1 Modernity&Architecture

Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA
Unit 1
Modernity &
Architecture
1
SYLLABUS
• UNIT I MODERNITY AND ARCHITECTURE 10

• Overview of modernity as a historical phenomenon and its
various aspects and manifestations, encompassing social,
cultural, technological, economic and political changes.
Outline of various strands of modernity in architecture.
• Enlightenment ideals, Neo Classical architecture and its
types.
• Outline of Industrial Revolution and associated changes.
Urban transformations in Europe and America. Housing
projects. New building types and spaces. Industrial material
of steel, glass and concrete. New construction techniques
and standardization. Split of design education into
architecture and engineering streams. Industrial exhibitions.
• Chicago School, skyscraper development and Louis Sullivan.
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Modernism
• “Modernism is both a philosophical movement and an art
movement that aims to depart significantly from classical and
traditional forms”.
• “A movement towards modifying traditional beliefs in accordance
with modern ideas”. Modernist Architecture’s
Questions:
• Modernism on the contrary to Classical era, is based on a notion
that Time is Linear and not cyclic. This stressed on the importance
of documenting the past to learn and preserve it for the future. • Why do we build the way we
Origin of Modernity build?
• wide-scale and far-reaching transformations in Western

society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries Extraordinary • Why should we build it the
technical changes same way?
• the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid
growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I
• What is this way BASED on?
• Birth of new consciousness that started to question its own Whose ideas?
IDENTITY.
• Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking,
and many modernists rejected religious belief
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Birth of Modernism
• Questioned the Universal validity of Vitruvian

proportions?
• Result: Physical excavation of prehistoric to ancient Factors responsible for the birth
buildings and structures to document and of modern architecture
understand them afresh
a. Birth of revolutionary theories
• Increased man’s ability to control nature
b. Birth of historiography
• Split between Architecture and Engineering as two
different fields c. Concept of picturesque
• Discussion began on a question whether the MODERNS d. The age of revival - Revivalism
could not rival or even surpass the ANCIENTS to
achieve the highest ideal of Art.
• Result: Replacement of CYCLIC model of history and life
with the PROGRESSIVE model addressing every
age as unique and unrepeatable and as an advance on
proceeding periods.
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BIRTH OF REVOLUTIONARY THEORIES

• Vitruvian Trinity: - The most traditional definition of the architecture had the following aspects -
1. Utilitas-commodious planning
2. Firmitas- sound construction
3. Venustas- Pleasing appearances
• Concept of ‘space’ as a positive architecture entity was added in the modern era. Though the
architects with revolutionary ideas disputed the responsibility of the virtruvian concept,
revolutionary architecture cannot discard any of these, but can only vary the degree of emphasis
placed on one or more of these essential constituents at cost of the others.
• The four major architects who pioneered revolutionary theories were
a. John Soane
b. E.L.Boullee
c. C.N.Ledoux
d. J.N.L.Durand
• Their ideas were revolutionary as against “evolutionary”, whose aim was not to maintain
tradition by applying and reinterpreting old principles in the length of changing conditions to re-
evaluate the principles themselves 5
BIRTH OF REVOLUTIONARY THEORIES

• JOHN SOANE:-used combination of the style without consideration to
involvement of any principle. Emphasized that the building should be designed
like a group of sculptures with an entire whole appreciable from any point of
view. Le Corbusier adopted his ideology. Eg: The Bank of England, Sir John
soanel museum at Dulwich.
• E.L.BOULLEE:- Emphasized the use of symmetrical solids such as cubes,
pyramids, spheres. He considered spheres as the only perfect architectural
shapes, which can be devised. He set his imagination beyond barriers such as
constructability or commodious. Eg:-Cenotaph for Isaac Newton, which was
beyond the scope of construction materials and techniques available in that
period.
• C.N.LEDOUX:- Being a disciple of Boullee exploited the dramatic effects of
sphere and cube masses. He conceived building as a symbol which should be
deliberately designed to express its function. This was against the practice of
creating building as a resultant of their function. Thus he was a founder for the
technique of “Expressionism”. This was adopted later by Enrich Mendelshon & E
Saarinen.
• J.N.L. DURAND: - He considers economy and functional efficiency as the prime
criteria for good design. He reiterated that a building could be pleasing if the
practical requirements are satisfied, thus expressing the doctrine of
functionalism. He preferred circular plan because they were economical and they 6
contained the greatest volume of the spaces for a given length of enclosing wall.
HISTORIOGRAPHY
• The important events which happened around 1750 such as
(i) Starting of school for modern civil engineering by Perronnet in 1747
(ii) In 1752, Blondel published the first modern History of architecture
(iii) In 1754, Laugier published the first book equating architecture with rational construction.
• These events paved the way for the architecture following industrial revolution. These events produced
several positive changes.
• Along with these there were negative effects such as uncertainty as to which of the architectural style
was appropriate or correct and also abandonment of standardization, in architectural compositions.
Since the value and elements of architectural style were disputed, a demand for variety arose.
• The industrial revolution meant that the old ways of living to be modified and lead to the creation of new
structures to meet the transformed ways of living. Due to abundance of wealth, there was increased
patronage for architecture from people other than the church or monarchy.
• The search for novelty triggered by the disputes in architecture was thus exploited by the younger
architects in meeting the demands of their patrons such as barons, feudal lords and beneficiaries of the
capital system.
• All the above was due to an awareness of history which leads to changes in architectural philosophy and
implemented by the influences of economic factors.
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PICTURESQUE
• This was originated in England, prior to 1740
the landscaping for setting of building followed
by angular geometric patterns. Due to the
English fondness for natural scenery done by
their fondness for painters of natural scenery,
there arose a desire for less rigid layouts of
gardens. The term “picturesque” was
associated with it due to its influence by
painting.
• This style made for informality in interior
setting of building, which led to introduction of
artificially established rocks and cascades as
a part of landscape. This influenced, in turn
the design of cottages and villas to suit the
picturesque settings they were to be placed.
Stourhead Garden, Wiltshire, England
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REVIVALISM
• Modern architecture was considered as a victory over “revivalism”-practice of past style in the 19th
century. Between 1750- 1920 architecture went against the established principles.
• The uniqueness of the twentieth century revivalism was that several styles were revived at the same time
with equal importance to each.
• Awareness of presences of “style” grows through various theorists.
• J.F.Blondel defined the style as “authentic character that has to embed the relative to the purpose of
building.
• Nicholaus Pevsner defined the style as “what has together of the one that achievements of the creative
individuals of one age”
• Pre-historians revived the Greek, Roman, Renaissances & gothic styles. Between 1920 and 1940, as a
result of a revolution started by pioneers, architecture gradually returned to the traditional philosophy of
buildings as understood before 1750 , but there were radical differences in appearance due to change in
structure and materials.
• The only notion added to the vitruvian trinity is the concept of “space” - a positive architectural quality,
which was as important as the structure by which it was confined.
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Ar Tharangini K, HOA VI, AMSAA
NEOCLASSICAL
ARCHITECTURE
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INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICISM
• CLASSICISM in architecture developed during the Italian
Renaissance, notably in the writings and designs of LEON BATTISTA
ALBERTI and the work of FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI.
• It places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry, orderly
arrangements of columns, pilasters and lintels and the regularity of
parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture of Classical
antiquity and in particular, the architecture of Ancient Rome.
• The use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and
aedicules ("little building") is a common framing device in both
Classical architecture and Gothic architecture. An ædicular frame
treats a window or a niche in a section of wall as if it were a building,
sometimes with columns or pilasters flanking the opening.
• This style quickly spread to other Italian cities and then to France,
Germany, England, Russia and elsewhere. Building off of these
influences, the seventeenth-century architects INIGO JONES and
CHRISTOPHER WREN firmly established classicism in England.
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NEO CLASSICISM
• The neoclassical movement that produced “Neoclassical
architecture” began after A.D. 1765, as a reaction against both the
surviving BAROQUE and ROCOCO styles, and as a desire to return to
the perceived "PURITY" of the arts of Rome. Neoclassical architecture
was in part reaction to the excess of Baroque, Rococo and was partly
a consequence of new discoveries of Greek, Roman architecture.
• Neoclassical Art and Architecture, art produced in Europe and North
America from about 1750 through the early 1800s, marked by the
“surpass by imitation” of Greco-Roman forms.
• Neoclassicism first gained influence in Paris, through a generation of
French art students trained at the French Academy in Rome. In Paris,
many of the first generation of neoclassical architects received training
in the classic French tradition through a series of exhaustive and
practical lectures that was offered for decades by Jacques-François
Blondel.
• The finest examples of this style were civic buildings and private
houses.
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ORIGINS OF NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE

• The architecture of Neo Classicism seems to have emerged out of two
different but related developments which radically transformed the
relationship between MAN and NATURE.
• The FIRST was a sudden increase in mans capacity to exercise control over
nature, which by the mid 17th century had begun to advance beyond the
technical frontiers of the renaissance.
• The SECOND was a fundamental shift in the nature of human
consciousness, in response to major changes taking place in society, which
gave birth to a new cultural formation that was equally appropriate to the
lifestyles of the declining aristocracy and the rising middle class.
• Neoclassical architecture became an international style; each country held
some distinct characteristic in their style. It was prevalent in France, Germany
and England.
• The architects of the 18thcentury searched for a new style. Their motivation
was not simply to copy the ancients but to obey the principles on which their
work had been based.
• In its purest form it is a style principally derived from the ARCHITECTURE
OF CLASSICAL GREECE.
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NEOCLASSICAL STYLE- ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Neoclassical buildings are characterized by clean, elegant lines and
uncluttered appearances.
• In Neoclassical architecture orders are used structurally rather than as a form
of decoration.
• Columns are free-standing, supporting entablatures.
• Roof lines are generally flat and horizontal, without towers /domes.
• Facades tend to be long and flat.
• Classical proportion maintained on the exterior of the building.
• Minimal decoration on the exterior.
Roof lines are generally flat and

Entablature horizontal, without towers /domes
Column Capital Columns are free-standing,
supporting entablatures
Triangular Pediment for window
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NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND

• In England, where the rococo had never been fully accepted, the impulse to redeem the
excess of baroque found its first expression. Between 1750 and 1765, the major Neo-
Classical proponents could be found in residences.
ARCHITECTS:
James Stuart – James 'Athenian' Stuart (1713 – 88) is a compelling figure in the history of
British design. Widely recognised for his central role in pioneering Neoclassicism, Stuart
developed his influential career across the various fields of interior decoration, sculpture,
furnishing, metalwork and architecture.
• The creation of the 'Greek Style' and its impact on British design in the late 18th century is
largely due to Stuart's landmark publication Antiquities of Athens (1762). This influential
book was the first accurate record of Classical Greek architecture and served as a principal
source book for architects and designers well into the 19th century. Employed Greek Doric
Order as early as 1758.
• Town houses - In the 18th century, rich families increasingly spent part of the year in
London. The houses that they built were not merely spaces for living, but also an
opportunity for entertaining and display. Their lavish interiors were an expression of taste
and education as well as wealth.
Front elevation, Lichfield
• Stuart’s reputation as a man of learning and an authority on classical art and design house at 15 St. James's
enabled him to exploit the opportunities that arose in this flourishing market. He provided Square, London, James
interior designs and built town houses, using Greek architectural elements that had never 'Athenian' Stuart, 1764 – 66
been seen before by the London public. Some examples of his work, include the interior 15
furnishings and exterior of Lichfield house at London
NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND

• George Dance – George Dance, the Younger, (1741-1825), was a British architect who was responsible for
extensive urban redevelopment in London and was a founding member of Great Britain’s Royal Academy of Arts.
• Designed Newgate Prison, London in 1765, followed Neo–Proportional Palldian theories of Robert Morris.
• Completed in 1782, Dance’s Newgate Prison rotated around a central courtyard and was divided into two
differently sized quadrants. One was a common area for poor prisoners and the other was a state area for those
who could afford more comfortable accommodation. These two sections were further divided based on the nature
of the crime committed, between debtors and felons. The prison also held women: they entirely occupied the
south wing of the building.
• George Dance’s Newgate Prison is also one of the few English prisons that was constructed following
the architecture terribledesign advocated by French architect Jacques-François Blondel.
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• Thomas Hope – Greek Revival-Household furniture and Interior decoration (1807).
NEOCLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE

• Neoclassicism first gained influence in Paris, through a generation of French art students trained at the French
Academy in Rome.
ARCHITECTS ASSOCIATED WITH NEO CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE:
• Claude Perrault : He questioned the validity of Vitruvian proportions, as they have been received and refined
through classical theory. He gave his concept of “Positive beauty” (role of standardization and perfection) and
“Arbitrary beauty(expressive function as may be required by a particular circumstance or character).
• Abbe’De Cordemoy- He codified the challenge by replacing the Vitruvian attributes namely utility, solidity and
beauty by his own trinity. First principle was the correct proportioning of classical orders, the second was their
appropriate disposition, and the third introduced the notion of fitness which warned against the inappropriate
application of classical elements to utilitarian or commercial structures.
• Cordemoy was concerned with geometrical purity and was against baroque devices such as irregular
columniation, broken pediments and twisted columns. He argued that many buildings did not need
ornamentation at all. He was oriented towards Astylar masonry and orthogonal structures.
• Abbe Laugier – He reinterpreted Cordemoy. He classicized Gothic structures by providing:
i. Neither arches nor pilasters
ii. Nor pedastals
iii. Nor other kinds of formal articulation
iv. Interstices between columns would be as fully glazed as possible.
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• J.-G. Soufflot: Recreated the lightness, spaciousness and proportion of Classical architecture(Gothic). Such a
‘translucent’ structure was realized in soufflot’s church of Ste-Genevieve in Paris.
• The church’s design was meant “to unite … the purity and magnificence of Greek architecture with the
lightness and daring of Gothic construction.” He was referring to the way in which its classical forms, such as
the tall Corinthian columns and the dome, were joined with a Gothic type of structure that included the use of
concealed flying buttresses and relatively light stone vaulting.
• Inside, the unusually abundant rows of free-standing columns support a series of Roman vaults and the central
dome in a remarkably clear and logical expression of space and structure—one of the artistic goals of Soufflot
and certain other French architects of his generation. Ste-Geneviève is a Greek cross in plan (nave, north and
south transepts, and choir are of equal dimensions), and originally the walls were pierced with windows in each
bay between the columns. This structure created a Gothic sense of openness out of the classical columns and
round-arched (as opposed to Gothic pointed-arch) vaults. Together these elements endowed Soufflot’s building
with stark order and light-filled spaciousness. The relative lack of decorative adornment contributed greatly to
the sense of spatial clarity and austere grandeur.
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Soufflot’s church of Ste-

Genevieve in Paris
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• J.F. Blondel: He integrated the theory of Cordemoy and Soufflot. He opened an architecture School in 1743
and was the teacher of the Enlightenment or Visionary architects that included Etinne Louis Boullee, Jacques
gondoin, Pierre Patte, Marie-Joseph Peyre, Jean-Baptiste Rondelet and Claude Nicolas Ledoux .
• He published an ideal Church design, which was related to Ste – Genevive and predominantly displayed a
representational front, while articulating each internal element as part of the continuous spatial system whose
infinite vistas evoked a sense of sublime.
• This church projects hints at the simplicity and grandeur that were to influence the works of many of his pupils,
most notably Boullee.
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Neo Classicism - Enlightenment Ideals

• The intellectual movement of the Enlightenment developed with the rigid system of the
rule known as ABSOLUTISM.
• The new movement aimed to liberate not just philosophy but every aspect of life from
its traditional shackles and provide a new strictly reasonable, ratio based orientation
• J.F.Blondel after his opening of the architectural school in 1743, became the master of
the so called “Visionary” or Enlightment generation of Architects.
• It included “Etinne Louis Boullee, Pierre Patte, Jacques Gondion, and probably the
most visionary of all “Claude Nicolas Ledoux.
• In France Etinne Louis Boullee and Claude Nicolas Ledoux developed a simple cosmic
geometry for their numerous unbuilt designs.
• Ledoux, in his two main built works, the state chemical works of ‘La Saline and the toll
gates around Paris made good use of Tuscan style.
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Enlightenment Architects
Boullee
• Étienne-Louis Boullé(1728 - 1799) was a visionary French neoclassical architect whose work greatly
influenced contemporary architects and is still influential today.
• Born in Paris, he studied under Jacques-François Blondel, German Boffrand and Jean-Laurent Legeay, from
whom he learned the mainstream French Classical architecture in the 17th and 18th century and the
Neoclassicism that evolved after the mid century.
• From 1772 –devoted his life to the projection of buildings so vast as to preclude their realization. He was
elected to the Académie Royale d'Architecture in 1762 and became chief architect to Frederick II of Prussia,
a largely honorary title.
• He designed a number of private houses from 1762 to 1778, though most of these no longer exist; notable
survivors include the Hotel Alexandre and Hotel de Brunoy, both in Paris.
• All his buildings represented the social characteristics in accordance with teachings of blondel. He evoked
the sublime emotions of terror and tranquility through the grandeur of his conceptions. More than any other
enlightenment architects Boullee’ was obsessed with the capacity of light to evoke the presence of divine.
• He remained obsessed with imagining the monuments of some omnipotent state dedicated to the worship of
the Supreme Being.
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HIS PROJECTS - CENOTAPH designed for Sir
Isaac Newton and ‘METROPOLE’
Boullee – CENOTAPH (1785)
• Evoked the sublime emotions of terror and
tranquility through the grandeur of his
conceptions
• He adopted the unadorned geometrical
purity of monumental form and the
immensity of vista to promote more
exhilaration and anxiety.
• He used the capacity of light to invoke the
presence of divine.
• In his design of the cenotaph of Sir Isaac
Newton, he adopted a vast masonry sphere.
• He used light to portray divinity.
• A fire was suspended at night to represent
the sun and extinguished during day time.
• The illusion of light was produced by the
daylight shining through the spheres 23
perforated walls.
Leodux
• Claude Ledoux was born in Dormans, France in 1736. He was educated at a private architectural school in
Paris. Established by J. F. Blondel, the school emphasized native Baroque tradition but exposed students
to English architecture.
• After completing his studies, Ledoux assumed several government positions as an engineer, mainly of
bridge design. Ledoux' dramatic style owes much to the fact that he never visited Rome. His concepts of
Roman architecture were accordingly warped by the engravings of Piranesi from which he derived his
knowledge.
• He did visit England, where he was influenced by the Palladian tradition with which he was already familiar.
• Although much of Ledoux's architecture is quite practical and functional, the "visionary" aspects of his work
are better known. His designs became symbols of the ancient regime and their exaggerated use of
classical elements seems to anticipate post-modern classicism.
• BUILT PROJECTS - Palais de justice
• UNBUILT PROJECTS - La Saline, Ideal city of Chaux
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Leodux - Palais de Justice
• The strict cubic block with columns and pilaster function now no more than decorative arrangement
elements.
• The columns, pilaster and timberworks oriented at classical models are just as characteristic of the direct
early classicism.
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Leodux - Ideal city of Chaux, 1804 – A rural decentralised utopia
• The scheme of the salt works was built for Louis XVI at Arc-et-Senans in 1773 - 1779.
• He expanded this semicircular form of this complex into the representational core of his ideal city of Chaux,
published in 1804.
• The semicircular salt works integrated productive units with the worker’s housing.
• The salt evaporation sheds on the axis were high-roofed like the agricultural buildings and finished with smooth
ashlar, with rusticated dressings. While the Director’s house in the centre was low roofed, pedimented,
rusticated throughout with classical porticos.
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Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand
• He built very little but influenced a whole generation of architects, namely Schinkel, Gartner, Klenze and
Sempur. He reduced Boullee’s extravagant ideas to a normative and economic typology.
• Durand established a universal building methodology through modular permutation of fixed plan types and
alternative elevations.
• His ideas that buildings could be planned in repetitive modular units, that their basic framework could be
clad in different styles of architecture according to function or taste and that rich decoration was not
essential to architectural effect, were a perfect formula for developing large urban settlements quickly
effectively and cheaply.
• He exploited platonic volumes to achieve appropriate character at a reasonable cost.
• Durand’s criticism of Ste-Genevive, for example, with its 206 columns and 612 meters of wall, involved him
in making a counter proposal for a circular temple of comparable area that would require only 112 columns
and 248 meters of wall – a considerable economy, with which, according to him, one would have achieved
a far more impressive aura.
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Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841)
• He was a native Prussian; most of his works were carried out in and around Berlin. By 1830, he had produced
his main works: the Neue Wache guard house (1816), the Schauspielhaus (1812-21), Humboldt’s country
house (1822-18240 and the Altes museum.
• His means was severe and neo-classical though the effects he obtained in his interiors with dramatic lighting,
changes in levels and spatial fluidity show an original mind at work.
• The influence of Durand is most clearly revealed in the Museum. The exteriors of the Altes Museum is
restrained and is of academic Neo-Classicism; interiors is full of spatial effects.
• A two- storey entrance space within the portico, incorporating a fine double staircase, a splendid domed
sculptured hall, and pictured galleries with hanging screens placed at right angles to the windows for the best
lighting effects. Schinkel’s pupils and his successors followed the informality of his later works rather than
rigidity of the classical style
Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Altes Museum, Berlin, 1824-30: 28

plan; exterior; interior of the rotunda: cf. with the Pantheon dome; interior corridor view
Henri Labrouste (1801-1875)
• The Ste-Genevieve library (1843-50) by Henri Labrouste. It is a long rectilinear building in which an elegant
neo-renaissance façade in two tiers conceals the interiors.
• A fine example of Iron engineering with a double row of semicircular iron vaults carried on iron columns.
Labrouste’s design consists of a perimeter wall of books enclosing a rectilinear space and supporting an iron-
framed, barrel-vault roof which is divided into two halves and further supported in the centre of the space by a
line of Iron columns.
• Another main work of Labrouste is the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris (1862-1868).This complex consists of
a reading room covered by an Iron and glass roof carried on sixteen cast iron columns and a multi-storey
wrought and cast-iron book stack.
• The roof of the main reading room is a cluster of nine domes faced with ceramic panels, with circular
openings for lighting the interior. The elegance of the cast- iron roof structure contrasts with masonry walls
around the perimeter.
Reading room of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, Sainte-Geneviève library in Paris

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1860–67.
Neo Classical Architecture and its type

N
• The middle of the 19th century saw the Neo-classical heritage divided between two closely related lines of
development:
• The structural Classicism of Labrouste and
• The romantic classicism of Schinkel.
• The structural Classicists tended to emphasize structure-the line of Cordemoy, Laugier and Soufflot.
• The romantic classicists stressed on the form-the line of ledoux, Boullee and Gilly.
• One school concentrated on such types as prisons, hospitals and railway stations while the other school
focused on representational structures such as the university, museum, library and grandiose monuments.
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INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
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Industrial Revolution
DEFINITION
• The Industrial Revolution marked a period of development in the latter half
of the 18th century that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies in
Europe and America into industrialized, urban ones. It saw the transition to
new manufacturing processes.
CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:-
• At the dawn of the eighteenth century, farming was the primary livelihood in
England, with at least 75% of the population making its living off the land.
• THE COTTAGE INDUSTRY was developed to take advantage of the
farmers' free time and use it to produce quality textiles for a reasonable
price.
• THE COTTAGE INDUSTRY helped to prepare the country for the Industrial
Revolution by boosting the English economy.
• Thus, when industrialization and the Agricultural Revolution reduced the
need for farm workers, many were forced to leave their homes and move to
the city.
• The URBANIZATION OF THE ENGLISH POPULATION was largely fueled
by farmers who moved to the city in the hopes of finding new work. This
change, which occurred between 1750 and 1830, happened because 32
conditions were perfect in Britain for the Industrial Revolution.
IMPACT
• Goods that had traditionally been made in the home or in small workshops
began to be manufactured in the factory.
• Tasks which had earlier been carried out slowly were performed more
quickly and more cheaply by machinery.
• Large numbers of people moved from rural areas to urban communities in
search of work in the new factories, leading to expansion of cities.
• European architecture in the 19thcentury was profoundly influenced by the
industrial revolution. Different types of building were also needed to meet
new demands. Among them were houses, town halls, museums, concerts
halls, libraries, hospitals, department stores, shopping arcades, schools,
colleges, banks offices warehouses and factories.
• Railways, which affected social life, also influenced architectural practice.
With the railways came a need for new kinds of buildings such as railway
stations, railway hotels and goods yards.
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Urban transformations in Europe and America.
• Large numbers of people moved from rural areas to urban communities in search of work in the
new factories, leading to expansion of cities.
• In pre-industrial England, more than three-quarters of the population lived in small villages.
• By the mid-19th century, however, the country had made history by becoming the first nation with
half its population in cities.
• The accommodation of such volatile growth led to the transformations of old neighborhoods into
slums.
• These settlements were congested developments and had inadequate standards of light,
ventilation and open space with poor sanitary facilities.
• These conditions naturally provoked a high incidence of disease and eventually the Public health
act was enacted.
• This act in addition to others, made local authorities legally responsible for sewerage, refuse
collection, water supply, roads and the burial of the dead.
• Edwin Chadwick inspired the society for improving the conditions of the laboring classes and he
sponsored the erection of the first working class flats in London in 1844.
• Throughout the 19th century integrated industrial settlements emerged, where the industries 34
provided all the amenities to their workers.
Urban transformations in Europe and America - TOWNSHIPS: - GROWTH OF CITIES
• SIR TITUS SALT’S SALTAIRE, near Bradford in Yorkshire

(1850), was a mill town, complete with traditional urban
institutions such as a church, school, public baths, houses and
park.
• THE FAMILISTERE WAS BUILT BY J.P.GODIN in 1859-70.This
complex comprised of three residential blocks, a crèche, a
kindergarten, a theatre, schools, public baths and laundry.
• THE ENGLISH PARK MOVEMENT FOUNDED BY HUMPREY
REPTON attempted to project the “landscaped country estate into
the city.
• Repton demonstrated this, in collaboration with the architect John
Nash, in their layout of regent’s park in London (1812-27).
• The proposed development enclosing the park by a continuous
display facade penetrating into the existing urban area and
extending as a terraced accommodation from the aristocratic
vistas of regent’s park in the north to the urbanity of St James
Park and Carlton House terrace in the south. The Royal palace of
the Carlton House was lined with elegant Neo-Classical buildings
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with broad Processional avenues.
Urban transformations in Europe and America - TOWNSHIPS: - GROWTH OF CITIES
• IN 1853 HAUSSMANN regularized Paris into a regional metropolis. The
city of Paris built some 137kms of boulevards which were considerably
wider, more thickly lined with trees.
• With all this came standard residential plan types, regularized facades and
standard system of street furniture’s. This entire was well ventilated with
large open spaces. There was adequate sewer system and fresh water
piped into the city from the Dhuis valley.
• By 1891, inventions like railways, electric tram, passenger lifts, steel
frames which gave rise to multi-storey buildings, emerged as the natural
unit for future expansion.
• The English concentric

Garden city by Ebenezer Howard.
36
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE BUILDINGS – 19th CENTURY
• There IS NO SINGLE STYLE WHICH IS CHARACTERISTIC OF THE

19THCENTURY.Architects drew their inspiration from and copied virtually every historical style
know to them: Greek, Roman, Gothic, Renaissance as well as Chinese, Indian and Egyptian.
• Buildings are often more easily recognized as belonging to the 19thcentury by the function they
perform than by the style in which they were built.
• Some buildings were designed in a single historical style, with the fundamental rules of that style
strictly observed. Few others were a blend of different styles.
• A mixture of various styles within the same building is one of the characteristic features of the
19thcentury.
• Some styles were considered suitable for certain buildings ( Neo-Gothic for churches,
Neoclassical for civic buildings).
• Another recognizable feature is mass produced decorative detail using the same mould.
• Other features include stained glass windows, patterned brickwork and ceramic tiling.
• Exteriors of many houses were notable for wrought iron balconies and contrasting colors of
bricks.
• Most extraordinary feature of the 19th century architecture was combination of modern 37
technology and historic styles.
Industrial material of steel, glass and concrete - Introduction
• Before, metals were not available in sufficient

quantity or consistent quality to be used as
anything more than ornamentation. The Industrial
Revolution changed this situation dramatically.
• The availability of new building materials such as
iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention
of new building techniques as part of the Industrial
Revolution.
38
Industrial material – Iron and Steel
• The development of construction methods in iron and steel was

the most important innovation in architecture since ancient
times. Iron was available in three forms.
• THE LEAST PROCESSED FORM - CAST IRON, was brittle
due to a high percentage of impurities. It still displayed
impressive compressive strength, however.
• WROUGHT IRON was a more refined form of iron, malleable,
though with low tensile strength. Steel was the strongest, most
versatile form of iron. Through a conversion process, all of the
impurities were burned out of the iron ore, and then precise
amounts of carbon were added for hardness.
• STEEL had tensile and compressive strength greater than any
material previously available, and its capabilities revolutionized
architecture.
• The explosion in the development of iron and steel structures
was driven initially by the advance of the railroads.
39
Industrial material of iron and steel
• Bridges which were required to span gorges and rivers were of three
types:
1. The BRIDGE WITH A TRADITIONAL ARCH made of iron instead of
stone.
2. Later, THE TRUSS BECAME THE PRIMARY ELEMENT OF BRIDGE
BUILDING. Trusses were used to build bridges of unprecedented
strength throughout the nineteenth century, including cantilever bridges
consisting of truss complexes balanced on supporting piers.
3. A third, more attractive TYPE OF STEEL BRIDGE WAS THE
SUSPENSION BRIDGE, in which the roadway is hung from steel
cables strung from supporting towers.
• Availability of Iron and Steel in large quantities enabled architects to
build on a new and massive scale. The evolution of steel frame
construction in the 20th century entirely changed the concept of the wall
and the support.
• These methods provided for stronger and taller structures, greater
unsupported spans over openings and interior or exterior spaces.
40
EARLY USE OF CAST IRON:

• The RAIL WAS THE FIRST UNIT OF CONSTRUCTION. Iron was avoided for dwelling
houses and used for arcades, exhibition halls and railway stations. But the social conditions
for its increase utilization as a building material came into being a hundred years.
• Cast iron, was used in bridge building as early as 1779. WILKINSON assisted DARBY and
his architect, T.F.PRITCHARD in designing and erecting the first cast-iron bridge, a 30.5-metre
span built over the severn near coalbrookdale in 1779.
• In 1796 THOMAS TELFORD made his debut as a bridge builder, a 39.5 –meter span bridge
erected over the severn.
• William strut’s six-storey cotton mill, built at derby in 1792 and charles bage’s flax-spinning
mill erected at shrewsbury in 1796, employed cast iron columns.
• In 1830s that EATON HODGKINSON introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use
of iron construction.
• The CRYSTAL PALACE BY JOSEPH Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early
example of iron and glass construction;
• Cast and wrought iron products had been used extensively in building, especially in the 19th
century, but were largely superseded by the beginning of the 20th century by hot-rolled steel 41
members.
EARLY USE OF WROUGHT IRON:

• Wrought-iron masonry reinforcement in France had its origins in
Paris, in PERRAULT’S east façade of Louvre(1667) and SOUFFLOT’S
portico of Ste-Genevieve(1772).
• VICTOR LOUIS used wrought-iron roof for theatre Francais of 1786
and theatre in the palais-Royal of 1790.
• Around this time the technique of Iron construction underwent an
independent evolution, beginning with the AMERICAN JAMES
FINLAY’S invention of stiffened flat deck suspension bridge in 1801.
• British wrought- iron suspension construction culminated IN BRUNEL’S
CLIFTON BRIDGE (span-214-metre), Bristol designed in 1829.
• BRITANNIA’S Tubular Bridge over the Menai straits, spanned 70m and
Brunel’s salt ash viaduct (1859) made use of plated wrought iron.
• The PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1889, which included Eiffel’s iron tower
was designed by Gustave Eiffel with overall height of 300 metres.
42
FORTH BRIDGE IN SCOTLAND
EARLY USE OF STEEL:
• The major disadvantage of iron - its low tensile strength, was overcome in
the mid-1850s, when the Bessemer process of making steel (an alloy of
iron and carbon) was introduced. EADS BRIDGE IN MISSOURI
• The first major structure built entirely of steel was the CANTILEVERED
FORTH BRIDGE IN SCOTLAND, completed in 1890. Its record-setting
spans of 521 m (1,710 ft) were the longest in existence until 1917.
• THE ARCHED EADS BRIDGE over the Mississippi River at St. Louis,
Missouri, designed by James Eads and completed in 1874, was the first
steel bridge in the United States. At the time the Eads Bridge was built, it
was the longest structure in the United States.
• The Eads Bridge has three main spans. The center span is 160 m (520 ft) BROOKLYN BRIDGE
long, and the spans on either side are each 153 m (502 ft) in length.
• JOHN AND WASHINGTON ROEBLING also designed and built the
BROOKLYN BRIDGE, which was the world’s longest suspension bridge
at the time of its completion in 1883, having a main span of 486 m 31 cm
(1,595 ft 6 in).
• The completion of the Brooklyn Bridge marked the beginning of an 80- 43
year period of large-scale suspension-bridge design in the United States.
EARLY USE OF STEEL:
• GEORGE FULLER'S innovative steel-cage system for buildings, which involved a unified steel framework to
support the weight of tall buildings, created the multi-story factories and the skyscrapers.
• The masonry bearing wall was transformed to the steel frame, which assumed all the load-bearing functions.
The building’s skeleton could be erected quickly and the remaining components hung on it to complete it, an
immense advantage for high-rise buildings on busy city streets.
• The Chicago architect LOUIS SULLIVAN, IN HIS WAINWRIGHT BUILDING (1890-1891) in St. Louis,
Missouri, his Guaranty Building (1895) in Buffalo, New York, and his Carson Pirie Scott Department Store
(1899-1904) in Chicago, gave new expressive form to urban commercial buildings.
• His career converges with the so-called Chicago School of architects, whose challenge was to invent the
skyscraper or high-rise building, facilitated by the introduction of the electric elevator and the sudden
abundance of steel.
• The best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le
Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan.
• Russian Constuctivist Vladimir Tatlin's proposal for a spiraling steel monument to the Third International in
1920 provided a dynamic and optimistic visual image for the new technology.
• By mid of 18th century cast iron columns and wrought iron rails used in conjunction with modular glazing, 44
had become the standard technique for the rapid prefabrication and erection of urban centres.
EXAMPLES OF MODERN STRUCTURES OF STEEL
1. The Carson Pirie Scott and Company Building is a
landmark department store building at State Street and
Madison, Chicago, Illinois. It was designed by Louis
Sullivan, built in 1899 for the retail firm Schlesinger &
Meyer, and expanded and sold to Carson Pirie Scott in
1904.The building is remarkable for its steel structure,
which allowed a dramatic increase in window area,
which in turn allowed far more daylight into the building
interiors, and far more display of merchandise to
outside pedestrian traffic.
• The lavish cast-iron ornamental work above the
rounded tower was also meant to be functional.
• Sullivan designed the corner entry to be seen from
both State and Madison, and that the ornamentation,
situated above the main entrance, would be literally
attractive. The building is one of the classic structures
of the Chicago school.
45

2. Wainwright Building
• The Wainwright Building is a 10-story red-brick
landmark office building in downtown Missouri. Built in
1891 and designed by Adler and Louis Sullivan, it is
among the first skyscrapers in the world.
• Sullivan used a steel frame and applied his intricate
terra cotta ornament in vertical bands to emphasize
the height of the building.
46
3. Tatlin’s Constructivist tower
• Tatlin's Constructivist tower was to be built from
industrial materials: iron, glass and steel. The tower's
main form was a twin helix which spiraled up to 400 m in
height.
• The main framework would contain three enormous
rotating geometric structures. At the base of the structure
was a cube which was designed as a venue for lectures,
conferences and congress meetings.
• In the centre of the structure was a cone, housing
executive activities. The topmost one, a cylinder, was to
house an information centre. There were also plans to
install a gigantic open-air screen on the cylinder.
• Although there were plans to build Tatlin’s Tower, the
monument was never constructed.
47
Industrial Revolution Three 20th-century developments in

Industrial material of Concrete production are destined to have a radical
CONCRETE effect on architecture:
• The Industrial Revolution provided another building • The first, concrete-shell construction
material, a stronger more durable and fire resistant type of permits the erection of vast vaults and
cement called Portland cement was developed in 1824. domes with a concrete and steel content
• The new material was still limited by low tensile strength, so reduced that the thickness is
however, and could not be used in many structural comparatively less than that of an
applications. The nineteenth century builders came up with eggshell.
the idea of reinforced concrete. • The second development, precast-
• Though expensive, iron and steel had high tensile strength concrete construction, employs bricks,
and could be easily formed into long, thin bars. slabs, and supports made under optimal
factory conditions to increase
• Enclosed in cheap, easily formed concrete, the bars were waterproofing and solidity, to decrease
protected from fire and weather. The result was a strong, time and cost in erection, and to reduce
economical, easily produced structural member that could expansion and contraction.
take almost any form imaginable, including columns,
beams, arches, vaults, and decorative elements. It is still • Finally, prestressed concrete provides
one of the most common building materials used today. bearing members into which
reinforcement is set under tension to
• Reinforced concrete emerged simultaneously in Germany, produce a live force to resist a particular
the United States, England, and France between 1870 and load. Since the member acts like a spring,
1900.. it can carry a greater load than an 48
unstressed member of the same size
Industrial material of Concrete
USE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE –BUILDING
EXAMPLES
• IN FRANCE, FRANCOIS COIGNET was the first to use
the reinforced concrete. In 1861 he developed a
technique for strengthening concrete with metal mesh
(ferroconcrete) and used this material in building sewers,
other public structures including a remarkable series of
six-storey apartment blocks in 1867.
• IN 1892 FRENCH ENGINEER FRANÇOIS
HENNEBIQUE combined the strengths of both steel and
concrete in a new system of construction based on
concrete reinforced with steel. Hennebique’s invention of
monolithic joints created monolithic frames. His invention
made possible previously unimaginable effects:
extremely thin walls with large areas of glass; roofs that
cantilever to previously impossible distances; enormous
spans without supporting columns or beam; and corners
formed of glass rather than stone, brick, or wood.
49
USE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE –EXAMPLES
Rue Franklin apartments – Auguste Perret
• This 1903 apartment building with which Perret
established his reputation is to be regarded as
one of the canonical works of 20th-century
architecture.
• On the façade, Perret clearly separated the
structural elements of steel-reinforced concrete
from the exterior walls, which were simply
decorative panels or windows rather than
structural necessities.
• Perret deliberately made the apartment
partition walls nonstructural throughout and
their partial removal would have yielded an
open space, punctuated only by a series of
free-standing columns.
• The cantilevers at the first floor level were
made possible with use of the new material.
Each floor is organized with the main and
service stairs to the rear (each with its own
elevator) the kitchen to one side and the 50
principal rooms to the front.
Industrial Revolution - Concrete Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA
Einstein Tower
• "Erich Mendelsohn's small, but powerfully modeled tower, built to symbolize the greatness of the Einsteinian
concepts, was also a quite functional house. It was designed to hold Einstein's own astronomical laboratory.
• Mendelsohn was after a completely plastic kind of building, moulded rather than built, without angles and with
smooth, rounded corners.
• He needed a malleable material like reinforced concrete, which could be made to curve and create its own
surface plasticity, but due to post-war shortages, some parts had to be in brick and others in concrete. 51
Industrial material of Glass
GLASS
• The invention of glass took place around 4000 years ago
in the eastern Mediterranean. Two thousand years
passed between the initial discovery and the appearance
of blown glass, which led to the production of thin
transparent sheets strong enough for windows.
• This marked the beginning of a symbiosis between glass
and buildings. The use of glass as a building material
allowed architects to explore on a larger scale.
• The next quantum leap occurred in the nineteenth
century, with the introduction of the skeletal structural
frame, initially fabricated from cast and wrought iron, and
latterly steel and reinforced concrete.
• Iron and glass technology generated a new architectural
language and new typologies - conservatories, arcades,
heroic glazed rail sheds and exhibition buildings, notably
Paxton's seminal Crystal Palace of 1851 which used
over 300,000 sheets of glass.
52
Industrial material of Glass
GLASS
Use of Glass – Building Examples
• Fontaine’s Galerie d’Orleans built in the Palais Royal in
1829 was the earliest arcade to have a glass barrel vault.
• Richard Turner and Decimus Burton’s Palm House at
Kew Gardens built in 1845-48, was one of the first
structures to use sheet glass.
• The Crystal Palace(1851) by Joseph Paxton at the Great
Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and
glass construction;
• Gropius' Fagus Factory of 1911 was one of the first
examples of a glass facade supported by a thin steel
framework;
• Bruno Taut's polygonal Glashaus Pavilion for the 1914
Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne was made entirely from
glass.
53
INDUSTRIAL
EXHIBITIONS
54
Industrial Exhibitions
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS
• During the 19th&20th century international exhibitions, popularly called world's fairs, have become elaborate
showcases for technological and cultural developments as well as manufactured products. Some of the
important international expositions include:
1. The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, London (1851)
2. In Paris a series of international Expositions were held, they are :
-The Paris Exposition of 1855, Exposition Universelle (1855),
-The Paris Exposition of 1867,
-The Paris Exposition or Paris World's Fair of 1878,
-The Paris Exposition of 1889, Exposition Universelle (1889) ,
-The Paris Exposition of 1900,
3. World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago in 1893.
4. Vienna Exposition held in 1873.
55
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – 1851- The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace
• The Crystal Palace was a glass and cast iron structure
built in London, England, for the Great Exhibition of 1851.
• The building was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, an
architect and gardener, and revealed breakthroughs in
architecture, construction and design.
• Over 13,000 exhibits were displayed and viewed by over
6,200,000 visitors to the exhibition. This building was
divided into a series of courts depicting the history of art
and architecture from ancient Egypt through the
Renaissance.
• Already a famous gardener at the time, Paxton
experimented extensively with glasshouse construction.
Using combinations of prefabricated cast iron, laminated
wood, and standard sized glass sheets, Paxton created
the “ridge-and-furrow” roof design.
• Sir Joseph Paxton, its architect, was famous for his
elegant conservatories and greenhouses; in essence, the
Crystal Palace was the largest greenhouse ever built.
Except for three entrance porches, symmetrically 56
disposed, its glazed perimeter was uninterrupted.
• Paxton USED PREFABRICATED GLASS
UNITS framed in wood and cast iron,
supporting them on a cast-iron skeleton.
• The massive glass house was 1848 feet
(about 563 m) long by 454 feet (about 138
m) wide, and went from plans to grand opening
in just nine months. Its overall form was
structured around a basic 8 feet cladding
module, structural spans varying from 24 to72
feet.
• The Crystal Palace itself was almost outshone
by the park in which it stood, which contained
a magnificent series of fountains, comprising
almost 12,000 individual jets. The park also
contained unrivaled collections of statues,
many of which were copies of great works from
around the world.
• After the Great Exhibition closed, the Crystal
Palace was moved to Sydenham Hill in South
London and reconstructed in what was, in 57
effect, a 200 acre Victorian theme park.
58
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION - 1855
• After London hosted the first international

exposition in 1851, Napoleon III realized that
France needed to seize back the initiative.
• The Exposition Universelle held in Paris in 1855,
Jean-Marie Viel and Alexandre Barrault served
respectively as architect and engineer for the
Palais de l’Industrie.
• The Palace of Industry measured 850 feet long
and 350 feet wide. The principal nave itself was
630 feet long, 158 feet wide and connected on four
sides by two story high, ninety-eight foot wide
aisles.
• It contained semi-circular trusses which bridged
an 80 foot span to create an enormous exhibition
room. This giant structure was located on a
triangular plot of land.
59
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION – 1867
• Le Play proposed a temporary oval

exhibition palace whose appearance
would recall the Roman Colosseum.
• The engineer JEAN BAPTISTE
KRANTZ was commissioned with the
design and construction of the 490
metres long and 390 metres wide
building, which was altogether to
cover an area of 150,000 square
metres. Léopold Hardy, Charles
Duval and the young Gustave Eiffel
assisted in the realization of the
plans.
• Cast iron pillars and wrought iron
piles on the foundation walls formed
the framework which supported the
roof construction of glass and
corrugated sheeting, which ensured
an even and natural light in the halls.
60
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION -1878
• The third Paris World's Fair, called as Exposition
Universelle in French was held in 1878.
• The Paris Exhibition of 1878 was on a far larger scale
in every respect than any which had been previously The Champ de Mars- 1878 Exposition Universelle
held in any part of the world.
• The total area covered over 66 acres (267,000 m²),
the main building is the Champ de Mars
occupying 54 acres (219,000 m²).
• The two main structures include the Trocadero
Palace which was demolished in 1936 and the Champ Exterior of the Champ de Mars.
de Mars (1878).
The Trocadero Palace constructed for the 1878 Exposition View of the Exposition with Trocadero Palace on the right and 61
Universelle - Demolished 1936. the Champ de Mars to the left.
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION UNIVERSELLE DE - 1900
• The magnificent buildings produced for the Paris exposition in 1900 -
THE EIFFEL TOWER, THE TROCADERO AND THE MACHINE HALL.
• The strong increase in the number of themes to be exhibited and
participating nations resulted in collaboration between a large numbers of
architects and prevented the exposition from focusing on any one
particular architectural style.
• The exhibition site could be entered via a main gate with 36 entrances.
The "Porte Monumentale" - also known as the "Porte Binet", after its
architect, was an example of richly ornamented scenic architecture which
had a major influence in shaping the exposition's overall appearance.
• The hall consisted of three arches connected in a triangle, covered by a
dome roof of 500 square metres in size. Two minarets of 35 metres
in height flanked the main arch for lighting purposes.
• A tower emerged from the dome like a bud, and the host city of Paris was
represented at the top of this tower in the form of an allegorical female
figure by Paul Moreau-Vauthier.
• The Grand Palais des Arts - the venue for the international exhibition of
contemporary art - was the result of the collaboration of four architects,
whose different approaches were expressed in the four different
historicizing façade designs. 62
• The Eiffel Tower
• The Eiffel Tower was built for the International
Exhibition of Paris of 1889 commemorating the
centenary of the French Revolution.
• Designed by the French engineer Alexandre
Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923) for the entrance to
the 1889 Exposition Universelle in the Paris
Champ de Mars. The Eiffel Tower is the tallest
structure in Paris, and reigned for 40 years as
the tallest in the world.
• The metal lattice-work, formed with very pure
structural iron, makes the tower both extremely
light and able to withstand tremendous wind
forces.
• At 300 metres (320.75m including antenna),
and 7000 tons, it was the world's tallest
building until 1930. It was possible to make it so
tall because Eiffel could use the new material
steel for his construction.
63
• The Eiffel Tower • The lower section of the
• Other statistics tower consists of four
include: immense arched legs set
on masonry piers.
1. 2.5 million rivets.
• The legs curve inward
2. 300 steel workers, until they unite in a single
and 2 years (1887- tapered tower.
1889) to construct it.
• There are three main
3. Height varies up to platforms, each with an
15 cm depending on observation deck.
temperature.
• The first deck is 57 m
4. 15,000 iron pieces (187 ft) high, the second
(excluding rivets). is 116 m (381 ft) off the
5. 40 tons of paint. ground. Both are
accessible by stairs or
6. 1652 steps to the elevator.
top.
• The third deck, which is
276 m (906 ft) high, is
accessible to visitors only 64
by elevator.
Ar Tharangini K, HOA III,
AMSAA
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – PARIS EXPOSITION - 1900
• The Eiffel Tower
65
• Gallerie des Machines (1843 -93)
• The "Gallerie des Machines" consists of a huge 422m long, 114m wide and 47m
high hall. The Machines” was built by Charles Dutert and Victor Contamin (1843-93) and
demolished in 1910.
• The structure was spanned by a series of vast steel principal arches which were hinged
at the base and apex, braced longitudinally with steel ribs.
• Comparable in volume with the crystal palace, the gallerie was structurally more
dynamic and the first major example of the advantages of steel over iron.
66
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS – WORLD'S
COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, HELD IN CHICAGO
• The World's Columbian Exposition was held in
Chicago in 1893. The Exposition occupied 630
acres in Jackson Park and the Midway.
• The main site was bounded by Stony Island
Avenue on the west, 67th Street on the south, World's Columbian Exposition – Chicago
Lake Michigan on the east, and 56th Street on
the north. The Midway Plaisance, a narrow
strip of land between 59th and 60th streets,
extends west from Stony Island to Cottage
Grove Avenue.
• The Woman's Building exhibited over 400
years of progress made by women. Displays
included objects made by nineteenth-century
women from Europe and the United States as
well as women's work by Native Americans.
Getting a building of their own symbolized the The Woman's Building The dome of the Horticulture
importance of women at the Exposition. Building 1892
• The statue of the Republic symbolized the

strength of the country, which had survived a The Court of Honor
civil war and was taking in immigrants from all and the Statue of the 67
over the world. Republic
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS –VIENNA EXPOSITION
• This fair was the first exposition to use multiple
buildings instead of one main structure. The
Vienna exposition was the first to house the various
categories of production in separate buildings,
while the national exhibits remained in a single
structure.
• The MOST PROMINENT FEATURE IS THE
ROTUNDA, the enclosed circular building. The
rotunda was actually just one part of the Palace of
Industry, which expanded on either side to form a
horizontal strip about 2,953 feet long, running from
east to west with shorter corridors intersecting it.
• This created a series of twenty-eight galleries that
displayed an international array of industrial products.
• The palace was designed to be a permanent
structure, and was used after the exposition to hold
trade shows. When it burned down in 1937, new trade
fair exhibition halls were built that still remain in use Plan of the Weltausstellung in Vienna (1873)
today.
68
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS –VIENNA EXPOSITION
• The Machinery Hall ran parallel to, and was
located north of, the main building, towards the top
of the map. It was 2060 feet long and 125 feet
wide. It consisted in a single room, 60 feet high,
and was built with brick walls and an iron roof.
The building could accommodate two parallel
railway tracks, and was reused as a storage Exterior of the Vienna exposition
building for the Great Northern Railway after the fair
was over.
• The Art Hall, directly to the east of the rotunda and
main exposition buildings. It was 100 by 600 feet
and made of brick, with stucco finish on the outside.
It held mostly paintings, with a few statues and
statuettes dispersed throughout. Art exhibits were
divided into three categories: fine art, religious art,
and amateur art.
This illustration depicts the Rotunda during opening 69

ceremonies at the exposition in Vienna (1873)
INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITIONS –The Barcelona International Exhibition (1929) - The Barcelona Pavilion
• The Barcelona Pavilion was designed by Ludwig Mies
van der Rohe (1886-1969) as the German national
pavilion for the 1929 Barcelona International Exhibition.
• Built from glass, travertine and different kinds of
marble, the Pavilion was conceived to accommodate
the official reception presided over by King Alphonso
XIII of Spain along with the German authorities.
• The pavilion had a flat roof supported on chrome
columns. The steel skeleton and the pavilion’s
walls, rectangular planes of marble, glass, and
onyx placed vertically or horizontally, could be
freely positioned and made it possible that space
seems to flow through them.
• This use of the open plan achieves extreme lightness The German Pavilion -1929
and movement. The pavilion has become a key
reference point in both the career of mies van der rohe
and 20th-century architecture as a whole.
70
CHICAGO
SCHOOL &
SKYSCRAPER
DEVELOPMENT
71
Ar Tharangini K, HOA III,
AMSAA
CHICAGO SCHOOL
INTRODUCTION
• Chicago's architecture is famous throughout
the world and one of its style is referred to as
the Chicago School. Much of its early work
is also known as Commercial style.
• In the history of architecture, the first Chicago
School was a school of architects active
in Chicago at the turn of the 20th century.
• They included Henry Hobson
Richardson, Dankmar Adler, Daniel
Burnham, William Holabird, William Le Baron
Jenney, Martin Roche, John Root, Solon S.
Beman, and Louis Sullivan.
• They were among the first to promote the • The world’s first skyscraper rose to its full height in 1884.
new technologies of steel-frame construction Architect and structural Engineer William Le Baron Jenney
in commercial buildings, and developed a designed the 42-meter-high Home Insurance Building; the
spatial aesthetic which co-evolved with, and first tall structure to utilize steel for framing. The building
then came to influence, parallel comprised 10 floors which became 12, 7 years later, increasing
developments in European Modernism. the height of the whole edifice to 54.9 meters. Unfortunately,
you can only view this building in old images now because it
was demolished in 1931 to be replaced by an even higher 72
building
CHICAGO SCHOOL
CHARACTERS
• Some of the distinguishing features of the Chicago School are the use of steel-
frame buildings with masonry cladding (usually terra cotta), allowing large plate-
glass window areas and limiting the amount of exterior ornamentation.
• Sometimes elements of neoclassical architecture are used in Chicago
School skyscrapers.
• Many Chicago School skyscrapers contain the three parts of a classical column.
The lowest floors functions as the base, the middle stories, usually with little
ornamental detail, act as the shaft of the column, and the last floor or two, often
capped with a cornice and often with more ornamental detail, represent the
capital.
• The "Chicago window" originated in this school. It is a
three-part window consisting of a large fixed center
panel flanked by two smaller double-hung sash
windows. The arrangement of windows on the facade
typically creates a grid pattern, with some projecting
out from the facade forming bay windows. The
Chicago window combined the functions of light-
gathering and natural ventilation; a single central
pane was usually fixed, while the two surrounding
panes were operable. These windows were often
deployed in bays, known as oriel windows, that 73
projected out over the street
CHICAGO SCHOOL
CHARACTERS
74
CHICAGO SCHOOL
EXAMPLES
Some of the more famous Chicago School buildings include:
• Louis Sullivan's Carson, Pirie, Scott & Co. Building

• Auditorium Building
• Reliance Building
• Chicago Building
• Brooks Building
• Wainwright Building
75
CHICAGO SCHOOL
LOUIS SULLIVAN
• Known as Chicago's "Father of
Skyscrapers," Louis Sullivan (September 3, 1856 –
April 14, 1924) foreshadowed modernism with his
famous phrase "form follows function."
• Sullivan was an architectural prodigy even as a
young man, graduating high school and beginning
his studies at MIT when he was just 16. Works of Sullivan
• After just a year of study he dropped out of MIT, • Auditorium Building, at Chicago, Illinois,
and by the time he was just 24 he had joined
forces with Dankmar Adler as a full partner of Adler • Babson House, at Riverside, Illinois,
and Sullivan. • Bradley House at Madison,
• Sullivan is arguably best known for his influence on • National Farmers' Bank at Owatonna, Minnesota,
the modernists that followed him, including his
protegé Frank Lloyd Wright. • Pilgrim Baptist Church, at Chicago, Illinois,
• Though he is known for his beautiful use of • Schlesinger and Meyer Department Store at
ornament, his true innovation came in the way he Chicago, Illinois
adapted previous ornamental styles to the newly- • St. paul's Church at Cedar Rapids, Iowa
emerging tall buildings of the late 19th century,
using it to emphasize a building's verticali • Wainwright Building, at St. Louis, Missouri 76
CHICAGO SCHOOL
SULLIVAN CENTER OR CARSON, PIRIE, SCOTT & CO. BUILDING
• The Sullivan Center commercial building in Chicago, Illinois.
• A Chicago Landmark, the building was designed by Louis
Sullivan, built in 1899 for the retail firm Schlesinger & Meyer.
• The building is remarkable for its steel structure, which
allowed a dramatic increase in window area.
• This has in turn allowed more daylight into the building
interiors, and provided larger displays of merchandise to
outside pedestrian traffic.
• The lavish cast-iron ornamental work above the rounded
tower was also meant to be functional
77
CHICAGO SCHOOL
WAIN WRIGHT BUILDING
• The Wainwright Building is a 10-storey red-brick landmark
office building in Missouri.
• Built in 1890-91 and designed by Dankmar Adler and Louis
Sullivan, it was among the first skyscrapers in the world.
• Most historians consider the Wainwright Building one of the
most important works in American architecture.
• Aesthetically, the Wainwright Building exemplifies Sullivan's
theories about the tall building, which included a tripartite
(three-part) composition (base-shaft-attic), and his desire to
emphasize the height of the building.
• According to him the skyscraper must be tall, every inch of it
tall.
• A building with a strong, vigorously articulated base
supporting a screen that constitutes a vivid image of powerful
upward movement
78
CHICAGO SCHOOL
AUDITORIUM BUILDING, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
• "The Auditorium was built for a syndicate of businessmen
to house a large civic opera house; to provide an economic
base it was decided to wrap the auditorium with a hotel and
office block.
• Hence Adler & Sullivan had to plan a complex multiple-use
building. Fronting on Michigan Avenue, overlooking the
lake, was the hotel (now Roosevelt University) while the
offices were placed to the west on Wabash Avenue.
• The entrance to the auditorium is on the south side
beneath the tall blocky seventeen-story tower. The rest of
the building is a uniform ten stories, organized in the same
way as Richardson's Marshall Field Wholesale Store.
• The interior embellishment, however, is wholly Sullivan's,
and some of the details, because of their continuous
curvilinear foliate motifs, are among the nearest
equivalents to European Art Nouveau architecture.
79
CHICAGO SCHOOL
AUDITORIUM BUILDING, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
• The Auditorium is a heavy, impressive structure externally.
• Innovative features of the building was its massive
raft foundation.
• The soil beneath the Auditorium consists of soft blue clay
to a depth of over 100 feet, which made conventional
foundations impossible.
• Adler and Mueller designed a floating mat of
crisscrossed railroad ties, topped with a double layer
of steel rails embedded in concrete.
• In the center of the building was a 4,300 seat auditorium,
originally intended primarily for production of Grand Opera.
• The auditorium was designed so that all seats would have
good views and acoustics.
• The original plans had no box seats and when these were
added to the plans they did not receive prime locations.
• Housed in the building around the central space were an
1890 addition of 136 offices and a 400-room hotel, whose
purpose was to generate much of the revenue to support
the opera. 80
CHICAGO SCHOOL
AUDITORIUM BUILDING,
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
81
CHICAGO SCHOOL
NATIONAL FARMERS' BANK AT OWATONNA, MINNESOTA
• Massive and stately—68 feet broad and about 53 feet tall—
its silhouette and ornamental patterns strike golden section
rectangles.
• Though much smaller in scale than the earlier skyscrapers,
the bank is just as clearly expressed in its parts.
• Great vaulted windows pierce the deep walls, and a row of
dark square windows punctures the base. Strength in
concept; surprise and contradiction in detail.
• The main banking room is a single cubical space enclosed by
a box, indicated by the wide stained-glass lunette windows.
The base is of red sandstone, with dark red brick walls.
• Ornamentation is concentrated in panels, of bronze-green
terra cotta, with intricate cast iron escutcheons at the corners;
the cornice is simply corbeled brick courses.
• To the rear is a separate block housing offices and shops, a
speculative venture by the bank, but clearly related to the
bank in materials and design."
82

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Ar Tharangini K, HOA III, AMSAA

• UNIT I MODERNITY AND ARCHITECTURE 10

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