Presentation Skills

Structuring your Presentation

What Structure?
Structure is important because a well organized presentation creates an impression that you know
what you are talking about-you will gain the audience's trust and they will be more likely to
listen to you. A structure provides a logical flow so that you can provide the information that the
audience needs to follow your presentation. The structure will help you become more
comfortable following this flow. There is a natural structure to presenting and the following
structure formalizes this process.

 Purpose
To determine your purpose ask "What are the main points I want my audience to take away from
my presentation"? This provides focus for you and the audience is clear on what they will gain
listening to your presentation.

 Audience pre-assessment
It is important to identify the characteristics, knowledge and needs of your audience so that you
are delivering the 'right' presentation to the 'right' audience. Know who your audience is, what
they want/need to know and what is their background. This step is done before the presentation
or throughout.

 Opening your Presentation/Bridge

This is also known as the hook. It is designed to grab the audience's attention and provide them
with a reason to be interested in the presentation.

 Body of Presentation
This is the major portion of the presentation. It is necessary that it connects directly to your
purpose or bridge. Cover enough points to achieve your purpose (no more) and be sure to
support your points clearly and concisely.

 Closing your Presentation

This is the final impression that you will leave with your audience-make sure it is a strong one.
Connect back to your purpose and let them know where you have been. Leave your audience
with a clear understanding of your points.

10 - 20 - 30 Rule
In 2005, Guy Kawasaki, a venture capitalist in Silicon Valley wrote on his blog about a rule of
thumb in making great presentations. Focusing on conciseness and visibility, he suggested the 10
- 20 - 30 Rule of PowerPoint Presentations.

 10 Slides
 By having a limit of 10 slides, you will be managing the cognitive load for your
audiences. They can easily follow the flow of your presentations. It also challenges you
to design your presentations well: choose what's important and leave out what's
unnecessary

 20 Minutes
By giving yourself limited time on your presentation, you are challenging yourself to
leave out unnecessary details and focus on the important stories that will convey your
message. Even if your session has been allotted with more time, you can devote the
remaining minutes to discussions, questions or any technique that involves audiences
with your presentation.

 30-size Font
Depending on the room and screen size, most audiences will be able to see text that are at
least 30-size font. When designing your presentation, keep in mind that anything you
show must be visible to everybody in attendance, especially those in the back.
If you are concerned about fitting more text in a slide, always remember they do not
necessarily make a better presentation.
Keep in mind that these rules are very subjective and each situation is
unique. Apply them as a good rule of thumb to guide you in planning your
presentations. Other circumstances may come and you need to be flexible
however, have your visible and concise presentations.

6 x 6 Rule
Following the 6 x 6 rule, limits any text to 6 words per line and 6 lines per
slide. Similar to the 10 - 20 - 30 rule, it focuses on readability and
conciseness.
When used effectively, text can be useful in conveying ideas in
presentations. Too much text though can look monotonous and tiring for
audiences to read. You are reminded to distill your thoughts into short lines
and use your presence to expand into more detail. Audiences are there to
listen and watch you, not read your slides.
This slide is very text heavy using a small-sized font

This slide is visually less cluttered and allows audiences to see the main
ideas immediately.

Online Presentation Tools

Collaborative Presentation Tools

Google Presentation is a collaborative presentation tool that is part of the
Google Documents suite of applications. Google Presentation allows
presentations from PowerPoint and Keynote to be upload and edited within
the Google Presentation program. In addition, Google presentations can be
embedded on your webpage or in your online course. Google Presentation is
a collaborative tool and up to 20 people are able to collaborate
simultaneously creating presentations.
 Google Documents
10 Things to Know About Google Presentations - (More information)

Guide to Using Google Presentation

VoiceThread is a web-based application that allows users to quickly and
easily create a shared presentation of images, documents,and videos that
visitors can comment on in the form of voice (microphone), video/webcam
recording, phone call, audio file, or text. Commenters can also use a drawing
tool to draw on top of the media. The resulting group conversation can then
be shared with individuals and/or groups for playback. The application is
designed to be user-friendly and require minimum technical ability.
Voice Thread

Visual Aids
Using visual aids to represent your ideas are a great way to engage your audiences with your
presentation. Your thoughts and examples might get lost in a sea of text where audiences might
have a challenging time what to remember or take note of. Take some time to challenge yourself
with using visual aids such as images, videos, and illustrations.
Designing Presentations

Presentation skills can be defined as a set of abilities that enable an individual to: interact with
the audience; transmit the messages with clarity; engage the audience in the presentation; and
interpret and understand the mindsets of the listeners. These skills refine the way you put
forward your messages and enhance your persuasive powers.
 The present era places great emphasis on good presentation skills. This is because they play an
important role in convincing the clients and customers. Internally, management with good
presentation skills is better able to communicate the mission and vision of the organization to the
employees.

Importance of Presentation Skills

Interaction with others is a routine job of businesses in today’s world. The importance of good
presentation skills is established on the basis of following points:

 They help an individual in enhancing his own growth opportunities. In addition, it also grooms
the personality of the presenter and elevates his levels of confidence.

 In case of striking deals and gaining clients, it is essential for the business professionals to
understand the audience. Good presentation skills enable an individual to mold his message
according to the traits of the audience. This increases the probability of successful transmission
of messages.

 Lastly, business professionals have to arrange seminars and give presentations almost every day.
Having good presentation skills not only increases an individual’s chances of success, but also
enable him to add greatly to the organization.

How to Improve Presentation Skills

Development of good presentation skills requires efforts and hard work. To improve your
presentation skills, you must:

 Research the Audience before Presenting: This will enable you to better understand the traits
of the audience. You can then develop messages that can be better understood by your target
audience. For instance, in case of an analytical audience, you can add more facts and figures in
your presentation.

 Structure your Presentation Effectively: The best way to do this is to start with telling the
audience, in the introduction, what you are going to present. Follow this by presenting the idea,
and finish off the presentation by repeating the main points.

 Do a lot of Practice: Rehearse but do not go for memorizing the presentation. Rehearsals reduce
your anxiety and enable you to look confident on the presentation day. Make sure you practice
out loud, as it enables you to identify and eliminate errors more efficiently. Do not memorize
anything as it will make your presentation look mechanical. This can reduce the degree of
audience engagement.

Vocal effort
There are a number of instruments related to how we speak that we should be aware of how we
use and actively use.
Tempo
Talking in a fast tempo signals that what we’re saying is of low importance. Talking in a slow
tempo makes what we’re saying seem more important. It’s important to vary the tempo. Start
with a slow tempo to suppress nervousness. Use a high tempo for less important things and slow
down for important points and arguments.
Volume
Speaking with a high volume draws attention. Raise the volume for important things. However,
done right, lowering the volume suddenly can also be very effective to make what we’re saying
seem important. Begin presentations with a high volume. Vary the volume.
Pause
There are three types of pauses, pauses for effect, pause for thought and pause for breathing. Put
in pauses here and there in presentations. Underline key words/points by doing a pause for effect
first and a pause for thought afterwards. Put a pause for thought after all key points. Plan pauses
for effect.
Emphasis
Determines the value of what we’re saying. A good way to practice emphasizing is to read
children's books out loud.
Between sounds
Sounds such as “ehh…” should of course be avoided. A trick is to breath in whenever we feel
that such a sound is on it’s way to slip out.

Spicing
When we enter a meeting or attend a presentation we’re usually only able to stay fully focused
for the first three to ten minutes. Our concentration and ability to remember what is being said
then starts to slowly decline. It does so until about 30 minutes in to the presentation when it is
usually at 75%. After that the decline is much more rapid and it quickly reaches a very low level.
Therefor meetings and presentations shouldn’t be longer than 30 minutes. However, keeping
them that short often isn’t an option. Therefor we must try to find a way to fight the rapid
decline. Research has shown that by providing emotional stimulus every fourth minutes a
presenter or meeting organizer can stop the rapid decline that occurs after 30 minutes. There will
still be a steady decline, but it’s rate won’t be higher than it was for the first 30 minutes.
Therefor we should plan to emotionally stimulate attendants every fourth minute or so after
about 20 minutes in. Suitable stimulus is pretty much everything that was listed as examples
suitable for finales. That is pictures, films, stories or just about anything that sticks out from the
rest of the presentation/meeting.
PowerPoint usage
David gave a number of useful advice regarding the use of PowerPoint when giving
presentations. These included:

 The presenter should be in focus – Don’t be afraid to stand in front of the screen.
 98% of the presenter’s eye contact should be with the audience – Don’t look at the
screen.
 Keep the lights turned on – The audience can usually still see the screen and won’t fall
asleep.
 Don’t use a laser pointer – The presenter is the presentation.
 Only show the PowerPoint presentation when it’s actually needed – Start the
presentation with the PowerPoint presentation hidden.
 Use other tools as well – Writing on a white board stimulates discussions and questions
much better than a PowerPoint presentation.
 Precede the next slide – Don’t wait until a slide is visible to start talking about it. Otherwise
the presenter will spend the first few seconds reading it himself. Also, by first talking about
what’s on the next slide before showing it we can provide the audience with the right context
to view it in.

Design tips

 Have one, and only one, message per slide.

 No running text – The Human working memory is limited and we can only handle input
from one channel at a time. If we have slides with running text that we talk to it will cause a
conflict in the minds of the audience as they have to read and listen at the same time,
resulting in that they won’t absorb either type of input. Bullet points on the other hand is OK,
so replace running text with bullet points.
 Color IS information – Use color to clarify and emphasize. Avoid using red and green
though as they have special meanings.
 Use dark backgrounds to avoid being blinded – By using dark backgrounds the presenter
can stand in front of the projector and take center stage without being blinded by the bright
light from the projector.
 Use contrast to focus – Remove contrast from words or bullet points that we’ve already
talked about and use high contrast to make the audience focus on what is currently being
talked about.
 Size – Large objects attract the eye. The thing that’s most important should also be the
biggest thing on the slide.
 Have a maximum of six objects per slide – The human perceptive capability is drastically
decreased when it sees more than six objects. Use more slides with few objects instead of the
opposite.
 Images – Symbolism is key for us to remember things. Use images with high symbolic
value. Images with color is better than black and white images.
 Positioning – Emotionally stimulating things such as images should be located to the left and
logical things should be to the right in order to suite the wiring in our brains.
 Integration – Put things in their context. If you have a slide with an image and some bullet
points that describe the image, put the text inside the image with each bullet point next to
what it describes.
 Animations – Use animations very rarely and only when they actually are relevant.

Difference Between Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

April 2, 2015 By Surbhi S 11 Comments

Communication is a natural phenomenon,

it is an act of interacting with people and sharing information with them. Do you know, whether
you speak or not, it communicates the message to the other party. There are two types of
communication Verbal and Non-verbal. Verbal communication is a form of communication in
which you use words to interchange the information with other people either in the form of
speech or writing.

On the contrary, Nonverbal communication does not use words for communicating anything,

but some other modes are used, i.e. where communication takes place by way of unspoken or
unwritten messages such as body language, facial expressions, sign language and so forth. In this
article excerpt, we’ve broken down all the important differences between verbal and non-verbal
communication in detail.

Content: Verbal Communication Vs Nonverbal Communication

1. Comparison Chart
2. Definition
3. Key Differences
4. Video
5. Conclusion
Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR NON-VERBAL
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
COMPARISON COMMUNICATION

Meaning The communication in which the The communication that takes

sender uses words to transmit the place between sender and receiver
message to the receiver is known as with the use of signs is known as
verbal communication. non-verbal communication.

Types Formal and Informal Chronemics, Vocalics, Haptics,

Kinesics, Proxemics, Artifacts.

Time Consuming No Yes

Chances of Rarely happens. Happens most of the time.

transmission of
wrong message

Documentary Yes, in case of written No

Evidence communication.

Advantage The Message can be clearly Helpful in understanding emotions,

understood and immediate feedback status, lifestyle and feelings of the
is possible. sender.

Presence The message can be transmitted The personal presence of both the
through letters, phone calls, etc. so parties to communication is a must.
the personal presence of the parties,
doesn't make any change.

Definition of Verbal Communication

The communication in which the sender uses words, whether spoken or written, to transmit the
message to the receiver is known as Verbal  Communication. It is the most effective form of
communication that leads to the rapid interchange of information and feedback. There are fewer
chances of misunderstanding as the communication between parties is clear, i.e. the parties are
using words for saying anything.
The communication can be done in two ways (i) Oral – like face to face communication,
lectures, phone calls, seminars, etc. (ii) Written – Letters, E- mail, SMS, etc. There are two types
of communication, they are:

 Formal Communication: Also termed as official communication, it is a type of

communication in which the sender follows a pre-defined channel to transmit the
information to the receiver is known as formal communication.
 Informal Communication: Most commonly known as grapevine, the type of
communication in which the sender does not follow any pre-defined channels to transmit
the information is known as informal communication.

Definition of Nonverbal Communication

Non-verbal communication is based on the understanding of the parties to communication, as the

transmission of messages from the sender to receiver is wordless i.e. the communication uses
signs. So, if the receiver understands the message completely and proper feedback is given
afterwards, then the communication succeeds.

It complements the verbal communication many times, to understand the mindset and the status
of the of the parties, which is not spoken by them, but it is an act of understanding. The types of
Non-verbal communication are as under:
 Chronemics: The use of time in communication is chronemics, which speaks about the
personality of the sender / receiver like punctuality, the speed of speech, etc.
 Vocalics: The volume, tone of voice and pitch used by the sender for communicating a
message to the receiver is known as vocalics or paralanguage.
 Haptics: The use of touch in communication is the expression of feelings and emotions.
 Kinesics: It is the study of the body language of a person, i.e., gestures, postures, facial
expressions, etc.
 Proxemics: The distance maintained by a person while communicating with others,
communicates about the relationship of the person with others like intimate, personal,
social and public.
 Artifacts: The appearance of a person speaks about his personality, i.e. by way of
clothing, carrying jewellery, lifestyle, etc. This kind of communication is known as
artifactual communication.
Key Differences Between Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

The following points explain the difference between verbal and non-verbal communication in
detail:

1. The use of words in communication is Verbal communication. The communication which

is based on signs, not on words is Non-verbal communication.
2. There are very fewer chances of confusion in verbal communication between the sender
and receiver. Conversely, the chances of misunderstanding and confusion in non-verbal
communication are very much as the use of language is not done.
3. In verbal communication, the interchange of the message is very fast which leads to rapid
feedback. In opposition to this, the non-verbal communication is based more on
understanding which takes time and hence it is comparatively slow.
4. In verbal communication, the presence of both the parties at the place of communication
is not necessary, as it can also be done if the parties are at different locations. On the
other hand, for an effective non-verbal communication, both the parties must be there, at
the time of communication.
5. In verbal communication, the documentary evidence is maintained if the communication
is formal or written. But, there is no conclusive evidence  in case of non-verbal
communication.
6. Verbal communication fulfils the most natural desire of humans – talk. In the case of
Non-verbal communication, feelings, status, emotions, personality, etc are very easily
communicated, through the acts done by the parties to the communication.
Video
Conclusion

Verbal and Non-verbal communication are not contradictory to each other, but they are
complementary as somebody has rightly said, ” Actions are louder than words.” In short, both
goes side by side and helps a human being, to interact and respond to other human beings.

Verbal communication is obviously an important part of life as we use words to communicate.

But have you ever thought, that a small baby cannot use language or words to speak, but he
chooses signs to show his anger, happiness, and sorrow. Similarly, deaf and dumb persons also
use sign language for communicating with other people. So, this is the significance of Non-
verbal communication in many lives.

Differences Between Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

There are four fundamental differences between verbal and nonverbal communication. The first
difference between verbal and nonverbal communication is that we use a single channel (words)
when we communicate verbally versus multiple channels when we communicate nonverbally.
Try this exercise! Say your first and last name at the same time. You quickly find that this is an
impossible task. Now, pat the top of your head with your right hand, wave with your left hand,
smile, shrug your shoulders, and chew gum at the same time. While goofy and awkward, our
ability to do this demonstrates how we use multiple nonverbal channels simultaneously to
communicate.

In Chapter 2 we learned how difficult it can be to decode a sender’s single verbal message due to
the arbitrary, abstract, and ambiguous nature of language. But, think how much more difficult it
is to decode the even more ambiguous and multiple nonverbal signals we take in like eye
contact, facial expressions, body movements, clothing, personal artifacts, and tone of voice all at
the same time. Despite this difficulty, Motley found that we learn to decode nonverbal
communication as babies. Hall found that women are much better than men at accurately
interpreting the many nonverbal cues we send and receive (Gore). How we interpret these
nonverbal signals can also be influenced by our gender as the viewer.
  

How do you interpret this student’s n

How do you interpret this student’s nonverbals?
A second difference between verbal and nonverbal communication is that verbal communication
is distinct (linear) while nonverbal communication is continuous (in constant motion and
relative to context). Distinct means that messages have a clear beginning and end, and are
expressed in a linear fashion. We begin and end words and sentences in a linear way to make it
easier for others to follow and understand. If you pronounce the word “cat” you begin with the
letter “C” and proceed to finish with “T.” Continuous means that messages are ongoing and work
in relation to other nonverbal and verbal cues. Think about the difference between analog and
digital clocks. The analog clock represents nonverbal communication in that we generate
meaning by considering the relationship of the different arms to each another (context). Also, the
clock’s arms are in continuous motion. We notice the speed of their movement, their position in
the circle and to each other, and their relationship with the environment (is it day or night?).

Nonverbal communication is similar in that we evaluate nonverbal cues in relation to one another
and consider the context of the situation. Suppose you see your friend in the distance. She
approaches, waves, smiles, and says “hello.” To interpret the meaning of this, you focus on the
wave, smile, tone of voice, her approaching movement, and the verbal message. You might also
consider the time of day, if there is a pressing need to get to class, etc.
What might this driver be trying to convey?

Now contrast this to a digital clock, which functions like verbal communication. Unlike an
analog clock, a digital clock is not in constant motion. Instead, it replaces one number with
another to display time (its message). A digital clock uses one distinct channel (numbers) in a
linear fashion. When we use verbal communication, we do so like the digital clock. We say one
word at a time, in a linear fashion, to express meaning.

A third difference between verbal and nonverbal communication is that we use verbal
communication consciously while we generally use nonverbal communication unconsciously.
Conscious communication means that we think about our verbal communication before we
communicate. Unconscious communication means that we do not think about every nonverbal
message we communicate. If you ever heard the statement as a child, “Think before you speak”
you were being told a fundamental principle of verbal communication. Realistically, it’s nearly
impossible not to think before we speak. When we speak, we do so consciously and
intentionally. In contrast, when something funny happens, you probably do not think, “Okay, I’m
going to smile and laugh right now.” Instead, you react unconsciously, displaying your emotions
through these nonverbal behaviors. Nonverbal communication can occur as unconscious
reactions to situations. We are not claiming that all nonverbal communication is unconscious. At
times we certainly make conscious choices to use or withhold nonverbal communication to share
meaning. Angry drivers use many conscious nonverbal expressions to communicate to other
drivers! In a job interview you are making conscious decisions about your wardrobe, posture,
and eye contact.

Case In Point

Body language expert and author, Vanessa Van Edwards reveals some interesting facts about
body language in western culture in an interview with AM Northwest Today on September 18,
2013. She explains that men are not as good at reading body language cues as women because
they use different areas of their brain when decoding. She states, “women might be better at
reading body language because … [they] have 14 to 16 active brain areas while evaluating
others, whereas men only have 4 to 6 active.” Edwards also explains how men and women
nonverbally lie differently because they tend to lie for different reasons; “Men lie to appear more
powerful, interesting, and successful
A fourth difference between verbal and nonverbal communication is that some nonverbal
communication is universal (Hall, Chia, and Wang; Tracy & Robins). Verbal communication is
exclusive to the users of a particular language dialect, whereas some nonverbal communication is
recognized across cultures. Although cultures most certainly have particular meanings and uses
for nonverbal communication, there are universal nonverbal behaviors that almost everyone
recognizes. For instance, people around the world recognize and use expressions such as smiles,
frowns, and the pointing of a finger at an object.

Let us sum up the ways in which nonverbal communication is unique:

 Nonverbal communication uses multiple channels simultaneously.

 Nonverbal communication is continuous.
 Nonverbal communication can be both conscious and unconscious.
 Certain nonverbal communication is universally understood.

Now that you have a definition of nonverbal communication, and can identify the primary
differences between verbal and nonverbal communication, let’s examine what counts as
nonverbal communication. In this next section, we show you eight types of nonverbal
communication we use regularly: kinesics, haptics, appearance, proxemics, environment,
chronemics, paralanguage, and silence.

What is Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is the exchange of information that happens through words. The
termverbal refers to words. Therefore, verbal communication can be divided into oral
communication and written communication.
Oral communication can include face-to-face communication, lectures, phone calls, interviews,
etc. For example, two people who are talking to each other are engaged in oral communication.
Here, the speaker sends words, and the listener transmits the message; since there are two people
in this scenario, the roles of the speaker and listener get exchanged throughout the conversation.
Written communication can include instances like letters, postcards, memos, reports, notes,
emails, etc.
Verbal communication is the most effective form of communication and leads to prompt
interchange of ideas and information. As the communicator is using words, there is less chance
of misunderstanding. Verbal communication can be also categorized as formal and informal.
Formal communication is the exchange of information that takes place through a pre-defined
channel whereas informal communication is the exchange of information that takes place outside
a predefined channel.

What is Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is the exchange of information through wordless cues. Nonverbal
communication uses gestures, postures, facial expressions, eye contact, physical proximity,
touching, etc. There are specific terms that should be understood when studying nonverbal
communication. Given below are some of these terms and their meanings.

Verbal Communication Nonverbal Communication

It is the mode of communication in It is the mode of communication wh

which words are used by the sender to involves the use of sign language
convey ideas and information to the methods other than verbal, between two
Definition receiver more participants

Vocalics, Haptics, Chronemics, Kines

Types Formal and Informal Proxemics and Artifacts

Consumption of time Limited Extensive

 Chances of
miscommunication Less More

Possibility of  Yes. Verbal words can be written

documentation down Mostly gestures and no documentation

It makes instant feedback possible and Helps in understanding emotions, gestu

Advantage there is clarity in expressing thought and lifestyles more accurately

There are several modes through

which it is possible such as letters,
Modes telephone, email etc. No elaborate mode of conversation

Presence Presence of participants not required Presence of participants required

Verbal Communication
In this type of communication, the sender uses words, either through spoken means or written, in
order to communicate his thoughts to the receiver. It is the most effective and the most practiced
mode of conversation, which results in immediate interchange of thought and feedback. The
definite and clear usage of words leaves fewer chances of miscommunication between two
parties. It allows the sending of a clear message and facilitates immediate enquiry in case of any
obscurity.

Verbal communication transpires in two ways; a. Oral – This involves face-to-face conversation
which can take place through a phone call, lectures and seminars etc. b. Written – This includes
writing letters, emails, messages etc. Other than these there are two variations of
communications that need to be considered as well:

 Formal Conversation: This type of communication is used for mostly official purposes,

hence is also known as official communication. In formal communication usually a pre
defined medium, tone or format is followed in order to convey information.
 Informal Communication: In this form of communication the sender of the message does
not need to follow any pre defined format. Informal communication is most popularly
known as Grapevine. It also does not require the use of any definite channel is of a more
personal tone.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal Communication is a more complex form as it requires both parties to have a clear or
similar understanding of the subject in question. This is important as the communication between
parties is without the use of any words. Sign language and other methods are used in place of this
type of communication. Based on the understanding of the receiver, upon receiving the message,
feedback is then conveyed.
There are six primary types of nonverbal communication:

 Chronemics: Focuses on judging the use of time in the communication between parties. It

gives the impression of the personality of the sender or receiver in case of adeptness in
speech, punctuality patterns etc
 Vocalics: Also called paralanguage, the tonal difference in voice and pitch while the sender
communicates with the receiver. The difference and variation sends out a different message.
 Haptics: Involves the use of touch in communication feelings and emotions to a receiver.
 Kinesics: It is the use of body language of a person for communicating thoughts, for
example the use of gestures, postures and facial expressions etc.
 Proxemics: The distance between people gives an impression regarding the relationship
they share. Closeness could signify intimacy and attachment while distances could imply
discomfort or even animosity.
 Artifacts: The objects used for ornamentation of an individual’s appearance can send a
clear message regarding their personality, status or preferences. For example, modern
clothing, use of jewelry, lifestyles and habits etc.
Key Differences
 Verbal communication involves the use of words, whereas as nonverbal communication
involves the use of signs.
 There are less chances of any miscommunication occurring during the use of verbal
communication. In nonverbal communication there are more chances as there is no definite
mode of language.
 Verbal communication takes place in a faster pace and facilitates instant feedback. Whereas
in nonverbal communication depend on the understanding of the parties and hence is slower.
 It is not necessary for all parties to be present in verbal communication as it can be done
through means like SMS, email and phone call. In nonverbal communication, all parties
need to be present in order to perceive messages.
 There is the chance of documentation in verbal communication, through written means, but
no such chance in nonverbal communication.

What is a research proposal?

A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of your proposed research. It sets out the
central issues or questions that you intend to address. It outlines the general area of study within
which your research falls, referring to the current state of knowledge and any recent debates on
the topic. It also demonstrates the originality of your proposed research.

The proposal is the most important document that you submit as part of the application process.
It gives you an opportunity to demonstrate that you have the aptitude for graduate level research,
for example, by demonstrating that you have the ability to communicate complex ideas clearly,
concisely and critically. The proposal also helps us to match your research interest with an
appropriate supervisor.
What should you include in the proposal?
Regardless of whether you are applying for the MJur, MPhil or PhD programmes, your research
proposal should normally include the following information:

1. Title

This is just a tentative title for your intended research. You will be able to revise your title during
the course of your research if you are accepted for admission.

2. Abstract

The proposal should include a concise statement of your intended research of no more than 100
words. This may be a couple of sentences setting out the problem that you want to examine or
the central question that you wish to address.

3. Research Context

You should explain the broad background against which you will conduct your research. You
should include a brief overview of the general area of study within which your proposed research
falls, summarising the current state of knowledge and recent debates on the topic. This will allow
you to demonstrate a familiarity with the relevant field as well as the ability to communicate
clearly and concisely.

4. Research Questions

The proposal should set out the central aims and questions that will guide your research. Before
writing your proposal, you should take time to reflect on the key questions that you are seeking
to answer. Many research proposals are too broad, so reflecting on your key research questions is
a good way to make sure that your project is sufficiently narrow and feasible (i.e. one that is
likely to be completed with the normal period for a MJur, MPhil or PhD degree).

You might find it helpful to prioritize one or two main questions, from which you can then
derive a number of secondary research questions. The proposal should also explain your intended
approach to answering the questions: will your approach be empirical, doctrinal or theoretical
etc?

5. Research Methods

The proposal should outline your research methods, explaining how you are going to conduct
your research. Your methods may include visiting particular libraries or archives, field work or
interviews.
Most research is library-based. If your proposed research is library-based, you should explain
where your key resources (e.g. law reports, journal articles) are located (in the Law School’s
library, Westlaw etc). If you plan to conduct field work or collect empirical data, you should
provide details about this (e.g. if you plan interviews, who will you interview? How many
interviews will you conduct? Will there be problems of access?). This section should also
explain how you are going to analyse your research findings.

6. Significance of Research

The proposal should demonstrate the originality of your intended research. You should therefore
explain why your research is important (for example, by explaining how your research builds on
and adds to the current state of knowledge in the field or by setting out reasons why it is timely
to research your proposed topic).

7. Bibliography

The proposal should include a short bibliography identifying the most relevant works for your
topic.

How long should the proposal be?

The proposal should usually be around 2,500 words. It is important to bear in mind that specific
funding bodies might have different word limits.

Can the School comment on my draft proposal?

We recognise that you are likely still developing your research topic. We therefore recommend
that you contact a member of our staff with appropriate expertise to discuss your proposed
research. If there is a good fit between your proposed research and our research strengths, we
will give you advice on a draft of your research proposal before you make a formal application.
For details of our staff and there areas of expertise please visit our staff pages. 

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Research Proposal

The purpose of this guide is to provide advice on how to develop and organize a research paper
in the social sciences.
 Purpose of Guide
 Types of Research Designs
 1. Choosing a Research Problem
 2. Preparing to Write
 3. The Abstract
 4. The Introduction
 5. The Literature Review
 6. The Methodology
 7. The Results
 8. The Discussion
  9. The Conclusion
 10. Proofreading Your Paper
 11. Citing Sources

 Giving an Oral Presentation

 How to Manage Group Projects
 Writing a Book Review
 Writing a Case Study
 Writing a Field Report
 Writing a Policy Memo
 Writing a Research Proposal
 Acknowledgements
Definition
The goal of a research proposal is to present and justify the need to study a research problem and
to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. The design
elements and procedures for conducting the research are governed by standards within the
predominant discipline in which the problem resides, so guidelines for research proposals are
more exacting and less formal than a general project proposal. Research proposals contain
extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for the
proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology
for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field
and a statement on anticipated outcomes and/or benefits derived from the study's completion.

Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in

Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press,
2005.
How to Approach Writing a Research Proposal
Your professor may assign the task of writing a research proposal for the following
reasons:

 Develop your skills in thinking about and designing a comprehensive research study;
 Learn how to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature to ensure a research
problem has not already been answered [or you may determine the problem has been
answered ineffectively] and, in so doing, become better at locating scholarship related to
your topic;
 Improve your general research and writing skills;
 Practice identifying the logical steps that must be taken to accomplish one's research
goals;
 Critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and
analyzing data related to the research problem; and,
  Nurture a sense of inquisitiveness within yourself and to help see yourself as an active
participant in the process of doing scholarly research.

A proposal should contain all the key elements involved in designing a completed research
study, with sufficient information that allows readers to assess the validity and usefulness of your
proposed study. The only elements missing from a research proposal are the findings of the study
and your analysis of those results. Finally, an effective proposal is judged on the quality of your
writing and, therefore, it is important that your writing is coherent, clear, and compelling.
Regardless of the research problem you are investigating and the methodology you choose,
all research proposals must address the following questions:

1. What do you plan to accomplish? Be clear and succinct in defining the research
problem and what it is you are proposing to research.
2. Why do you want to do it? In addition to detailing your research design, you also must
conduct a thorough review of the literature and provide convincing evidence that it is a
topic worthy of study. Be sure to answer the "So What?" question.
3. How are you going to do it? Be sure that what you propose is doable. If you're having
trouble formulating a research problem to propose investigating, go here.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

 Failure to be concise; being "all over the map" without a clear sense of purpose.
 Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review.
 Failure to delimit the contextual boundaries of your research [e.g., time, place, people,
etc.].
 Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
 Failure to stay focused on the research problem; going off on unrelated tangents.
 Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar.
 Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.

Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal.  The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre.
University of Toronto; Sanford, Keith. Information for Students: Writing a Research Proposal.
Baylor University; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. International Network
on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences,
Articles, and Books. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research
Proposal. University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Structure and Writing Style
Beginning the Proposal Process
As with writing a regular academic paper, research proposals are generally organized the same
way throughout most social science disciplines. Proposals vary between ten and twenty-five
pages in length. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems
unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and
writing the proposal.
A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions:

 What do I want to study?

 Why is the topic important?
 How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
 What problems will it help solve?
 How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the
topic?
 What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?

In general, a compelling research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and
demonstrate your enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving
your readers feeling like--"Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"

In general your proposal should include the following sections:

I.  Introduction
In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars
seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a
doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial
pitch of an idea or a thorough examination of the significance of a research problem. After
reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an understanding of what you want
to do, but they should also be able to gain a sense of your passion for the topic and be excited
about the study's possible outcomes. Note that most proposals do not include an abstract
[summary] before the introduction.
Think about your introduction as a narrative written in one to three paragraphs that
succinctly answers the following four questions:

1. What is the central research problem?

2. What is the topic of study related to that problem?
3. What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
4. Why is this important research, what is its significance, and why should someone reading
the proposal care about the outcomes of the proposed study?

II.  Background and Significance

This section can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help
with the organization and narrative flow of your proposal. This is where you explain the context
of your proposal and describe in detail why it's important. Approach writing this section with the
thought that you can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you
do. Note that this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the topic;
instead, you must choose what is relevant to help explain the goals for your study.
To that end, while there are no hard and fast rules, you should attempt to address some or
all of the following key points:

 State the research problem and give a more detailed explanation about the purpose of the
study than what you stated in the introduction. This is particularly important if the
problem is complex or multifaceted.
 Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing.
Answer the "So What? question [i.e., why should anyone care].
 Describe the major issues or problems to be addressed by your research. Be sure to note
how your proposed study builds on previous assumptions about the research problem.
 Explain how you plan to go about conducting your research. Clearly identify the key
sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to your analysis of the
topic.
 Set the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. Where
appropriate, state not only what you will study, but what is excluded from the study.
 If necessary, provide definitions of key concepts or terms.

III.  Literature Review

Connected to the background and significance of your study is a section of your proposal
devoted to a more deliberate review and synthesis of prior studies related to the research
problem under investigation. The purpose here is to place your project within the larger whole
of what is currently being explored, while demonstrating to your readers that your work is
original and innovative. Think about what questions other researchers have asked, what methods
they have used, and what is your understanding of their findings and, where stated, their
recommendations. Do not be afraid to challenge the conclusions of prior research. Assess what
you believe is missing and state how previous research has failed to adequately examine the
issue that your study addresses. For more information on writing literature reviews, GO HERE.
Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently
structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your study in relation to
that of other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into "conceptual categories"
[themes] rather than systematically describing groups of materials one at a time. Note
that conceptual categories generally reveal themselves after you have read most of the pertinent
literature on your topic so adding new categories is an on-going process of discovery as you read
more studies. How do you know you've covered the key conceptual categories underlying the
research literature? Generally, you can have confidence that all of the significant conceptual
categories have been identified if you start to see repetition in the conclusions or
recommendations that are being made.
To help frame your proposal's literature review, here are the "five C’s" of writing a
literature review:

1. Cite, so as to keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
2. Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the
literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the
research problem?
3. Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches, and controversies
expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or
debate?
4. Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which
approaches, findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why?
Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts,
demonstrates, argues, etc.].
5. Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your
own work draw upon, depart from, synthesize, or add a new perspective to what has been
said in the literature?

IV.  Research Design and Methods

This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually
doing the research, yet, your reader must have confidence that it is worth pursuing. The
reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your methodological
choices were the correct ones. Thus, the objective here is to convince the reader that your overall
research design and methods of analysis will correctly address the problem and that the methods
will provide the means to effectively interpret the potential results. Your design and methods
should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.
Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review
of the literature. Consider not only methods that other researchers have used but methods of data
gathering that have not been used but perhaps could be. Be specific about the methodological
approaches you plan to undertake to obtain information, the techniques you would use to analyze
the data, and the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness
by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, events, and/or periods of
time].
When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover the following:

 Specify the research operations you will undertake and the way you will interpret the
results of these operations in relation to the research problem. Don't just describe what
you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will
spend your time while applying these methods [e.g., coding text from interviews to find
statements about the need to change school curriculum; running a regression to determine
if there is a relationship between campaign advertising on social media sites and election
outcomes in Europe].
  Keep in mind that a methodology is not just a list of tasks; it is an argument as to why
these tasks add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an
important point because the mere listing of tasks to be performed does not demonstrate
that, collectively, they effectively address the research problem. Be sure you explain this.
 Anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out your
research design and explain how you plan to address them. No method is perfect so you
need to describe where you believe challenges may exist in obtaining data or accessing
information. It's always better to acknowledge this than to have it brought up by your
reader.

V.  Preliminary Suppositions and Implications

Just because you don't have to actually conduct the study and analyze the results, doesn't
mean you can skip talking about the analytical process and potential implications. The
purpose of this section is to argue how and in what ways you believe your research will refine,
revise, or extend existing knowledge in the subject area under investigation. Depending on the
aims and objectives of your study, describe how the anticipated results will impact future
scholarly research, theory, practice, forms of interventions, or policymaking. Note that such
discussions may have either substantive [a potential new policy], theoretical [a potential new
understanding], or methodological [a potential new way of analyzing] significance.
 
When thinking about the potential implications of your study, ask the following questions:

 What might the results mean in regards to the theoretical framework that underpins the
study?
 What suggestions for subsequent research could arise from the potential outcomes of the
study?
 What will the results mean to practitioners in the natural settings of their workplace?
 Will the results influence programs, methods, and/or forms of intervention?
 How might the results contribute to the solution of social, economic, or other types of
problems?
 Will the results influence policy decisions?
 In what way do individuals or groups benefit should your study be pursued?
 What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
 How will the results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come about?

NOTE:  This section should not delve into idle speculation, opinion, or be formulated on the
basis of unclear evidence. The purpose is to reflect upon gaps or understudied areas of the
current literature and describe how your proposed research contributes to a new understanding of
the research problem should the study be implemented as designed.

VI.  Conclusion
The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a
brief summary of the entire study. This section should be only one or two paragraphs long,
emphasizing why the research problem is worth investigating, why your research study is
unique, and how it should advance existing knowledge.
Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of:

 Why the study should be done,

 The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempts to answer,
 The decision to why the research design and methods used where chosen over other
options,
 The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem,
and
 A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research problem.

VII.  Citations
As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used in composing your
proposal. In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so consult with your
professor about which one is preferred.

1. References -- lists only the literature that you actually used or cited in your proposal.
2. Bibliography -- lists everything you used or cited in your proposal, with additional
citations to any key sources relevant to understanding the research problem.

In either case, this section should testify to the fact that you did enough preparatory work to
make sure the project will complement and not duplicate the efforts of other researchers. Start a
new page and use the heading "References" or "Bibliography" centered at the top of the page.
Cited works should always use a standard format that follows the writing style advised by the
discipline of your course [i.e., education=APA; history=Chicago, etc] or that is preferred by your
professor. This section normally does not count towards the total page length of your research
proposal.