History of Architecture II-1

PLAN OF GRANARY
HISTORY
OF ARCHITECTURE
AND CULTURE II
TAMIL EZHIL G, ARCHITECT PLANNER LECTURE SERIES , MIDAS 2012
STORY VS H-I-STORY
Long long ago, so long

ago … BC,AD – time line
FICTION FACTS
TAMIL EZHIL G, ARCHITECT PLANNER HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II LECTURE SERIES , MIDAS 2012
SEMESTER SCHEDULE
 UNIT I
ANCIENT INDIA
 UNIT II
BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
 UNIT III
EVOLUTION OF HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
 UNIT IV
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE-SOUTH INDIA
 UNIT V
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE – NORTH INDIA
UNIT I : ANCIENT INDIA
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 CULTURE AND SETTLEMENT PATTERN
 ARYAN CIVILIZATION
 THEORIES & DEBATES ON ORGIN OF ARYAN
CIVILIZATION
 ORIGIN OF EARLY HINDUISM
 VEDIC CULTURE
 VEDIC VILLAGE
 RUDIMENTARY FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION – BAMBOO
& WOOD
 ORIGINS OF BUDDHISM AND JAINISM
OLD WORLD CIVILIZATIONS
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
TIME LINE
INDIAN HISTORY – TIME LINE
 WHEN? – TIME SPAN
 WHAT? – IMPORTANT ASPECTS
 HOW? – IT FLOURISHED FOR MORE THAN A
MILLENIUM
 TWO EXAMPLES – HARAPPA & MOHENJODARO
 CITY PLANNING
 BUILDING MATERIALS
 ARCHITECTURAL STYLE
 PRIVATE HOUSES
 HOUSING COMPLEXES
 PUBLIC BUILDINGS : GREAT BATH AND GRANARY
 WATER MANAGEMENT
 WHY? – REASONS FOR ITS DECLINE
IMPORTANT DATES
3300-1300 BC CIVILIZATION
INDUS VALLEY
DISCOVERY & EXCAVATION

1857 INDIAN RAILWAY CONNECTING
USAGE OF HARAPPAN BRICKS - FOR
KARACHI & LAHORE BY BRITISH
1912 DISCOVERY OF HARAPPAN SEALS

WITH UNKNOWN SYMBOLS
J.FLEET, ,SIR JOHN MARSHALL
1920s DISCOVERY OF INDUS VALLEY

CIVILIZATION
1931 EXCAVATION OF MOHENJODARO

AUREL STEIN – UK, NANIGOPAL MAJUMDAR – INDIA ,& MICHAEL JANSEN
Also referred to
as HARAPPAN
CIVILIZATION &
SARASWATHI
SINDHU HARAPPA
CIVILIZATION
Between
MOHENJODARO
INDUS RIVER
AND THE
GHAGGAR-
HAKRA RIVER
[Pakistan and
North Western
India]
WHY ITS GREAT??
 HIGH AGRICULTURAL GROWTH WITH ADAPTATION TO FLOOD
AREAS AND DRY AREAS.
 STRONG SOCIAL HIERARCHY WITH A RULING CLASS AND NO
EVIDENCE OF A CENTRAL KINGSHIP.
 NO KNOWN CENTRALIZED RELIGIOUS STRUCTURES.
 VERY STRONG CENTER FOR TRADE WITH FAR REACHING
REGIONS.
 HAD A BASIC, YET UNDECIPHERED ALPHABET.
 LARGEST PLANNED CITIES
 WELL PLANNED DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
 COTTON CLOTHING & DENTISTRY
 STANDARDISED WEIGHTS
 ARTICRAFTS, JEWELLERY
 SEALS IN METALS WITH STRONG SENSE OF OWNERSHIP
 NOMADS OF SUMERIAN ORIGIN CROSSED VARIOUS
PASSES IN THE WEST AND SIGHTED THE VAST AREA OF
BREATHTAKING GREEN VALLEY, RICHLY FOREST ED WITH
ABUNDANT WATER – RIVERS INDUS, JHELUM, CHANAB,
RAVI, SUTLEJ & SARASWATHI
 NO REASON FOR FURTHER TRAVEL & SETTLED DOWN BY
CLEARING AWAY PATCHES OF FORESTS
 AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE, USAGE OF TIMBER,
PERMANENT BUILDING MATERIALS (BRICKS) MADE
THEM TO SUSTAIN FOR MORE THAN A MILLENIA AND
SPREAD THEMSELVES FOR MORE THAN HALF A MILLION
SQUARE MILES AROUND THE RIVER VALLEY
CITY PLANNING CONCEPT
 SOPHISTICATED & ADVANCED
URBAN CULTURE
 STREETS IN PERFECT GRID
PATTERNS IN BOTH MOHENJODORO
& HARAPPA
 HOUSES PROTECTED FROM NOISE,
ODOURS AND THIEVES
 WORLD’S FIRST SANITATION SYSTEM
 INDIVIDUAL WELLS AND SEPARATE
COVERED DRAINS ALONG THE
STREETS FOR WASTE WATER
 HOUSES OPENED TO INNER
COURTYARDS & SMALLER LANES
MOHENJPDARO
PLANS OF MANSION ,
INDIVIDUAL HOUSES
AND FIRST FL00R
HOUSES
CITY PLANNING CONCEPT
 IMPRESSIVE DOCKYARDS,GRANERIES, WAREHOUSES,
BRICK PLATFORMS & PROTECTIVE WALLS
 MASSIVE CITADELS PROTECTED THE CITY FROM
FLOODS & ATTACKERS
 CITY DWELLERS – TRADERS & ARTISANS
 ALL THE HOUSES HAD ACCESS TO WATER & DRAINAGE
FACILITIES
 A SOCIETY OF LOW WEALTH CONCENTRATION
DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES
 CITIES GREW OUT OF EARLIER VILLAGES THAT
EXISTED IN THE SAME LOCALITY FOR < 100 YRS
 GREW IN SIZE & DENSITY AND SURROUNDED BY
NUMEROUS TOWNS & VILLAGES
 CITIES INTERLINKED BY TRADE & ECONOMIC
ACTIVITIES, RELEGIOUS BELIEFS, SOCIAL
RELATIONS,ETC
 VILLAGES 1-10HECTARES IN AREA AND SUPPORTED
TOWNS & CITIES
 VAST AGRICULTURAL LANDS, RIVERS & FORESTS BY
PASTORAL COMMUNITIES , FISHER FOLK AND
HUNTERS SURROUNDED EACH CITY
DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES
 CLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS
 Small villages / hamlets – 0 – 10 hectares
 Large towns – 10- 50 hectares
 Cities – 50 hectares
 IMPORTANT CITIES
CITY SIZE IN HECTARES POPULATION
MOHENJODARO 200 35-41000
HARAPPA 150 23500
GANWERIWALA 80
RAKHIGARHI 80
DHOLAVIRA 100
REHMAN DEHRI 22 12000
MOHENJODARO
MOHENJODARO TIME LINE Mohenjo-
Daro
becomes a
First attempts to World
conserve Mohenjo- Heritage
Building of a planned Mohenjo-Daro falls Daro are made. Site.
city is begun at into decline and is
later abandoned. 1948 AD 1980 AD
Mohenjo-Daro.
2600 BC 1800 BC
3300 BC 2600- 1800 BC 1922 AD

Small villages are Mohenjo-Daro is a Mohenjo- 1973 AD
established in the area thriving trade city. Daro’s Plans are approved to
around Mohenjo-Daro. ruins are preserve Mohenjo-Daro.
found.
MOHENJODARO
MOHENJODARO
MOHENJODARO
 MAJOR STREETS IN
NORTH SOUTH
DIRECTION
 INTERSECTION AT
RIGHT ANGLES
 STREETS WITHIN
BUILT UP AREAS
WERE NARROW
 DISTINCT ZONING
FOR DIFFERENT
GROUPS
MOHENJODARO
SETTLEMENT DIVISIONS
 RELEGIOUS, INSTITUTIONAL & CULTURAL AREAS –
AROUND MONASTERY
 GREAT BATH IN THE WESTERN PART
 NORTH – AGRICULTURE & INDUSTRIES
 SOUTH – ADMINISTRATION, TRADE & COMMERCE
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
 BUILDINGS – MASONRY CONSTRUCTION BY SUN DRIED
BRICKS
 RANGING FROM 2 ROOMS – MANSION WITH MANY ROOMS
 UNDERGROUND SEWERAGE & DRAINAGE FROM HOUSES
 HELICAL PUMPS FOR PUMPING WATER IN GREAT BATH
 PRINCIPAL BUILDINGS – MONASTRY & BATH - INDICATING
RELEGIOUS CULTURE
MOHENJODARO
 LAYOUT - GRID IRON PATTERN
 STREETS - 30 M WIDE RUNNING IN N-S & E-W DIRECTIONS
 STREETS DIVIDED THE CITY INTO 12 BLOCKS - 1200 X 800 FEET
 RESIDENTIAL BLOCKS EXCEPT CENTRAL WESTERN ONE
 NO ENTRANCES DIRECTLY OPENING UP TO THE MAIN STREETS
 CENTRAL COURT YARD - SOURCE FOR LIGHTING AND
VENTILATION
 COMMON WELL FOR GROUP OF HOUSES & SEPERATE BATH
AREA FOR EACH HOUSE
 EXTENSIVE SYSTEM OF DRAINAGE RUNNING UNDER
WALKWAYS - COVERED WITH BRICK SLABS, CORBELLED BRICK
ARCHES FOR LARGER SPAN, WITH MANHOLES AT REGULAR
INTERVALS.
SETTLEMENT PATTERN
MOHENJODARO
 12x7x3 M IN DIMENSIONS
 EARLIEST PUBLIC WATER TANK
IN ANCIENT WORLD
 2 WIDE STAIR CASES IN
NORTHERN & SOUTHERN END
 LEDGE EXTENDS FOR THE ENTIRE
WIDTH OF POOL
 WATERTIGHT FLOOR – THICK
LAYER OF BITUMEN
 FLOOR SLOPES IN SOUTH WEST
CORNER WITH A SMALL OUTLET
CONNECTING TO A BRICK DRAIN
 ROOMS LOCATED IN THE EAST
GREAT BATH
MOHENJODARO
 50x40 M IN DIMENSION
 MASSIVE MUD BRICK FOUNDATION
 2 ROWS OF SIX ROOMS ALONG A CENTRAL
PASSAGEWAY [7M WIDE & PAVED WITH BAKED
BRICKS]
 EACH ROOM 15.2 x 6.1 M HAS 3 SLEEPER WALLS
WITH AIRSPACE BETWEEN
 SMALL TRIANGULAR OPENINGS – AIR DUCTS FOR
FRESH AIR BENEATH HOLLOW FLOORS
 MIGHT HAVE HAD A WOODEN SUPERSTRUCTURE
WITH STAIRS LEADING TO CENTRAL PASSAGE AREA
GRANARY
HARAPPA
HARAPPA
 23000 POPULATION
 150 HECTARES
 EARLIEST CITY MAY HAVE BEEN
FORMED DURING THE KOT DIJI
PHASE, I.E., 2800-2500 BC
 EARLIEST CITY COVERED AN AREA
OF 25 HA.
 IT BECAME A CENTRE FOR HARAPPA
TRADE NETWORKS
EXTENDING FROM BALUCHISTAN
AND AFGHANISTAN TO THE
WEST TO THE SEACOAST IN THE
SOUTH.
 TOWNS BUILT OVER RAISED
MUD BRICK
PLATFORMS
HARAPPA
 CITADEL MOUND AND LOWER TOWN SURROUNDED BY A MASSIVE BRICK WALL.
 CITADEL HAD SQUARE TOWERS AND BASTIONS.
 LARGE OPEN AREAS INSIDE THE GATEWAY MAY HAVE BEEN USED AS A MARKET OR
CHECKPOINT FOR TAXING GOODS COMING INTO THE CITY
 OUTSIDE THE CITY WALLS A CLUSTER OF HOUSES MAY REPRESENT TEMPORARY
REST STOPS FOR TRAVELLERS AND CARAVANS
 NO DIVISION OF THE SOCIETY IS REFLECTED IN THE LAYOUT OF THE CITY.

SINCE LARGE PUBLIC BUILDINGS, MARKET AREAS, LARGE AND SMALL HOUSES
AS WELL AS CRAFT WORKSHOPS HAVE BEEN FOUND IN THE SAME
NEIGHBOURHOOD.
 BARRACK-LIKE GROUP OF SINGLE-ROOMED TENEMENTS WERE FOR THE
POORER CLASSES
TOWN PLANNING
HARAPPA
 Basic house plans  Brick stairways provided
 single room tenements access to the upper floors.
houses with courtyards

 Houses built with a perimeter
 Houses - rooms on 3 wall and adjacent houses were
sides opening into a separated by a narrow space of
central courtyard land.
 Nearly all large houses had  Granary with areas for
private wells. threshing grains.
 Hearths common in  Burnt bricks mainly used for
rooms. drains, wells and bathrooms.
 Bathrooms in every house  Sun dried bricks used mainly
with chutes leading to for fillings.
drainage channels.
 Timber used for flat roofs and
 First floor bathrooms also as frames or lacing for
built. brickwork
SETTLEMENT PATTERN
HARAPPA  THE DOORS ,WINDOWS WERE MADE
 BUILDING MATERIALS - MUD FROM WOOD AND MAT.
BRICKS AND BAKED
HOUSE FLOORS -HARD-PACKED
BRICKS, WOOD AND 
REEDS. EARTH
 THE AVERAGE SIZE OF THE  BATHING AREAS AND DRAINS -
BRICKS WAS 7 X 12 X 34 CM BAKED BRICK AND STONE.
(FOR HOUSES) AND 10 X 20 X
40 CM FOR THE CITY WALLS. THE
 ROOFS -WOODEN BEAMS COVERED WITH
LARGER BRICKS HAVE A REEDS AND PACKED CLAY.
STANDARD RATIO OF 1:2:4.
 LARGEST BUILDINGS MADE
 MUD BRICK, BAKED BRICK & ENTIRELY OF WOOD.
WOOD OR STONE WERE USED
 WINDOWS – SHUTTERS & LATTICE
FOR THE FOUNDATION AND
WORK
WALLS OF THE HOUSES.
ARCHITECTURE
HARAPPA
 LARGE BUILDINGS -ADMINISTRATIVE OR RITUAL STRUCTURES.
 ACCESS ROUTES OR PROVIDED THOROUGHFARE FROM ONE AREA TO
ANOTHER.
 MARKETS AND PUBLIC MEETINGS HELD IN LARGE OPEN
COURTYARDS.
 HOUSES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS GROUPED WITH SHARED WALLS
AND FORMED LARGER BLOCKS & ACCESSED BY WIDE STREETS.
 MOST HOUSES HAD PRIVATE BATHS &TOILETS AS WELL AS PRIVATE

WELLS.
 THE TRANSITION TO EARLY CITY PROBABLY 2800 BC PHASE.
ARCHITECTURE
HARAPPA
BATHING PLATFORMS WITH WATER TIGHT
WELLS AND RESERVOIRS -

 FLOOR & DRAINS [OPEN OUT TO LARGER
DRINKING AND BATHING. DRAINS IN STREETS ] PROVIDED IN ROOMS
ADJACENT TO THE WELLS.
 WELLS WERE LINED WITH SPECIALLY-  DRAINS AND WATER CHUTES IN THE
MADE WEDGE-SHAPED BRICKS UPPER STOREYS WERE OFTEN BUILT
INSIDE THE WALL WITH AN EXIT OPENING JUST
TO FORM A STRUCTURALLY SOUND ABOVE THE STREET DRAINS.
CYLINDER.  TAPERED TERRACOTTA
DRAINPIPES WERE USED TO DIRECT
 ROPES WERE USED TO LIFT THE WATER OUT TO THE STREET.
WATER OUT, PROBABLY WITH MANY HOUSES HAD DISTINCT TOILETS,

SEPARATE FROM THE BATH AREAS.

LEATHER OR WOODEN
COMMODES WERE LARGE JARS OR
BUCKETS. 
SUMP POTS SUNK INTO THE FLOORS AND

MANY OF THEM CONTAINED A SMALL JAR.
 SOME NEIGHBOURHOODS HAD
DRAINS COVERED WITH BAKED BRICKS
COMMUNAL WELLS. 
OR DRESSED STONE BLOCKS.

SEPARATE GARBAGE BINS WERE
DRAINAGE SYSTEM PROVIDED ALONG THE MAJOR STREETS.
THE DECLINE
 TOWNS GOVERNED BY SEVERE STANDARDS - TOWNS
THOUGH BUILT SEPERATELY VARIED ONLY IN THE SIZE &
DETAIL
 NO TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS OVER A PERIOD OF
THOUSAND YEARS
 COMMERCE & TRADE DID NOT INFLUENCE KNOWLDEGE
SHARING
 ISOLATED & PEACEFUL WITH NO DEMAND FOR ARMARY OR
SECURITY OR PROTECTION TO DEFEND THEMSELVES
 REBUILDING THE TOWNS EVERY TIME AFTER THE FLOODS
SAPPED THE VIGOUR OF THE CIVILIZATION
 1600 BC - INVASION FROM THE WEST & DECLINE OF
VEDIC CIVILIZATION
VEDIC CIVILIZATION
 Aryans invasion & establishment
 Vedic (aryan) village
 Religion & literature
 Settlement pattern
 Administration and economy
 Emergence of towns
 Birth of Buddhism & Jainism
INVASION & ESTABLISHMENT
 Vedic invasion
 Aryans from steppes of central Europe travelled
east in search of more favorable climes

 Mesopotamia – Iran plateau (Bactria, Hindu
Kush mountains) – primitive village settlements

of Baluchistan – Indus valley civilization –
further east to gangetic plains
 Being nomadic, not interested to settle in indus
valley but to destroy the cities

 The verses of destroying cities in the epic
mythology if later periods – reference to

destruction
TAMIL EZHIL G, ARCHITECT PLANNER
of cities
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II LECTURE SERIES , MIDAS 2012
INVASION & ESTABLISHMENT
 Indus valley people shifted to south, few absorbed as
lowest social rung of conquering aryans.
 Damaging all the indus valley cities, they descended
east to more fertile lands between rivers Ganga and
Yamuna in 1500 BC
 Aryans attacked the noseless and dark aboriginals of
the gangetic plain and conquered the land
 Reasons – Usage of horse and chariots , knowledge
on wood construction
 Rich , fertile gangetic plain made the nomadic
aryans to settle down without any futher travel.
Vedic village
 Brick was a new building material for them and was already used by
Indus valley which they conquered.
 Knowledge on using timber, bamboo and thatch as building materials
 Timber & bamboo – easily available, easy to maintain and rebuild in
case of rain or floods
 Most huts circular in plan – simplest to build with thatch
 Walls – bamboo twigs tied together
 Roof – bamboo – domical / conical shape & made watertight by
overlapping thatch / grass
 Rectangular huts with bamboo roofs – bamboo bent into semicircular
shape and tied with a cord like a bow creating a barrel like roof and
covered with thatch/grass
 3-4 huts grouped around a courtyard
 Conglomerate of these termed as VEDIC VILLAGE
Vedic village
 Concept of fencing – to protect from the wild
animals from the forest
 Timber fences – vertical, rectangular timber
posts with 3 horizontal bamboo bars
 Bamboos strung between the holes carved in
the rectangular posts
 Entry was projected out with a raised gateway
with controlled entry esp. cattles
 Structures remained temporary, but the forms
contained the embryo of later hindu and
buddhist architecture.
Religion & literature
 No idol worship & no temples
 Vedic pantheon – personifications of symbo;s of nature : Devas
– Surya, Agni, Indra,
 Relegious belief – elaborate ritual of sacrifice to propitiate
Devas
 Architectural form – a raised platform, an open altar
determined by elaborate astronomical and mathematical
calculations
 Rituals could be conducted by learned poet-priest
 Hymns in sanskrit seeking the favours & goodwill from Devas
 First composition of 1028 hymns : RIG VEDA
 Great Epics : RAMYANA & MAHABHARATHA & Lord Krishna
delivering the message in the form of BHAGAVADA GITA
ADMINISTRATION & ECONOMY
 Clearing of forest using fire
 Intense agricultural activity
 Concept of land ownership
 Fights over cattle (the symbol of wealth) shifted to fight
over agricultural land
 Confederation of large units from individual tribes to
wage war
 Existence of sabhas & samitis for civil administration
 By 800 BC – kingship was accorded as sense of divinity
 emergence of warriors & the priestly class Brahmins
EMERGENCE OF TOWNS
 450 BC : emergence of 4 rival states
 Kashi
 Koshala
 Magadha
 Virjis
 Major towns : Shravasti, Champa, Rajgriha,
Ayodhya, Kaushambi, Kashi
 Cities of rectangular plan & grid iron
pattern
Unit II
History of Architecture and Culture II
PRESENTATION STRUCTURE
 Evolution of Buddhism,
• Buddhism thought, art and culture,
• Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism,
• Interaction of Hellenic & Indian Ideas in northern India
 Evolution of building typologies
• Stupa, Vihara and Chaitya hall,
• Symbolism of stupa
 Architectural production during Ashoka’s rule
• Ashokan Pillar, Sarnath,
• Rock cut caves at Barabar,
• Sanchi Stupa
 Rock cut architecture in Ajanta, Ellora , Karli
• Viharas at Nasik, Rani Gumpha, Udaigiri
• Takti Bahai, Gandhara
HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

TAMIL EZHIL G ARCHITECT PLANNER
LECTURE SERIES , MIDAS 2012
BUDDHISM
 The Arians unified the people of the Indus
valley under this system which later became
known as Hinduism.
 They also created a caste system to keep
different segments of society separate and to
prevent the mingling of people, and maintaining
the priestly and warrior class.
• brahmins (Aryan priests);
• kshatriyas (warrior-nobility);
• vaishyas (the bourgeois, or middle class
[businessmen/farmers], viewed as low class by
those above them);
• sudras (servants, not allowed to recite or listen to
the Vedas [Hindu scriptures] and the illegitimate,
criminals, and those in unclean jobs [e.g., leather
workers, barbers, etc.)
 Over time this caste system became
burdensome to the people of India. Its during
this time Siddhartha was born.

BUDDHA TIMELINE Homeless, penniless
After 4 years,
his father dies,
As prince, learns skills wanderer, became disciple Mahaprajapati, DEATH & PARI –
of warrior, technical & to many Brahman teachers his aunt NIRVANA : Dies at age
athletic skills of man- 13 years of in search of truth. Finally Establishes becomes the of 80 years as a result
man fight, trained in marriage life with a disillusioned with Hindu great first woman to of food poisoning. His
spiritual disciplines & son. Spends life in asceticism, caste system reputation, ordain last words being “ All
proficient in art of 3 palaces for 3 and religious doctrines of converting ‘dharma’. After compounded things
archery. First ‘Jhana’ – seasons & well his time. He continued to thousands this women were are ephemeral; work
medidative absorption screened from search truth through of people to admitted in diligently on your
through concentration troubles & worries practice of meditation. ‘dharma’. sangha salvation”
563-547 BC 547-533 BC 533 – 528 BC 528 -527BC 523 BC 483 BC
563 BC 547 BC 533 BC 528 BC 527 BC 523-483 BC

Birth of Marries THE FOUR ENLIGHTMENT : While meditating under He 45 years – Buddha preached his
Sidhartha Yasodhara SIGHTS Old Bodhi tree in Bodh-gaya, Bodhisattva returns ‘dharma’ and hundreds &
Gautama, man, experiences the great enlightment. 7 palace & thousands of people become his
Lumbini diseased
weeks of meditation and attains the converts followers. He also provoked envy &
man, a corpse
Parents : status of BUDDHA at the age of 35 many of ill will and several attempts were
& a holy man
King the made to kill him
Suddhodana, THE RENUNCIATION Finds former 5 disciples of Buddhism at Sakya
ruler of Sakya Leaves palace, Lifes’s Benares,also the 5 members of the tribe
tribe &
pleasures Sangha (Buddhist order). One disciple
Mayadevi
becomes ‘arhat’ (one with enlightened
wisdom) BUDDHISM
BUDDHISM
FOUR NOBLE TRUTH
 Life means suffering.
 The origin of suffering is
attachment.
 The cessation of suffering is
attainable.
 The path to the cessation of
suffering.
BUDDHISM
EIGHT FOLD PATH

BUDDHISM
BUDDHISM SYMBOLS

BUDDHISM
THERAVADA MAHAYANA
The Theravada form of Buddhism is dominant in Mahayana Buddhism is the primary
southern Asia, especially in Sri Lanka, Myanmar form of Buddhism in North Asia and
(Burma), Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. For this the Far East, including China, Japan,
reason it is sometimes known as "Southern Korea, Tibet and Mongolia, and is thus
Buddhism.” sometimes known as Northern
Buddhism.
Theravada means "The Way of the Elders" in Pali, Mahayana is a path available to
reflecting the Theravadins' belief that they most people from all walks of life - not just
closely follow the original beliefs and practices of monks and ascetics.
the Buddha and the early monastic Elders.
The authoritative text for Theravadas is the Pali Mahayana Buddhists accept the Pali
Canon, an early Indian collection of the Buddha's Canon as sacred scripture with the
teachings. The later Mahayana sutras are not Theravadans, but also many other
recognized. works, the Sutras, which were written
later and in Sanskrit.

BUDDHISM
THERAVADA MAHAYANA
The purpose of life for Theravadins is to Mahayana Buddhists, on the other hand, hope
become an arhat, a perfected saint who has to become not arhats but boddhisattvas, saints
acheived nirvana and will not be reborn who have become enlightened but who
again. There are four stages to becoming an unselfishly delay nirvana to help others attain it
arhat: "stream-enterer”, "once-returner”, as well, as the Buddha did.
"never-returner”, "worthy one”
Theravada Buddhists strive to become Mahayana Buddhists teach that enlightenment
arhats, or perfected saints who have can be attained in a single lifetime, and this can
attained enlightenment and nirvana. be accomplished even by a layperson. The
This is considered to only be possible for various subdivisions within the Mahayana
monks and nuns, who devote their entire tradition, such as Zen, Nichiren, and Pure Land,
lives to the task. The best outcome the laity promote different ways of attaining this goal,
can hope for is to be reborn in the monastic but all are agreed that it can be attained in a
life. In Theravada, it is thought to be highly single lifetime by anyone who puts his or her
unlikely, even impossible, that a layperson mind (and sometimes body) to it
can achieve liberation

BUDDHISM
THERAVADA MAHAYANA
Its approach is more philosophical than The Mahayana form of Buddhism tends
religious. to be more religious in nature.
Because of this focus on personal Mahayana Buddhism emerged in the
attainment and its requirement that one first century CE as a more liberal,
must renounce the world to achieve accessible interpretation of Buddhism.
salvation, Mahayana Buddhists refer to As the "Greater Vehicle" (literally, the
Theravada Buddhism as the "Lesser "Greater Ox-Cart"),.
Vehicle" (Hinayana). The schools within the Mahayana
tradition: Tendai, Nichiren and Zen.

BUDDHISM
Theravada Mahayana
Location Southern (Sri Lanka, Thailand, Northern (Tibet, China,
Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Parts of Taiwan, Japan, Korea,
South East Asia) Mongolia, parts of
southeast Asia)
Schools and Sects One surviving school (as many as
18 existed at one time)
Buddhist Pali Canon / Tripitaka only Books of Theravada
scriptures Tripatika plus many other
sutras (e.d Lotus sutra)
Buddhas Historical Buddha & past Gautama Buddha &
Buddhas only Amitabha, Medicine
Buddhas & others

BUDDHISM
THERAVADA MAHAYANA
Bodhistavas Maitreya only Maitreya & Avalokiteshwara,
Manjusri, Ksitegarbha &
samanthabadra
Goal of Training Arhat Buddhahood via bodhisattva
path
3 buddha bodies Very limited emphasis o: Emphasised, including the
(Trikaya) mainly on nirmana –kaya & samboga-kaya or reward /
dharma –kaya enjoyment body
Original Language Pali Sanskrit
Language of Tripitaka in PALI, teaching Scriptures translated into
transmission in Pali supplemented by local language
loacal language

BUDDHISM
THERAVADA MAHAYANA
Buddha’s Disciples Historical disciples Many Bodhisattvas that are
described in Scriptures not historical figures
Mantras & Mudras Very few Emphasized in Vajrayana
Bardo Rejected Taught by all schools
Non-Buddhist Mainly pre-buddhist Heavily influenced by local
influences influences like concepts religious ideas transmitted to
of karma, sangha, etc new cultures
Buddha nature Not Taught Emphasized, especially in
practice-based schools
Rituals Very few, not Many owing to local cultural
emphasised influences

BUDDHISM
Similarities between Theravada & Mahayana Buddhism:
There is hardly any difference between Theravada and Mahayana with
regard to the fundamental teachings of the Buddha. The following are the
most important teachings of the Buddha which are all accepted by both
schools:
 Both accept Sakyamuni Buddha as the Teacher.
 The Four Noble Truths are exactly the same in both schools.
 The Eightfold Path is exactly the same in both schools.
 The Paticca-samuppada or the Dependent Origination is the same in
both schools.
 Both rejected the idea of a supreme being who created and governed
this world.
 Both accept Anicca, Dukkha, Anatta and Sila, Samadhi, Panna without
any difference.

INTERACTION OF HELENISTIC
IDEAS WITH INDIAN IDEAS
SPREAD of BUDDHISM along the SILK ROUTE

 The interaction between Hellenistic Greece and
Buddhism started when Alexander the Great
conquered Asia Minor and Central Asia in 334 BCE,
going as far as the Indus, thus establishing direct
contact with India, the birthplace of Buddhism
 Alexander founded several cities in his new territories in
the areas of the Oxus and Bactria, and Greek
settlements further extended to the Khyber Pass,
Gandhara (see Taxila) and the Punjab.
 These regions correspond to a unique geographical
passageway between the Himalayas and the Hindu
Kush mountains, through which most of the interaction
between India and Central Asia took place, generating
intense cultural exchange and trade.
ALEXANDER’S
DEATH
CENTRAL ASIA ASIA MINOR
SELEUCID KINGDOM
GRECO-BACTRIAN (3RD – 2ND BC)
INDO GREEK (2ND – 1ST BC)
KUSHAN (1ST BC – 3RD AD)

HELENISTIC RULE CONTINUED TILL 5TH
CENTURY AD & DECLINED

MAURYAN EMPIRE (322 – 183 BC)
 Chandra Gupta Maurya, conquered
territories lost to Alexander and established
his empire in North
 Established marital agreement with
Seleucid kingdom
 Megasthenes & other Greek scholars
adorned Mauryan Court
 Influenced by greek architecture & culture,
built palaces modelled on Persipolis
IMPACT OF HELLENISTIC in BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
 The statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas were made in the likeness of the
Greek Gods.
 Greater attention was paid to the representation of realistic images with

accuracy of anatomical features.
 Great attention was paid to refinement and polish.
 In this art artists use grey stone and slate.
 Attention is also paid on ornaments depicting Greek style.
 Gandhara images seem to resemble Apollo. Sometimes this resemble

Graeco- Roman in drapery. But most of the images are represented as
seated in the typical Indian Yogic posture.

MONUMENTAL FEATURES OF
 The building typologies that developed out
of the Ashokan empire are
• Buddhist Stupas
• Stambhas
• Rock cut cave temples
• Chaitya halls
• Viharas

MONUMENTAL FEATURES OF
 Stupas: Irregular humble mound of rubbles that were piled over on the sides
of the roads to mark the sacred sites was transformed by the Royal Builder
Ashoka, into a hemispherical brick paved tumulus.
 These tumulus were circle in plan elevation & section
 He decorated these stupas with ornamentation of Pali language inscribing his
righteous messages
 Stambhas: Inspired from the wooden totem poles of the primitive tribes,
Ashoka ordered the inscriptions to be carved on stone columns & were set up
at regular intervals on the pathways leading to the places of Buddhist
pilgrimage
 Columns of maximum 40’ length & weighing 50 tonnes were carved out of
single block od sandstone at Chunnar, Bihar & transported to far off places
 Once the column reaches the destination, the tapering top portion of the shaft
was varnished & polished to mirror like lusture.
 At the top was mounted a large sculptured figure of an animal usually lion
proclaiming the dharma to the world
 Columns arise directly from earth or sometime from a circular base

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE -STUPAS
 Stupas were built of stones
or bricks to commemorate
important events or mark
important places
associated with Buddhism
or to house important relics
of Buddha.
 Ashok Maurya who laid the
foundation of this group of
monuments is said to have
built 84,000 stupas, most
of which have perished.
 The best examples of
 "One of the most striking architectural remains
stupas are those
of ancient India" and the earliest and largest of
constructed at Amaravati,
the three stupas found in Sanchi was built by
Sanchi, Barhut and Gaya.
Ashoka (273-236 B.C.)

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE -STHAMBAS
 Sthambas or Pillars with religious emblems were put up by pious
Buddhists in honour of Buddha or other great Buddhists.
 Fragments of sthambas belonging to Mauryan times and later were
found at Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Nagarjunkonda.
 These pillars were carved in two types of stone. Some were of the
spotted red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura, the
others of buff-colored fine grained hard sandstone usually with small
black spots quarried in the Chunar near Varanasi.
 The uniformity of style in the pillar capitals suggests that they were all
sculpted by craftsmen from the same region.
 The pillars have four component parts. The shafts are always plain
and smooth, circular in cross-section, slightly tapering upwards and
always chiselled out of a single piece of stone.
 The capitals have the shape and appearance of a gently arched bell
formed of lotus petals.
 The abaci are of two types: square and plain and circular and
decorated and these are of different proportions.
 The crowning animals are either seated or standing, always in the
round and chiseled as a single piece with the abaci
BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE - CHAITYAS
 Chaitya grihas or halls of worship were built all over the
country either of brick or excavated from rocks.
 Some of the most beautiful rock-cut caves are those at Ajanta,
ElIora, Bhaja, Karle, Bagh, Nasik and Kanheri.
 Some of the earlier excavations, all in Maharashtra state are
earlier excavations and belong to the first phase or Hinayana
creed of Buddhism and are similar to the brick and wooden
structures of Ashokan times.
 Some of the chaityas show that wood had been used in the
roofing and entrance arches.
 The chaitya at Bhaja is a long hall 16.75 metres long and 8
metres broad with an apse at the end. The hall is divided into
a central nave and an aisle on either side flanked by two rows
of pillars. The roof is vaulted. The rock-cut stupa in the apse is
crowned by a wooden harmika. The chaitya has a large
arched torana or entrance with an arched portico.

BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE - VIHARAS
 Viharas or monasteries constructed with brick
or excavated from rocks are found in different
parts of India.
 Usually built to a set plan, they have a hall
meant for congregational prayer with a
running verandah on three sides or an open
courtyard surrounded by a row of cells and a
pillared verandah in front.
 These cells served as dwelling places for the
monks.
 These monastic buildings built of bricks were
self-contained units and had a Chaitya hall or
Chaitya mandir attached to a stupa - the chief
object of worship.

EXPANSION OF MAURYAN EMPIRE
MAGADHA EMPIRE 500 BC NANDHA EMPIRE 323 BC MAURYAN EMPIRE 320 BC
MAURYAN EMPIRE 305 BC MAURYAN EMPIRE 300 BC MAURYAN (ASHOKA)

EMPIRE 265 BC

ARCHITECTURAL PRODUCTION DURING ASHOKA’S PERIOD
 Chandragupta's grandson i.e.,
Bindusara's son was Ashokavardhan
Maurya, also known as Ashoka or
Ashoka The Great (ruled 273- 232
BCE)
 3rd century – when building art was
indistinctly visible.
 Ashoka ,the Mauryan emperor
ascended the throne & spread the
teachings of Buddha, he started to
develop the art and architecture of
the country.
 Principal contributions
 series of edicts inscribed on the
rocks, a number of tumuli or stupas,
 certain monolithic accessories to
shirnes,
 the remains of a vast palace,
 a group of rock cut chambers.

 SIGINIFICANT ELEMENTS
 Stupas – evidence of structural
significance.
 Monolithic pillars – evidence for
artistic qualities.
 Rock cut chambers – became
proof for the construction
technique.
 Palace - as a source of
architectural association.
 Pharaohs inscription – source of
inspiration for King Ashoka.
 In many parts of his empire, he
raised circular tumuli of brick –
Stupas
 To have ever lasting character ,
erected a free standing monolithic
columns, in the form of pillars, over
a wide area.

 50’ high columns carries the Buddhist
emblem in its capital.
 In 30 monolith two of them were with lion
capital in Bihar district .Other columns
were erected to mark the way to the holy
places
 Rock cut chambers were treated with high
lustrous polish resembling a fine enamel.
 The development of the art of working in
stone was introduced by Ashoka which
was inspired from Greco – Persian
culture.
 He achieved the composite school of
architecture with Egyptian artists, Nile
craftsman, Greek masons.

 Each pillar consists of a plain
unornamented shaft ,circular in
section, from 30’ to 40’ height, arising
straight out of the ground without any
suggestion of a base, tapering like
the trunk of a tall palm tree.
 At the top of the shaft which is 2’ feet
in diameter is a campaniform capital
.
 Capitals and shaft of the column are
joined by a copper bolt accurately
fitted into the tenons made for it
without the use of cement.
 Most of the structures consists of
figures of animals each of which has
a mythological meaning.

 All 4 animals are carved in relief on the
abacus. Elephant for east, horse of the south,
the bull for west ,the lion for the north.
 The wheel of order which the rig veda tells us
‘rolls around the heaven’.
 As works of art, ashokan pillars hold a high
place. they are boldly designed, finely
proportioned, well balanced , conceptions,
fulfilling the purpose for which they intended.


ASHOKAN PILLARS
The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed
throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, erected or at
least inscribed with edicts by the Mauryan king Ashoka
 Originally, there must have been many pillars but only
nineteen survive with inscriptions.
 Averaging between 40’-50’in height, and weighing up to 50
tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south
of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to
where they were erected.
Pillar at
 Examples can be seen in
VAISHALI
• Pillar at Sarnath
• Pillar at Vaishali
• Pillar at Allahabad
• Pillar at Lumbini
• Pillars at Lauriya-Areraj and Lauriya-Nandangarh
• Pillar at Firoz Shah Kotla, Delhi. (transported from Ambala,
haryana by Feroz Shah Tuqlaq)
Pillar at lumbini

ASHOKAN PILLAR AT SARNATH
 The pillar at Sarnath is believed
to mark the site where Lord
Buddha preached his first
sermon.
 It is said to be place where
Buddha taught Dharma to five
monks.
 The pillar at Sarnath is made of
sandstone and is maintained in
proper shape even today.
 The appearance of the pillar is
quite imposing. At the base of
the pillar is an inverted lotus
flower which forms a platform
for the pillar.
ASHOKAN PILLAR AT SARNATH
 At the top of the pillar are four lions sitting back
to back facing the four prime directions.
 Other illustrations on the pillar include the
Dharma Chakra (Wheel) with 24 spokes which
can be seen on the Indian national flag as well.
 All illustrations have their own meaning and
significance. There are four animals illustrated
on the pillar. They stand for the following:
 Elephant signifies Lord Buddha's
conception.
 Bull signifies the zodiac sign of Taurus
 The Horse stands for Kanthaka that
Buddha rode when he departed from his
palace to practice asceticism and attain
enlightenment.
 The Lion that is illustrated signifies the originally erected Ashokan Pillar
attainment of enlightenment (around 250 BCE) atop an Ashoka
Pillar at Sarnath.

ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE
 Also referred as Cave Architecture:
 Ashoka also patronised Ajivikas ascetics
apart from Buddhism.
 Ajivikas discarded the conventional timber
& brick structures (which symbolises
material value) and chose instead
habitable caves from mountainous sites
 With Chisels and hammers, structures in
wood & thatch were copied to stone.
 Circular cells resulted in hemispherical
domed roofs and rectangular cells resulted
barrel vaulted roof similar to that of Vedic
village

ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE
 Eg : 7 barabar caves, Orissa, Lomas
rishi cave 19’ diameter circular cell,
accessed by 33’ rectangular tunnel like
hall.
 The shape of the entrance arch
resembled the gable end of rural
dwelling
 The semicircular arch of the entrance
was crowned by ornamented vault
projections. The ornamentation was
usually a row of two elephants
approaching a stupa from each
direction.

SYMBOLISM OF STUPA
 To attain height, monumentality & structural stability with the
inelastic building materials of stone & brick , the building form
with a broader base and tapering apex was the soundest
solution to remain for a longer time.
 this can be evidently seen in Egypt – pyramids, Mesopotomia –
Ziggurats & Aztec – temples over piles of receding masonry
 following the same ancient trend, Buddhist were left with the
same choices – square & circle , the two purest forms of
geometry
 Reasons for Buddhist to adopt Circles, leaving the Squares
• symbolises the Buddhist ‘ Wheel of Law”
• to avoid the resemblance of square / rectilinear altars of the Vedic
civilization

SYMBOLISM OF STUPA
 Stupas: Irregular humble mound of rubbles
that were piled over on the sides of the roads
to mark the sacred sites was transformed by
the Royal Builder Ashoka, into a hemispherical
brick paved tumulus.
 These tumulus were circle in plan elevation &
section
 He decorated these stupas with ornamentation
of Pali language inscribing his righteous
messages
SYMBOLISM OF STUPA
 SYMBOLISM & STRUCTURAL FUNCTION
 The overall built form of the Stupa has been bathed with
various elaborate geomatic, theological & philosophical
meanings
 Hemispherical anda – “ dome of heaven” / “ fixed
cosmic structure”
 Harmika – “ heaven of 33 gods”
 The chatravasthi – the umbrella – “the world axis”
 Also harmika & chhatra are stylized visual descriptions
of famous bodhi tree surrounded by vedika
 Torana with a staggered opening ensuring a free &
private prathikshna path

SANCHI STUPA

EVOLUTION OF
SANCHI STUPA
SHUNGAS DYNASTY
 After death of Ashoka, the inhibited
Brahmins slowly started to become strong &
threw the last Mauryan king from throne &
established the Shunga dynasty 185 BC
 The Buddhist monks who were in important
positions during Mauryan period began to
retire from Urban power & started to settle
down near sacred sites
 However the patronisation of Buddhism
continued with the support of the mercantile
community
 Under this patronage, Sanchi began to
expand and flourish both releigiously and
architecturally. Sanchi is 68kms north of
Bhopal in MP

EVOLUTION OF
SANCHI STUPA
 The initial stupa built by Ahoka. 70’
in diameter was enlarged to 120’
diameter for a total height of 54’
 16’ above the ground level, a
prathikshna patha was introduced
to be exclusively used by Buddhist
priests separating themselves from
the common crowd.
 The crown of the hemispherical
platform was flattened to a circular
platform comprising a three tired
stone umbrella, placed inside a
square enclosure – a low stone
fence

EVOLUTION OF SANCHI STUPA
 The timber fence was transferred to
an elaborate stone fencing by
merely transferring all the timber
features of vedic village into
massive stone sculptures
 Octagonal stone pillars of 18” in
diameter & 9’ height were erected
along the circumbulatory path at 2’
distance between each other
 Spaces between these pillars were
spanned by three, 2’ deep lense
shaped horizontals joined with the
mortice & tenon jonts with the
vertical posts.
 These type of structures existed for
the next 100 years

EVOLUTION OF
SANCHI STUPA
 34’ high toranas or the entry gates
were erected at the four cardinal points
marking the gateway to stupas
 The difficulty on erecting a mortice and
tenon joint at that height made them to
introduce horizontal beams reasting on
these vertical pillars.
 Three horizontal overhanging beams
with rich sculptural ornamentation
spanned the 20’ verticals
 These horizontal spaces between the
beams were filled with vertical uprights
of stone trellies – jharokas.

CHAITYA HALLS
 Chaityas : In the process of maturing into a religion, Buddhism
borrowed certain sacrificial rites of Brahmins. Chaityas were referred
to small tumulis (built on the ashes of tribal chief) built in the middle of
grove of trees on both sides.
 This was adopted by Buddhists and tumulis were transferred as the
sacred spot of having Buddha’s ashes.
 Buddhist monks retired from their wandering nature and began to
settle down around these Chaitya’s in temporary huts.
 Gradually Chaityas grew into Buddhist monasteries by the end of
Ashoka’s period.
 These Stupas & chaityas were so simple, very similar to the wayside
village shrines of today.
 By the end of Mauryan Dynasty, the built form of Buddhist religion
was related to white washed Stupas, decorated with prayer flags,
protected by wooden fence, allowing a circumbalotory path in between
for the monks to chant Buddhist philosophies.

CHAITYA HALLS
 Limitations in Great Stupas: open structure & need
for a prayer space for adverse weather conditions
 Ajvikas rock cut caves inspired them to chose the
hilly sites.
 A miniature stupa in enclosed long rectangular hall
 Circular stupa defined the apsidal end with a
circumbulatory path around it
 Roof – similar to barrel vaulted roof in timber
 Entire structure built in a raised plinth

DEVELOPMENT OF CHAITYA HALLS
 Two parallel tunnels were carved till required depth.
 Timber wedges inserted vertically into this & expansion of
timber & dislodged large chunks of stones which were
removed later.
 Hammers & ¼” chisels were the construction tools used.
 Horse shoe opening was ornamented with timber trellis work

 Many of the halls were developed near Ajanta caves which
increased gradually in volume & filled with rich
ornamentation & paintings.
 Thus the term ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE evolved & formed
the important charecteristic feature of buddhist
architecture.

CHAITYA HALL, KARLI
 Hinayana rock architecture reaches the peak
of excellence in the splendid chaitya at Karle.
 An inscription in Karle mentions Bhutapala, a
banker to be the founder of the chaitya hall but later
scholars identify him with Devabhuti, the last of the
Sunga rulers.
 The caves were first discovered in the beginning of
the 19th century.
 They are large halls divided into three, parts - the
central nave, apse and aisles on either side
separated by a row of columns.
 A remarkable feature of these Chaityas is the
imitation of woodwork on rock.
 Beams and rafters were carved in the rock though
they serve no purpose.
 The central stupa has the harmika with inverted
stepped pyramid and an umbrella.

CHAITYA HALL, KARLI
45’
50’
150’
 Access by stones carved out of the cave.
 Two massive columns crowned with lion sculptures. The façade behind is
rock cut, two storeyed screen of stately columns
 There are two solid octagonal columns and two pillars at the sides which
forms the vestibule. In front of these standing columns stood a pair of simha
stambhas ( lion pillar).
 The column with the bell shaped column surmounted by 4 lions back to back
resembles the lion pillar at saranath.

CHAITYA HALL, KARLI
 Rose window over a horse shoe archway

 Walls richly sculptured & flat surfaces
painted with Buddha’s legendry life
 At the end of the aisle, a sculpture of
Buddha is moulded into the hemispherical
profile of stupa

CHAITYA HALL, KARLI
 Above the screen rises a plain wall which has now
disappeared .
 On top of the plain wall stand dwarf pillars,between
which light penetrates not only to the vestibule but
through the great Chaitya window of the façade to
the interior of the magnificent hall.
 The real façade of the Chaitya is crowned by the
great window in the form of a horse shoe.
 Rest of the rock surface has the sculptured figures
with small replica of Chaitya windows and railings
above them.

PERSPETIVE VIEW SHOWING THE INTERIOR & EXTERIOR OF CHAITYA HALL

CHAITYA HALL, KARLI
 Three entrances lead into the hall .
 The central one meant for the members of the sangha
had a raised pathway into the nave.
 37 pillars adorn the interior of the hall. 30 of them richly
carved. each stands on a diminishing squares. on this
rest the pot like base which appears to hold the bottom
of the pillar.
 An inverted lotus capital with the ribbed element placed
inside the box above it crowns the octagonal columns.
 The abacus which repeats the form of the stepped base
but in reverse order, supports finely sculptured groups
of figures mounted on elephants and horses.
 The seven remaining pillars without base and capital
stands in the apse at the far end around the back of the
stupa.

VIHARAS
 Viharas or monasteries constructed
with brick or excavated from rocks are
found in different parts of India.
 Usually built to a set plan, they have a
hall meant for congregational prayer
with a running verandah on three sides
or an open courtyard surrounded by a
row of cells and a pillared verandah in
front.
 These cells served as dwelling places
for the monks.
 These monastic buildings built of bricks
were self-contained units and had a
Chaitya hall or Chaitya mandir attached
to a stupa - the chief object of worship.

VIHARAS
 Some of the important Buddhist
viharas are those at Ajanta, Ellora.
Nasik, Karle, Kanheri, Bagh and
Badami.
 The Hinayana viharas found in these
places have many interesting features
which differentiate them from the
Mahayana type in the same regions.
 Though plain from the point of view of
architecture, they are large halls with
cells excavated in the walls on three
sides.
 The hall has one or more entrances.
The small cells, each with a door have
one or two stone platforms to serve as
beds.
VIHARAS
 The excavations of viharas at Nagarjunakonda
show large rectangular courtyards with stone-
paved central halls. Around the courtyard, the
row of -cells, small and big, suggest residences
and dining halls for monks.
 Twenty-five of the rock-cut caves of Ajanta are
viharas and are the finest of monasteries. The
finest of them. Cave 1, of the Mahayana type
consists of a verandah, a hall, groups of cells
and a sanctuary.
 It has a decorated facade. The portico is
supported by exquisitely carved pillars.
 The columns have a square base with figures of
dwarfs and elaborately carved brackets and
capitals.
 Below the capital is a square abacus with finely
carved makara motifs. The walls and the ceilings
of the cave contain the most exquisite paintings.

VIHARAS – Takht-i-bahai, Pakistan
 Takht means “throne” and
bhai means “water”.The Takht
Bhai was a Buddhist place in
ancient time.
 It was called Takht Bhai

because the Buddhist
monastery was on the top of
a mountain, and on the
mountain there was a stream.
 Now there is a small spring at

the place of the stream which
can be found at the bottom of
the mountain.
 The principal buildings are contained within a rectangle of approximately 200’ in
length,consists of votive stupas, small chapels and structural contributions.
 It comprises of
 A stupa court on the south
 The monastery on the north
 An intervening terrace for the reception
 To the west of the monastery is a conference or assembly hall.
 The courtyard was an open quadrangle measuring 45’ by 55’
 In the center ,on a platform of 20’ side and 8’ high , rose the tall
tapering stupa, which with its six tiered umbrella, reached a total height
of 50’.
 an elegant stairway on the north side gave access to the platform for
circumbulation , but the ordinary processional path was around the
quadrangle at the base.
 Enclosing the court on three sides was a range of small chapels , each
containing a cell or niche .
 The cells or the monastery had unadorned walls protected by a
verandah .it had the stone bed for relaxing and a small niche to act as
shelf.
SURPRISE TEST
 Answer any three (3 x 5 = 15 Marks)
 Describe great bath of Mohenjodaro with a
neat sketch
 Explain the architectural features of towns of
Indus Valley Civilization
 Distinguish between Hinayana & Mahayana
school of thoughts in Buddhism
 What are the characteristic features of vedic
village
 Sketch Ashakan pillar at Sarnath

EVOLUTION OF HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
UNIT III HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
EVOLUTION OF HINDU TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
• Hindu forms of worship
• Evolution of temple form
– meaning, symbolism,
ritual and social
importance of temple
– categories of temple
– elements of temple
architecture
• Early shrines of the Gupta
and Chalukyan periods
– Tigawa temple
– Ladh Khan and Durga
temple, Aihole
– Papanatha, Virupaksha
temples,Pattadakal
– Kailasanatha temple,
Ellora.
EVOLUTION OF THE RELEGION
HINDUISM – THE RELIGION
• CIVILIZATION OF HINDUISM
• EXPRESSION OF GOD IN ART
– Figural art
– Importance of emblems
– Animals and birds in art
– Expression of divinity as sacred images
• TEMPLES IN THE EYES OF MAN
• DYNAMICS OF TEMPLE
• FORMS OF TEMPLE
– Timber Origins Of Indian Architecture
– Cutting And Carving In Stone
– Brick And Stone Construction
• TEMPLE STYLES
• EARLY INDIAN SHRINES
• ‘Hinduism’ did not appear until the centuries
immediately preceding the Christian era
• ARYANS the nomaders bought with them, the
literary tradition of Sanskrit & some Early traditions
to India. These early traditions were later
documented as sacred texts – VEDAS.
• It is in this context that Buddhism and Jainism appeared in the 6th century BC, which focused
on the ethical philosophies of everyday life which were directed towards transcendence of
human existence
• Before the beginnings of the Christian Era the major cults of Hinduism had emerged.
• Elaborate rituals and ceremonies were rapidly evolved for the worship of divinities and myths
and popular legends flourished
• Literature developed during these period were Vedas, Brahmans and Upanishads (for the
priests) and epics (Ramayana & Mahabharata) puranas (for common people)
• Epics remain as examples the richness of the contrasting cultural traditions and expresses
the characteristic feature of the new religion
• In the puranas & epics , the earlier pantheon of Vedas are completely overwhelmed by new
repertoire of popular cults
• The then existing harappan civilization was into worshipping female principles and some
natural plants and animals – celebrated fertility (the creative force) both male and female
forms
• PRE ARYAN BEGINNINGS : By the time RIG VEDA was compiled Aryans had already
absorbed many elements of ideology from Indus Valley Civilization
• Changes in the living patterns, religion are revealed in the later literary works of Brahamans
and Upanishads
• The philosophy of these religious texts were revolving around the notion of escape (Moksha)
from the present world underlying the beginnings of doctrine of transmigration (Samsara)
• An important doctrine is the concept of ‘karma’ in which actions of human being in one life
span directly affect the rebirth to follow
 The emergence of the new religion and culture of

Hinduism strongly influenced the monumental architectural
and artistic traditions developed by Buddhism & Jainism
 Earlier structures were fashioned with less durable
materials (timber, brick ) until Gupta period (4th century
AD) when stone was used as the material of construction
 As northern and southern India have an independent
histories, the initial forms of Hindu architecture took two
different styles based on their geographical position
EXPPRESSION OF GOD IN ART
 Hindu art is primarily an art of sacred images in
which gods, godesses, demons and innumerable
semi-divine beings take visible form
 The art of hinduism responds to the multiplicity of

forms representing the same divinity.
 The art of countless sacred images which

communicates the different aspects of divine while
reminding the worshipper that ultimate truth lies
beyond the world of appearances
EVOLUTION OF TEMPLE FORM
CONCEPT AND EVOLUTION OF HINDU TEMPLE
DYNAMICS OF TEMPLE
 In hinduism the attainment of spiritual perfection is linked to a long journey of many stages,
frequently visualised as progression upwards through various stages of consciousness
 Temples are conceived as a place of transit
 The symbolism of the passage through the doorway is connected with the idea of the
transition from the temporal to the eternal – resulting in the most significant aspect of
devotional dynamism in hinduism – the circum ambulation ‘pradhikshana’
 Focus on the center of the sanctuary
 Symbolic representation of combined ideologies
 Radiation of energy outwards from the center to the sanctuary in four directions.
 Sacredness of image in ‘womb’ of the temple
 Secondary images placed outside ‘garba griha’ in elaborately decorated niches.
 TEMPLE SITES : Natural elements and its forms of water, trees, caves, mountains, etc were
considered sacred were considered as potential sites for temples.
FORMS OF TEMPLE – SCIENCE OF BUILDING
TIMBER ORIGINS OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
 Wood and flexible timber / bamboo characterized the versatility of their building forms and
promoted a degree of innovation which resulted in a variety of architectural forms.
 Hindu temple models are directly derived from wood and bamboo architecture
 Horse shoe arched window

 Apse
 Ribbed barrel vault
 Usage of stone started with buddhist sanctuaries
 Heavy cross beams, rafted framework

 Rock cut copies of actual timber beams
 Wood also influenced the elements of stone and brick such as doorways, column design, roof
forms (eg: thatched slopping roof copied in stone in LADHKAN temple)
CUTTING AND CARVING IN STONE
 Dates back to 3rd and 2nd century BC
 Started as technique of cutting rock to create artificial cave temples
 Tools used were pointed chisels and iron mallet
 ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE – technique evident from unbuilt rock

cut caves from Pallavan architecture, Mamallapuram 7th Century AD
CUTTING AD CARVING IN STONE
 ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE
 Driving a tunnel (man height) till beneath the place where ceiling would be
 Widen & deepen by cutting steps
 Two workers as pair – one stonemason for rough work and another to clean and polish
 Incised colonnade on polished rock and divided remaining area into square panel.
 Further carved inwards till the required depth and width.
 STRUCTURAL ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE developed initiating rock cut techniques of

carving caves which is evident in mahabalipuram rathas.
 Mass of the temple and sanctuary were built of stone slabs – developing a quasi-monolithic
temple form
 Intricate ornamented motifs were carved out at joints almost making it invisible.
 Another leading feature of hindu temple architecture is the emphasis of carving of surface
ornamentation as the principal visual language.
BRICK & STONE CONSTRUCTION
 Principle forms of using stone in temple architecture were the stone columns,
stone / timber beams at lintel level and horizontal stone slabs.
 The post and the beam construction method is extended by development of

corbelling techniques – stones / bricks in horizontal course were progressively
projected out to cause a gap between two walls till it can be closed with one single
brick/ stone.
 Factors of functional engineering principle was never a part of Hindu temple

architecture
 Pillar – lintel – corbel scheme is the root of Hindu temple architecture along with
some structural principles of canteliver, dome , etc at rudimentary levels.
 Dome at the ceiling achieved by rotating and diminishing squares.

1. GARBHAGRIHA. 2. MANDAPA. 3. ANTARALA 4. MAHAMANDAPA
5. ENCLOSING WALL 6. PRATHIKSHANA PATH 7. ARTHA MANDAPA.

CONCEPT AND EVOLUTION OF
HINDU TEMPLE
 Sanctuary as whole is called as
Vimana.
 Upper pyramidal or tapering
portion of the vimana is called
Sikhara.
 Inside vimana there is small dark
chamber or cellar for the reception
of the divine symbol . It is called
Garbhagriha or womb house.
 It was entered from a doorway on
its inner eastern side
 Opposite to the cella there was a
pillared hall – Mandapa. It was the
pavilion for the assembly of those
paying their devotions to the
divine symbol of the cellar
 In the earliest example the mandapa
was detached . E.g.. Shore temple at
mamallapuram & kailasanathar temple
at kancheepuram . (700 A.D).then it
was attached to the building.
 The intermediate chamber is called
Antarala. Porch which leads to the
mandapa is called as Artha mandapa.
 The main entry hall is called Maha
mandapa.
 Surrounding the temple there were
inward cells which encloses the temple.
 Most of these early temples have a
processional path or passage ,
‘prathikshanapath’ which surrounds the
mandapa, outside the cellar.
 Shikara has the repetition of architectural
motifs, converted into an element of decoration.
 These architectural motifs have much deeper

meaning.
 Numerous niches, recesses , alcoves and

altars were provided inside the temple which
has the images of the immortals,so that the
whole place is the assembly of the devas or
holy shrines.
TEMPLE STYLES COMBINED STYLE NORTH INDIAN STYLE
• Geographical classification of the land by
major rivers and mountains as northern and
southern india gave birth to two distinctive
styles in temple architecture.
NAGARA / NORTHERN / PRASADA DRAVDIAN / SOUTHERN /
VIMANA
NORTHERN STYLE AND COMFINED WITHIN THE
DEVELOPED AND FLOURISHED SOUTHERN PENINSULAR
FROM FOOTHILLS OF HIMALAYAS O CONTINENT BELOW THE DECCAN
CENTRAL PLATEAU OF DECCAN , PLATEAU
GUJARAT IN THE WEST TO ORISSA, SOUTH INDIAN STYLE
BENGAL IN THE EAST
SHASTRAS LIST THHE HORIZONTAL SHASTRAS TAKE INTO ACCOUNT
DIVISIONS OF VERTICAL PROFILE SUCH VARIANTS OF BUILDINGS
OF THE BUILDING FROM WHOSE ELEVATIONS ARE BASED
SUPERSTRUCTURE TO FINIAL AND UPON A SINGLE UNIT / NUMBER
CLASSIFY TEMPLES ACCORDING TO OF UNITS VERTICALLY
THEESE DIVISIONS SUPERIMPOSED
SIKHARA REFERS TO THE WHOLE SIKHARA REFERS TO THE FINIAL
SUPERSTURCTURE END.
 They have the structural features for
keeping off the rain and enabling the
smoke to escape.
 Sikhara - In one concept it was the
derivation from the peaked or domed
huts.
 Temple developed form stupa.just
the elongated form of the dome.
 Temple is referred as ratha or car.
so the sikhara may have been
derived from that.
 The device on the finial of the sikhara
distinguishes the temple system
 Siva temple – linga or phallic emblem in the cella, on eastern side & an effigy of
the sacred bull is there in front of the cella.
 Vishnu temple – above the spire of the vishunu temple will have a disc or wheel
statue of deity.
 Another thing which distinguishes was the lintel of the doorway to sanctum. On
these principal images were carved back , west and center.Carvings mostly
related to the particular deity enshrined within.
 Temple was built east west so that the early morning rays of the sun directly falls into
the holy of holies, thus filling it with the fresh glory of the coming day.
 It also symbolizes the entry of the god into his own temple of the world.
 Though different temples were built during different ages they had certain fundamental
principles which is controlled by the act of building in all its phase. they had also some
well established technical code.
 there were two institutions, seni or guilds – they do practice. silpas or canons of arts –
professed to do for the theory. they had vastu sastra or rules of architecture .
 It contains detailed directions for the proper construction of every kind of buildings like
religious or secular.
 The constructional methods of the Hindus had little inventiveness.
 they had laws of gravity in which all pressures are transmitted directly down wards.
 there was no use of mortar. thus Indian temple architecture is called DRY ORDER.
 Indian masons didn’t prepare the materials on the site of the structure ,but from the
quarry itself, often some considerable distance away.
EARLY HINDU SHRINES
DEVELOPMENT OF HINDU TEMPLES
• GUPTA PERIOD
• CHALUKYAN
• RASHTRAKUTHAS
• PALLAVAS
• CHOLAS
• PANDYAS
• INDO ARYAN STYLE
GUPTA PERIOD
BEGINNING OF GUPTA PERIOD
 No evidence of Architectural Records since Mauryan period. This period
created an favorable to a revival of all forms of human activity spiritual
and material.
 As Gupta were by religion, Brahmanical they followed Hinduism.
 In the art of building they wanted fundamental significance in aesthetic
character and in Structural procedure.
 For the aesthetic character they first started to avoid the meaningless
forms which is the expression of the undeveloped mind and unskilled
forces.
 For the structural procedure thing they started with dressed stone
masonry.
 The anthropomorphic conception of a `deity naturally called for some
permanent habitation and so a structural shrine came into being. Thus the
concept of evolution of temple was started.
 Thus we see the
Indian temple passing
through various
stages, corresponding
to the need - clearings
in forests, a reed hut,
and finally a sanctuary
of first wood and then
of brick and stone
EVOLUTION OF EARLY HINDU TEMPLE
 By this period ‘garbha griha’ in stone was
evolved.
 Pillared porticos with a flat roof and

highly carved stone pillars – the
important features of temples of this
period.
 It also possessed some of the distinctive

Characteristic features like
 shape of the pillars and capitals,

 treatment of the Intercolumniation,
 the system continuing as the string
course round the entire building and
 the design of the doorway.
eg Tigawa temple.
EARLY SHRINES OF GUPTA PERIOD
 The Gupta shrines more than a symbol , they reflect that sudden glory
which comes with fresh Inspiration in the capital or order.
 it is the ‘purna kalasa’ or bowl of plenty which has produced the vase
and flower motif.
 They had the square pedestals and octagonal shafts surmounted by a
vase shaped capital.
 Door way to the shrine was a typical Gupta design with their
overhanging lintels
TIGAWA TEMPLE
 Presently in Jabalpur
 Earliest form of Hindu Temple
 has all main characteristics of early Hindu
temples –
 an inner garba-griha
 surrounded by an ambulatory path
 an outer portico with columns in the
front, and
 above all, a flat roof of stone.
 This temple is notable for the vitality of the
carving on its outer columns.
TIGAWA TEMPLE
 The sanctum being a square structure of 12 ½’ side Enclosing a cellar
of 3.75 m2. While the porch projects in front by 7’.
 In the Gupta temple the inter columniations is different. Middle Interval
wider than those on either side.It has flat roof with overhanging eaves.
 Front part contains the Gupta order. It contains the massive Abacus
surmounted by a device of lions. it has plain square Pedestal and
short shaft has many sides.The extended lintel on the top of the
doorway reminds the wooden construction .
12 ½’ 7’
12 ½’ 3.75
Sq M
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
 Built shrines for Aryan
Gods in their capital city
Aihole
 Craftsmen were familiar
with the Buddhist rituals
and traditions of Gupta
sculpture
 No experience in free
standing monuments
 They picked the
‘santhagar’ or the
assembly hall of the village
council as their model
 Adopted the timber
structure to stone masonry
and the plan from village
assembly hall
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
 The Hindu structural temple took its introductory form during this period.
 Unlike the Gupta shrines the Chalukyan temples has the pillared assembly hall called
mandapa..
 E.g. LADHKHAN temple and Durga temple at Aihole.
 In this period temple they had

the public spaces
surrounding the temple for
congregational Purposes.
they had stone seat or
podium as a seat rest.
 In the order they had square
shaft and bracket capital.
through out the temple they
had Stone pilasters
 It had the stone seating
called ‘asana’ in the entrance
halls
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
LADHKAN TEMPLE
LATER ADDITION
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
LADHKAN TEMPLE
 When Gupta shrines were
built in central India &
Northern India,Chalukyans
started to get over the
power in southern India.
 The first efforts of the
Chalukyan are
represented by a
considerable group of
stone built shrines and
temples at Aihole.
 In shape it is a Square and
comparatively low ,flat
roofed building. The plan
has fifty feet in all side.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
LADHKAN TEMPLE
 The open pillared hall has

the two square group of
columns. thus providing
the double aisle all
around.
 The cellar is placed in the

western side against the
back wall. in front of it the
effigy of a bull almost fills
the central hall.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
LADHKAN TEMPLE
Three of these sides are

completely enclosed by
walls , two of which has
perforated stone grills
(added on in the later
periods) and eastern
side has projected
porch.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
LADHKAN TEMPLE
 In this Ladhkhan temple ,
we can see the beginning BRACKET Capital
of the asana – meaning
stone seating ,in the
portico.
 The asana is the timber
bench with the inclined
back – an element of the
assembly council was
removed from the interiors
and reproduced in the
portico.
ASANAS: Seating Element / Balusters
 These asanas functionally
serve as a seating  Only the effigy shows it was a Siva temple which added later.
element and aesthetically But other dedicatory blocks shows it was a Vishnu temple.
acts as balusters for the  It has bracket capital column which has the expanded floral
portico. abacus which supports the bracket.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
LADHKAN TEMPLE
 The roof has the flat
 BUILDING MATERIALS slab. In its entire length
Walls – Cyclopean Stones without binding materials the grooves are
 Roof – Gargantuan stone slabs chiselled.. Long narrow
stones are placed fitting
into the grooves. this
type of roof got its
concept from timber
structure.
 Projecting edges of the
roof slabs were rounded
off to imitate the original
thatch overhang. Even
bamboo ribs holding the
thatch down are
reproduced in bulky
semi-cylindrical stones.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
DURGA TEMPLE
 This is the brahmanical version of
the Buddhist Chaitya hall adapted to
suit the service of the former belief.
 The seventh century Durga Temple
at Aihole is dedicated to Lord
Vishnu. It took its name from the
Kannada word "durgadagadi" or
pteroma "temple near the fort."
 The temple includes mukha
mandapa,sabha mandapa and
garbhagriha.
36’  It has an apsidal ended structure
measuring 60’ by 36’.
60’ 24’
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
DURGA TEMPLE
36’
 There is a large portico on its
eastern front 24’ in depth. Thus it
forms 84’.
60’ 24’  Two flight of steps leading to a
portico give entrance to the
temple on the eastern side.
 4 square pillars support the
ceiling of the mukha mandapa
from which a highly ornate
doorway leads into the sabha
mandapa and garbha griha
 The pillared hall, is divided into a
central nave and two side aisles
by two row of pillars.
DURGA TEMPLE
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
DURGA TEMPLE
 Niches enclosing bold figure
sculpture adorn the walls of the
sabha mandapa and garbha griha
along the pillared corridor.
 It is raised on high and heavily

molded plinth or stereo bate.
 Over the apse a short pyramidal
tower or sikhara has been
pteroma subsequently added.
 Another notable feature in the design

of the durga temple has peripheral or
36’ pteroma, a passage formed by the
colonnade of a verandah .The main
cellar is surrounded by this pteroma
60’ 24’ which is connected with pillared
portico.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
PAPANATH TEMPLE
 The Papanath temple erected before
the end of the 7th century reveals in
experience in architectural design.
 This plan lacks correct placement of

the main parts and a logical inter
relationship between them.
 The sikhara at the eastern end of the

building is too short and under sized
for the long, low building and the
antrala is too long.
30’
 Antrala looks like square assembly

hall than a vestibule, more like a
mandapa and like an antechamber to
90’ the sanctuary.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
PAPANATH TEMPLE
 Dedicated to Mukteswara
according to inscriptions, this
modest temple seems to have
been completed around 740 A.D.
 There seems to have been a
change of intention during the
course of construction of this
temple as can be known from its
too narrow circumambulatory
path whose floor slabs conceal
the external moulding of the
garbhagriha walls and the
buttress like projections of the
north and south garbhagriha-
walls into the ardha-mandapa,
both of which are unusual
features.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
PAPANATH TEMPLE
 Facing the east, this temple has on plan a sanctum (garbhagriha ) surrounded by a
circumambulatory path (pradakshinapatha) with niches (devakoshtha) pavilion along its
three walls, an ardha-mandpa, a sabha-mandapa and an entrance porch (mukhamandapa)
 Curiously, but an ornate image of Nandi is housed in the eastern half of the sabha-mandapa.
there is no Nandi-mandapa
 The temple is built on a plinth of five mouldings, embellished with animal motifs, floral designs
and kudus.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
PAPANATH TEMPLE
 The interior still bears the

influence of rock cut architecture .
 The string courses surrounding

the building resemble strong
braces holding the structure
together.
 The decoration of the outer

surface consisting of repetitions of
elements of bas relief shrines in a
triangular pattern on the canopies,
shows little under standing of
architectural ornamentation.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
PAPANATH TEMPLE
 The wall surfaces are relieved with niches (devakoshthas)
housing Saiva and Vaishnava deities and depicting episodes
from the Ramayana.
 These niches are topped by various designs of chaitya-arch
motifs and interspersed with perforated windows.
 The three devakoshtha pavilions house images of Siva in
different forms.
 Pillars of the entrance porch bear Kinnara couples and
engaged columns have the figures of Dvarapalas. Lions and
sardulas are carved at the corners above the entablature and
the ceiling panel depicts dancing Siva with Parvati and
musicians and flying figures.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
PAPANATH TEMPLE
 Pillars and pilasters of the other
mandapas are relieved with medium-
sized graceful sculptures of damsels
and couples (mithunas) in playful
moods.
 Bay ceiling of the sabha-mandapa is
adorned with panels depicting
 Here figures of rearing lions are cared projecting Anantasayana surrounded by the
from above the entablature. Dikpalas, nagaraja and Gajalakshmi
from east to west.
 Central ceiling of the ardha-mandapa has relief
sculpture of dancing Siva in the company of Parvati
and musicians.
 The western ceiling here has figure of Nagaraja.
Both the mandapas and the sanctum have ornate
doorframes.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE
 The temple plan has the
garbha griha surrounded by a
pradakshina path which
Opens into a large columned
mandapa .
 The mandapa is wider than
the Sanctuary and
circumbulatory passage.
 The nandhi shrine stands in
front of temple and an
enclosure walls surrounds the
temple.
 The enclosure wall of this
temple interlock by a diagonal
arrangement which is unique
in Indian temple architecture.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE
 It has tall vimana ,square plan
from base to sikhara and rising
in four storeys.
 Five bays adorn its outer walls
on all sides except the western
porches lead to the multi pillared
hall.
 Over the parapet at the rear of
each porch rises an embryonic
gopuram,which resembles an
additional storey over the
entrances to the mandapa.
 From the 3rd storey of the
vimana projects the sukanasika.
CHALUKYAN PERIOD
VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE
 Sculptural decorations perfectly blended
with the architecture relieve the heavy
solidity of the structure.
 Perforated windows were alternated with
niches.
 One or two pilasters separate the niches
from the windows.
 These pilasters constricted just below the
capital like a neck and shoulder under the
head are among the first example of the
characteristic Dravidian order.
 The harmonious blending of the elements
of this temple shows that it results from
much thought for the whole and every little
detail.
 The stone though old and gray seem to
vibrate with the feeling and spirit that
shaped them.
• The Virupaksha Temple of Pattadakal signifies the high watermark of the Early Chalykyan architecture. This temple was built in commemoration to the victory of the Chalykyas over the Pallavas of the
Kanchipuram.
• Historic background
• In fact the construction of this temple is attributed to Queen Lokamahadevi , queen of the then ruling king Vikramaditya II. An inscription on the eastern wall of the Virupaksha Temple narrates the
circumstances that led to the commissioning of this temple complex. Though the exact date is not known from the inscriptions, it is estimated that the construction was executed around the year 745 AD.
• As mentioned earlier , this temple marks a major milestone in the history and architecture of the era. Vipupaksha Temple is probably the largest and most sophisticated temple the Early Chalykyas ever
attempted. This is one of the earliest ,complete and – even today – the best preserved specimen of Chalykya art.
• From an architectural point, the Chalykyas took inspiration from the Kailasanatha temple of Kanchipuram. The resemblance between the two is striking. So is the similarity of Virupaksha Temple’s tower with
that of the much famous shore temple at Mahabalipuram in Tamilnadu. Later the Virupaksha Temple inspired the design of the Kailasanatha temple built by the Rashtrakootas in the present day Ellora.
• While the temples of Kanchipuram, Mahabalipuram and Pattadakal were executed on sandstone, the Kailasanatha Temple of Ellora is fine example of rock cut architecture out of volcanic outcrop. Incidently
Mahabalipuram and Ellora are UNESCO world heritage sites like Pattadakal.
• The victorious Vikramadithya II is believed to have astonished at the beauty of the temples at Kancheepuram. It is likely that he brought along with him some of the famous architects of the Pallava country to
make similar style temples in the Chalykya capital.
• The inscriptions near the eastern gateway reads about its architect named Gunda as “the most eminent sutradhari (architect) of the southern country( the Tamil country)”.
• While the Virupaksha temple was built by Lokamahadevi the adjutant Mallikarjuna Temple was built by her sister. Both were queens of Vikaramaditya II, and built for the same purpose – to commemorate the
victory of the Chalukyas over the Pallavas. The Virupaksha Temple has many distinctions. For example this temple complex together with its massive entrance towers (Gopuras) and the compound walls were
conceived and completed together. This is a deviation from the typical practice of many patrons enhancing a popular temple over a long period with architectural additions. Also Virupaksha temple is the earliest
and the most ambitious of the temple building ventures by Early Chalyukyas.
• Description of Virupaksha Temple.
• The first thing you notice of the Virupaksha Temple is its many fluted towers projecting over the boldly executed outer walls. The whole temple complex is oriented in a east-west axis with two massive towers
at the east and west end of the partially damaged compound wall. The eastern tower in fact faces Malaprabha river front. The outer compound wall traces the general plan of the Virupaksha Temple. Thanks to
its innovative design, when you view from a distance the compound wall looks as if it is the lower story of the temple (with the towers protruding over it) , and the temple looks much larger.
• As you cross the eastern gateway, the first structure is the Nandi Mantapa (Bull Pavilion). Further ahead on the same east-west axis is the open hall (Mukha Mandapa) with three porches and a connecting
corridor at its east to access the sanctuary through an antechamber.
RASHTRAKUTHAS PERIOD
KAILASANATHA TEMPLE, ELLORA
 The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora dates
back to the period of the 8th century
Rashtrakoota ruler Krishna I . It was
built during the period 757 and 773 CE.
 The Kailasanatha Temple is a Saivite
Temple located near Maharastra in
western India.
 It is grouped in a family of structures
referred to as the Ellora Cave Temples
and is one of dozens of Hindu, Buddhist,
and Jain temples among the structures.
 The Kailasanatha is generally regarded
to have been excavated in the mid-8th
century during the Rastrakuta Dynasty,
inscriptions claim during the rule of
Krisnaraja I.
 It is constructed out of a single rock.
 There are both Vaisnavite and Saivite subjects scattered liberally about the temple structure
 There are also many depictions of the Dikpalas, naga, and River Goddesses, though they
never appear quite as important as the sculptures of Siva, Vishnu, and Brahma, usually
appearing smaller and or made to look as if standing further back
 A gateway, an enclosure for
Nandi, and a mandapam line
up in front of the sanctum
which is crowned with a
vimanam, composed of
successively receding storeys,
decroated with miniature
buildings.
 The mandapam in front of the
sanctum is an enormous
hypostyle hall with carved
pillars.
 On either side of the Nandi
Mandapam are two 50 feet
high obelisk like pillars
decorated with frieze carvings.
 A collonaded gallery running along the bottom
of the cliff face, forms a deep narrow passage
that surrounds the temple.
 In between this cliff face and the temple is the
pradakshinapatha.
 The narrow passage mentioned above has two
storeys of hypostyle halls and porticoed
galleries
 The temple covers an area of over 60000
square feet, and the vimanam (tower) rises to a
height of about 90 feet.
 It is to be emphasized over and over again, and
seen to be believed that the entire monument
was made by excavation and not by
construction.
SOUTH INDIAN TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE
UNIT IV
AR2152 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
PRESENTATION STRUCTURE
• HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA • ROCK CUT PRODUCTIONS OF
• RELATION WITH BAKTHI PERIOD & PALLAVAS
– MAHABALIPURAM
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
– SHORE TEMPLE
• EVOLUTION OF DRAVIDIAN STYLE – KAILSANATHAR TEMPLE,
– DRAVIDIAN ORDER KANCHIPURAM
– GOPURAMS • CONTRIBUTION OF CHOLAS TO
DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE
• TEMPLE TOWNS
– NARTHAMALAI
– MADURAI
– BRIHADEESHWARA TEMPLE,
– CHIDAMBARAM TANJORE
– SRIRAGAM – BRIHADEESHWARA TEMPLE,
GANGAIKONDACHOLAPURAM
– AYIRAVATHEESHWARA TEMPLE,
• HOYSALA ARCHITECTURE DARASURAM
– BELUR • CONTRIBUTIONS OF PANDYAS TO
– HALEBID DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE
EVOLUTION OF DRAVIDIAN STYLE
• CONCEIVED AS BROAD GIRTH/TOWER SPIRE BUILT UP
IN A NUMBER OF HORIZONTAL TERRACES
• SIKHARA – CONICAL & CROWN WITH STUPIKA
[MINIATURE STUPIKA]
• THIS HEAD PIECE REPEATED IN CORNERS OF EACH
SUCCESSIVE LEVEL OF HORIZONTAL TERRACES
ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE OF PALLAVAS
• PALLAVAS RULED THONDAI MANDALAM WITH KANCHEEPURAM AS CAPITAL
CITY AND MAMALLAPURAM AS PORT TOWN
• STRUCTURES DEVELOPED DURING THIS PALLAVA PERIOD ARE
– ROCK CUT STRUCTURE
– MONOLITHS
– STRUCTURAL STONE
• VARIOUS STRUCTURES DEVELOPED DURING DIFFERENT REIGNS
PHASE RULERS YEAR STRUCTURE DEVELOPED
FIRST MAHENDRA GROUP 604 -640 AD PILLARED WALLS , MANDAPAS
PHASE
MAMALLA GROUP 640-690 AD MANDAPAS / RATHAS
MONOLITHIC TEMPLES
SECOND RAJASIMHA GROUP 690-800 AD TEMPLES
PHASE
NANDIVARMAN GROUP 800-900 AD TEMPLES
ROCK CUT ARCHITECURE OF PALLAVAS
 PALLAVAS ESTABLISHED THEMSELVES AS A STRONG RULER UNDER THE SHADOWS OF
GUPTA OF MAGHADHA & UJJAIN & RASHTRAKUTHAS OF MADHYA DESA
• THEIR REIGN EXTENDED FROM CAUVERY TO

KRISHNA
• MAHENDRA VARMA S/O SIMNHA VISHNU INITIATED
SEVERAL ROCK CUT TEMPLES IN 604 AD IN CHENGALPAT,
TRICHY,MAHENDRAVADI NEAR ARAKKONAM
• NARASIMHA VARMAN I (MAMALLA) ASCENDED THRONE
IN 630 TO 695 AD
– HE BUILT SHIVA TEMPLE AT KURMA AND ERECTED ROCK CUT
MANDAPAS AT MAMALLLAPURAM
• NARASIMHA VARMAN II (RAJASIMHA) IS THE GREATEST
BUILDER OF THE DYNASTY
– HE BUILT THE SHORE TEMPLE AT MAMALLAPURAM &
KAILASANATHAN TEMPLE AT KANCHEEPURAM
• MANDAPAS
– IS AN EXCAVATION
– ITS IN AN OPEN PAVILION
VARAHA
– EXCAVATED IN ROCKS MANDAPAM
– TAKES A SHAPE OF A SIMPLE
COLUMNED HALL WITH ONE OR
MORE CELL IN THE BACK WALL
• RATHAS
– A MONOLITH KRISHNA
MANDAPAM
– REPRESENTS A SERIES OF
MONOLITHIC SHRINES
– EXACT COPIES OF GRANITE OF
CERTAIN STRUCTURAL PROTOTYPES
– BEST EXAMPLE – PANCHAPANDAVA GANESH
RATHAS AT MAMALLAPURAM RATHA
ROCK CUT
ATCHITECTURE OF
PALLAVAS
PLAN OF MAMALLAPURAM
• GANESHA RATHA
– RECTANGULAR SANCTUARY WITH VERANDAH
– COLUMN WITH SEATED LIONS
– SANCTUARY WITH GANESH IMAGE
– VAULTED ROOF COMPLEX WITH ARCHED ENDS
• ARJUNA’S PENACE
– TWO LARGE BOLDERS WITH A CLEFT INBETWEEN
– COVERED WITH FLYING GODS, GODESSES, SEMI-
DIVINE BEINGS, ELEPHANTS & OTHER ANIMALS
– ON LEFT SIDE OF THIS STANDS ARJUNA IN
PENANCE
– TO THE RIGH OF THIS BOLDER IS A GROUP OF
MONKEYS
• PANCHA PANDAVA CAVE
– ONLY 6 COLUMS WITH LION BASE WERE
COMPLETED
• KRISHNA MANDAPA KRISHNA MANDAPAM
– COLUMNED MANDAPA SHELTERS LARGE
BOLDER CARVINGS
• DHARMARAJA CAVE
– 3 EMPTY SANCTUARIES EXACAVATED IN
REAR WALL OF THE MANDAPA PANCHA PANDAVA
– UNADORNED ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS, MANDAPAM
GUARDIAN FIGURES AT THE DOORS
• MAHISHAMARDHINI CAVE
– 3 SHRINES WITH A LONG VERANDAH
– THE TWO INTERIOR PILLARS ARE UNIQUE
IN DESIGN .
– THE PILLARS ARE RESTING ON MAHISHAMARDHINI CAVE
SEDENTARY LIONS’ HEAD
– THE SHAFT(STAMBHA) IS FLUTED AND
BANDED WITH REFINED NECKING (TADI).
THE MELON (KUMBHA) SHAPED CAPITAL
SUPPORTING A LOTUS FORM (IDAIE)
ABOVE WITH WIDE ABACUS (PALAGAI) DHARMARAJA CAVE
BECAME THE MOST STRIKING ELEMENT IN
THE ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE
ARJUNA RATHA
BHIMA RATHA
PANCHA PANDA RATHAS
DRAUPADI RATHA
NAKULA & SAHADEVA RATHA

DHARMARAJA RATHA
DRAUPAUDI RATHA
 Entirely rock cut and stands

on a square plinth of 3.5m
and 6m high
 Has a vaulted roof derived
from hut and straw roof
ARJUNA RATHA
 Lies to the south of Draupadi
Ratha
 Planned like a buddhist
vihara measuring 3.5m x
3.5m raising to a height of
6.6m
 Vimana built in 4 tiers
containing little heads set is
th horse shoe shaped
arches.
BHIMA RATHA
 Stands on a rectangular
plinth of 13m x 7.6m
 Vimana rises to a height
of 8m
 Approach is through a
double row of carved
columns
 It has a pillared gallery
running all around the
roof which is like a
buddhist vault
 Pillars have kumbha
shaped capitals with lions
/ simhas at base.
DHARMARAJA RATHA
 Carved similar to Arjuna ratha

and tallest
 Stands on a plan of 8m x 9m
and vimana rises to a height of
12m in four storeys
NAKULA SAHADEVA RATHA
 stands at the end but outside the line to the west of Dharmaraja Ratha
 Based on chaitya hall of Buddhist architecture, has an apsidal end on the south side and a
double pillared portico on the northern side.
 Plinth measures
5.5m x 3.35m and
rises to a height of
5m in 4 storeys.
 A monolithic elephant
of life size stands
adjacent ot the ratha
• STRUCTURAL TEMPLE – FIRST OF ITS KIND SHORE TEMPLE, MAMALLAPURAM
• BUILT BY RAJASIMHA
• TEMPLE – 2 SHRINES PLACED BACK TO BACK – LARGER ONE FACES THE SEA AND
SMALLER ONE FACES WEST
• STRUCTURAL FORM – DEVLOPMENT FROM DHARMARAJA RADHA – SQUARE LOWER
STOREY & PYRAMIDAL TOWER IN DIMINSHING LEVELS
• UNIQUE IN COMPOSITION
• EAST FACING SHRINE HELD TIGHTLY BY WALLS WHICH GIVES AN IMPRESSION
OF AN INNER CIRCUMBULATORY PATH
• IT ADHERES CLOSEST TO WOODEN PROTOTYPES
SHORE TEMPLE, MAMALLAPURAM
• TEMPLE ON EAST IS DEICATED TO SHIVA AND ON WEST IS DEDICATED TO
VISHNU.
• ITS ENCLOSED BY A MASSIVE WALL, ITS PARAPET AND COPING CROWNED
BY FIGURES OF KNEEELING BULLS AND ON EXTERIOR ARE BOLDLY
CARVED LION PILASTERS (LEOGRYPH MOTIF)
• ENTRANCE IS FROM WESTSIDE OF THE COURTYARD
• GARBA GHRIHA ENSHRINED WITH A
LARGE LINGAM
• LARGER VIMANA OVER THE
SHRINEIS ABOUT 20M WITH
UMBRELLA SHAPED KALASA AT ITS
SUMMIT
• ENTIRE TEMPLE IS BUILT OF HARD
BLASKISH TYPE OF LEPTINITE
WHICH HAS WITHSTOOD SALT SEA
WIND AND WAVES FOR MORE THAN
12 CENTURIES.
SHORE TEMPLE, MAMALLAPURAM
• PLAN - GARBAGRIHA FACES EAST OVERLOOKING THE SEA SO THAT THE SHRINE
MIGHT BE ILLUMINATED BY THE FIRST RAYS OF SUN
• CENTRAL BUILDING COMPRISES SHORE TEMPLE AND A DEVELOPMENT OF
MONOLITHIC RATHAS OF PREVIOUS PHASE
• HERALIC LION HOLDS UP A DRAVIDIAN SHORE TEMPLE, MAMALLAPURAM
CAPITAL
• LEOGRIF MOTIF BECAME THE
CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL OF THE
PALLAVAN STYLE
• SALIENT FEATURE
– GROUND FLOOR CONSISTED OF
A SYSTEM OF SHALLOW
CISTERNS WHICH COULD BE
FLOODED ON OCCASION
– RESOLVED ITSELF INTO A TYPE
OF WATER TEMPLE
– WATER BROUGHT IN THROUGH CANAL
& CONVEYED BY SLUICES
– IN CASE OF OVERFLOW PROVISON OF
A CASCADE AT THE REAR SIDE OF THE
TEMPLE
• LARGEST & MOST IMPORTANT KAILASANATHA TEMPLE, KANCHEEPURAM
CONTRIBUTION OF RAJASIMHA
• COMMENCED BY RAJASIMHA IN 700AD AND
COMPLETED BY HIS SON MAHENDRA VARMA III
• EXCEPT SOME LATER ADDITIONS IN THE EASTERN
SIDE, TEMPLE WAS CONCEIVED AS A WHOLE,
EVEN BEFORE CONSTRUCTION
• IT EXHIBITS THE ENTIRE CHARACTERISTIC
FEATURES OF PALLAVAS
– PYRAMIDICAL TOWER
– PILLARED HALL
– VESTIBULE ENCLOSED BY WALL SURMOUNTED BY A
PARAPET OF CUPOLAS
• RAMPAN LION PILASTERS REPEATED IN THE
EXTERIOR
• THIS PERIOD IS THE EARLY BEGINNING OF
GOPURAMS – GOPURAMS ARE DWARFISH AND
ARCHITECTURALLY NOT VERY CONSPICUOUS
• THE SCHEME RESOLVES KAILASANATHA TEMPLE, KANCHEEPURAM
ITSELF INTO THREE
SEPARATE PARTS
– SANCTUARY WITH ITS
PYRAMIDAL TOWER
– A PILLARED HALL OR
MANDAPA
– THE WHOLE THING
CONTAINED WITHIN A
RECTANGULAR
COURTYARD &
ENCLOSED BY A HIGH
WALL WITH
RECTANGULAR CELLS
 AT MUCH LATER DATE, THE SANCTUARY AND MANDAPA WAS CONNECTED
BY A SPACIOUS INTERMEDIATE HALL OR AN ANTRALA
KAILASANATHA TEMPLE, KANCHEEPURAM
100’
25’9” 25’9”
30’
34’9” 80’
• IT HAS THE ARDHA MANDAPA IN KAILASANATHA TEMPLE, KANCHEEPURAM
FRONT OF THE TEMPLE.
• IT CONFIRMS THE MONOLITHIC
PROTOTYPE OF DHARMARAJA
RATHA
• ENTIRE STRUCTURE IS OF KAILASANATHA TEMPLE
SANDSTONE WITH A GRANITE
FOUNDATION THUS PROVIDING A
HARD AND FIRM SUBSTRUCTURE TO
CARRY THE WEIGHT & A PLASTIC DHARMARAJA
SUBSTANCE FOR THE SCULPTURE RATHA
• ARHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS KAILASANATHA TEMPLE, KANCHEEPURAM
– INTERIOR OF THE ENCLOSED WALL
HAVE CELLS FACING THE COURTYARD
– PARAPET OF THE WALL HAVE CUPOLAS
– MANDAPA PILLARS ARE STURDY &
PRIMITIVE IN SHAPE
– RAMPANT LION PILASTERS ARE
REPEATED CONSTANTLY
• PRAKARA SURROUNDS THE WHOLE
COMPLEX.
• THE PERIPHERAL SHRINES ALL HAVE
DOME LIKE ROOFS .
• EXTERNALLY THE ENCLOSURE WALLS
ARE RELIEVED BY PILASTERS.
• SIKHARA IMPROVED IN ITS
ARCHITECTURAL FORM, WELL
PROPORTIONED, SUBSTANTIAL
AND YET THE SAME TIME
RHYTHMIC IN ITS MASS AND
ELEGANT IN ITS LINES
• IN THE PLACE OF MAIN
GATEWAY, A LARGE
SUBSIDIARY CHAPEL HAS BEEN
INTRODUCED, COMPLETE WITH
CELLA, VESTIBULE AND
STAIRWAY APPROACH
• THE MAIN VIMANA HAS 4 STOREYS .
• THE DOUBLE WALL OF THE SHRINE
PROVIDE A CIRCUMBULATORY PASSAGE IN
BETWEEN .
• IT HAS THE PROJECTING SHRINES
SURROUNDING THE SANCTUM AND THE
BASE OF THE TEMPLE EXTENDS HERE
ALSO.
• ONLY THE INNER OF THE SANCTUM HAVE
NO SCULPTURE.
• BUT THE WHOLE OTHER PARTS HAS THE
PROFUSE CARVINGS.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF
CHOLAS
TO DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE
NARTAMALAI, TANJORE
BRAHADESSHWARA TEMPLE, TANJORE
BRAHADESSHWARA TEMPLE, GANGAIKONDA CHOLAPURAM
DARASURAM TEMPLE COMPLEX
CHOLA PERIOD
• 9TH CENTURY – DECLINE OF PALLAVA
DYNASTY
• ADITYA CHOLA I DEFEATED APARAJITHA
IN 897AD
• SUCCEEDING 250 YEARS SOUTH INDIA
WAS DOMINATED BY THREE RULERS –
CHOLAS, CHALUKYAS AND
RASHTRAKUTHAS
• TWO IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO
THE INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
– BRAHADEESHWARA TEMPLE, TANJORE
– GANGAIKONDA CHOLAPURAM.
• EARLY CHOLAS
CHOLA PERIOD
• MEDEIVAL CHOLAS
• LATER CHOLAS
BRAHADEESHWARA
TEMPLE TANJORE
BRAHADEESHWARA TEMPLE,
AIRAVATEESHWARAR
TEMPLE , DARASURAM
CHOLA PERIOD
 EARLY CHOLA TEMPLES  LATER CHOLA PERIOD
 CENTRAL SHRINE  EARLY CHOLA ENDED WITH THE
 ARTHA MANDAPA IN SOUTH AND ACCESSION OF RAJA RAJA CHOLA I
NEVER WIDER THAN THE  GREATEST SINGLE UNDERTAKING –
SANCTUARY BRAHADEESHWARA TEMPLE, TANJORE
 AN ENCLOSURE WALL BUILT FOR ABOUT 15 YEARS
 GOPURA  LANDMARK IN THE EVOLUTION OF
BUILDING ART IN SOUTH INDIA
CHOLA PERIOD
NARTAMALAI
 NARTAMALAI IS LOCATED 11MILES NW OF
PUTHUKOTTAI. THE VIJAYALAYACHOLESWERA TEMPLE
WAS CONSTRUCTED IN 9TH CENTURY BY VIJAYALAYA
CHOLA.
 HISTORICALLY IT SYMBOLISES THE LINK BETWEEN THE
PALLAVA AND CHOLA DYNASTIES.
 THIS TEMPLE MARKED THE BEGINNING OF TEMPLES
CONSTRUCTED BY IMPERIAL CHOLAS THROUGH OUT
SOUTH INDIA
 VIJAYALA CHOLEESHVARAM TEMPLE – THIS WEST
FACING STRUCTURAL TEMPLE IS THE MAIN
ATTRACTION OF THIS SITE.
 THE TEMPLE IS CONSTRUCTED IN PARIVARA-
SHRINE STYLE WITH EIGHT SUBSIDIARY SHRINES
AROUND THE CENTRAL STRUCTURE. THE CENTRAL
SHRINE HOLDS AN IMPORTANT POSITION FOR TEMPLE
ARCHITECTURE STUDIES.
CHOLA PERIOD
NARTAMALAI
 THE TEMPLE CONSISTS OF
A MANDAPA (HALL),ANTARALA(VESTIBULE)
AND GARBHA-GRIHA (SANCTUM).
 VIMANA IS SQUARE AT BASE AND RISES TO THREE
STOREYS, DIMINISHING IN SIZE, WHICH ARE SQUARES
AS WELL.
 ANOTHER INTERESTING FEATURE IS ITS CIRCULAR
GARBHA-GRIHA INSIDE ITS SQUARE VIMANA. THIS
CIRCULAR SHAPE LEAVES SPACE AROUND THE
GARBHA-GRIHA TO ACCOMMODATE A
CIRCUMAMBULATORY PATH.
 MAIN ENTRANCE IS AT WEST WHICH LEADS INTO A
PILLARED MANDAPA. PILLARS ARE IN
CHARACTERISTICS MAHENDRA-ORDER WITH CUBICAL
TOP AND BASE AND OCTAGONAL SHAFT IN BETWEEN.
 OUT OF EIGHT SUBSIDIARY SHRINES AROUND THE
CENTRAL TEMPLE ONLY SIX HAVE SURVIVED AT
PRESENT
CHOLA PERIOD
BRAHADEESHWARAR TEMPLE,
TANJORE
 Rajaraja cholan built the temple around
1000 A.D .
 The multiplication of parivãra shrines
and the introduction of a separate
shrine for the goddess are the two
significant changes in the temple
complex effected during this period.
 The sanctuary is approached by a
porch, then a columned Mandapa, ante
chamber at last a narrow passage to
the cellar.
CHOLA PERIOD
TANJORE
 Even in the Tanjore temple the Devi
shrine is not contemporaneous with
the main cellaR but was built later.
 The temple is approached from the
East via two gopuras. –
Keralanathan & Rajaraja vayil.
 Unlike the later practice in Southern
India, these gopuras are smaller
than the shrine tower.
 Its entranceway is flanked by two
very large dvarapalas; the carvings
below represent various Shaiva
legends.
CHOLA PERIOD
TANJORE
• 180’ LONG AND PYRAMIDAL TOWER OF 190’HEIGHT
• COMPOSED OF SEVERAL STRUCTURES,
– NANDI PAVILION,
– PILLARED PORTICO,
– LARGE ASSEMBLY HALL & MAIN SHRINE, ALLIGNED IN
THE CENTER OF A SPACIOUS WALLED ENCLOSURE
CHOLA PERIOD
BRAHADEESHWARAR TEMPLE, TANJORE
CHOLA PERIOD
TANJORE
• MAIN FEATURE – GRAND TOWER OF THE VIMANA
IN THE WESTERN END
• CONSISTS OF 3 PARTS – SQUARE VERTICAL BASE,
TALL TAPERING BODY & GRACEFUL DOMICAL
FINIAL
• VERTICAL BASE COVERS A SQUARE OF 82’ SIDE
AND RISE TO A HEIGHT OF 50’
CHOLA PERIOD
OVERHANGING CORNICE
ON THE WALLS ARE THE PAINTINGS DIVIDES UPRIGHT POTION
FROM NAYAKS PERIOD INTO TWO STORIES
VIMANA – PYRAMIDAL BODY MOUNTS
UP IN 13 DIMINISHING ZONES UNTIL
AN OCTAGONAL CUPOLA, BEAUTIFULLY
THE WIDTH OF THE APEX EQUALS
1/3RD OF ITS BASE. CARVED OUT OF A MASSIVE BLOCK OF
GRANITE WEIGHING 80 TONNES , CROWNS
THE VIMANA
CROWNING DOME RESTS ON A
AN INTERNAL
GRANITE BLOCK OF 7.7 SQ.M
CIRCUMBALOTORY
PASSAGE IS ALSO TWO
STORIES HIGH (13’
HEIGHT) & CONSISTS OF
SERIES OF CHAMBERS
VIMANA –
INTERIOR VIEW

CHOLA PERIOD
TANJORE
• IN THE MIDDLE OF THE SANCTUARY IS COLOSSAL LINGA
3.66M (12’) HIGH, WHICH IS ELEVATED ON A CIRCULAR
PEDESTAL.
• THE SURROUNDING PASSAGEWAY OF THE TEMPLE IS
DIVIDED INTO CHAMBERS, SCULPTURES HERE INCLUDE A
LARGE DANCING SIVA IMAGE (NORTH WALL ).PAINTINGS
ALSO ADORNS THE WALLS AND CEILING.
• A SHORT DISTANCE TO THE EAST OF THE TEMPLE IS A TALL
LAMP-COLUMN AND A MONOLITHIC NANDI IMAGE
SHELTERED BY A 16TH CENTURY PAVILION. THE PAVILION
HAS SLENDER COLUMN WITH CARVINGS OF DEVOTEES ON
THE SHAFT.
• ANOTHER SHRINE NORTH WEST OF THE MAIN TEMPLE IS
DEDICATED TO SUBRAHMANYA. THE FINELY FINISHED
MONUMENT DOTES CARVED BASEMENT MOLDINGS AND
WALL PILASTERS
CHOLA PERIOD
TANJORE
• AMONG THE SUBSIDIARY BUILDING IS THE CHANDESHVARA
SHRINE , WHICH FACES SOUTHWARDS TOWARDS THE MAIN
TEMPLE.
• THE SANCTUARY OF THIS SMALL BUILDING IS CROWNED
WITH AN OCTAGONAL ROOF , THE BASEMENT AND WALL
DETAILS IMITATE THOSE OF THE MAIN TEMPLE BUT ON A
SMALLER SCALE.
• A TREASURY , MUSEUM AND LIBRARY ARE ALSO INCLUDED
WITHIN THE COURTYARD.
• THERE ARE ALSO SHRINES LIKE DAKSHINA MOORTHY ,
GANESHA ARE PLACED WITH IN THE COMPOUND BUT
DETACHED FROM THE MAIN TEMPLE.
• WHOLE COMPLEX HAD THE COLONNADE WHICH IS
ATTACHED WITH THE OUTER WALL. THE STATUES OF 63
NAYANMARS AND PERSONS WHO WROTE ABOUT THE
GLORY OF LORD WERE PLACED IN THE COLONNADE.
CHOLA PERIOD
 The temple was
located at the center
of the
Gangaikondacholap
uram city and
occupies around 6
acres of land.
 There seems to be
2 Praharams
surrounding the
Srivimana, most of
the wall is destructed
and the Granite
rocks where used to
construct the Lower
Anicut during the
British rule.
CHOLA PERIOD
 The basement of Srivimana is 100 feet by 100 feet and the foundation is square in
structure and raises 20 feet above the ground level.
 The 3 lower stages houses many beautiful masterpiece sculptures of chola period
including the Laxmi (goddess of wealth), Gana Saraswathi (goddess of knowledge),
Ardhanareeswarar ( Shiva and Sakthi in equal but in one form), Shiva blessing
Chandigeswarar with along Parvathi.
 There are many shrines inside this temple found on the 2nd praharam (circumventing
path), Mahisasuramardhini shrine, Amman shrine, Chandigeswarar shrine, Ganapathy
shrine etc., There was Nataraja Mandapam now totally destroyed and only the remains
were found.
CHOLA PERIOD
 PLAN IS LARGER THAN TANJORE BIG TEMPLE, 340’
X 110’ HAVING THE MAIN ENTRANCE ON THE EAST.
 THE MAIN ENTRANCE GIVES ACCESS TO THE
ASSEMBLY HALL , A RELATIVELY LOW BUILDING 175’
X 95’ AND CONTAINING 150 PILLARS.
 BETWEEN THIS PILLARED HALL AND THE
SANCTUARY IS A VESTIBULE RUNNING AT RIGHT
ANGLES TO THE AXIS OF THE BUILDING AND
LEADING TO THE NORT AND SOUTH DOORWAYS.
 BOTH ARE DEEPLY RECESSED AND APPROACHED
FROM OUTSIDE BY FLIGHT OF STEPS.
 TWO ROWS OF MASSIVE SQUARE PIERS , 8 IN ALL
CROSS THE VESTIBULE CONNECTING IT TO THE
GARBHAGRIHA.
 THE TEMPLE BUILDING ITSELF OCCUPIES THE
MIDDLE OF AN IMMENSED WALL ENCLOSURE
DESIGNED PARTLY FOR DEFENSIVE PURPOSES AS
THERE IS SUBSTANTIAL BASITION AT THE SOUTH
EAST ANGLE & SMALLER ONE ON THE WEST.
CHOLA PERIOD
 VIMANA MEASURES 150’ FROM GROUND
 ENTIRE TEMPLE IS IN EAST WEST AXIS
• A WESTERN HISTORIAN WHO STUDIED
GANGAIKONDACHOLESVARAM COMPARED THE
STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCE OF THIS SRIVIMANA WITH
THAT OF RAJARAJA-I'S BRIHADISVARA TEMPLE AT
THANJAVUR AND MENTIONED THAT THIS SRIVIMANA IS
OF FEMININE STRUCTURE AND THE TANJORE
SRIVIMANA AS MASCULINE IN NATURE.
STEPS LEADING TO
• THE MAIN DIFFERENCE THAT IS OBVIOUS IS THIS
MUGHAMANDAPAM
SRIVIMANA HAS 8 SIDED (OCTAGONAL) IN STRUCTURE
AND THANJAVUR SRIVIMANA HAS 4 SIDED
(QUADRAGONAL) IN STRUCTURE.
• THE KALASAM IS 7’ HEIGHT
CHOLA PERIOD
DARASURAM TEMPLE COMPLEX
DARASURAM
DARASURAM
CHOLA PERIOD
• ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
– NICHES OF SOME DEPTH WITH AN ENTABULATURE
AND FLANKED BY SEMI PILASTERS, IN THE VIMANA
– THESE NICHES OCCUPY WEST, NORTH AND EASTERN
SIDES OF VIMANA
• FREQUENTLY REPEATED STRING COURSE CONTAINING A
ROW OF GRYPHON (EAGLE HEAD & LION BODY) HEADS
• COMMON FEATURES BETWEEN CHOLAS & PALLAVAS
– CORBELS HAVING ROLL MOLDINGS AND MEDIAN
BANDS
– MAKARA TORANAS CROWN THE NICHES

History of Architecture II-1

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History of Architecture II-1

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PLAN OF GRANARY

Long long ago, so long

DISCOVERY & EXCAVATION

KARACHI & LAHORE BY BRITISH

1912 DISCOVERY OF HARAPPAN SEALS

1920s DISCOVERY OF INDUS VALLEY

1931 EXCAVATION OF MOHENJODARO

3300 BC 2600- 1800 BC 1922 AD

 CITADEL HAD SQUARE TOWERS AND BASTIONS.

 NO DIVISION OF THE SOCIETY IS REFLECTED IN THE LAYOUT OF THE CITY.

 MOST HOUSES HAD PRIVATE BATHS &TOILETS AS WELL AS PRIVATE

SEPARATE FROM THE BATH AREAS.

SUMP POTS SUNK INTO THE FLOORS AND

OR DRESSED STONE BLOCKS.

east in search of more favorable climes

Kush mountains) – primitive village settlements

valley but to destroy the cities

mythology if later periods – reference to

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

563-547 BC 547-533 BC 533 – 528 BC 528 -527BC 523 BC 483 BC

563 BC 547 BC 533 BC 528 BC 527 BC 523-483 BC

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

SPREAD of BUDDHISM along the SILK ROUTE

CENTRAL ASIA ASIA MINOR

GRECO-BACTRIAN (3RD – 2ND BC)

INDO GREEK (2ND – 1ST BC)

KUSHAN (1ST BC – 3RD AD)

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

 Greater attention was paid to the representation of realistic images with

 Great attention was paid to refinement and polish.

 In this art artists use grey stone and slate.

 Attention is also paid on ornaments depicting Greek style.

 Gandhara images seem to resemble Apollo. Sometimes this resemble

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

MAGADHA EMPIRE 500 BC NANDHA EMPIRE 323 BC MAURYAN EMPIRE 320 BC

MAURYAN EMPIRE 305 BC MAURYAN EMPIRE 300 BC MAURYAN (ASHOKA)

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE II