Expert Systems with Applications 36 (2009) 9776–9783

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Expert Systems with Applications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/eswa

An automotive generator fault diagnosis system using discrete wavelet

transform and artificial neural network
Jian-Da Wu *, Jun-Ming Kuo
Graduate Institute of Vehicle Engineering, National Changhua University of Education, 1 Jin-De Rd., Changhua City, Changhua 500, Taiwan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: This paper describes a fault diagnosis system for automotive generators using discrete wavelet transform
Fault diagnosis system (DWT) and an artificial neural network. Conventional fault indications of automotive generators generally
Automotive generator use an indicator to inform the driver when the charging system is malfunction. But this charge indicator
Discrete wavelet transform tells only if the generator is normal or in a fault condition. In the present study, an automotive generator
Artificial neural network
fault diagnosis system is developed and proposed for fault classification of different fault conditions. The
proposed system consists of feature extraction using discrete wavelet analysis to reduce complexity of
the feature vectors together with classification using the artificial neural network technique. In the out-
put signal classification, both the back-propagation neural network (BPNN) and generalized regression
neural network (GRNN) are used to classify and compare the synthetic fault types in an experimental
engine platform. The experimental results indicate that the proposed fault diagnosis is effective and
can be used for automotive generators of various engine operating conditions.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
An automotive charging system restores electrical power to the
battery used during engine starting. The principle of the charging
system is to convert the mechanical energy of the engine into elec-
trical energy for recharging the battery and running electrical
accessories using electromagnetic induction to generate electrical
power. The system must be able to react quickly to high load de-
mands from the electrical systems (Hollembeak, 1997). Most of
the charging systems on vehicles use a charge indicator to monitor
the generator condition, however though, the protective devices
cannot show which component is abnormal in a generator set. In
general, the generator output waveforms are important informa-
tion for understanding the condition of charging system. For an
experienced technician, the output waveforms can be used to diag-
nose faults in generator parts such as faults in the voltage regula-
tor, diodes and stator coil. But many breakdowns are hard to
classify correctly by human experience in practical fault diagnosis.
In the present study, an expert fault diagnosis system using dis-
crete wavelet transform (DWT) and artificial neural networks is
proposed for automotive generator fault diagnosis.
Recently, signal analysis has been used for power disturbance
recognition. Many useful methods have been applied and estab-
lished in practical application, such as the fast Fourier transform
(FFT) (Corinthios, 1971), short time Fourier transform (STFT)
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jdwu@cc.ncue.edu.tw (J.-D. Wu).
(Portnoff, 1980), adaptive order-tracking (Bai, Huang, Hong, & Su,
2005; Wu, Huang, & Huang, 2004), Wigner–Ville distribution
(WVD) (Andria, Savino, & Trotta, 1994; Wu & Chiang, 2009), and
wavelet transform (WT) (Robertson, Camps, Mayer, & Gish,
1995). However, frequency analysis of FFT cannot satisfy signal
processing completely. The WVD and STFT methods have better
performance in time–frequency analysis, though the drawbacks
of the time window are fixed. In contrast to the Fourier transform,
the characteristic of wavelet transform gives short time intervals
for the high-frequency bands and long time intervals for the low-
frequency bands. In 1999, Poisson et al. used the continuous wave-
let transform (CWT) for power quality analysis. (Poisson, Rioual, &
Meunier, 1999). In 2006, Wu and Chen proposed a continuous
wavelet transforms for fault signal diagnosis in an internal com-
bustion engine (Wu & Chen, 2006).
For decades, wavelet techniques have been applied in a number
of areas of signal processing (Ekici, Yildirim, & Poyraz, 2008),
power systems (Gaing, 2004), electronics (Kim, Kim, Lee, & Jung,
2006), and biomedicine (Wu & Ye, 2009). However, in CWT, the
wavelet coefficients are calculated by continuously shifting a scal-
able function over a signal. It usually produces an enormous
amount of wavelet coefficients, and therefore will be highly redun-
dant. In 1996, Wilkinson and Cox used the discrete wavelet trans-
form (DWT) to demonstrate the power of wavelet analysis
(Wilkinson & Cox, 1996). In 2003, Butler-Purry and Bagriyanik pre-
sented the characterization of transients resulting from faults by
using DWT (Butler-Purry & Bagriyanik, 2003). With the redun-
dancy removed, the another advantage of this scheme is that the

0957-4174/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2009.02.027
 J.-D. Wu, J.-M. Kuo / Expert Systems with Applications 36 (2009) 9776–9783 9777

Z 1  
multi-resolution analysis (MRA) of signal decomposition allows ts  
Wf ðs; sÞ ¼ jsj1=2 f ðtÞw dt ¼ ws;s ðtÞ; f ðtÞ ; ð1Þ
valuable information to be gained in order to detect different dis- 1 s
tortion signal problems (Gaouda, Salama, Sultan, & Chikhani,
1999). where w*(t) is the complex conjugate. This definition of the CWT
Conventionally, oscilloscope devices such as Fluke 98 can be shows that the wavelet analysis is a measurement of similarity be-
used to detect the output signal for a technician to understand tween the basis functions (wavelets) and the signal itself. Here the
the generator condition. However, the errors in judgment might similarity is in the sense of similar frequency content. The wavelets
occur due to subjective decisions by the user. The investigation are represented by
of automotive generator fault diagnosis using wavelet transform  
and neural network is proposed in the present study. Furthermore, ts
ws;s ðtÞ ¼ jsj1=2 w ; ð2Þ
the GRNN and BPNN were implemented and to classify the follow- s
ing five categories of generator output signal, normal condition,
voltage regulator disconnected, one diode fault, two diode fault where s is the scale coefficient, s is the translation coefficient and
and single phase stator coil fault. In the following sections, the pro- jsj1/2 is for energy normalization across the different scales.
posed structure and performance of the automotive generator fault The DWT is derived from CWT, and its advantage is that it does
diagnosis are described. not shift and scale continuously, and can only be operated in dis-
crete steps. It also provides sufficient information and offers high
2. Feature extraction of generator output waveform reduction in the computational time. The wavelet can be scaled
and translated discretely by the parameters s ¼ sj0 and s ¼ ks0 sj0 ,
2.1. Discrete wavelet transform where s0 and s0 are fixed constants with s0 > 1, s0 > 1. The DWT
can be defined as
The CWT is a wavelet transform technique in signal processing !
 1=2 X t  ks0 Sj0
that is calculated by continuously shifting a continuously scalable  j
DWTðj; kÞ ¼ S0  xjkjw ; ð3Þ
function, as shown in Fig. 1. The translation and scale operation ap- k Sj0
ply the wavelet to calculate the wavelet coefficients from a signal.
The CWT can decompose a signal in both time domain and fre- where w is the wavelet function, xjkj is the signal function, and j and
quency domain. The CWT of a signal f(t) is defined as k are positive integers. The translation coefficient s0 depends on the
dilation steps and it affects the wavelet sampled at discrete inter-
vals in the time-scale domain. The sampling of the frequency axis
and time axis corresponds to dyadic sampling. The dyadic sampling
processing is shown in Fig. 2.
The other advantage of DWT is that it can decompose the volt-
age signal into an approximation (low-frequency components) and
details (high-frequency components) by using the wavelet func-
tion and scaling function to perform the MRA. A complete treat-
ment of MRA theory can be found in Mallat (1989). The present
study considers the implementation of generator voltage distur-
bance detection. The implementation of the MRA technique is indi-
cated in Fig. 3. It can be presented as

X XX
j1
xðtÞ ¼ S0 ðsÞ/ðt  sÞ þ djðsÞj=2 wð2j t  sÞ; ð4Þ
s s j¼0

where s is the translation coefficient, S0 is the 0 level scaling coef-

ficient, dj is the wavelet coefficient at scale j, and the scaling and
wavelet function is /(t) and w(t).

Fig. 1. Principle of wavelet transform technique. Fig. 2. Discrete wavelet in time-scale space on a dyadic grid.
9778 J.-D. Wu, J.-M. Kuo / Expert Systems with Applications 36 (2009) 9776–9783

voltage
signal
10 kHz
Low-pass High-pass
filter filter
(Approximations) (Details)

2 2 D1

5 ~10 kHz

2 2 D2

2.5 ~5 kHz

2 2 D3

1.25 ~2.5 kHz

2 2 D4

0.625 ~1.25 kHz

A4
0 ~0.625 kHz

Fig. 3. Principle of multi-resolution analysis.

2.2. Principle of Parseval’s theorem

Parseval’s theorem in the DWT application can be described by

!
1 X 1 X  2 X 1 X 
J
2
2
jx½tj ¼ 
cAJ;h þ cDJ;h  ; ð5Þ
N t NJ k J¼1
NJ h

where N is the sampling period. Hence, through the DWT decompo-

sition, the energy of the distorted signal is shown by Eq. (5). The
first term on the right of equal sign denotes the average power of
the approximated version of the decomposed signal, while the sec-
ond term denotes the detailed version of the decomposed signal
(Gaing, 2004). In the present study, the energy distribution of
Fig. 4. Structure of GRNN (Yibin & Ying, 2005).

Rotor coil
Charge lamp

Diodes
IG
B NI-9221
F B IG S S

L L
Data acquisition card PC
IC Regulator
Stator coil E

Fig. 5. Experimental procedure of generator fault diagnosis system.

 J.-D. Wu, J.-M. Kuo / Expert Systems with Applications 36 (2009) 9776–9783 9779

approximate version and coefficient cD of the detailed version are

Voltage signal employed to extract the feature of signal disturbance in generator.
The energy distribution for the approximate version Pa and for the
detailed version Pd can be computed as follows:
DWT 1 X kcAk2
Pa ¼ jcAj2 ¼ ; ð6Þ
(wavelet coefficients) Nj h Nj
Feature  2
Parseval’s cDj 
extraction 1 X 2
Theorem Pd ¼ jcDj ¼ ; ð7Þ
Nj h Nj
(feature vectors)
where kcAk and kcDjk are the norm of the expansion coefficient cA
(training) and cDj. For classifying the different faults of generator by the neu-
ral network, the energy distribution value Pa and Pd will be adopted
Neural Classifier
in fault classification.
Network (testing)
3. Classification using neural networks

Result 3.1. Back-propagation neural network

Fig. 6. Block diagnosis of automotive generator fault diagnosis system.

This section describes the principles of the BPNN and GRNN
for the discrimination of five categories of generator output sig-
generator output signal can be divided into one level for the approx- nal. This method uses the energy distribution to represent the
imate version and nine for the detailed version. The coefficient cA of generator signals, which are important for recognition and

Fig. 7. Distorted signal of generator in five generator conditions, (a)–(e) are the experimental signals; (f)–(j) are the theoretical signals.
9780 J.-D. Wu, J.-M. Kuo / Expert Systems with Applications 36 (2009) 9776–9783

2 2
0 D1 0 D1
-2 -2
0.5 0.5
0 D2 0 D2
-0.5 -0.5
0.5 0.5
0 D3 0 D3
-0.5 -0.5
0.2 0.5
0 D4 0 D4
-0.2
Amplitude (Volt)

Amplitude (Volt)
-0.5
0.2 0.5
0 D5 0 D5
-0.2 -0.5
0.1 0.05
0 D6 D6
0
-0.1 -0.05
0.05 0.1
0 D7 0 D7
-0.05 -0.1
0.1 0.05
0 D8 0 D8
-0.1 -0.05
0.05 0.05
0 D9 0 D9
-0.05 -0.05
14.3 13.9
14.2 A9 13.8 A9
14.1 13.7
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Sample number Sample number
Fig. 8. DWT of voltage signal in normal condition. Fig. 10. DWT of voltage signal in one phase stator coil fault condition.

diagnosis. In other words, these energy distributions can be
recognized for different faults. The BPNN is the wide learning rule
for multi-layer perceptions and the most representative of the
neural networks. It has two phases: one is a feed forward phase
in which the external input information at the input nodes is
propagated forward to compute the output information signal
at the output unit, and a backward phase in which modifications
to the connection strengths are made based on the differences
between the computed and observed information signals at the
output units (Cigizoglu & Alp, 2006). Disadvantages of the BPNN
include the need for large amounts of weight calculation, the
large number of iterations to converge to the desired value, very
long training time, and existence of local minima.
The GRNN was proposed by Specht (1991), and is similar to a
multi-layer BPNN in network structure. The learning speed is faster
than BPNN, because it does not need large amounts of weights cal-
culations for obtaining the global approach. Fig. 4 shows the struc-
ture of GRNN, which approximates any arbitrary function between
input and output vectors, drawing the function estimate directly

2
0 0.5
D1 0 D1
-2
1 -0.5
0.5
0 D2 0 D2
-1
1 -0.5
0.5
0 D3 0 D3
-1 -0.5
0.5 0.2
0 D4 0 D4
Amplitude (Volt)

-0.5
Amplitude (Volt)

0.2 -0.2
0.5
0 D5 0 D5
-0.2
-0.5
0.2 0.2
0 D6
0 D6
-0.2 -0.2
0.1 0.05
0 D7 0 D7
-0.1 -0.05
0.2 0.1
0 D8 0
-0.2 D8
-0.1
0.2 0.05
0 D9 0 D9
-0.2 -0.05
15.5 14.2
A9 14.1 A9
15 14
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Sample number Sample number

Fig. 9. DWT of voltage signal in voltage regulator disconnect condition. Fig. 11. DWT of voltage signal in one diode fault condition.
 J.-D. Wu, J.-M. Kuo / Expert Systems with Applications 36 (2009) 9776–9783 9781

A
3
2

Energy distribution(log)
10
0 D1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
-2 2
1 10
0 D2
-1 1
0.5 10
0 D3
-0.5 0
0.5 10
0 D4
-0.5
Amplitude (Volt)

-1
0.5 10
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9
0 D5
-0.5
B

Energy distribution(log)
3
0.5 10
0 D6 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
2
-0.5 10
0.05
0 D7 1
-0.05 10
0.05
0 D8 0
10
-0.05
0.05
-1
0 D9 10
-0.05 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9
13.8
C 3

Energy distribution(log) Energy distribution(log)

13.7 A9 10
13.6 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 2
10
Sample number
1
Fig. 12. DWT of voltage signal in two diodes fault condition. 10

0
10
from the training data. It only needs the method of probability -1
density function (PDF) to be presented. Here the density f(x, y) 10
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9
represents the known joint continuous PDF of a vector random var-
D
3
iable, x, and a scalar random variable, y. The conditional mean of y 10
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
given X (also called the regression of y on X) is given by
2
R1 10
yf ðX; yÞdy
E½yjX ¼ R1
1 : ð8Þ 1
1
f ðX; yÞdy 10

0
If f(x, y) is unknown, it must be estimated from a sample of observa- 10
tion of x and y. The probability estimator ^f ðX; YÞ is based on the
sample values Xi and Yi of the random variables D2i and y, where n 10
-1

is the number of sample observations and P is the dimension of D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9

the vector variable x: Scale

^f ðX; YÞ ¼ 1 Fig. 13. Energy distribution of different faults using db4 wavelet coefficient at
ðpþ1Þ=2
ð2pÞ rðpþ1Þ various engine operation conditions: (A) idle, (B) 1500 rpm, (C) 2000 rpm, (D)
" # " # 2500 rpm.
1 Xn
ðX  X i ÞT ðX  X i Þ ðY  Y i Þ2
  exp  exp  :
n i¼1 2r2 2r2
4. Experimental work and analysis
ð9Þ
The probability estimation is the sum of those sample probabilities. 4.1. Experimental arrangement
Defining the scalar function D2i as:
The fault diagnosis system consists of a combination of signal
D2i ¼ ðX  X i ÞT ðX  X i Þ ð10Þ feature extraction and fault identification. The output signal is
measured from generator under different engine operation condi-
and performing the indicated integrations yields the following: tions. In the experimental work, the signal duration is set as
Pn i  0.5 s, and sampling rate of data record is 10 kHz. In the stage of
D2i
i¼1 Y exp  2r2
b
Y ðXÞ ¼ P  : ð11Þ
n D2i
i¼1 exp  2r2 Table 1
Total record data for each distorted signals.
If the smoothing parameter r is large, the estimated density is Signal types
forced to be smooth becomes a multivariate Gaussian with
A B C D E Total
covariance r2I. On the other band, a smaller value of r allows
the estimated density to assume non-Gaussion shapes, but with Training data 50 50 50 50 50 250
Testing data 150 150 150 150 150 750
the drawback that wild points may have too great an effect on
Total 200 200 200 200 200 1000
the estimate (Specht, 1991).
9782 J.-D. Wu, J.-M. Kuo / Expert Systems with Applications 36 (2009) 9776–9783

Table 2
Performance of test results in various engine speeds.

Engine speed (rpm) db2 db4 db10 db20

BPNN GRNN BPNN GRNN BPNN GRNN BPNN GRNN
Error (%) Error (%) Error (%) Error (%)
Idle 0.93 0.8 0.13 0 0.93 0.67 0.13 0.13
1500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.27 0
2000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

feature extraction, Parseval’s theorem is employed to evaluate the
energy distribution. By performing the wavelet transformation, a
given signal is decomposed into nine scales which are composed
of nine frequency bands and one low-frequency component. The
‘‘db2”, ‘‘db4”, ‘‘db10”, and ‘‘db20” Daubechies wavelet coefficients
are selected. To confirm the feasibility of the proposed method,
the experimental engine platform used a gasoline engine (twin
cam 16 valves, four-stroke, four cylinders, 1.6-L), a generator (max-
imum output power: 1188 W; maximum output under full load:
91 A; voltage regulator set point: 15.25 V), Fluke 98, a data acqui-
sition system (NI DAQ-9221) and a PC. In the experiment, five
synthetic fault types were detected on a generator fault system.
The experimental procedure of generator fault diagnosis is shown
in Fig. 5.
During classification, the BPNN and GRNN are employed to
identify these distorted signals. Fig. 6 shows the schematic block
diagnosis of the automotive generator fault diagnosis system. In
this case, the generator output signals in time domain were trans-
formed into the wavelet coefficients in time-scale domain by using
DWT. After that, the coefficients are fed into the neural network.
Thus, it will be recognized the outcomes of neural network in the
stage of classification.
4.2. Recognition of extracted features
The test signals include the generator output in normal
condition, voltage regulator disconnected, single phase stator coil
fault, one diode fault and two diode fault. The experimental and
db2
Wavelet type
theoretical signal patterns are summarized in Fig. 7. The engine
is operated at idle, 1500 rpm, 2000 rpm and 2500 rpm. Figs. 8–12
show the patterns of five distorted signals for nine-level decompo-
sition using DWT. The patterns indicate that the DWT offers
meaningful and flexible time-scale information. Clearly, the feature
contained useful information in some sub-bands. In order to
extract useful information, the energy distribution is established
by Parseval’s theorem. Finally, the feature of energy distribution
could be identified easily when the wavelet coefficients were accu-
mulated. Different waveforms of the distorted signals can also
affect the energy distribution pattern. The comparison of energy
distribution at the different engine speed condition is summarized
in Fig. 13.
4.3. Experimental results and classification
After feature extraction, the wavelet-based energy distributions
of the features were obtained. Table 1 shows the number of record
data for each synthetic fault. The energy distributions of each
synthetic fault are fed into the classifier of the BPNN and GRNN
for identification. The testing data can be classified easily when
the training data are trained properly. The performance of test re-
sult with various engine and wavelet types is summarized in Table
2. Apart from the idle speed condition, the other speeds have no
erroneous judgments in fault diagnosis system. Fig. 14 shows the
average test result that is comparison of BPNN and GRNN using
various Daubechies wavelets. Clearly, it has the most accurate
results when the Daubechies wavelet ‘‘db4” is selected. In the
result, the proposed method can detect and classify the distorted
signal with high accuracy. Table 3 also compares the computing
time in BPNN and GRNN classifier using the various Daubechies
wavelets. The GRNN demonstrated better performance in recogni-
tion time than BPNN.

db4 5. Conclusions

An automotive generator fault diagnosis system based on DWT

db10 for feature extraction and classification using an artificial neural
network has been developed and evaluated. In this system, the fea-
tures of the generator output signal at different engine speeds and
db20 faults are extracted by multi-resolution analysis without losing
their original properties. For fault signal classification, both the
0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4% 0.5%
BPNN and GRNN are used for comparison of the synthetic faults.
The experimental results indicate that the proposed method can
Error (%) extract the feature and identify different faults of the generator.
Fig. 14. Average result of different wavelet coefficients using BPNN and GRNN.

Table 3
Comparison of recognition time.

db2 db4 db10 db20

BPNN GRNN BPNN GRNN BPNN GRNN BPNN GRNN
Recognition time (s) 31.2 0.34 34.9 0.35 38.2 0.35 35.8 0.37
 J.-D. Wu, J.-M. Kuo / Expert Systems with Applications 36 (2009) 9776–9783
The neural network using GRNN demonstrated better recognition
time than BPNN in experimental applications.
Acknowledgement
The study was supported by the National Science Council of Tai-
wan, Republic of China, under Project Number NSC-95-2218-E-
018-001.
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