KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TERM PAPER ON

Distribution of Natural Gas and Geopolitics; Its effect in possibility for abiding

with SDG mandates

Ashutosh Dev [026095-19]

July 2022
 DECLARATION STATEMENT

I hereby declare that the case study entitled " Distribution of Natural Gas and geopolitics;
Its effect in possibility for abiding with SDG mandates” submitted at Kathmandu
University, Dhulikhel, is an authentic work and has not been submitted elsewhere.

I understand that the work presented herewith is in direct compliance with Kathmandu
University’s Policy on plagiarism, intellectual property rights, and highest standards of moral
and ethical conduct. Therefore, to the best of my knowledge, the content of this case study
represents authentic and honest effort conducted, in its entirety, by me. I am fully responsible
for the contents of my term paper.

Ashutosh Dev
ME-II-E-06

I
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................II

LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................III

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................IV

LIST OF SYMBOLS.....................................................................................................V

CHAPTER 1 NATURAL GAS AND GEOPOLITICS..................................................1

1.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................1
1.2 Natural gas Distribution and Geopolitics..............................................................3

CHAPTER 2 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND NATURAL GAS...6

2.1 Natural Gas and SDG............................................................................................6

2.2 Possibility of Natural gas to abide with each SDG mandates...............................9
2.3 Criticism of SDGs and divergence of interests for different Countries..............11

CHAPTER 3 CONCLUSION.......................................................................................12

CHAPTER 4 REFERENCES.......................................................................................14

II
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Distribution of Natural Gas...........................................................................2

Figure 2.1 Natural Gas growth prosoects (BP, 2017a)

III
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 2040 Energy Forecast Comparision....................................................................9

Table 3.1 Possibility of Natural gas to abide with each SDG mandates...............................13

IV
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

IEA Improved Cooking Gas

LPG Liquid Petroleum Gas
EIA Synthetic Natural Gas
SDG Sustainable Development Goals
GECF Gas Exporting Countries Forum 
LNG Liquefied Natural gas
GDP Gross domestic product
IGU International Gas Union
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
NG Natural Gas
WHO World Health Organization
BP British Petroleum

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 CHAPTER 1
NATURAL GAS AND GEOPOLITICS
1.1 Introduction

For decades, energy geopolitics was mainly associated with oil and gas geopolitics. The focus
on how oil and gas shape the way states develop, interact with one another, form alliances and
wage war has made a certain amount of sense. Oil and gas account for more than half of
global energy consumption and about 70% of total energy supply investment from 2000 to
2015 [1]. The world's transportation systems, and thus national economies, are nearly entirely
dependent on oil supplies. However, both geopolitics and the global energy economy are
shifting. The classic definition of geopolitics is the impact of geography on state international
relations. However, in recent years, the significance of non-state players in international
relations has expanded and become more widely acknowledged. Leaders and politicians are
becoming increasingly preoccupied with transnational dangers that offer difficulties to
numerous countries and span boundaries; major examples being climate change. At the same
time, many of the concerns of earlier decades have resurfaced in recent years, as challenges
have mounted to the international order that has been predominant since the end of World War
II.

Meanwhile, solar and wind power costs have plummeted, allowing renewable energy to make
substantial inroads into the global energy mix [1]. International tensions have arisen as a result
of cross-border renewable energy commerce, notably solar trade disputes between the
European Union and China, as well as the United States and India. Renewable energy
investment is transcending international borders and, in some situations, outpacing fossil
energy investment. Investing in huge renewable energy projects around the world, such as
Google's investment in Kenya's Lake Turkana Wind Power Project (when finished, Africa's
largest wind farm and the largest single private investment in Kenya's history) [1] through
distributed renewable energy is assisting in the fight against energy poverty. More than a
million households in India benefit from solar energy, with over 10,000 isolated communities
obtaining basic electricity solely from distributed renewable power.

Scenarios for forecasting begin with assumptions about technology, policy, and other
themes like world growth and population. The forecast scenarios examined in this paper use
various assumptions about renewables' penetration in the future energy mix, resulting from

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various sets of assumptions about policy, technical change, future economic, population
growth, and other factors. Each forecast is based on a different set of assumptions about
policy, technological change, and other matters. The forecast of IEA and BP are articulated in
this paper. The reference case forecasting scenarios reviewed project a 4-7 percentage point
shift from fossil fuels to renewables in the next 15-25 years [2]. IEA’s main scenario, the New
Policies Scenario, forecasts that the share of renewables, including biomass, biofuel and
hydroelectricity, in the energy mix will grow from 14.2% in 2014 to 19.3% in 2040 [2]. In
contrast, the EIA’s reference case forecasts growth from 12.2% in 2015 to 16.1% in 2040 [2].

Table 1. 2040 Energy forecast Comparison

There are multiple variances in the forecast, despite these variances, one feature of these
forecasts is noteworthy for the purposes of this paper. While all prediction scenarios show an
increase in renewable energy, none predict a revolution in renewable energy use. None of their
"best estimate" or reference case scenarios show renewable energy usage topping consumption

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of any fossil fuel (oil, natural gas, or coal) in the next several decades. So, greater aspects of
natural gas are articulated with its implications to abide with the SDG.
1.2 Distribution of Natural Gas and Geopolitics.

According to the IEA, global energy demand increased by 2.3 percent in 2018, with natural
gas consumption accounting for approximately 45 percent of total energy demand growth [2].
Natural gas demand increased by 4.6 percent in 2018. Natural gas currently accounts for
around 22 percent of the global energy mix and, according to the GECF, will account for 26
percent by 2040 [2]. Natural gas is important in many sectors of today's economy, including
power generation, industrial, commercial, and residential applications. Furthermore, due to
increased LNG capacity and small-scale LNG, gas is becoming more available to customers in
many places. Today's technologies enable developments such as floating gas-powered power
plants and floating terminals for natural gas liquefaction and regasification. All of this makes
connecting to on-shore infrastructure much easy and speeds up LNG construction. According
to GECF projections, LNG commerce will account for around 45 percent of worldwide gas
trade by 2040 [2].

Due to expanding population and GDP growth, the Asia-Pacific area is seen as a major source
of growth in natural gas demand, with increased emphasis on air quality and environmental
challenges.

Figure 1. Distribution of Natural Gas

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According to IEA projections, the Asia-Pacific area will account for more than half of overall
growth in natural gas consumption over the next five years, with China alone accounting for
42% of worldwide demand growth and 74% of growth in Asia [3]. Depending on
geographical, political, economic, and environmental circumstances, there are prospects for
pipeline and LNG expansion throughout the Asian region. A rising number of Asian countries
have expressed interest in establishing LNG facilities in order to boost the proportion of gas in
their energy mix [3].

Geopolitical issues are unavoidable as natural gas trading spread across national and regional
borders. After many years of national and regional development, the natural gas business is
maturing as a worldwide sector. Not long ago, the international natural gas sector was
geographically separated into distinct regional markets: the United States, South America, and
Europe, which were mostly supplied by pipelines, and Asia, which was supplied by LNG [3].
The prospect of converging gas prices appeared on the horizon with the impending growth of
LNG imports in the US and Europe, but did not materialize, illustrating that the natural gas
industry has its own features and dynamics.

Globally, the rapid liberalization of economies around the world has shaped international
economic relations in recent decades. The rapid integration of huge countries such as China,
India, and Brazil into the global economy created new growth and power centers. Their fast
economic growth translated into robust demand for energy, whereas growth in demand for gas
in conventional consumer markets is driven primarily by the power industry. Certain
governments and analysts seemed to have overlooked the importance of natural gas as a low-
carbon fuel until recently [4]. Gas, along with other fossil fuels, has a drastically decreased
role in several low-carbon emission scenarios. Although many countries perceive the benefits
of growing natural gas's involvement in the fossil fuel mix, governments are skeptical and find
it difficult to incorporate natural gas into their long-term energy policy [4]. In this case, both
supply security concerns and climate change initiatives have worked against natural gas's
appeal. The availability of a significantly broader resource base as a result of unconventional
gas projects has yet to structurally impact their perspective. The uncertainties over future
demand and the place of gas in the energy mix (as a result of climate change, among other
factors) are affecting the gas business [4]. Today, energy, and certainly natural gas, plays an

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important role on the international geopolitical stage, and its role is likely to become even
more intense [4]. A more demanding international governance model is needed if there is to be
effective co-operation between a wide variety of ownership models – including those in the
natural gas sector – created by differences in domestic, regional, and global organization of
the state and the economy.

There are few international organizations that deal specifically with natural gas. The GECF
organizes natural gas producing and exporting countries, whereas the IGU is a
nongovernmental organization that represents both producing and consuming countries' firms
and branch organizations [5]. Companies of every sort of ownership structure, as well as
domestic and international operational firms, are included. Other organizations, including the
IEF and the IEA, directly address gas issues [5]. The emergence of unconventional gas as an
indigenous source of supply in other parts of the world (and potentially later, gas hydrates,
given Japan and Korea's programs) could reduce international gas trade potential and temper
any concerns about geopolitical leverage around gas imports, but it could also deprive gas-
exporting countries of an important source of income [5]. The growth of more state capitalist
structures in the global economy, as well as the debate over the success or failure of the liberal
economic model, provide a geopolitical and geoeconomics challenge to contemporary
multilateral institutions. Not all geostrategic players share the same vision of the role of state
in the economy, as a regulator of private interests or owner of crucial sectors. The model that
comes out trumps will dominate the mores of the system for several decades to come.

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 CHAPTER 2
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND NATURAL GAS

2.1 Sustainable Development Goals and Natural Gas.

The United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution in 2015 titled "Transforming Our
World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" (United Nations, 2015) [5]. All 17
SDGs are linked in some way to rising energy consumption, and there is ongoing debate about
which energy sources are most effective for SDG achievement (World Health Organization,
2018). Together with the Paris Agreement, the Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7) to
ensure access to affordable, dependable, sustainable, and modern energy for all sets a very
clear aim for countries toward a clean energy future [6]. Renewables are the world's fastest
growing energy source, although fossil fuels continue to dominate energy forecasts. Natural
gas emits 25-30% and 40-45 percent less CO 2 per joule delivered than oil and coal,
respectively [3]. Reducing CO2 emissions by switching from coal to natural gas power stations
is a critical method for supporting climate-stabilization routes. Natural gas is viewed as a
bridge fuel for attaining SDG7 and the Paris Agreement [6].

Natural gas plays a beneficial impact in SDG implementation, according to all researchers
(Averchenkova et al., 2017; Bylin et al., 2016; Krupnick et al., 2014; Shields, 2016) [7]. Most
analysts think that the ability to deliver economically efficient development of vast
internationally dispersed natural gas deposits is the foundation of the future energy sector.
This resource base represents a new prospect for domestic and global economic growth, as
well as a shift in fuel preferences in many industries. The ways the gas sector may contribute
to SDGs implementation are described in works (Alloisio et al., 2017; Cutter et al., 2015;
Lahn and Bradley, 2016; Sinclair, 2018; Sullivan, 2017;) [7]. Furthermore, gender equality is
linked to natural gas (Cutter et al., 2015). The role of natural gas in geopolitics is underlined
(Rice University's Baker Institute for Public Policy, 2004) [8]. Gas is delivered over large
distances for consumption in a variety of economic industries. The growing importance of
natural gas imports in the modern economy will encourage novel approaches to energy supply
security. The increasing partnerships between big gas suppliers and major gas consuming
countries will result in new geopolitical efforts reaching the highest levels of economic and
security policy [8]. Sinclair (2018)'s paper plainly states the transition from coal and oil to
natural gas.

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The economy has a significant impact on people's lives, and it is well understood how energy
resources affect it. The increased use of natural gas is related with economic growth. Natural
gas is one of the most affordable resources. Natural gas capital intensity is $ 1,023, whereas
solar power capital intensity is $ 3,873 for the same quantity of energy (per 1 MW) (U.S.
Department of Energy, 2018) [7]. This is despite the fact that we lose 6 million hectares of
arable land each year, which is the foundation for the production of food resources [5]. Our
everyday lives rely on dependable and inexpensive energy services, as well as continuous
operation and equitable access to energy resources. One in every five individuals on the planet
does not have access to power. Every year, more than 4 million people die as a result of indoor
air pollution caused by the use of wood, charcoal, dung, and coal for cooking and household
heating [6].

The solution to these problems is to use natural gas since it gives a reliable and uninterrupted
supply of energy (energy security). Remaining technically recoverable resources of traditional
gas are enough for 300 years (with the current level of gas extraction) [6]. Pipeline natural gas
ensures sustainable gas supplies in the long term. Natural gas is the most promising energy
source. Natural gas consumption is expected to increase in all sectors, and the consumption of
coal and oil is expected to decrease. And finally, the energy return on investment for different
energy sources, i.e., the ratio of usable (useful) energy produced from a particular energy
source to the amount of energy expended to obtain that energy resource, is in favor of natural
gas.

It is evident that using natural gas for heating results in lesser CO 2 emissions, and using gas
for electricity results in the smallest "carbon footprint" [6]. The little impact on ecosystems
characterizes gas generation. The goal of the paper is to objectively compare natural gas to
other energy sources by analyzing gas's contribution to each SDG (Table 2). The objective
view of natural gas utilization reveals social dimensions of sustainable development. In
today’s world, the total area of cities constitutes only 3% of the Earth’s land, but they account
for 60-80% of energy consumption and 75% of carbon dioxide emissions [8]. “Carbon
footprint” of gas engine transport (CNG) is lower in comparison with the transport running on
oil fuels in comparison with electric cars, CNG has advantages with a significant percentage
of coal in the energy mix. Gas infrastructure development greatly contributes to air cleanliness
[8].

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This issue is particularly pressing in China and India. To achieve the SDG 3 (good health and
well-being), coal power plants should be closed and electric generation with the use of natural
gas should be developed.

Figure 2. Natural gas – growth prospects (BP, 2017a)

To achieve the SDG 3 (good health and well-being), coal power plants should be closed and
electric generation with the use of natural gas should be developed. Figure 2 provides data in
terms of the sources on the example of NG demands (BP; 2017a) [6]. Smog in cities is a very
serious social problem. Today, 50 % of the world population, i.e., 3.5 billion people, live in
the cities [8]. In 2014, 9 out of 10 people who lived in cities breathed the air that did not meet
the safety standards set by the WHO, “Toxic footprint” in gasoline production is 7 times
higher than for the CNG lifecycle [8]. These are the problem which can be countered by use of
NG in various fields and in various ways

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 2.2 Possibility of Natural gas to abide with each SDG mandates.

SDG Sustainable development goal Possibility of Natural gas to abide with each SDG mandates
No. mandates.
1. End poverty in all its forms Nearly 2.2 billion people live below the poverty line. Natural gas is one of the
everywhere cheapest and most affordable energy resources [5].
2. End hunger, achieve food security Generation from gas uses land and other resources rationally. Natural gas can be
and improve nutrition, promote used for food synthesis.
sustainable agriculture
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote Air pollution poses the greatest threat to human health. The use of natural gas is
well-being for all at all ages characterized by a minimal impact on health. [6]
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable Sustainable economy and human health, which natural gas can ensure, promote the
quality education and promote growth of education and improvement of its quality.
lifelong learning opportunities for
all
5. Achieve gender equality and Natural gas architecture being cheap and universal; creation of an economic basis
empower all women and girl for the implementation of gender equality should become one of the most
important goals [7],
6. Ensure availability and sustainable Freshwater accounts for only 3% of all the world’s water reserve it is exhaustible
management of water and natural resource. Generation from gas is characterized by minimum consumption
sanitation for all of clean water (0.7 m3 /MW/h) [2]
7. Ensure access to affordable, Natural gas means sustainable gas supplies in the long term the safe and
reliable, sustainable and modern continuous supply of energy (energy security).
energy for all
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and Gas industry means a responsible employer who provides local employment,
sustainable economic growth, full decent payment, helps to raise the level of employees’ education.
and productive employment and
decent work for all
9. Build resilient infrastructure, Natural gas is the basic element of the transition to low-carbon development. It
promote inclusive and sustainable serves as a driver of innovation in other industries.
industrialization and foster
innovation

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10. Reduce inequality within and Fairness to convenient and affordable energy source reduces the level of inequality
among countries within and among countries.
11. Make cities and human (CNG) carbon footprint is lower in comparison with the transport running on oil
settlements inclusive, safe, motor fuels. In comparison with electric cars, CNG has advantages with a
resilient and sustainable significant percentage of coal in the energy mix. [6]
12. Ensure sustainable consumption In energy terms, generation from gas is more efficient than from renewable energy.
and production pattern It is characterized by the lowest materials and valuable chemical elements
consumption.
13. Take urgent action to combat Production of heat from natural gas is accompanied by fewer emissions of CO2.
climate change and its impacts Generation from gas is characterized by the lowest “carbon footprint.”
14. Conserve and sustainably use the More than 3 billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity. 16% of
oceans, seas and marine resources ecosystems were classified in categories of “high” or “highest” risk of
for sustainable development. eutrophication of coastal waters. NG usage means less emissions.
15. Protect, restore and promote Generation from gas is characterized by the minimal impact on ecosystems.
sustainable use of forests, combat
desertification, and halt and
reverse land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive Peaceful and open society may exist only where there is access to the source of
societies for sustainable energy in the form of natural gas. If available, it reduces tensions in society.
development, provide access to
justice for all and build effective,
accountable and inclusive
institutions at all levels
17. Strengthen the means of Natural gas and global partnership are closely related. A clear example is the Nord
implementation and revitalize the stream gas transmission system.
global partnership for sustainable
development

Table 2. Possibility of Natural gas to abide with each SDG mandates

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2.3 Criticism of SDGs and Geopolitical status of Natural gas and its possibility to
abide with each SDG mandates.

According to van Veen, there are five types of countries in terms of SDG implementation [6].
First, there are countries that have mostly taken care of their own affairs. The SDGs'
universality primarily entails them mobilizing their NG resources in favor of progress abroad.
Second, there are countries that have a more modest domestic track record on most SDGs but
are moving in a progressive direction over time. Third, there are countries whose foreign
actions have significant negative spillover effects on the condition of the SDGs abroad.
Fourth, there are countries that have a rather poor domestic track record on most SDGs but
display a development focus and dedicate (some) resources to their achievement. Fifth, there
are countries with a severely poor domestic track record on the majority of SDGs; their
governments have mostly displayed a mix of low interest and insufficient financial allocation
toward their achievement.

Van Veen recommends turning a universal principle into a set of diverse solutions directed at
different types of countries premature [6]. The SDGs have been accused for being
paradoxical, because they want high levels of global GDP growth while undermining their
own environmental goals [6]. Developing countries seem to think that the more goals there
are, the more aid money they will receive. They are wrong. The SDGs are unfeasibly
expensive. Meeting them would cost $2 trillion-$3 trillion a year of public and private money
over 15 years. That is roughly 15% of annual global savings, or 4% of world GDP. At the
moment, Western governments promise to provide 0.7% of GDP in aid, and in fact stump up
only about a third of that. Planning to spend many times the amount that countries fail to give
today is pure fantasy [6].

Another point advanced by opponents is that Natural Gas (NG) supply sustainability is
inextricably tied to political stability. As the world's population grows and competition for
resources intensifies, there is an increased chance that these countries could encounter
domestic instability or be pushed into international conflicts. Furthermore, The Economist
Intelligence Unit's Energy Sustainability Index (created in collaboration with the Barilla
Center for Gas) illustrates how unsustainable use of resources is a concern across much of the
world and might be a source of conflict between states [7]. Conflicts over resources, Natural

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Gas, can cause conflicts between states. NG supply chains are becoming more worldwide, and
countries’ Socio-Economic status is becoming increasingly interconnected. The Stockholm
Environment Institute has launched a new international initiative to explore how linkages
between politics, trade, resource exploitation, and environmental science affect sustainable
development goals [6]. Historical data reveals that every global goal based on a multilateral
agreement, such as the SDGs, requires a favorable geopolitical context as well as the
commitment of each contracting party to fulfill these goals, which is far from reality today [6].

CHAPTER 3 CONCLUSION

Natural gas as an energy source has a substantial positive impact on the UN General
Assembly's adoption of the SDGs in 2015. Eradication of poverty and hunger, as well as
health and longevity maintenance related with a favorable environment, can be accomplished
considerably more quickly if natural gas is used more widely. The sustainable economy and
well health of people that natural gas can provide contribute to the expansion and
enhancement of education. Gender equality challenges are also linked to the building of an
economic foundation favorable to equality. The usage of natural gas has the ability to address
two of the most significant SDGs: 6 and 7 (access to water and energy resources).

Natural gas is the solution because it delivers a consistent and uninterrupted supply of energy
(energy security), and pipeline natural gas ensures long-term supply stability. Equal access to
easy and affordable energy sources diminishes inequalities both within and across countries
(SDGs 9 and 10). Cities now house 50 percent of the world's population, or 3.5 billion people.
In 2014, 9 out of 10 persons living in cities breathed air that did not satisfy WHO safety
guidelines (SDG 11), owing primarily to emissions. which is first of all due to transport
emissions. “Toxic footprint” in gasoline production is 7 times higher than for the CNG
lifecycle. “Carbon footprint” of gas engine transport is lower in comparison with the transport
running on oil motor fuels.

In 2030, the globe will require 40% more water, 50% more food, and 40% more energy. It is
critical to practice responsible production and consumption. Natural gas consumption is
distinguished by negligible energy loss (SDG 12). In terms of energy efficiency, gas

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generation is orders of magnitude more efficient than renewable energy since it consumes the
least amount of material and precious chemical elements. The primary benefit of natural gas in
meeting the SDGs is the dramatic solution to SDG 13: Take immediate action to combat
climate change and its consequences. Natural gas heat production results in fewer CO2
emissions, and gases generation has the smallest "carbon footprint." Marine and coastal
biodiversity supports around 3 billion people. 16 percent of ecosystems were identified as
having a "high" or "highest" risk of coastal eutrophication. The little impact on ecosystems
characterizes gas generation (SDGs 14 and 15). A peaceful and open society can thrive only
where natural gas is available as a source of energy (SDG 16). It decreases societal tensions if
it is available. Natural gas and global cooperation are inextricably linked (SDG 17). The Nord
Stream gas transportation system is a prime example. Overall, the analysis has proven that
natural gas is the best energy source and, in addition, a valuable raw resource for obtaining
materials; all of this contributes to the solution of global problems and the achievement of the
SDGs.

The challenge for all parties will be to devise new forms of international collaboration to meet
future difficulties. The SDGs seek to alleviate these difficulties by safeguarding the
environment and improving people's livelihoods in their home nations. However,
accomplishing them will necessitate far more responsible governance and a much greater
social agreement, as well as a fundamental shift in mindset, from one of competitiveness to
one of collaboration. Furthermore, as advocated by Federico Zindato [8], a comprehensive
methodology should consider the presence and interactions of two parallel and inextricably
linked routes. One requires a local action, while the other requires a global action, since there
would be little progress without a common plan, but no long-term effects without a local
action, sometimes known as a mental shift.

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 CHAPTER 4 REFERENCES

[1]. E. James-ikpeme, “The Role of Natural Gas in Achieving Sustainable Development

Goals by 2030,” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2020, doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3640883.

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Publication/2019/Jan/Global_commission_geopolitics_new_world_2019.pdf
[3]. “THE FUTURE OF NATURAL GAS.” Accessed: Jul. 26, 2022. [Online]. Available:
https://www.iai.it/sites/default/files/iai-ocp_gas.pdf
[4]. M. O'sullivan, “The Geopolitics of Energy Project The Geopolitics of Natural Gas,”
2012. [Online].Available:https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/legacy/files/The
%20Geopolitics%20of%20Natural%20Gas.pdf
[5]. “Accelerating action An SDG Roadmap for the oil and gas sector,” 2021. Accessed: Jul.
26, 2022. [Online].Available: https://www.wbcsd.org/contentwbc/download/11900/178800/1

[6]. A. Bricout, R. Slade, I. Staffell, and K. Halttunen, “From the geopolitics of oil and gas to
the geopolitics of the energy transition: Is there a role for Europeansupermajors?,” Energy
Research & Social Science, vol. 88, p. 102634, Jun. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.erss.2022.102634.

‌[7]. M. Hafner and S. Tagliapietra, “The Global Energy Transition: A Review of the Existing
Literature,” The Geopolitics of the Global Energy Transition, pp. 1–24, 2020, doi:
10.1007/978-3-030-39066-2_1.

[8]. M. Hafner and S. Tagliapietra, “The Global Energy Transition: A Review of the Existing
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10.1007/978-3-030-39066-2_1.

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