The Relay Testing Handbook
Principles and Practice
Chris Werstiuk The Relay Testing Handbook
Principles and Practice
Chris Werstiuk
Professional Engineer
Journeyman Power System Electrician
Electrical Technologist
Valence Electrical Training Services
7450 W. 52nd Ave, M330.
Arvada, CO 80002
www.ValenceOnline.com
3. VALENCE © 2012 Chris Werstiuk and Valence Electrics! Training Sei vices LLC. All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced or transinitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
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= except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review to be printed in a magazine,
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Although the author and publisher have exhaustively rescarched all sources to ensure the accuracy’
and completeness of the information contained in this book, neither the authors nor the publisher
nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any toss, damage, or liability
directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book. We assume no responsibility for
errors, inaccuracies, omissions, or any inconsistency herein. The material contained herein is not
intended to provide specific advice or recommendations for any specific situation. Any slights of
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or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
First printing in 2012,
‘The Relay Testing Handbook: Principles and Practice
ISBN: 97841-93448:208
129346:
Library of Congress Control Numbet
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Printed in the United States of America, Author’s Note
‘This book has grown from a 45minute paper presentation at the 2001 InterNational Electrical
‘Testing Association (NETA) conference into a decade-long project. What started as a simple paper
about protective relay logic for microprocessor based relays has blossomed into a comprehensive
training manual covering all aspects of relay testing. I am grateful for the countless hours my
colleagues spent during the peer review process, and for their invaluable contributions to this
endeavor.
Traditional protective relay books are written by engineers asa resource for engincers to use when
modeling the electrical system or creating relay settings, and they often have very litle practical
use for the test technician in the field. The Relay Testing Handbook is a practical resource written by
a relay tester for relay testers; itis a comprehensive series of practical instructional manuals that
provides the knowledge necessary to test most modern protective relays. The complete handbook
combines basic electrical fundamentals, detailed descriptions of protective elements, and generic
test plans with examples of real-world applications, enabling you to confidently handle nearly any
relay testing situation, Practical examples include a wide variety of relay manufacturers and models
to demonstrate that you can apply the same basic fundamentals to most relay testing Scenarios,
The Relay Testing Handbook is a nine-part series that covers virtually every aspect of relay testing,
Bight books of the series have been compiled into this volume that explain the underlying
principles of relay testing, including electrical theory, relay testing philosophies. digital logic and
test plan creation and implementation. After the foundation is laid, you will find practical step by-
step procedures for testing the most common protection applications for: vollage, overcurrent,
differential, and line distance relays.
‘Thank you for supporting this major undertaking. { hope you find this and all other installments,
of The Relay Testing Handhook series to be a useful resource. This project is ongoing and we are
constantly seeking to make improvements. Our publishing model allows us to quickly correct
crrors or omissions and implement suggestions. Please contact us at info@valenceonline.com to
report a problem, If we implement your suggestion, we'll send you an updated copy and a prize
You can also go to www.valenceonline.com/updates to see what's changed since the The Relay
‘Testing Handbook was released in 2012. Acknowledgments
This book would not be possible without support from these fine people
Philip B. Baker
Elecirical Technician
Eric Cameron, B.E.Se.
Ainsworth Power Services
Bob Davis, CET PSE
Northern Alberta Institute of Technology
GET IN GO FAR
David Snyder
Hydropower Test and Evaluation
Sonneville Lock and Dam
sowwnwep.usace.army.nil/op/b/
John Hodson
Electrical Power Systems Consultant
Calgary, Alberta
Do it right the first time
David Magnan
Project Manager
PCA Valence Engineering Technologies Ltd.
www.peavalenee.con
Mose Ramieh HI
Level IV NETA Technician
Level Ill NICET Electrical Testing Technician
Vice President of Power & Generation Testing, Ine
Electrical Guru and all around nice guy.
Les Warner, C.E.T.
PCA Valenc
ngineering ‘Technologies Ld.
Lina Dennison
Ken Gibbs, C.E.
PCA Valence Engi
Magna IV Engineering
Superior Client Service, Practical Solutions
Jamie MacLean
Electrical Engineer
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Chapter 11: Directional Overcurrent (67) Element Testing, 231
LZ : 2
2. Operation. 225
3, Settings. - 26
4. Pickp Te 238
B 246
2b
Common Obstacl
Chapter 12: Simple Percent Differential (87) Element Testing
1. Application
2 Settings - - —
Restrained-Diflerential Pickup Testing z
Restrained-Differential Timing ‘Test Procedure —
5. Restrained-Differential Slope Testing :
6. Tips and Tricks to Overcome Common Obstacles.
Chapter 13: Percent Differential (87) Element Testing.
1. Application
2 Settings,
3. Current Transformer Connec
4
Phase Rest
Restrained-Differential Timing: Test Procedure
6, 4Phase Pestrained-Differential
7. Phase Restrained Ditferet
S. Harmonie Restraint Testing
Tips ss to Overcome: Common Obstacles
Slope Testing
Chapter 14: Unrestrained-Differential Testing
1. Settings
2, Test-Set Connections : 3
8. Simple Pickup Test Procedure 376
4. Alternate Pickup Tes! Procedure 374
5, ‘Timing Test Procedure
6. Tips and ‘Tricks to Overcome Common Obstacles a8
Chapter 15: Line Distance (21) Element Testing a5
1, Impedance Relays 300
zs 401
3 iu Interference in Digital Relays 405,
: 4. 2}Phase Line Distance Protection ‘Testing 407
5. Phase-to.Phase Line Distance Protection 425,
451
Phaseo-Ground Line Distance Protection Principles and Practice
Chapter 16: Understanding Digital Logic. 7 ATS
1. Understanding Logie
2 Relay Labels : 499
3. Internal Reay Control Schemes : ast
4 402
5. Binary Relays ast
6 Arithmetic (Math) Scheme Oo 499
2 civic FlexLogie™ — a
Chapter 17: Review the Application - - 58
. 543
- 545
Chapter 18: Preparing to Test. 7 575
1, Prepare to Test 575
2, Bstablish Communication — 515
3. Apply Settings. ~ ~ ~ 579
4. Connect Your Relay Tes 579
5. Creating the Test Plan -_ 5a
Chapter 19: Testing the Relay = 0
Perform Relay Selfchecks oo 0
2. Verify Digital Inputs and Output 600
3. Verify Current and Voltage Input 610
4. Element Testing sre
5. Final Output Tes"; — 615.
6. Prepare Rela for a ai
7. Final Report we
. a
wr Table of Figures
Figure 1-1: Simple Single Phase Generator
Figure 1-2: Simple Three-Phase Generator
Figure 1-3: Phase Sequence Examples
Figure 1-4: Phasor Diagram Example
Figure 1-5: Electrical Diagram Comparison, -
Figure 146: Flectrical Diagram Comparison with Van Reference
Figure 1-7: Phasor Diageam 1 Ce
gure 18: Phasor Diagram 2 ae
Fiqure 1-9: Phasor Diagram 3
Figure 1-10: ABC / ACB Phasor Diagrams _
Figure 1-11: Current and Voltage Phiasors. _
Vector Diagrams on Different Axis
Wye Connection -
‘igure I-14: Phase to Line Conversion,
Figure 1415: Della/Wye Connected
Figure 116: Delta Connection
Figure F-17: Delta Connection Vector Diagram for Balanced
Figure 148: Watis- Current and Voltage Are In-Phase:
Figure 1-419: Inductive VARS - Current Laags the Vollage by 30"
igure 1-20: Capacitive VARS- Current Leads the Voltage
are L21: Three Phase Power Formulas.
Figure 1-22: Tiree Phase Power Formulas Assuming Balanced Conditions.
Figure 128: Three Phase Power Triangle - Wats Only :
stor Diagram
mn with 30° Jaye
Figure 124 Power Triangle Only Inductive VARs
Figure 1-25: Power Triangle
Only Capacitive VARS,
Figure 1-26: Power Triangle
Figure 1-27: Example Three-Phase Power/VARS/VA Formula Calculations
Figure 1-28: Simple ‘Transformer Construction 2
iqure 1-29: Transformer Voltage Ratio Calculation,
Figure 1-30: Transformer Current Ratio Calculation
igure [-3; WyeDelta Transformer Connections
Wye-Delta Transformer Calculations 2 -
Delta-Wye Transformer Connections
MM: Delta Wye Transformer Calculations
Figure 1
Figure
16
1
2»
2
2
2
24
ey
2s
2
xiii Principles and Practice
Figure 1-35: Wye-Wye Transformer Connections. a
Figure 1-86: Auto“Transformer Connectio 3
Figure 1-37: DelDelta Transformer Connections, M4
Figure 1-38: Wye Wye and Delta-Delta Transformer Calet Mi
Figure 13%: CP Ratio Calculations, 35
Figure I-40: C1 Polarity Connections, 36
Figure 41: CT Accuracy Class. a7
Figure 142: PT Voltage Ratio Calculation z a7
Figure 143: 3 Wire Delta PT Configurations 38
Figure 14:4 Wire Wye PT Configurations 38
Figure 145: Nominal PT Voltages. a 39
ure L4G: Three-Phase Fault 3Line Drawing 40
Figure 147: Three-Phase Faull Phasor Diagram 41
Figure 148: Three Phase Faull 3 Line Drawing - _ a2
Figure 1-49; Fault Current vs. Injected Current. - a)
igure 1-50: Phase-t-Phase Fault - - 43
Figure 1-51: Three-Phase Fault Line Drawing : — M4
Figure 152: Phase-teNeutral Fault a - 45
Figure 1-58: Three Phase Fault 3 Line Drawing — Ty
jure 1-54: Phase-to-Phaseto-Ground Fault i,
Figure 1-55: Solidly Grounded System, - a7
Figure 1-56: Resistive Grounded System = SS 48
Figure 1.57; NGR Maximum Ground Faull Current Fi 2 48
iqure 1-58: NGR Maximum Ground Fault Vollage Formuia 48
Figure 1-58 NGR Gi Voltage Formula 48
Figure 14i0: Neutral Grounding ‘Transformer 49
49
Figure Hl: NGTX Effective Resistance Formuk
jure L42: NGTX Ground Fault Voltage Formula 2 49
ire 145% Open Corner Delta Ground Detector
Figure 14st: Open Corner Delta Normal Phasors. 51
Figure 165: Open Corner Delta with One Phase Grounded 51
Figure 1-66; Positive Sequence Formulas, 52
Figure 1497: Positive Sequence Caleulation - 58
Figure 1-68: Negative Sequence Formulas |
1-69; Negative Sequence Calculation 1 aM
70: Negative Sequence Calculation 2 55
Figure 1-71: Zero Sequence Foravalas. 56
Figure 1-72: Zero Sequence Calculation 1__ : 54
Figure 1-73: Zero Sequence Calculation 2 st
Figure 21: Zones of Protection 7
Figure 22: Overlapping Zones of Protection 6
Figure 2.3: Non-Overlapping Zone of Protection Example = 69
Figure 2-4: Protective Relay Coordination - a
7
‘5: Compensation for Normal System
Figure Principles and Practice
cuit Currents, -
wert Current to Bese Voltage
Figure 285 ordination Curve (PCC)
Figure 249: Reference Voltage Conversions
10 Damage Curves,
H1: Daanaye Curve TCC —
Figure ingle Line Dra
Figure 212: TCC Curve #1 2 - -
Figure 214-7
Figure 27:C
Figure 3-2: Typical Electromechanical Relay with Timing Dis
Figure 3-3; Example of an Electromechanical Relay Polarizing EI
Figure 3-4: Typical Polarizing Element Electrical S
Figure 3.5: Typical Blectromechanical Overcurrent Trip Schematic
Figure 3-6: Simple Microprocessor Uperation Flowehart. =
Figure 3-7: Simple Microprocessor Internal Schematic.
thematic -
Figure 38: Typical Electromechanical Overcurrent Trip
Figure 33% Typical Digital Relay Trip Schema - —
Figure 3:10: Electromechanical Generator Protection Panel
Figure 2:11: Digital Generator Protection Panel
Figure 4-1: 3-Phase Relay Input Connection Using Two Sources
Figure 422: Steady State Pickup Testing . _
Figure 43; Dynamie On/O1f Waverorn ee
Figure 4-4: Simple Dynamic Test Wavelorm
Figure 45: Coraplex Dynamic V
Figure 44% System Modeling Waveform (Complin
Figure 47: Graph of Pickup Test
Figure 468: Percent Error Formula
Figure 44 Beckwith Electric M3310 Relay Blement Specifications
p Percent Ervor Calculation
Figure 4-20: Example Piek
Figure 4:11: Siniple O11/On Tim
Figure 4412: Dynamic On/OfT Testing. —
igure 4-13: Beckwith Electric M3310 Relay Element Specifications a
Figure 4-14: Example Timing Test Percent Error Calculation
Figure 415: SELS11€ Relay Element Specifications,
igure 4-18: SELALIC Output Contact Specifications,
Figure 4-17: Manta Test Systems MTS-1710 Technic
Figure 4-18: 50 Element Maximum Expected Err
Figure 4-19; 50-Flement Ideal Combination Test
Figure 4-20: 5048lement Combination Test
Figure 421: 21-Klement Combination Test
Figure 4:
Figure 42 21-Flement Dual Zon
ue Test
Specitications
Combination Test
chematic. — =
4
76
78
”
102
102
10%
1
07
no
in
1
Mw
a
un
na
na
5
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re
123
126
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~ Principles and Practice
Figure 424: System Modeling Waveform (Compliments of Manta Te
Figure § 1: Example Test Sheet Header
Sheet with Project Details
Fest Sheet with Nameplate Dats
Figure 5.6: Example Test Sheet with Input / Output Verification
Figure 5-7: Example Test Sheet for Element Pickup Tests
Figure 5-8: Example Test Sheet #2 for Element Pickup Test
Figure 59: Test Sheet Example
Figure 5-10: Example Test Sheet with Element Characteristics,
Figure 63: Substitution Chart for 5%Procedures
Figure 6-4: Simple Phase-to-Neutral Over voltage Connections
Figure 6-5: Simple Phase-o-Phase Overvoltage Connections,
Figure 66; Phaseto-Phase Overvollage Connections with 2 Voltage Surces,
Figure 67; GE/Multlin SR-745 Overvollage Relay Specifications
Figure 68: GE/Mulilin SR.750 Overvoltage Relay Specifications,
Figure 69: Inverse Curve for Overvoltage Protection
Figure 610: GE/‘Aultlin SR-489 Overvoltage Relay Specilication
Figure 7-1: 27-Element Example Settings and Test Results
Figure 72: Substitution Chart for 27-Procedures
sire 7-3: Simple Phasesto-Neutral Undervoltage Connections
Figure 7-4; Simple Phase-1o Phase Under voltage Connections
ure 75: Phaseto-Ph
Figure 7-6: GE 1-40 Undervoltage Relay Specifications
Figure 77: GE D-60 Undervoltage Relay Speci
Figure 74% Undervoltage Inverse Curve.
Figure 1: Generator Trip Frequency Requirements,
Figure 82:81 ‘xample Settings and Test Results
Figure #3; Simpie Phase-to-Neutral Frequency Test Connections,
Figure 844; Simple Phase-to-Phase Overvollage Connections,
Figure 85: Pha
Figure 84: SEL-B00G Frequency Specifications
Figure 9-1: Ground Fault Protection Single-Line Drawing
Figure #2: Ground Protection TCC.
Figure 93: 50/51 TCC #1
jure 94: 50/511
Figure 9-5: 50/51 TCC #3
Figure 96: 50/51 TCC
Figure 97: Simple Instantaneous Overcurrent Connections,
Figure 9 High Current Connections #1
Indervollage Connections with 2 Vollage Sources:
sto-Phase Overvollage Connections with 2 Voltage Sources,
1
136
136
137
139
139
1
12
43
M3
M4
154
154
154
155
155
156
157
161
163
169
169
170
17
vv
174
im
180
Ist
Isl
Iss
Is9
189
Wt
196
196
197
197
197
17
201
201 Principles and Practice
Figure 99: High Current Connections #
‘iqure $410: Neutral or Residual Ground Bypass Connection...
Figure $411: Neutral or Residual Ground Bypass Cones
Figure 812: Pickup Test Graph.
Figure 9:13: Pickup Test Graph via Joguing Method
Figure 914: 50-Flement Timing Test -
Figure 915: GE D-60 Relay Overcurrent Technical
Figure 916: GE D0 Relay Output Contaer Technical Specific
igure 317: Manta Test Systems M-1710 Technical Specitications.
Figure 9-18: 50-Element Minisnum Pickup
Figure 919: 50-Element Alternate Relay Connection
Figure 104: 51-Blement North American Curves -
Figure 102: 51-Flement IEC European Curves
Figure 103: ANSI Extremely Inverse with Differeat Pickup Settings.
Figure 10-4: ANSI Fetremely Inverse with Different Timing Settings
igure 1045: Simple Time Overcurrent Connections
igure 104: High Current Connections #1 - = :
Figure 107: High Current Connections #?
Figure 108: Neutral or Residual Ground Bypass Connection -
Figure 10: Neutral or Residual Ground Bypass Connection via 0 Connection
Figure 10-10; Pickup Test Graph -
Figure 10:11: SELS11€ 51 Time Overcurrent Specifications
Figure 10412.
Figure 10413)
-ment Timing Test :
Figure 114: 51-Element SEL 1C Timing Curve Characteristic Fornyias
Figure 1015: 51-Element Example Time Coordination Curve
Figure 10-16: 51-Eiement Timing for GE D6
re WALT He Delay Caution for Table Melo
lard Overcurrent Protection
Figure 11-2; Parallel with Directional Overcurrent Protection
‘© 112k Directional Ground Overcurrera Protestion for‘Transmission Lines
Figure 114: Directional Overcurrent Protection in an Industrial Application,
Figure 11-5: Standard Phasor Diagram.
Figure: 1-4: Directional Polarizing
Figure 117: Example Single-Line Drawing
Figure 1-8: Typical Directional Polarizing U
Figure 11-4; Directional Polarizing Using GE Re
iuuure 11-10: 34Line Drawing for Example Tes
Figure 11-11: Directional OvereurrentTest-Set Connections.
‘gure 11-12: Normal Phasors
Figure 11-12: Phase A Characteristic Phasor
Figure 12-1: Simple Differential Protection
Figure 122: Simple Differential Protection with External Bs
nue SEL Relays.
ind 6” MITA Setting
x Connection Principles and Practice
ferential Protection with External Fault 2
ul
Figure 123: Simple
Figure 1244 Simple Differential Protection with Internal
Figure 125: Simple Differential Protection with Internal Fault 2
Figure 126: Simple Differential Protection with Worst Case CP Error
Fiqure 12.7: Simple Differential Protection with Worst Case CT Error and External rt
Figure 12-8 Percentage Differential Protection Schematic
Figure 124: Percentage Differential Protection: Operating Mechanism
Figure 12:10; Percentage Differential Protection and External P
Figure 12-11; Percentage Differential Protection and Internal Faults
Figure 12-12: Percentage Differential Protection and Internal Faults 2
Figure 12-13: Pevcentage Differential Protection Characteristic Curve
Figure 12:14: Percentage Differential Protection Characteristic Curve with Minimum: Pickup
Figure 12:15: Percentage Differential Protection Dual Slope Characteristic Curve
Figure 12-16; Simple 87-Element TestSet Connections
Figure 12-17; Simple Phase 87-Blement Test Set Connections
Figure 12-18: Simple 3 Phase 87-Flement ‘Test Set Connections with Six Current Channels,
Figure 12-19: Pickup Test Graph. 2 -
Figure 1220: GE Power Management 489 Analog Inpul Specifications
Figure 12:21: GE Power Management 489 Differential and Output Relay Specifications
"gure 12:22; GE Power Management 489 Minimum Trip Time
gure 12-23: GE Power Management 489 Specitications,
Figure 1224: GE Power Management 489 Slope Test Connection Table
Figure 1225: GE Power Management 489 Slope Test Connections Example #1
Figure 1228: GE Power Management 489 Slope ‘Test Connections Example #2
Figure 1227: Simple 87-Element Slope Test-Set Connections
Figure 1228: Simple 87-Plement High Current Slope Test-Set Connections,
Figure 12.29: Percentage Differential Protection Dual Slope Characteristic Curve
Figure 12:30: GE 489 Differential Pormulas
urve in Amps with 1° Transition Del
Example Characteristic C ned
Figure 12:32: Percentage Differential Protection Dual Slope Characteristic Curve
Figure 12:33: Percentage Differential Protection Dual Slope Characteristic Curve
Figure 12:34: Percentage Differential Protection Dual Slope Characteristic Curve in Amps
Figure 1235: Using Graphs to Determine Pickup Settings
Figure 122 Power Management 489 Sj
Figure 12:37: Determine Slope by Rise/Run Calculation.
Figure 13-1: Zones of Protection Example
jure 132: Phase Generator Differential Protection
ure 13:3: 3 Phase Transformer Differential Protection,
Figure 134: 3 Phase ‘Transformer Differential Protection Using Tap Settings
Figure 135: Wye Delta Transformer Differential Protection Using CT Connections
Figure 13-6 Wye-Delta Transformer Differential Protection Using Cl Connections
Figure 13-7 Phase Relationship / Clock Position with Leading, Angles,
igure 13.8: Phase Relationship / Clock Position with Lagging Angles.
iqure 139: Wye Wye Transformer
rure | Principies and Practice
Figure 13-10: Wye-Wye Transformer Phi
Figure P11: Delta Della Transformer C 2
Figure 1342: Delta Delta Transformer Phasors 2 3083
Figure 13:12: WyeDelta Transformer Connections 204
Fyure 1214: Wye-Delta Transiormer Phasor 1 204
Figure 1315: Wye-Delta Alternate Transformer Connections, 305,
Figure 13:16: Wye-Delta Alternate Transformer Phasor Diagrams 205,
Figure 13-17: Delta: Wye Transformer Connections 306
Figure 13:18: DeltaWye Tr 807
igure 13419: Delta: Wye Alternate Transformer Connections 08
‘igure 13:20: Delta Wye Alternate Transformer Phi 309
igure 13:21: Transformer Nameplate Phase Relationships — 301
igure 13:22: Common Phase-Anggle Compensation Settings, 34
Fiqure 1323: Zones of Protection Example, 317
wre 13:24: CT Connections Example #1 a8.
Figure 1325: CT Connections Example #2, 318.
ure Eth Paup Tet Graph
Figure 135M: SEL-A87E Specifications
ix Current Channels,
Fue 18357 Simple Phase 7
Figure 1338 Pickup Test Graph
Figure 13 tions
Figure 1340: SF ial and Ouiput Relay Specifications
Figure 1341: SEL: ial Minionum ‘Trip ‘Time
Figure 1342: Common Phase-Angle Compensation Settings
Figure 1343: Yyl2 or Yy3:Phase Differential Restraint
Figure 13-44: Dd0 Phase Differential Restraint ‘Test Con
Figure 1345: Dy] Phase Differentist Restraint Test Co
Figure 1346: Yal Phase Differential Restraint Test Connections
igure 13.47; Dy11 3-Phasw Ditferential Restraint Test Connections
Figure 1348: Yd11 3Phase Differential Restraint Test Connections. -
|-287 Transformer Protective Relay Connections
«Connections
Conne
s er Blectrie S
Figure 13:50: 3 Phase Restrained-Differential Slope Test
Figure 1351: Percentage Differential Protection Dual Slope Characteristic Curve
Figure 1352: SELS87 Slope-1 Differential Formulas
Figure 1253: SELA87 Definition of [OP and IR Principles and Practice
Figure 1354: SELA87 Slope? Differential Formulas
Figure 1355: Percentage Differential Protection Dual Slope Characteristic Curve in Amps
Figure 1356: Using Graphs to Determine Pickup Settings
Fiqure 1357: Determine Slope iy Kise/Run Calculation
Figure 13.58: YDae Transformer Connection
rransformer Relay Connections for Single-Phase Differential Testing
Figure 13-40; Schweitzer Elecitie SEL88? Transformer Protective Relay Connections,
Figure 13461: Phase Restrained-Ditferential Slope Test-Set A@ Yd Connections
Figure 1362: 1-Phase Restrained Differential Slope TestSet BG Yd1 Connections
Figure 13463: l Phase Resirained-Ditferential Slope TestSet CO Yd Connections
Figure 1364: Transformer Inrush Waveform...
Figure 13-65: Simple Phase 87-lement TestSet Connections 2
Figure 13-66: Simple, Higher Current 3-Phase 87-Element TestSet Connections
Figure 1441: Simple Differential Protection with Worst Case CT’ Brror and External Fault
Figure 142: Simple 87U-Element ‘TestSet Connections
Figure 143: Parallel 87U-Element Test-Set Connections,
Figure 14-4: Parallel 870. ‘Test-Set Connections with Equal W_CTC Settings
Figure 145: Transformer Relay Connections for § se Differential Testing
Figure 1446: l-Phase Differential Test Set A@ Yat Connections
Figure 147: SEL-387E Specifications,
Figure 148: SI
Figure 149: Preferred SEL387 Ouiput Contact S
Figure 1541: Radial Transmission System with Overcurrent Protection —_
Figure 152: Typical Radial ‘Transmission System with Directional Overcurrent Protection
Figure 152k Typical Transmission System with Directional Overcurrent Protection
Figure 15-4 'ypical Transmission System with Line Differential Protection 887
88
Figure 155° Equivalent Transmission Line Impedance.
Figure 154: Typical Transmission System with Barly Line Distance Protection (Primary Ohms) 389
Fiqure 157: Primary to Secondary Impedance Calculation a8
Figure 158: Typical ‘’ransmission System with Early Line Distance Proteetion (Secondary Ohms)
Figure 154 Equivalent Transmission Line Impedance
Figure 15:0: Phasor Diagram vs, Impedance Diagram Under Normal Conditions,
Figure 15-11: Phasor Diagram vs. impedance Diagram Under Fault Conditions.
Figure 15-12: Impedance Relay Operating Characteristics
Figure 1513: Impedance Relay Zone of Prote
Figure 15-14: Directional Impedance Relay Operating Characteristies.
Figure 15.15: Directional Impedance Relay Zone of Protection
Figure 15-16: MHO Impedance Relay Operating Characteristics
‘gure 15-17; Alternate Impedance Relay Operating Characteristics.
Figure 1518: MHO Impedance Relay Zone of Protection
Figure 15:19: 2 Zone MHO Impedance Relay Zone of Protection.
Figure 1520:2 Zone MHO Impedance Diagr
‘orwardt-Zone MHO Impedance Relay Zone of Protection
Figure 15213 Principles and Practice
Figure 15222: 3Forward-Zone MHO Impedance Diagram
Figure 15:23: -Fior ward-1-Reverse 3 Zone MHO Impedance Relay Zone of Protection. 408)
ne MHO impedance |
Bigure 1527: 3Vnase Example MHO Distance Characteristic
Figure 1528: 3Phase ‘Test Set Connections
Figure 1529 3-Phase Example MHO Distance MTA Test -
Figure 15:0: 3-Phase Example MHO Distance MTA Test Configuration :
Figure 1531: 3Phase MTA Test Procedure on Phasor Diagram
se 1532: Phase MTA Test Procedure on Impedance Diagram
ure 1588: GE D0 Phase Di tion.
ample MHO Distance Reach Test Procedure
Figure 1536: GE a Phase Distance Specification,
re 15372 3Phase raphe MHO Distance MTA Test Configoraton,
Figure 15-41: AB Fault TestSet Conliguration.
Figure 1542: BC Fault Test'Set Configuration. . ceeeeees
sure 1543: C-A Fault Test-Sel Coniiguration, -
Figure 15444: AB Phaseto-Phase Test'Sel Connections
Figure 15-45: BC Phase-to-Phase Test Set Connection
Figure 1546 CA Phaseto- Phase TestSet Connection
Figure 1547: GE D-60 Phase Distance Specification.
Figure 15-48: GE 11-60 Phase Distance Specification
Figure 15-49: GE 160 Phase Distance Tinting Specili
igure 1550: GE D480 Phase Element 21P) Timing Specification
Figure 155: Phase-tw-Ground Faull Characteristic
Figure 1552: Phasee-Neutral Example MHO Distance MTA.
Figure 1559 SEL-B11C Ground Distance Specification
igsire 1554: Phase-to-Neutral Example MHO Distance MTA Test Configuration
Fire 15:35: SELS1IC Ground Distance Specitication
Figure 15-58: Phase-to-Neutral Example MHO Distance MTA Test Configuration
Figure 1557: SELANC Tim
Figure 1558: SEL IC Timer and Output
Figure 1641: OR Gate Logic
Figure 162: AND Gate Logie
Figure 163: NOT Logie
Figure 16-4: NOR Gate: Lox
Figure 165; NAND Gate Logie. -
‘gure 66: NOR Gate Logie
Figure 16:7: XNOR Gate Logic
est Configuration Principles and Practice
Figure 168: Comparator Logic ——— 2 an
imer Logie: - 47
ammary of Lage E 408
479
480
480
481
SIC Relay Word Bits - 48
ELLIC Relay Word Bit Definitions = : 482
Figure 1617; SELIIC Single Phase and ThreePhase Undervoltage (27) Logic eee g5)
Figure 1618: SELSIIC Undervoltage (27) Logic Electrical Schematic = 48
Figure 16:19: SELSIIC Undervoltage (27) Scenario #1 Logie
jure 1620: SELSLIC Undervoltage (27) Scenario #2 Logi
Figure 1621: GE D-60 Phase Undervoltage (22 Settings.
Figure 1622: GE 1-60 Undervoltage (27) Relay Labels and Definitions 486
Figure 162%: GE D-40 Simplified Undervoltage (27) Logic - 488
Figure 1624: GE D-60 Electrical Schematic of Undervoltage (27) Logic - 489)
D.60 Undervoltage (27) Scenario #1 Logi
D-60 Underveltage (27) Scenario #2 Logic
heme
Figure 1625: GI
Figure 1626: GI
Figure 1627: Example of Individual Element
Figure 1628: Summary
Figure 1630: Simple Binary Logic Relay Label
jure 1631: Simple Binary Logie Diagram,
Figure 1822: Simple Binary Lage Scinemati
Figure 1823: Example of Complex Binary S
Figure 1634: Complex Binary Example Logie Diagram. 497
Figure 1635: Complex Binary Logic Electrical Schematie Example 498
Figure 16:6: Math Scheme Symbol Detinitions in Order 499
r Relay Label Definitions. oe
jure 16317
Figure 1638: Arithmetic NOT Example S 502
Figure 16:39: Example #1 Initial Lose 58
Eigure 16-40: Arithmetic NOT Example Final Logic 50
Figure 1641: Evaluating Math Logie Example —_ 505
Figure 1642: 508
Figure 1643: Evaluation of Example #1, Scenario #2 Logi — 507
Evaluation of Example #1, Scenario #3 Logic 508
Figure 1645: GE D-60 Simplified Undervoliage (27) Logie so
Figure 1646: GE 1-40 Undervoltage (27) Logic Electrical Schematic 510
Figure 1647: SELSIIC Undervoltage (27) and Overvoltage (69) Logie. 51
SELSIIC Voltage Elements Settings and Setting Ranges 511
AMIIC Relay Word Bits Bi
SELAIIC Relay Word Bit Definitions. 512
Figure 1651: Example #2 Logic Diagram. - 5M
xxii Principles and Pract
Figure 1652; Example #2 Revised Loe Diagram, :
Figure 16553: Evaluation of Example #2, Scenario #) Logie
ivation of Examipie #2, Scenario #1 Laie,
Figure 1654: Bs
Figure 1655: SELSIIC Relay Word Bits.
Figure 158: Sleetrical Schematic of Latching Relay .
igure 1657: Lange Schemes for Latching Relay
Figure 16-58: tustration of Rising Edge Operation,
Figure 16-5 llustration of Falling Edge Operation
Figure 1660; Description of FexLogi
Figure 1661: FlexLogie™ Example Relay Schematic.
Flexl oie Gperand Types...
: Dai Flext oie" Operands. — —
‘xample Schematic Output H1
-xample Output HL
Figure 16465; GE D-60 11 Output Logic Bntey Example
Figure 1537: GE D-60 HI Ontput Logie Display Example
Figure 1668: GE D-60 H2 Output Logie Example Schematic
Figure 1665 GE D6) H2 Output Logie Example — ==
Figure 1670: GE 1.60 H2 Output Logte Entry Examples
Figure 1671: GE D.60 12 Output Lage Display Example
Figre 1672: GE D-60 13 Gatput Logic Example Schemrati
Figure 1673: GE D-60 H3 Outpat Logie Example
igure 1674: GE D-60 H3 Outpt Logie Entry Example -
Figure 16-75: GE: D:60 H3 Output Logie Display Example
Figure 1676: GE D.60 H Output Logie Example Schematic
Figure 16-77: GE Dio 34 Ouapat Lausie Example
Figure 1678: GE 14 Hé Ootput Lage Entry Example
Figure 16-70: GE D-60 Ha Output Logie Display Examp
GEE D0 Virtual Output Labels
Figure 1681: Gb: D-G0 Contact Outpal Assignments
ngleLine Drawings
Figure 172: Comple
Biqure 172: Simple Single-Line Drawings
Figure 173: Single-Line Dresings with DC Logie and Settings
Figure 17-4: Example Relay Information Checklist 1 _
Figure 17-5: Example Three-Line Drawing
Figure 17-4: Example Relay Information Checklist #2
igure 17-7: GE/Mubilin M: sver's Typical Wiring Diagram
Figure 178: Example Relay Connection Checklist.
Figure 179: Alternate CT Connection #1 -
Figure 17-10; Allernate CT Connection #2 2 . sot
Figure 17-11; Allernate Cf Connection # 555
Figure 17-12: Alternate CT Connection #4 585
Figure 17-13: Using ACB Rotation with an ACB Relay 5545
Figure 17-14: Alternate CT Connection. 597 Principles and Practice
jure 17-15: Vohiage
Figure 17-16 Current F
Figure 17-17: Current F
Figure 17-18: Common F1 teh Configurations
Figure 17-19: General Electric “PK” Style Test Block.
nple Relay Schematic Drawing _
ample DC Output Conneetions,
Figure 1722: Example DC Input Connections.
ire 17-23: Example Relay Information Checklist 43.
‘gure 17:24: Example Manufacturer's Connection Diagram
Figure 1725: Bxample Trip / Close Schemati
Figure 17.26: Example Setting Printout
Figure 17-27: Example Relay Information Checklist #4.
Figure 17-28: Example Relay Setings
Figure 17:29: Example TCC Drawing.
Figure 181: Simple Test-Set Input Connections,
Figure 182: Test-Set Input Connections with Contaet in Parallel.
Figure 183: Test Set Input Connections in DC Circuit.
4 Switches _
teh Connection Drawing.
‘gure 185: M3310 Relay Inpul Connections.
Figure 186: SEL 311C Input Connections,
Figure 187: GE/Multlin S1-750 Input Connections.
Figure 188: TestSet Output Connection
Figure 189: Relay Tests
Figure 18:10: 37hase Test
Figure 18-1: Example AC TestSet Connections
Figure 1812 Example Relay:
Figure 18:13: GE Multtilin SR-750 Specifications.
Figure 191: Example Digital Input/Output Test Sheet
Figure 192: Phase Angle Relationships,
Figure 193: Example Metering’?
Figure 194 Example Overcurrent Ty
Figure 1945: Example Undervoltage
Figure 196: Example Output Logic
Figure 197: Example ‘Test Sheet for Output Long
Figure 198: Example #2 Settings,
Figure 199: Example Breaker Failure Logic
Bi Sheet for Breaker Fail
fons Using Two Phases
rure 1940: Example Te ure Loic Chapter 1
Electrical Fundamentals
Every relay technician should thoroughly understand the basics of electricity and power
systems so they can apply this knowledge to their relay testing tasks. This first chapter is
dedicated to these topics,
1, The Three-Phase Electrical System
Many peopic have difficulty understanding or visualizing @ three-phase electrical system.
ary tor simple current, voltage,
Understanding the rek
and/or frequency relay testing. However, itisimperative when te
elements, The following explanations use shortcuts to demonstrate the principles described
and may not be technically correct, We want you to focus on the information necessary to
jonships between phases is not nec
ing more complex protective
understand the three-phase electrical system and encourage vou to seek out other material to
better understand the details for any given subject.
A) Generation
Almost all electrical systems are supplied by generators of one sort or another. Although
can operate using gas, diesel, steam, water, wind, cle; actual generator
generators
construction is basically the same despite the input fuel. A generator rotor is inserted within
the center of stator poles that are installed on the outside edge of a circular generator. The
rotor is a large electromagnet rotated within the stator poles via a prime mover which can.
be turned by any of the fuels described previously. The gencrator voltage is determined by Principles and Practice
the number of coils wrapped around cach iron core within the stator poles and the strength
of the rotor's magnetic field, As the rotor rotates the stator poles, the magnetic
interaction between the rotor and stator creates a voltage. The rotor/stator magnetic,
interaction, and subsequent voltage, varies as the rotor’s alignment to the poles change.
igure 1-1 shows a simplified generator sine wave. A real AC generator would have
additional stator poles and rotor magnets. Notice how the horizontal scale of the sine
wave graph corresponds to the rotor position inside the stator. When the magnetic north
interacts with the stator pole, the induced voltage is positive and the magnetic south creates
negative voltage. In our example a cycle is equivalent to one full rotation of the rotor.
eoleeteeeteleelesiee
Ma
YPN
Figure 1-1: Simple Single-Phase Generator Chapter 1: Electrival Fundamentals
Most electrical systems use three phase vollages which are created by adding additional
'S around the rotor with overlapping edges to ensure smooth transitions, The three
simplified exampie (real generators have many more poles and rotor magnet
inged 120° apart and create the sine wave shown in Figure 12, The rotor
interacts with more than one pole simultaneously. Pay attention to the north ad south
poles. Notice how the horizontal axis is marked in degrees, but the axis units could also be.
tine witen the rotor speed is used for reference instead w! ratev position. Most applic
in North America rotate at 60 eycles per second or 60 hertz as shown in Figure
Figure 1-2: Simple Three-Phase Generator Principles and Practice
‘Three-phase systems can be either clockwise (A-B-C) or counterclockwise (A-C-B) rotation.
‘The phase rotation of the system can be determined by the rotor direction of rotation, or
the position of the windings. To correctly determine phase rotation, imagine that the si
waves are constantly moving from right to left an pick a vertical line as a reference. Notice
which order the positive peaks pass through your reference. The “A” wave will cross frst
followed by “B *, and then “C° which is A‘B-C rotation, We always write A-B-C and ACC-B as
a standard even though B-C-A and G-4.B are technically possible in an A-B-C system: and
CBA and BAC are technically correct for an ACB system, Use the examples in Figure
158 to help understand phase rotation,
‘CLOCKWISE ROTATION EQUALS A-C-8 ROTATION
Figure 1-3: Phase Sequence Examples Chapter I: Electrical Fundamentals
B) Frequency
Frequency is generically defined as the rate at which something occurs or
2 particular period of time or in x given sample. The electrical frequency is defined as
number of cycles that occur in 1 second. In North America, the typical system frequency
is 60 Hz or 60 cycles per second, In Europe, the typical frequency is 50 Hz or 50 eycles per
econd. There are more cycles per second in North America which means that each cyele
js generated in 16.66¢ms. In Europe, each cycle is generated in 20ms.
repeated over
he
‘The difference between these standards is shown in Figure 1-4 below. Notice that while
the time reference remain the same regardless of the 50 or 60l1z waveform, the cycle and
degrees reference are relative to the generated cycle.
Figure 1-4: Phasor Diagram Example
‘The formulas to convert eyelestoseconds and secondsto-cycles are:
Frequency
Seconds '
cycles
Frequency
cycles reaquency ~ Zeconds
Frequency
cycles Frequency x seconds
cycles=60> 0.0166
cycle Principles and Practice
) Phasor Diagrams
While
and take up a lot of space. They also become more difficult to read as more
added. We need an easier way to display the relationships between phas
relationships between voltages and currents. Phasor diagrams were designed to quickly
understand the relationships in an electrical system. A properly constructed phasor
diagram disp! all of the inent information we need to visually analyze an electrical
system and can also be called a vector diagram. Each phasor (vector) on a phasor diagram.
is composed of the following:
ne-wave drawings display the actual output of a generator, they are hard to draw
iormation is
ss well as the
‘+ Aline drawn to scale representing the rms voltage or current of the positive hall:
cycle of tite waveform, The line length is usually referred to as the magnitude.
+ Phasors are typically drawn starting at the center of the diagram (the origin). The
phasor’s angle is determined by the location of the peak voltage or current in the
positive-haltcycle of the waveform,
‘+ Ap arrow is drawn on the tip of the phasor. There is no official standard for phasor
arrows but whatever standard that is chosen should be consistent. Typically «
voltage phasor has an open arrow and a current phasor has a closed arrow.
* The phasor is labeled with the electrical parameter (e.g. Volts = “V," “E
represents, and the connection (e.g. AN phase = "AN," “an"). The first letter of the
connection represents the arrow tip and the second letter represents the origin. In
igure 1-5 the “n” designations of Van, Vbn, and Ven are all connected together at
the origin of the phasor diagram,
gure 1-5 to help understand how phasor diagrams relate to the electtical
Those of you familiar with phasor diagrams may be quick to point out the phasor diagram
does not appear to be correct at first glance. but pay altention to the angle reference in
cach drawing,
Figure 1-5: Electrical Diagram Comparison Chapter 1: Electrical Fundamentals
‘The phasor diagram looks static on the page but actually represents values rotating in the
counter-clockwise direction. You can visualize phasor diagrams by imagining a tre tarninig
at 60 revolutions per second. Ifa strobe light shines onto the tire 60 times per second, the
tire will appear fo be standing still If we mark three points on the tire 120 degrees apart
and start i spinning again with t:> strobe light, the three marks are the points on a phasor
diagram. The marks appear to be standing still because of the strobe light but they are
aciually turning in the direction of phase ro.ctivn.
Phasor diagrams need a reference and the A-phese vollage is usually used as the reference
which is typically the Van phasor. We can modify Figure 1-5 to use Van as the refe
by making the Van-rmsmaximuntof positive-hal-cycle 0° on all diagrams and plotting the
other phasors relative to Van as shown on Figure 1-6, Phasor diagram purisis, pay attention
to the angles again.
nce
Figure 1-6: Electrical Diagram Comparison with Van Reference
Phasor diagrams need to be consistent in order to be effective so we will mudity the previous
examples to create a more traditional phasor diagram. Remember tat the generator
ior operation to understand and we
sine-wave and phasor diagrams in the future, Phasor diagrams typically
demonstrates a more realistic phasor
um with Van as the reference at 0°, counter-clocl.wise rotation, A-B-C rotation, and a
ngle reference (Where the phasor are displayed (360° clockwise)
examples have been simplified to make gen
will only use the
rotate with counter-clockwise direction, Figure 1
diag:
lagging
| ri] |
(
vours |
pecrees 0 120 240
Figure 1-7: Phasor Diagram 1 Principles and Practice
‘The big differences between Figure 1-7 and the previous examples are the reference
angles inside the diagram and the location on the Vbn and Ven phasors. Remember that
ine the phase rotation on a sinewave drawing by selecting a reference and
sexample
you can dete
pretending that the waves are flowing towards the left. The phase rotation for th
is ABC. You can ‘ell the phase rotation on a phasor diagram using the same technique.
Use 0° as the reference and rotate the phasors in a counter-clockwise direction. The Van
phaser crosses first fellowed by the Vbn phasor and finally the Ven phasor. Both diagranss
indicate ABC rotation.
‘The angles on the Phasor Diagram are relative and depend on your background. The
angles shown in Figure 1-7 make a lot of sense if you decide that your reference is 0°
and all angles are considered to be “lagging” the reference. GE/Multilin relays use this
system and a typical, three-phase electrical system is defined as Van@0°, Vbn@120°, and
‘Ven@240” as shown in Figure 17.
‘Many organizations and engineers define the exact same electrical system as Van@0°,
‘Von @240°, and Ven @120° as shown in Figure 1-8. Notice that the only difference between
Figures 17 and 1-8is the angle references, The actual phasors have not changed position
because counter-clockwise rotation is the standard for phasor diagrams unless defined
other
ise.
Figure 1-8: Phasor Diagram 2
Because having two standards for defining was not confusing enough, we can define the
exact same electrical system as Van@0°, Vbn@-120°, and Ven@ 120” as shown in Figure
1.9, This is the standard that was used by my instructors and will be the standard uscd for
s no right or wrong standard as long as
the majority of this book. Remember that there
they are applied consistently and you are aware what standard is in-u Chopter 1: Electrical Fundamentals
DEGREES 0 -120 120
Figure 1-9: Phasor Diagram 3
Once again phase rotation can be changed from AB-C to A-C-B by changing the rotation
or changing any two phases, A-B-C systems rotate counter clockwise and can be verified
con the phasor diagram by using zero degrees as a reference aid imining: the phasors
rotating counterclockwise, When rotating counter clockwise, AN phasor crosses first
followed by BN and finally C-N, The phasors are always rotating. Any phasor diagratn
represents one moment in time. Review Figure 110 o see the differences between ABC
and Md
B systems,
ACB via Two-Phase Switch
+ ~S
ACB via Reverse Rotation Principles and Practice
Up until now, we have exclusively focused on the voltage waveforms and phasors that
‘present the potential energy across two points as measured by a voltmeter, Current
waveforms represent the current flow through a device as measured by an ammeter in
series with a load. The waveforms and phasor diagrams are drawn in the same manner
as the voltage waveforms and physors but use Amperes (Amps / A) as their scale. The
are drawn with closed arrows to differentiate them from voltage phasors.
«voltage values plotted simultancousty.
current phasor
Review Figure 1-11 see current
Vbn
A-B-C ROTATION
Figure 1-11: Current and Voltage Phasors
zero degrecs at the 3 o'clock position, but it can easily be placed at the
imply a matter of personal
ike to place
12 o'clock position ifit helps you visualize the diagram. It
preference,
0 Chapter 1: Electrical Fundamentals
Ven
Van
fa
Van
Vbn
bn
0 Degrees on Horizontal Axis _- Degrees on Vertical Axi
Figure 1-12: Vector Diagrams on Different Axis
i) Adding or Subtracting Phasors
There will be times when phasors need to be acided together to help understand the
stem such as Delta: Wye conversions in the next section,
properties of the electrical s
‘or Sequence Components later in the chapter.
Phasor addition is probably the most sifficult electrical calculation and there are three
methods that you can employ:
Iculators will allow you to add 1@0° and 1260
a. Use a calculator ~ Some
using the interface. This functionalty is rare and is sometimes found on scientitic
acd complex numbers using polar quantities. You can also
at
calculators that
download the “Dot Point Learning, Systems Science Calculator Free Version
hupe/ eww dplaysiems.com.au/ lowntnacis-bis and use the “Vector calculator”
tool. The ans
wer is 17:
b. Convert the Phasor (Polar) to Rectangular ~ Adding and subtracting phasors in
polar format (magnitude and angle) is very difficult, But if we can convert the
phasors into rectangular format (real and imaginary numbers or horizental and
vertical magnitudes) first, the addition or subtraction is quite easy Principles and Practice
‘Those who thought that trigonometry would never be useful in the real world may be
surprised because we can apply the Pythagorean Theorem to any phasor using the
following formulas:
1
1
'
le
seo" 3
Ss 1g
ie
1
1
Real = Magnitude x cos(Angle) Real = Magnitude x cos(Angle)
Real = 1x cos(0) Real = 1¢75(60")
Real=1x1 Real = 10.5
Real =1 Real = 0.5
Imaginary = Magnitude x sin(Angle) Imaginary = Magnitude » sin(Angle)
Imaginary = 1xsin(0") Imaginary = 1sin(60>)
Imaginary = 1x0 Imaginary = 10.866
Imaginary = 0 Imaginary = 0.866
Rectangular = Real +"j"Imaginary = x+ jy Rectangular = Real +" j"Imaginary = x + jy
Rectangular = 14 70 Rectangular = 0.5 + 0.866
Now we can add the real (x
or "in formulas), and then use the Pythagorean Theorem to convert the value back
toa phasor:
is) values together, then the imaginary numbers (y-axis Chapter I: Electrical Fundamentals
0.266090
160° “0.560°
Real(Sum) = Real(1@0*) + Real(1@60")
Real(Sum) =1+0.5
Real(Sum) = 15
"Imaginary(1@0") +" j*Imaginary( 1@60°)
Imaginary(Sum)
Imaginary(Sum) = j0 + j0.866
Imaginary(Sum) = 70.866
Sum = 1.5 + 0.866
Magnitude(Sum) = l(Reai(Sum) + imaginary(Sumy)
Magnitude(Sum) ~ [i.5°+ 0.866")
Magnitude(Sum) ~ /[228 + 6.749956)
Magnitude(Sum) = ¥2,999956
Magnitude(Sum) = 1.732
1m) = arctan( Emeginary(Sum) }
Angle(Sum) = arctan’ Reaksum) |
0.866 )
rnge( Sum) = arta
Angle(Sum) 15°)
‘Angle(Sum) = arctan(0.577)
‘Angle(Sum) = 30°
13 Principles and Practice
c.Add the Vectors Graphically ~ If you draw the vectors to scale with a CAD
program or a ruler and protractor, you can draw one vector on the tip on the other
and measure the distance and angle from the first vector's source as s
following
hown in the
tion,
D) Three-Phase Connections
ystems, Delta and Wye (Star).
where all three phast
There are two main connections when using three-phase 5
Until now, we have been dealing with Wye connectio
‘common point. With this connection, the line and phase currents are the same, but the
phase and line voltages are different as shown in Figure 1-13:
es have a
Ta & ib & Ic = Phase or Line Current
Van & Vbn & Ven = Phase Voltage
Vab & Vbe & Vea = Line Voltage
Figure 1-13: Wye Connection
In order to draw phasors of the three new line voltages (Vab, Vbe, Vea), we need to follow
their connections through the Wye connection. Vea is the vector sum of Ven and Vna
using the vector conventions we discussed earlier. Ven is still drawn at 120° because it has
not changed. Vna is drawn at 180° because it is the opposite of Van at 0 degrees. When.
performing vector addition, the first vector is drawn (Vna) becanse “a” is the reference of
a Vea phasor. The second vector (Ven) is drawn at the correct angle starting on the tip of
the first vector. The sum of the two vectors is Ven + Va or Venna, We can remove the “nn”
and the final phasor designation is Vea. Chapter I: Electrical Fundamentals
Figure 1-14: Phase to Line Conversion
Experience has shown that when two vertors with the same magnitude areadded when they
are 60 degrees apart, the sum will be V3 larger at the midpoint between the two vectors. It
the vector diagram was drawn to scale, we could measure the resultant vector. (Something
to remember when you forget your fancy calculator) Therefore, Vea is y3Ven®150"
na = 180°, Ven = 120
na ~ Ven = 180° ~ 120° = 60°
vea = ven +
Vea = 120° +30
Vea = 150
Besod on experience, any conversion between Delta and Wye balanced systems (identical
magnitudes. £20 degrees apart) will inerease or decrease by V3 and be displaced by 30
deurees. Principles and Practice
The vector diagram for a balanced Wye connected three-phase
Figure 1-15 where:
WYETOOELTA DELTATOWYE
DELTA Wye DELTA wre
vab
Van @0° Vab=v3ver@30"(vanes) | vab@se — Van=“#@0-wvab-309
Von@-120" Vee=V8¥bn@-90°(vEn#309 | voc@-90" Von = “E@-120%(vbe-30)
Vea,
Ven@ 120° Vea=Vaven@ 150°(vens307 | Vea@ 150" Ven = 42.0120" (ve2-30"
Vea ven Vnb van Vab
Figure 1-15: Delta/Wye Connected Vector Diagram
A delia connected system is shown in Figure 1-16. Using this connection, the line and
phase voltages are ihe same. bul there isa difference bewween the phase and line currents,
16 Chapter 1: Electrical Fundamentals:
Ta & Ib & Ie = Line Current
Tab & Ibe & Ica = Phase Current
\Vab & Vbc & Vca = Line or Phase Voltage
te)
Gea ©?
Figure 1-16: Delta Connection
©)
Notice that regardless of the three-phase system the line voliage and line current
vonnections remain the same, Phase current is rarely measured, and we won't waste
any more tin. on phase current in delta systems, The delta connection veetor diagram
is identical to the Wye connected diagram without the neutral connections as shown in
Figure 117
Delta Connection Vector Diagram for Balanced Syste with 30° Lag Principles and Practice
E) Watts
governor. The governor
Generators are turned by prime movers that are controlled by
operates like the cruise control in your car and tries to maintain the same speed (usually
60H2). If the load increases or decreases, the generator will momentarily slow down
ar speed up before the governor can respond to compensate for the load change. The
power output of the generator that is measured in Watt
generator's speed controls the re:
‘when connected to the grid.
actual torque in a motor, heat from a heater, or light and heat from an incandescent light
bulb. Watts do all ofthe work in an electrical system.
fatts are a measure of the real power consumed by a load like
A system that is generating 100% Watts are displayed on sine-wave and phasor diagrams
with the phase voltage and phase current at the same phase angle as displayed in Figure
18,
Ven
van
vbn
Figure 1-18: Watts - Current and Voltage Are In-Phase Chapter 1: Electrical Fundamentals
F) Inductive VARS
In the early years of electricity, a major debate was raised between the widespread use of
AC of DC in electrical systems. Ultimately AC won the war and is the standard throughout
st of the world because of its ability to transform lower voltages into higher voltages
S was an important distinction because the higher voltages require less current to
transmit the same amount of power, which drastically reduced transmission costs, This
induction to create a magnetic field when conductors are coiled
m
transformation abil
around a magnetic core.
Inductive VARs represent the energy created by the magnetic fields and is created by
the interaction of electrical coils and magnetic cores in equipment such as AC motors
transformers, and generators,
Ohm's Law in DC systems explains the relationship of Volts, Amps. and Resistance in
a circuit and it is updated in AC systems to inclide Reactance. Inductive reactance is
4 component of the Inductive VARs and will resist any change in current as opposed to
resistance which resists the entire flow of current. The Inductive Reactance causes the
current to lag the voltage due to the opposing force in inductive systems. Mos .
are inductive due to electric motors and current ustialy lags the voltage in most systems.
Figure 1-19 simplifies the AC waveform by only showing one phase to help you visualize
the kay between voltage and current. The other two phases will change accordingly in a
balanced system, Remember that the axis remains in place while the waveform moves irom
right to left. The voltage peak will eross the y-axis belore the current peak and. therefore.
‘am, the
the current lags the vollage (or the voltage leads the current), In the phasor d
vectors rotate counterclockwise and the voltage wil cross the 0 degree axis beiore the
current phasor
Van.
Ta
+ =
Decrees 0-30
A-B-C ROTATION WITH 30 DEGREE LAG
Figure 1-19: Inductive VARs - Current Lags the Voltage by 30°
1% Principles and Practice
20
G) Capacitive VARS
Capacitive VARs represent the reactive power stored in capacitors, over-excited generators,
cables or power lines that cause the current to lead the voltage, While
inductive VARs resist any change in current, capacitive VARS give the vollage an extra
boost. Inductive and capacitive VARS operate in opposition and can cancel each other out
(See “The Power Triangle” in the next section for details.) In a system where the capacitive
VARs are greater than the inductive VARs, the current will lead the voltage.
or other source
While the generator governor controls the power output of the generator as described
previously, the generator exciter controls the generator output voltage. If the generator
is not connected to the grid, the exciter can raise or lower the rotor current that, in turn,
raises or lowers the generator voltage in direct proportion. However, when the generator
is connected to a grid the voltage is relatively fixed by the grid and raising and lowering the
rotor current causes the generator to input or export VARS. Generators supply most of the
VARs required by inductive m:
ines like transformers or motors.
Figure 1.20 simplifies the AC waveform by showing only one phase to help you visualize
how the current leads the voltage. The other two phases will change accordingly in a
balanced system, Remember, the axis remains in place while the waveform moves from
right to 1t. The current peak will cross the y-axis before the voltage peak and, therefore
the current leads the voltage. In the phasor diagram, the vectors rotate counter-clockwis
and the current will cross the 0 degree axis before the vollage phasor,
vours
besrees, 300
A-B-C ROTATION WITH 30 DEGREE LEAD
Figure 1-20: Capacitive VARs - Current Leads the Voltage |
i
Chapter 1
‘lectrical Fundamentals
H) The Power Triangle
In an AC electrical system, all power can be broken down into three separate components.
VAis the apparent power supplied and is calculated by multiplying the voltage and curt ent.
‘The real energy’ produced by an electrical system is measured in Watts and is the ansount
‘of current in phase with the voltage and multiplied by the voltage. Reactive VARs is the
combination of capacitive and inductive VARs produced by capacitors and inductive
machines and are +/-90° out of phase with the voltage respectively. Watts and VARs are
combined to create VA. itcan be hard to grasp how these electrical measurements inter
‘but the power triangle helps put it into perspective. The standard formulas for three-phase
power are showa in the following figure:
VA = (Van Ja} + (Von x Ib} + (Ven Ie)
WATTS = [Van x laxcos(Van’ —lar)] + [Vom x Ib cos(Vn® —fb»)}+ [Ven Je x eos(Vent ~ fe°)]
VARS = [Van laxsin(Van® - Ia’)]}+[Vbn x 1b x sin(Vbn" —1°)] + (Ven flex sin(Von* — Je°}}
Figure 1-21: Three-Phase Power Formulas
Allof the formulas in Figure 1-22 can be used to calculate three-phase power assuming that
all three-phase currents and voliages are balanced, While no system is perfectly balanced,
these equations will pat you in the ballpark, Make sure you uss the correct phasors when
determining relationships. “ANGLE” in the VAR and Watt formulas are the difference
the phase-toneutral voltage and the line current (ANGLE = V,. angle” = 1,
SLE in balanced systems
Vy, angle” - 30° = T,.
betwee
angle’) phase-to-phase voltages can be used to determine AN
only by assuming that the V,,, Teads V, . by 30 degrees (ANC
angle’).
VA =F LineVolts>tineamps
VARS = V3 x LineVolts xLineAmps x sin( ANGLE)
WATTS = V3 xLineVolts x LineAmps x cos( ANGLE)
Figure 1-22: Three-Phase Power Formulas Assuming Balanced Conditions Principles and Practice
In a perfect electrical system where only Watts exist, the power triangle is a straight line
as no VARS are produced. 3 10 see a power triangle where only pure power
d
is produc
SNe “ va = JB vab- ta
va = ¥31.732V «1.0008
va- 3va
—
WATTS - J - Vab = 1a cos(angle - 30° - langle)
WATTS. J 1.732V «1.0008 « cos(30° - 30° - 0%)
WATTS = 3 VA» cos(0")
WATTS = 3 WATTS
Figure 1-23: Three-Phase Power Triangle - Watts Only
source, the current will lag the
al fine as shown in Figure 1-24:
‘When the clectrical system supplies a purely inducti
voltage by 90 degrees, and the power triangle is a verti
oe . _ va- 3. vada
a= V3 1.732. 1.0008
VARS 4 Vab- 1a sinexVangle 20 — tangle)
VARS = J 1.732V- 1.0008 «sine(30.-30 --90)
VARS. 3 VA«sine(90")
VARS - 3 VARS:
Figure 1-24: Power Triangle - Only inductive VARs
When the electrical system supplies a purely capacitive source, the current will lead the
voltage by 90 degrees, and the power triangle is a vertical line as shown in Figure 1-25:
2 Chapter 1: Flectrival Fundamentals
Vea = 1.732 Ven =1¥ vap = 17320
Be vada
va 3.0008
VARS = J3Vabs Jax sine(vangie 30°. langle)
VARS = V3 x1.732V 1.0008 x sine(20:- 30-90%)
VARS = 3 VA sine(-90")
VARS = -3 VARS
Figure 1-25: Power Triangle - Only Capacitive VARS
2 Principles and Practice
Our next example is closer to real life with the current lagging the voltage by 30 degrees.
Most power systems have all three parts of the power triangle with Watts, VARs, and VA
as shown in Figure 1-26.
PoweR (P)
30.00"
REACTIVE POWER
VARS = 1.5 VARS
Figure 1-26: Power Triang!e
WATTS ~ J « Vab x Iax cos(Vangle ~ 30° Tangle)
WATTS = 3 *1.732V x 1.0A x cos(30° - 30” - 30°)
WATTS = 3x cos(-30)
WATTS = 30.866
WATTS - 2.60 WATTS
VARS = (3 x Vab «la sine(Vangle - 30° - Tangle)
VA = 3x Vabx Ia VARS = V3x1.732V>1.0A.» sine(30° - 30° - 30°)
va = (3 «1,732V%1.08 VARS = 3 sine(-30°)
VA =3VA VARS = 3%0.5
VARS = 1.5 VARS
Figure 1-27: Example Three-Phase Power/VARS/VA Formula Calculations Chapter I: Elec
You can apply the Pythagoren Theorem in nearly every aspect of phasor diagrams and
other clecitical properties as shown in the following example
POWER (P}
WATTS = \3> Vab» ta» costvangle ~ 30° -Ianale)
WATTS = VAxcos(50°- 30° ~-25°)
WATTS = 3cos(25")
WATTS - 30.906
WATTS = 2.72 WATTS
VARS = v3 > Vab a> sinetVangle ~30' ~lanste)
VARS = VA sine(30°~ 30°~-25°)
VARS - 3xsine(25 3
VARS = 30.423
VARS = 1.268 VARS
POWER «P)
Watts = 2.72 Watts
REACTIVE POWER
VARS = 1.268 VARS
REACTIVE POWER
cose = ¥
va
y
cos(-25) = Ye
y = £98(-25) x 3VA = 0.906% 3VA
y = 2.72WATTS,
sin = 2
sin(-25) SVA = 0.423 3VA
Vie WATTS VARS
va~ fare 15268)
va = (7.38844 1.6078)
va = (9.00)
VA =3VA Principles and Practice
26
1) Power Factor
power factor represents the angle between the Watts and VA of
the electrical system. It can also be the angle between voltage and current in any phase
when calculated on a phase-by-phase basis. Power factor is expressed! as the Cosine of the
angle, which can be immediately converted into efficiency by multiplying the power factor
by 100,
An electrical system's
The meaning of a positive and negative power factor is another one of those situations,
where the correct answer depends on the location and background of the measuring
device. The following statements are usually true in North America (unless you are in @
‘generator plant) and itis always a good idea to represent the power factor as importing
or exporting VARS if you are communicating with someone who right use a different
standard.
ltage or the system has capacitive VARs, the power factor
When the current leads the
is considered leading, negative, or exporting. When the sys
the current lags the voltage, the power factor is positive, lagging, or importing. Review the
‘em is primarily inductive and
iollowing examples of power factor calculations:
i) Unity Power Factor Calculation (Voltage and Current in Phase)
PowerFactor = cos(Angle) Efficiency = PowerFactor 100
PowerFactor = cos(0) Efficiency = 1.00106
PowerFactor = 1.00 Efficiency = 100%
(All of the energy supplied is real power or Watts) Chapter 1: Electrical Fundamentals
Inductive System (Current Lags Voltage by 30°)
Powe:Factor - cos(Angle) Efficiency ~ PowerFactor «100
PowarFactor ~ cos(-30) Efficiency ~ 0.857 +100
PowerFactor = 0.867 lag or + 0.867 Efficiency ~ 86.7%
(86.7% of the supplied energy is reat power or Watts)
Capacitive System (Current Leads Voltage by 30°)
PowerFactor = cos(Angle) Efficiency ~ PowerFactor «100
PowerFactor = cos(30) Efficiency = 0.867100
PowerFactor = 0.867 lead or -0.867 Efficiency = 86.7%
(86.7% of the supplied energy is real power or Watts)
2. Transformers
Aswe dis ity to transform smaller voltages to higher voltages,
primary reason why we use AC electricity today. Using higher voltages to transfer electricity
over long distances saves money, because less current is required at higher voltages to transfer
the same amonint of energy. Less current means smaller conductors which cost Tess than large
conductors and weigh less so the support structures are also smaller and cheaper. Online
as Iess current tlows through the conductors.
savings are realized through reduced line loss:
ansformers are nearly perfect(ideal) machines that require very litle energy to ereate the
a Principles and Practice
‘The simplest transformers are constructed around a core made of magnetic material, Two
afferent sets of copper or aluminum coils are wound around the core, and the number of
turns determines the rated voltages of the transformer. The set of coils with the most turns is
called the “High” side because it will have a higher voltage than the “Low” side. Some people
automatically refer to the high side as the transformer primary even though the printary of a
transformer is defined by normal load flow. A step-up transfor (eps a lower voltage to a
higher voltage and the low side is the transformer primary. The opposite is true with a step
down transformer.
SIMPLE STEP-DOWN
TRANSFORMER
sourct
nwa SECONDARY
3:1Ratio
Figure 1-28: Simple Transformer Construction
There are two main principals that apply to all ideal transformers:
solute
©The translormer ratio is.
© Powerin equals Power-out Chapter 1: Eleetvical Fundamentals
‘The transformerratioispre-defined when the transformeris built andisbased on the transformer
ratio, Transformer ratios are defined on the transformer nameplate by high and low side
3:1 transformer ratio could be listed on the transformer nameplate as
345,000 5.5
115,000V
voltages. For example,
345.000V' GA45KV): 115,000V (LISKV), Transformer Ratio (x:1) =
High Side Voltage
Transformer Ratio (x:1) = High Side voltage
7 ied ‘Low Side Voltage
High Side Voltage = Transformer Ratio (x:1) «Low Side Voltage OR
h Side Voltage
ow Side Voltage - -—_tiiah Side Voltage —
Low Side Voltage ~ ransformer Ratio (x1)
Figure 1-29: Transformer Voltage Ratio Calculation
‘Three-phase power
calculated by multiplying the system voltage. current, and power factor:
3 Phase Power (watts) = V3 x Vie * aye * Power Factor
Ifa ansformer has two different voltage levels and the power-in equals the powerout, the
also be transformed. ‘Transformer current is inversely proportional to the
‘age ‘Therefore, the high-voltage side of the tran nt tlowing through
its winding and more current will flow through the low-voltage windings. If the high-si
current of our example transformer was 35A, the low:side would be rated for 1054.
Jacr has less e4
(Low Side Current 358. 3601). 105% »
Low Side Current
Transformer Ratio(x:1) ~ &¥ Side
Rawols:1) ~ High side Current
oR
Low Side Current
High Side Current = 2%
aan Transformer Ratio(x:1) OR
Low Side Current = High Side Current « Transformer Ratio(x:1)
Figure 1-30: Transformer Current Ratio Calculation
yy Principles and Practice
‘Transformers can be connected wye. delta or with a combination of wye and delta windings.
Remember that typical delta systems only have ratings for Line (line-toline) voltages and
currents. Wye systems have Phase (phase-toneutral) and Line voltage and line current
ratings. The transformer riameplate will display the line and phase (if applicable) voltages for
cach winding along with the apparent (VA) power rating of the transformer. The transiormer
ratio will always use the Line-Line voltages.
‘There are often several VA (E.g. 25/35/45/50 MVA) ratings listed and cach VA rating
corresponds (oa different cooling stage. The smallest VA rating applies when the transformer is
air cooled only. Each higher rating applies as another cooling method is applied. The following
items might be true if four VA ratings are listed on a transformer's nameplate:
+ Smallest VA = Air Cooled
‘+ Next largest VA = Stage I Fans
+ Next Largest VA = Stage 1 and Stage 2 Fas
+ Largest VA Stage 1 and Stage 2 Fans and Recirculating Pump
There are two schools of thought to determine which rating is used. A conservative approach
uses the minimum VA rating because this is the transformer rating ifall cooling methods failed
for whatever reason. The more common approach uses the largest VA rating because this
the actual transformer rating under normal conditions.
‘The most important information for transformer related relay testing includes:
+ Rated voltage for all windings,
tated current for all windings,
‘+ Winding connection (Delta or Wye),
© And VA
‘The rated current isn’t always shown on a transformer's nameplate but it is easily calculated
using the following formula, Review the following figures for examples of the most typical
transformer applications and calculations that apply to three-phase balanced systems, Always
remember to use only Tine voltages in calculations and the following unit modifiers apoly.
AVA = Listed Value x 1 (c.g. 2A = 2A)
KV, KA, KVA ted Value x 1,000 (e4g. SKV = 5,000 V)
MVA, MW, MVARS: = Listed Value x 1,000,000 (e.g. IOMVA = 10,000,000 VA)
lane - —¥A Vane - VA
LINE h
VA = V3 x Vine XIuine OR V3 Vine OR V3 xluwe
30 Chapter 1: Electrical Fundamentals
vat
ENGINEERING NAMEPLATE CONNECTION PHASOR
DIAGRAM DIAGRAM DIAGRAM. DIAGRAM
nie
bs
vata ry
ENGINEERING NAMEPLATE CONNECTION. PHASOR
DIAGRAM. DIAGRAM DIAGRAM CIAGRAM
Figure 1-31: Wye-Delta Transformer Connections
va=1MVA
Voltage: 4160/2400 ¥ :600V
VA __1,000KVA__ 4
Taerogmy 7 798
0 BM
Jam) = pea — = BGQOAEIVA - 962.288
Bx Ving V3 x600V
High Side Voltage 4160 _¢ 35
Transformer Ratio («:1 AIBOV _ 6.95:
ony Low Side Voltage 600V 9333:1
Transformer Ratio(x:1) . Lew Side Current 962.288 ¢.9333:1
High Side Current 138.794
Figure 1-32: Wye-Delta Transformer Calculations Principles and Practice
ds
pyit
ENGINEERING NAMEPLATE
DIAGRAM DIAGRAM
x A
byt
ENGINEERING NAMEPLATE
DIAGRAM DIAGRAM
Figure 7-33:
CONNECTION PHASOR
DIAGRAM DIAGRAM
PHASOR
DIAGRAM
CONNECTION
DIAGRAM
elta-Wye Transformer Connections
Va=1MvA.
Transformer Ratio (x:1) ~
Transformer Ratio(x:1)
:480V/247 V
3,00040 _ 95.094
Low Side Voltage 480V aoe
Mk L2038 5 99.
High Side Current 23,094 2.0
Figure 1-34: Delta-Wye Transformer Calculations Chapter I Electrical Fundamentals
7 42-3
Figure 1-35: Wye-Wye Transformer Connections
xa
a x2
wu fo ® :
x9 13 x3
vyo Ho FY xo
ENGINEERING NAMEPLATE CONNECTION PHASOR
DIAGRAM DIAGRAM DIAGRAM DIAGRAM
Figure 1-36: Auto-Transformer Connections Principles and Practice
M2 Hot m2
xy 2
bdo
Bey 23
ENGINEERING NAMEPLATE CONNECTION PHASOR
DIAGRAM DIAGRAM DIAGRAM DIAGRAM
Figure 1-37: De':a-Delta Transformer Connections
VA=30MVA
Voltage: 115kV: 13.8 V
VA _ 30,000kvA
. = 150.624
V3 Vine V3 x115KV
VA 30MVA
Tunewom = FE = Fez ey 7 Pe 255KA
M VoxVing | Vx 13.8KV
Transformer Ratio (x:1) = High Side Voltage _ 115kV _ 5 35.5
Low Side Voltage — 13.8kV
Transtormer Ratio(x:1) = LOW Side Current _ 1,255.15A
OW S1Ce Sure NE = SOTA _ 8.33321
High Side Current 150.624
Figure 1-38: Wye-Wye and Delta-Delta Transformer Calculations
3. Instrument Transformers
Instrument transformers are specially designed to transform high system voltages and
currents into smaller voltages and currents for remote metering and protection. Instrument
transiormers can be extremely accurate (o allow the relay to protect the electrical system and
Ibe isolated from dangerously high currents and voltages, The following sections detail the
different types of instrument transformers and typical connections,
4 Chapter 1: Electrical Fundamentals
A) Current Transformers (CTs)
As the name suggests, current transformers transform high currents 10 a smatle
value. CT construction can be similar to the transformers explained previously but arc
specially designed for current transformations. There are three important values on the CI
nameplate:
') Ratio
‘The CT ratio determines the ratio between the primary and secondary current. The
CT primary (High Side) should be rated at least 125% higher than the full luad rating
of the downstream or transmission equipment to maintain accuracy throughout the
full range of operation. The CT secondary (Low Side) nominal rating is typically 5A.
in North America and 1A elsewhere. If secondary has a different rating...stop and
make sure the correct information is presented to you and/or the correct equipment
is installed.
CT ratios are typically displayed as a primary and secondary nominal current. (2000:5,
A) The CT ratio is determined by dividing the primary value by the secondary rating
Once you know the CT ratio, convert between primary and secondary currents by
plugging the appropriate number into the formulas in Figure 1-39.
1 CTRatio= CTPOMAY cy Secondary - SLPnmary
ET Secondary OR CTRetio OR
CT Primary = CT Secondary ~ CT Ratio
CT Secondary _ CT Rated Secondary
| CT Primary CT RatedPrimary
CT Rated Primary
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