Acids and Bases

Wednesday, November 3, 2021

10:10 PM
Acids
-substance that releases H+ when dissolved in an
aqueous solution.
-Ex. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) (Strong acid) dissolved
in water - separates into Cl- and H+

2 Types of Acids
Strong Acid Weak Acid
They completely Do not completely
dissociate with each dissociate with each -CO2-potential acid, a weak acid
other in aqueous other , only a partial -CO2 and HCO3
solution, there is breakdown of H and -gastric juice (HCl) - pH is 1.5-2.0 pH, 1.5-aready
complete breakdown of conjugate base/partner hyperacidity
the substance atom
Yield more H+ Majority of molecules
compared to weak acids remain undissociated

Characteristics of Acids
A. Corrosive
-can destroy even metals and also
tissues/organs of the body (ex. Skin, mucus
membrane) through chemical reaction
-while bases cannot corrode metals, only
tissues Base
B. Acids have sour taste, Burning sensation/ -substance that releases hydroxide ions (OH-)
itchy feeling to skin -Ex. When NaOH is dissolved in water - compound
C. pH of less than 7.0 separates into Na+ and OH-
-range of pH 0-14 -ends with OH-
D. Acids react with metals and carbonates to
produce gas
-example of carbonates-limestone (composed Characteristics of Bases
of calcium carbonate) A. Usually have bitter taste
-reaction between acid and carbonate B. Feels slipper
produces bubbles bc of generation CO2 C. Caustic
-reaction of acid and metal-produce bubbles D. pH: more than 7.0
bc of production hydrogen gas, H. E. Contain hydroxide ions
E. Acids contain hydrogen -alkalinity of base-due to OH-
-acidity-attributed to H content
-more H+, more acidic
F. Chemical formula starts with H

Common Acids
 Acids Bases
Taste sour Taste bitter
No slippery Slippery
Less than 7.0 pH More than 7.0 pH
Release H+ in aqueous Release OH- in aqueous
solution solution
Corrode metals Do not corrode metals
on living tissue
React with metals to Do not react with
produce compound and metals
hydrogen gas
Turn litmus to red/pink Turn litmus blue
Litmus paper
-tells if acid/ base but not pH
-2 types: red and blue

Acid-Base Strength Acid-Base Indicators

pH -compound that will change color in the presence of
-potential/power of Hydrogen an acid or base
-measure of how many H+ present in a solution -Litmus
-more H, more acidic -plant extract that can be blue/red(pink)
-measures using pH scale -turns red/pink - acidic solution
-negative/ inverse logarithm of the H+ -turns blue - basic solution
concentration -Hydrangea flowers
-ranges from 0-14 -color dependent on pH of soil
-lower pH, more H+, more acidic
-higher pH, more OH-

pH scale
-used to express the hydronium ion concentration
in an aqueous solution
-pH=-log(H+)
-pH of pure water - pH=-log (1.0x10-7)=7.00
-neutral (7.0 pH)-equal OH- and H+
-blood - 7.35-7.45 pH -impossible to determine pH of all solutions with
just one indicator
-other indicators - color change at a specific pH
level
-Universal indicator
-mixture of chemicals that changes color
through a wide range of pH values

-numbers outside of 0-14 pH range possible

• pH < 7 -acidic
• pH > 7 -base
• pH = 7 -neutral
-pH meter
-more precise way to determine pH
Acids and Bases Neutralize Each
Other
-when acid an base react
-characteristic properties destroyed
-process is Neutralization
-salts - maybe soluble or insoluble in water
-precipitate - forms when salt insoluble,
suspension of small solid particle formed during
chemical reaction
NaCl
-Common example of neutralization
-Taking antacids to relieve an upset
stomach
-acid in stomach is about 1.5 pH bc of mostly
HCl produced by stomach lining
-taking antacid-lower pH up to 2
Isomerism
Wednesday, November 3, 2021
11:27 PM
Isomers
-compounds with same molecular formula, differ in
arrangement of atoms
-Different Kinds of Isomers
1. Constitutional Isomerism
-same molecular formula, differ in
connectivity of atoms
2. Stereoisomerism
-same molecular and structural formula,
different orientations of atoms in space

Cis-Trans Isomerism
-C-C bond allows rotation of bonded groups, so
atoms in an alkane continually change their relative
positions
-C=C bind restricts rotation, which fixes the
relative positions of the atoms bonded to it.
-Geometric Isomers (cis-trans isomer or
diastereomer)
-isomer that have same molecular and
structural formula but different orientation of
atoms in space bc of restricted rotation about
bonds
-Cis - both of atoms in same side
-trans - opposite direction

Alkanes - single bonds

Alkenes - double bonds
Alkynes - triple bonds

Conformational Isomerism
-two groups of atoms in an alkane connected by a
carbon-carbon single bond can rotate with respect
to one another around that bond
-conformation-specific 3 dimensional arrangement
of atoms that results from rotations about carbon-
carbon single bonds
-eclipse=Newman Projection
Optical Isomerism
-also called enantiomers
-one type of stereoisomerism
-when 2 objects are mirror images of each other
and cannot be superimposed
-chiral
-when there is a left and right version
-asymmetric molecule
-organic molecule is chiral that is bounded to
4 diff groups Hybridization
-achiral - no left and right version -Linus Pauling (1931)
proposed hybridization theory to explain the
structure of molecules such as methane ethane,
ethene, ethyne, etc.
-process where an atom ended up forming a new
hybrid orbitals (sp3, sp2, sp hybrid orbitals)
-count number of sigma bond (single bonds) then
minus 1
-power of hybridization state of the central atom =
total number of sigma binds around each central
atom
Organic Chemistry
Thursday, October 28, 2021
7:08 AM
Organic Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry 2 categories of Hydrocarbon
arrangements
Study of Study of all substances
Acyclic Carbon Atom Cyclic Carbon atom
hydrocarbons and other than hydrocarbons
their derivatives and their derivatives Linear Ring form

Carbon
-C atoms have the unique ability to bond to each
other in a wide variety of ways that involve long
chains (structure is linear of C atoms or cyclic (ring
form) arrangement of C atoms. Alkanes: Acyclic Saturated Hydrocarbons
-Group IVA, 4 valence e-
• 4 elements can bind to it (maximum),
provided that those elements form only
single bonds

• 3 elements can bind, 2 single bonds and 1

double bond

Saturated Hydrocarbon
• 2 elements can bind
o 2 double bonds (Alkanes)
o 1 single bond, 1 triple bond Alkanes
-saturated hydrocarbon arranged in acyclic form
-general molecular formula: CnH2n+2
-n=number of carbon atoms present
-Ex. Methane - CH4-
Ethane - C2H6-
Hydrocarbon and Hydrocarbon Propane - C3H8-
Derivatives
Hydrocarbon
-compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen
atoms
Hydrocarbon derivative
-compound of carbon and hydrogen and one or
more additional elements

2 Classes of Hydrocarbons
Saturated Unsaturated
Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbon
Carbon-carbon bonds Carbon-carbon multiple
are single bonds bonds (Alkenes,
(Alkanes) Alkynes)

Ex. Ethane Ex. Ethene, Ethyne

No. of C Prefix Alkane Isomerism
• 4-C alkane isomers (C4H10)
1 Methane
2 Ethane
3 Propane
• 5-C alkane isomers (C5H12)
4 Butane
5 Pentane
6 Hexane
7 Heptane IUPAC Nomenclature for Alkanes
-IUPAC (International Union of Pure and
8 Octane Applied Chemistry) - formulated systematic rules
for naming Organic compounds (IUPAC rules)
9 Nonane -Advantage: assigns name that not only identifies
10 Decane compound but also enables to draw its structural
formula

Structural Formulas (2-D) Continuous-Chain Alkane

-two-dimensional structural representation that -connected in a continuous nonbranching chain
shows hoe the various atoms in a molecule are
bonded to each other
1. Expanded Structural Formula
-shows all atoms and all bonds
Branched-Chain Alkane
-one or more branches of C atoms are attached to
continuous chain (main or parent chain)
2. Condensed Structural Formula
-uses groupings of atoms in which central
atoms and the atoms connected to them are
written as a group to convey molecular
structural formations IUPAC Name for Continuous-Chain Alkanes
-end with -ane
-long chains of carbon atoms are condensed -beginning with 5-C alkane, Greek numerical
even more prefixes are used to denote actual number of
continuous chain

-abbreviated as

3. Skeletal Structural Formula

-shows the arrangement and bonding of C
atoms but not the H atoms attached to them

4. Line-angle Structural Formula

-structural representation in which line
represents a C-C bond and a C atom is present
on every point two lines meet and ends of the
lines
IUPAC Name for Branched-Chain Alkane
-name the branch or branches that are attached
(substituents)
• Substituents - atom or group of atom
attached to chain or ring of C atoms
-Alkyl groups
- substituents of alkanes, group of atoms that
would be obtained by removing H atom from
Alkane (cannot be longer than main carbon
chain)
 -2 most encountered

-named by stem name of alkane containing

same number of C atoms and adding -kyl
-Rules:
1. Identify longest continuous C chain which
may or may not be in a straight line and
name the chain
5. When 2 kinds of alkyl groups are present
number each group separately and list
names in alphabetical order.

2. Number the C atoms in parent chair from

end to nearest substituent (alkyl group)

If there are substituents equidistant from

each end of the chain and there is no 3rd
substituent (tie breaker, begin at end nearest
that has alphabetical priority

-if both ends of chain have substituent in the

same distance, number from the end closest
to the second-encountered substituent

6. Punctuation rules:
3. If only one alkyl group is present, name and 1. Separate numbers from each other
locate it by number, and prefix the number by commas
and name to that parent carbon chain 2. Separate numbers from letters by
hyphens
3. Do not add hyphen or space
between last named substituent and
parent alkanes

4. If 2 or more of the same kind of alkyl group

are present, indicate the number with Greek
numerical prefix, In addition, a number
specifying the location of each identical
group must be included.
-position numbers-separated by comms, Line-angle Structural Formulas
separated with hyphens from words for Alkanes
2-di
3-tri
4-tetra -Zigzag (sawtooth pattern used has a relationship
5-penta to 3-D shape of the molecules
-6-hexa
Cycloalkanes -Halogenated Cycloalkane-cycloalkane with
halogen atoms
-saturated hydrocarbon in which carbon atoms
connected in another cyclic arrangement are -IUPAC Naming
o Similar to branched alkanes with some
present
-general formula is CnH2n modification:
• Ex. Butane (C4H10) - Cyclobutane (C4H8)
1. Halogen atoms treated as
-Line-angle structural formulas generally used substituents on carbon chain called
fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, iodo-
2. Carbon chain with both halogen and
alkyl substituent, both considered
equal rank
- IUPAC Nomenclature 3. Alphabetical priority determines
• Similar for alkanes order in which all substituents
• Ring portion - name base present are listed
• Prefix cyclo- to indicate ring
• Alkyl substituents named in same manner
• Rules:
1. One ring substituent, not necessary
to locate by number.
2. 2 ring substituents, numbered
beginning with higher alphabetical
priority going to direction that gives
other substituents lower number
3. 3 or more ring substituents,
numbering begins at lowest set of
location numbers. 2 or more
equivalent numbering sets exist,
alphabetical priority among
substituents determines set used

Chemical Properties of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes

-Combustion Reaction
-chemical reaction between a substance and
oxygen (usually from air) that proceeds with
the evolution of heat and light (usually a
flame)
-All alkanes and cycloalkanes-flammable
• Complete combustion products: CO2, H2O
• Incomplete combustion products: CO
(Carbon monoxide), CO2

-Halogenation
-chemical reaction between substance and a
halogen in which 1 or more halogen atoms
are incorporated
-Halogens - Group VIIA (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2)
-H atoms replaced with halogen atoms
(substitution reaction)
-requires presence of heat or light

-alkane undergoes fluorination, chlorination,

bromination, or iodination
-Halogenated Alkane-alkane with halogen
atoms