, the wales connecting the ‘on the barge are in the diagonal ‘as shown in fig. 87. ‘separate gang of workers ‘barge and fixes sheet piles and mails them with the I. The sheet piles are provided with suitable notches e wales are usually broken at the joints while ed to in the construction of Ohio river type‘Typical section A-A of cellular cofferdam FG. 8-14 Following points are worth noting in connection with the cellular coferdams: (i) This type of cofferdam has got the advantage that | its construction. Only top and bottom templates are in proper position. falsework is required required lo drive the lular cofferdams can also be used on an iregular river bed. The lengths sheet piles will have to be adjusted according ta the profile of the tained through the abilit lee These eta hes oa ee : smooth, Otherwise, it will break a‘The puddle should be laid in should be wellrammed before the nex the water should be adi thus clear that a purely theor far nccunted desig Tt Bae %e = ine practical knowledge or experience with the theore fn the desi ee ige oF expe tical aapects i the design QUESTIONS 8 1 Define a cofferdam. What are the points to be kept in mind while constructing a cofferdam?, 2 Mention the uses of a cofferdam. 3, Enumerate the factors which influence the choice of a particular type of cofferdam. 1, 4 What are dikes? What is their use? short notes on the following: Earth-fil cofferdams (2) Sandbag cofferdams (4) Suspended cofferdams 6. Describe the method of constructing a single wall cofferdam. iver type wood sheeting cofferdams.and in ited by foundation engincers. 9-2. USES OF CAISSONS: 9-2. USES OF CAISSONS lowing are the uses of caissor each the hard bearing stratum (or trans the load coming on supports ‘Fo serve as an impervious core sach other. {li To provide an access to a deep shaft or lis) To provide an enclosure below water level for installing machinery, pump ee, 9-3. COFFERDAM AND CAISSON hen placed adjacent to jeen a cofferdam and a caisson is ms the part of the perman aking. a choice between cofferdam and caissonane 91 Catsons ell bas (0 pass If the number of wets a wo, \ Way be eo fe an elipcal wl Were used on the el world wan ‘Shapes of well Fic, 92 mnoliths and cylinders will now be briely isson with a single wall is used where much ateial to be sunk through is very sot If sft as much of it as ponsible beforeoa ae tom phig is (0 a provide any reinforcement. . (ix) The interior space of the well is filled either y iy Aap usually in the form of an RLC.C. \¢inside of well ‘All the work is done above waier level and the depth upto ‘There ix no theoretical limi ‘The unskilled labour can be employed for the cons isadvantages of monoliths: Following are the disadv ‘The foundation level is not available for inspe fe of sinking cannot be estimated correctly when boulders or such have a thorough control over th rade large enough to accommod: jerete is placed under water and hence concrete under dry conditions cing of a mono inspite of the disadvantag caisson Js widely used for the foundation work of bridge piers, The use of a monolith is justified for such depths of water which for the cofferdam process or which will prohibit the use (8) Cylinders: An open piers. It is used when dept inder js a convenient form of foundation for bridge water is more than 12 metres or when it becomes essential (0 go deep to avoid exposure of foundations due to scouring action of owing water, The cylinder is a light shell Permanent structure. The cylinders may be of cast-iron, cement concrete or mild sieel: The reinforced cement concrete is used for large diameters and the mild is used for small diameters, Following is the procedure adopted in the construction of a cylinder: () The first section of cylinder is brought to the site of work and it is kept in Vertical position before sinking of the cylinder starts. For this purpose, the staging is invariably used as shown in fig, 9-8 and fig. 9-9. The cylinders are usually taken in lengths of 2 metres to 3 metres. They are : e material from fonde of the cylinder and snkin weight on top of cylind pile ¢ ie thickn«aw 9) Calsone F (io) The thickness is leas and hence, 1 {o) They require additional loading fo igh bridges I weight is Tess. Stealth of the work tet of water below the free surface of water can be worked out from th pai p= pressure in KN/m? fom dennity of water in KN/m3 = 9.81 KN/m ea ‘k= head of water in m, the, P= (0.81 x 1) = 9.81 KN/m? ‘Now, the limiting air pressure under which a man can work is about 343 N/m eave, the maximum depth of water upto which a pneumatic caisson can be adopted where table health controls for the labourers. its operation.sy fs eas and hence, they are ‘additional loading for sinking seas are adopted when the depth 5 tah of water upto which pneumatic ealssons can be used ‘ rtalth of the workers. The air pressure correspond } traf water below the feee surface of water can be worked ou i me pao ¥ ' where = pressure in KN/m? te = density of water in N/m = 9.81 KN/s ae air pressure under which a man depth of water upto which ‘The pneumatic cai tnd the method proves to of sinking of the caisson affords the various adeantages such as ins res high degree of skill in its ope The cox! of construction fs high, The depth of penetratia of pressure is n jens. But i will form Cana “shift also, the pia ioting periods, a person from the air ing, chambers designated the working chamber. pessure in this case is the gauge presn ee wee: the pre hove 1c interval also increases wi See A typical chart can be framed as shown in table - a! TABLE 9-1 INTERVAL BETWEEN WORKING PERIODS ‘Gauge pressure in N/m? ; 2 2 2 w 8 xt mber: It is desirable to ‘maintain a in the working chamber. Ifthe temperature i the efficiency of the wor temperature re than this, rkers, Every working chamber Serre thermometer in good working condilon: ‘No person should be employed to ‘work reas been pysialy examined bY 8 SOMBER relatively normal blood the work. The engin rogen by volum that amo f the workers: pressures desirable for a worker to stay for about one hour ft is over. orkers should be made fully conversant with the use of bet be informed regarding the provisions of tt asson sickness and advised to'make the ben ant one in the air locks to indicate in advance smoking inside the air-locks should be prohibited and the workers guld not be allowed to carry with them any flammable materal (aisson or pier foundation is used to indicate mainly a compression d to the axial load at the top and reaction of the bottom. It consists three parts: is may be of any shape. strum of cone with vertical side at bottom and side slope |, Such a shape prevents the caving of soil. portion connecting bell with cap and it isin the form of a unding soil exerts confining pressure which tends to increase ‘strength of concrete. The minimum diameter of the caisson shaft ‘portion of the caisson and its design is made in such fe transferred to the caisson shaft. A light network yrovided between cap and shaft to develop the necessary bond. RUCTION OF DRILLED CAISSON of construction of the drilled caisson:‘A dry dock is constructed on the upstream sd portion caisson is built jepared portion 48 floating and, from the river bank. In je the river are supported“Thick plac 15mm Thick plate — FT Anges 100 mmx 100mm x12 mm Cutting edge with sharp end x12mm “= Pate 300 mm x 20 m0 150 mm> 150 mm | Lirsection afnw ot) sre skin friction in pot such tthe ease a ated 80 9:20. METHODS TO FACILITATE THE SINKING OF CAISSONS ‘The methods which are usually adopted (o facilitate the sinking of caissons areas follows: ‘method, the jets are provided near the cutting edge e jets may be embodi facilitates the sinking of caisson. are used to remove any obstruction sucha ae ei Pe te 4, a caisson sinks more on one ‘and it is mainly due to th suniform beating power are the methods which may be employed to bring | dee the tilted caisson in vertic ‘The accuracy required in fp the extent of abot 1 mmm and i is achieved by sensidoped? Now WW comerscad ae eatonsr melt Whit sr te precautions 1 takes jods employed for the floating of a culting edge? What ls ‘are the factors that affect the choice of!steel caisson with con @ifor the construc. * {sto be noted that the masonry raditional technology. Even though new P fnilding construction processes, the masonry has Construction are adopted in the constach the highest importance in the building industry: is the frustrum of ‘The masonry is used fc construction of ry tructure. The basic advantage of the masonry for at it performs a variety of functions like: affording architectural effect, ranting fire and weather protection, roviding acoustic and thermal insulation, Fm as compared to obs (©) supporting loads, ete. The (opie of stone masonry will be discussed in this chapter and that of Brick ‘masonry in the subsequent chapter. 40-2. MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR ‘STONE MASONRYplinth as {evel from ground level. The plinth course protects "rain, water, frost, ‘The’ offset at plinth «building from sometimes moulded and given ornamental treatment. the plinth and the cornice is termed as a string |. a plane surface and it is sometimes moulded Ge evening cause iy wesshcred aad Uhrauied soe a onsott atrial Fic ) water clear of the wall. surface. NOWN as a couric and 2; brick plus the thas der to prevent be fat the top in tlRebated jamb Fic, 10-10 .e horizontal stones provided at the top of openings for doors, ‘known as the heads or lintels. A bearing of 150 mm to 200 mm should jorizontal seatings which are s and mullions are called ‘are formed at the ends of sills, .cting course from an arch or ‘a label Tis usually moulded a drip stone.shown in fig. 10-18, In this joint, the sinking is made on the lower joint so as to avoid the possibility of ceniry of water through the mortar joints,stones, Fig. 10.24 shows filling of the moras.rubble masonry Of construction Tes extensively us mp fetaining walls, etc. In order to make the work more stable, the at the ends are sometimes Pobygonal rubble masonry (ig. In this type of rubble masonry, the stones are ressedloes not exceed 6 mm ry the remaining from quarry.ay25 cure the stones with ms of rubble masonry. gies on the following: jarry faced masonry types of ashlar masonry? required in stone masonry. jeties of finishes for stonework? /ed to lift stones and to place them in position?masonry should have the same characteristics sed in the stone masonry, The mud mortar js sometimes used in brick. ed je Jw strength bricks are available and wiere the superimposed londs are Sizes, The custom in the locality is the governing — size of a brick. Such bricks which are not standardised chs. to burn them properly and they become the other hand, if bricks are small, morea 18 to region depending, the techniqueObtuse squint Fic. 11-40a7 fig. 10-80, ot be used exept ers. ick should be rejected and not d to carry out the brickwork at a iaken Out to create stipports for the wen the scaffolding is removed. vel. The vertical faces ved surfaces, any, awork should be carried out as p cked by means of a plumb ced by means of wooden tempi 0 be u ‘studied befor sed a med y period of about one actors and hence ickness of a wally thi in the brickwort tical Joad shoud seein eaeab and beams coming ia al of hot bitumen,10M to the so, IES, the stoner, ing of ashlar masonry and backing of brickwork. Ic of ashlar as a multiple of brick plus the tain the coursed masonry work. The allernate courses of | the header bricks should be used under each projectingBacking composite ma mora ane adopted to prem Masonry ches, Wow bonds are provided Wrst and 2 bras in brickwork fe the details of bond at yu observe while supervising the brickwork? wing: Herring-bone bond Expansion joint at roof Jevel (8), Expansion joint at foundation level (9) Sliding joint. site masonry? What arc its advantages? le loads for different types of brick masonry. s 1 for safe permissible lcampip meceesery” to take. fe portion of the ail or the form of iron ted expanded met eee tal meth rable ¥ qsed tnd with prop o gto th ac a ea = ‘wide rangeCantilever scaffolding Ho, Mt Scaffolding AiG. M1 (#) Suspended scaffolding: This wed only fr the ‘maintenance works sich c. The working platform is suspenc?OINTS TO BE ATTENDED To IN SCAFFOLDIN, wing important points should be earef Bedding of stand: lates of suitable size should be provi timber sole plate may be provided on wi area e scaffolding should never be loaded heavily ma aly structure and in case of single scaffolding, one of id ie eeeA ettics or ie masonry. oar This can be achieve ferent ats A vertical or horizontal tube, wedged by means of a reveal Provided in an opening and one of the ends of the putlogs ma tube. fi) A tube may be provided across the opening ends of the pullogs may be coupled wi i) The rakers, strutting from the ground lev. After the scaffolding is removed, the hol ly filled up. ading and more for ligh and support ix ‘of an exiating build q Dalen ut or ening cunts ‘The shoring can be carried out either in tnber o a iber anc ‘The timber surfaces shoal oc et agaloxt wet rot ioaece eens Oe ee ot iis aay cee et ere wary widely in mature and should be studied separately and lying or horizontal shores ad or vertical shores. to the wall. ‘ings The feet of rakers are ‘onnected with the‘© be rebuilt or reconsiructed, (iy) The large openings are to be made in the existing wall Foor 7] or [Neue Proposed opening y A Deadsore-+l] 1) Tneoenpor|| (Z| mY YZ iB As Section Elevation Dead shore Following points are to be noted: (i) _Itis possible to calculate the stresses in the various members of (ii) The needles are placed at a distance of about 1.50 m (o 2 mi "suitably braced. The folding wedges, sole plate, dogs and brac ; shown in fig. 14-9. ting fou ss the underpinning 8 ‘be constructed adjoining oan existing foundation bas taken place, resulting in vous Shoring and strutting: The necessary shoring and strutting should be provided. e it safe for carrying out the process of underpinning. examined before structure: The structure should be ear is necessary to carry out urgent repairs such as grouting of eracks, ods between walls, etc. before commencing underpinning. ) Checking arrangement: The levels may be marked on the structure andthe icture during underpinning should be checked and recorded. Expensive operation: The process of underpinning is an art rather than » bh J iclence of soll mechanics, much guesswork in ‘ederpinning is (6) Bearing plate: When RS. j ‘avoid the crushing of masonry. liscellaneous methods.1g foundation is taken upto the required level. Following precautions necessary: ‘section should be excavated at a time, in both the directions. Proper timbering should rovided for the trench, lesirable to carry out the fon work in concrete, ving are some of the specialised underpinning methods idopted: (2) Chemical consoldation 4) Vibrofiotat ach of the above method will now be brief (i) Cement grouting: This method is used, | The operation is simple, The holes are sa Tsar presi Unoegh these Teneat grout has set.(Constre ction’ resses high resistance to sh IO squeeze Out underSN15-3. WATER-LEAKAGE aoe aL EAKAG Meaning of th to mean the com buildings. tear toilet: The join ren flooring ‘ould be made lea pot by appa emo buildings is the most common probl Tesidential flats, hospitals, offices, schoot URES FOR Water feF leakage in the buildings 4g woid damages to househo lodged and lose or other zuilable valves which do not easse vibrations. ‘The improper fixing of the rain water spouts ia the roof ge. For instance if the rain water spout is fixed at higher ignates and the leakage starts. Ifthe terrace door is not provided with sill, the water wil find entry in the staircase through the door. ter proofing of terrace: To prevent leakage from the roof, th tr be given proper water-proofing treatment. The joint between Parapet wall should be properly finished to avoid leakages. drainage system to provide wheel (0). Rain water spout Is to les (3) Defects in design. Each of the above category of defect will now be briefly descrit (2) Defects due to poor maintenance: The neglected ‘maintenanee Weathering and aging leads to the water leakage in the existing buildings, water is dynamic and rushes through valves, traps, washers, taps and cockt several places in the building. These things are subjected to const They therefore require perio‘ ince. As such, non-repairing tal to the safety of the structure. Following are the meas e water leakage due to poor maintenance: % 150 mm’ shoul locations should benat git durin sakagges after consirucion, TER-PROOFING OF FLAT ROOFS roofs in the modern age are generally consu removes all the defects of f by employing any one of theregions of s Sabterrancan or ground Ean filling Icis alyo to be ni ‘once they have e1 mite construction, Fig, 15-8 not possible for e through dense sof other solid millions of 3 every yi care to safeguard against termite of structures. 15-4-2. GENERAL PRINCIPLES oF TERMITE-PROOFING allowing general principles should be obs while termite-proof: B en es =a ‘Be ba (1) Bridging: It should be Of building and untreated soil For such foundations, it is not necessary je sat the treatment from the bottom of eccivation a5 shown in fig. 15-9, Its sufictent to treat the soil upto 500 mm xlow ground level or upto the bottom of level is less than (2) Cost: Once the termites have established in particular building, i he difficult and costly to remove them completely, It fe therfore ables Syne hee chairs F termite-proofing during. the construction of bulldia Shall berelore be carted’oul eee suitable treatment o (3) Drainage: It is necess: are attacked (0 the moisture. should be constructed around ‘gality materials and! better workmanship. {"} Method of termite-proofing: The method to be adopted for term «fa building should be decided while keeping in’ view the local co ‘uterials (© be used in its construction. y a {®) Site clearance: The site of building should be carefully in Gall dad wood, old tree stumps, etc. If mounds of sublerranean t Sey should be destroyed by for lier making openings or holes i vo!) Superstructure: The m ‘he termite attack should mbes such as door! fram s ary to ensure adequate site drainage Where possible, the concrete or the periphery of the building as shown A construction would prevent the seepage of water (o the If it is not possible to construct the aprons, the stone led below the rain water pipes to help drain away the rainBuilding Construction(7) Under the ising different hysical ies fen pera ape ie, bitumen, calcium chloride, coal wh, | organic ols, potassium chloride, silieate hromate, etc. For instance, when calcium ‘depend entirely on local con | iaierials of which concrete is composed may be subjecrnd MATERIALS USED IN R.C.C. WORK to know the complete detail of any admixture before i sether with the following factors: « S troduction of ordinary Porelan eating material. Most of the cement concrete werk coy Pea aot Coney Portland cement at present. But other special lump and retention, ment and hi ition, spective activities in the concrete mix, the admixtures can lowing five categories: igh range of water reducers or super plasticisers, jormal range of water reducers or plasicisers, and 1e combined effect of of admixturesTheories of corrosion: The vari been developed. Following are fo (1) Chemical action theory or Electrolytic theory or clectrachemical alvanic action theory temperature oxidation, mical action theory or direct corrosio: corrosion produced by means of a cher the oxygen of the atmosp! Following chemical reactions are involved in the corrosic Fe+0+2C0,+H,0 2 Fe (HCO3). + O 2 Fe (OH) CO; +2 Co, 4 ) (OH) CO; + H,0 Fe (OH); + CO, . ie arbon dioxide and mo yrrosion: The acti ‘under except (it) Prevention of corrosion: ‘The sel is most study of steel corrosion nount of development of16-5. SEA WATER FOR MAKING CONCRETE fall chlorides tend to act Of concrete in earl ag of cement and the net effect o TABLE 16-1 _COMPOSITION OF AVERAGE SEA WATER Cement Concrete Contraction etween the cement particles. During the takes place between water and cement. This substance, known as the concrele.Coment Concrete Contry 1/20 amas i Olsaae a 30 and 1s H 7PE8 Of conga ‘mentioned in qioy the: os OF CONCRETE, Nature of work led REC, coh isms and Og? Mass concrete work in culvert, Mass concrete work for heavy walls, aa oe footings, etc. 77 sufficient water is added (0 aggregate to make the mix ‘ore than the ¥ that 1 more than the voids in the fin The method of minimum voids owing facts (The presence of cemeactual method of ff concrete mix , compacion, tc Bat «eas a “rule-of-thumb, Primate yell of conc wa exceedt 40 ii) There are chance? o of samy rion of conerele is aibie Le. if or aggrogares arc mixed by 4+ b+. of coment, 5 b parts of sand and ‘resulting concrete will have a can be determined ey are accurately by considering the See aap scar shiny Tine va ie componenis of concrete phis the vol AF lai mp, The shear sump Forms of slumps Soe th gt ot Fr obiained when the 9 Fic. 164 be the absolute volumes of wat, Cement, fin argc a spectively. teteaiocvers ae he conte considered mg for placing: Fees cccurs only In case of plastic mixes. t does not occur a pele Meany | Pye of absolute volume can be obiained by the relation: collowigg are the ftv commonly used tests for the workability of the co. weight of the materia ¥ oe absolute volume = eee apparent sp. gx unit wef water Gompaciion facior test (2) Ver-bee test. Of the above (est will be Briefly discussed. (1) Compaction factor test: In this test, the workability of concrete is meas: in terms of internal energy req compact the conerete fully. ‘The concrete is allowed (o fi ywer cylindrical mould of 150 mm dianeie and 300 mm height through fo v ced conical hoppers. The surplus conaex appearing above the top of the mould is removed with a trowel, The weight oft concrete in the mould is then found out. ‘The theoretical weight of concrete without any air voids is worked out from & Faimate the yield of concrete per bag of cement for « concrete mix of propordos ato By re of thumb: ‘A bag of cement contains 0,035 m® of cement ; Yield of conerete of proportion (1:2:4) study of the conerete mix. The compaction factor is calculated as follows: ; (compen = sbserved weight of concrete = (0.035 + 2 x 0.035 + 4 0.035) , 2 theoretical weight of concrete = 0,163 m3 | The relation between compaction factor and workability is mentioned in table! qi i ; 2) By absolute volumes: a 0 TABLE 16-7 COMPACTION FACTOR AND WORKABILITY ee ieee a er (a nny ee Cement © Spgs 35 and wt in cach bag O30 pt 4 Sp. gr 2.65 and vat we 16 KN/a#) 7 TT 0 and wall wt 16 N/m! When GY Coarse aggregate: Sp. 6 2! Water-cement ratio + 0,60 times wt of cement Unie wt of water; 10 KN/mt.(¥) The inside portion of the should be inspected carefully atregular intervals, The damaged or broken blades should be replaced (vi) The time of mi ingle thickness. tq cessive horizontal wtgh bond between, should be thoroughly worked srouad the oneycombed sui © ken 10 develop en should be ri manufacturer of the mixer. ould be cons, | TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF c NCRETE * ! Comes Out of the mixer or c placing of concre id placed on the formwork Baad for transport of concrete depends on the nature of work, distance between the points of preparation and For ordinary building works, the human la conveyed in pans from hand to hand. For impor d i) The concrete discharged by the mixe ould be carried out uninterrupted beoween pre devermined construction joinis, 16:14, CONSOLIDATION OF CONCRETE 1 term consolidation of concrees used to mean the compaction between aggregate ete between’ aggregste’and reinfonccmnenl and Getyfeen Gperessi eal erat fs dumpers, truck mixers, buckets, 5 The main aim of consolidation of concrete isto elimina ax bubbles and thus o used. The two important precautions neces yt maximum density to the concrete. An intimate coolact between concrete and renforcement is ensured by proper consolidation. lic ‘be seen from the fact that a ‘The importance of consolidation of concrete can ieee pence of i of voids reduces 30% stengh of octet ioc bt ‘ids and pores may be noted. The pee the gaps aR see a ‘The pores represent the openings within ividual parties, eR sfoneree can be caried out either by hand ot whee i (1) Hand consolidation: For unimportant works, ‘Sed out by the hand methods wl rammi {Waitable tools, The hand metho (reer be remembered that wl esate the use of vibra {UG the concrete mixes circumstances, the water should be added from mixer to the formwork. during theof places where be Following are the feur types of vibrato () Internal or immersion vibrators i) Surface vibrators (Gi) Form or shutter vibrators (iv) Vibrating tables. Frequency Te wo Aaternal or immersion vibrators: These ‘is inserted in fresh concrete. to an electric motor or a available in size frequency ig inversely Proportional ta the ime of if Trequency is more he ee of vibration, din less time and vice vers’ ™OUdation of concrete wll be © spacing ber i 4615. CURING OF CONCRETE about 3000 @) Purposes: Following are the objects or purposes ofthe caring of concrete: fi) The curing protects the concrete surfaces from the sun and the wind. (i) The presence of water is essential to cause the chemical ation which accompanies: the setting of concrete. Normally, there is aan adequate quantity of water at the time of mixing to cause hardening of concrete. But it is necessary to retain water until the ees (i) The strength of concrete gradually increases with ge if crag i Ths eee oa strength i sudden and api ey ages nine slowly for an indefinite period. 7 Gb () By proper curing, the durability and impermeability of concret increased and shrinkage is re “et oo. (The resistance of concrete to abrasion i coaster nese by a 8) Period of ne Portland cement, the ctter cy ions at its base, "'Sity, They prove to be econoi concrete pipes, poles, girders, es, manufacturin, 8 Pree, 16-16, COLOURED CONCRETE By using coloured cement for the preparation of cement concrete, By selecting aggregates possessing the required colour, The coloured concret is used for the following purposes: (i) manufacture of items for public welfare; (ii) ornamental finishes in the buildings; preparing park lanes; ) separating lines of traffic of road surfaces; (¥) underground pedestrian crossings; etc, 16-17. LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE The bulk density of ordinary concrete is about 23 kN/m’, The concrete havig ulk density between 5 KN/m3 to 18 KN/m’ is known as the lightweight concless! is prepared from the following materials: (1) Binding material: The ordinary Portland cement and its varieties can be #4 binding material! If local binding material such as Ailable, the same can also be adopted as binding mat i ie: 5 1) Aggregates: For lightweight concrete, the loose porous materials fregates. The natural porous aggregates can be obtained by crushing he artificial porous aggregates can be obtained from the indus The lightweight concrete i e-slag,, lime-cinder, et © a concrete doesnot pee fresing and thawing. Ibis due qc kely to become sired, a ‘The lighteight concrete bas compat eu ) fire resistance is greater as compared tg esa enaeTe APL Hence weight concrete has generally slower thermal on thermal expansion than ordinary ‘The sound absorption of lightweight concrete is good because ofthe that air-borne sound energy is converted into heat in the mined the concrete. The sound absorption coeffieal of Ge hae ee i ofthe lgheight con nearly twice than that of the ordinary contre Sn enecomree ‘he only drawback of lightweight concrete is tha the depth of carbonation tthe dapih within which corrosion can occur under suitable conditions i eay tice hon ur of normal conerete. Hence special care will have tobe taken to provide suliceat cover to the reinforcement of lightweight structures to grant protection against corrosion 16-18. NO-FINES CONCRETE The no-fines conc ‘ggregute or sand i extemal load bearing dump proofing sub-base materi Fol ing are the advantages of the no-ines concrete; “clon ) As compared to the conventional concrete the drying shinkabe concrete is relatively low. As there is absence of capillary passage® by capillary action, i ‘hence it Itis a type of lightweight concrete and with the eee concrete construc anyenonal concrete It possesses better insulating characteris there is no transmision of water ants te advanngs associated (iv) is highly porous and hence, i rcement, if not properly protected. Hence the lightweight ely dense when used for RCC, worke Sometimes te ri! because of the presence of large voids: irements 2 thls cet does not ©) ‘There is direct saving in thea ee ng of cement perm Tequire sand which results in considerable: a