Hi fi e ai a ga i a i

14/09

Hi ica fI e ai a ga i a i .

Acc f he i e f i e a i a ga i a i a e begi hi ica i

1919 a he Ve ai e eace c fe e ce. A h gh, i e e e ed a g d a . I
ga he ed ge he he ic i a , a ai a i ee g ,
i e a i a NGO a i g ad a ce b ic hea h, he e i f he
e , he ca e f eace a d he a f a . The S a e e e e a i e e e
a c ce ed c ea e a e e a e d ga i a i hich d dea
i h he be f b h eace a d ec i , ei he he ec ic a d cia
e i . The d e a a ce f eacef i e e a i be ee
e ea S a e a d e ha f ce f he f P b ic I e a i a
U i . Thei ac i i a ai ed b he e i e ce f i a e i e a i a
a cia i a d a f e had ed i he c fe e ce f 1899 a d 1907.
The ga i a i he e ab i hed - ch a he Leag e f Na i a d he
I e a i a Lab ga i a i - had a c e de e i ed b a bac g d
f c e a i d i g a i e.
The bi h f he e ga i a i ca be de d b efe i g hi .
The ga he i g a Ve ai e i 1919 a i a i a i e g e e a ee i g
f head f S a e a d g e e , i i e a d hei ad i .I a
c ce ed i h he e i f i e a i a eace a d ec i , hi e ec ic
a d cia e i e e gi e i c ide a i . The c fe e ce had
he a i e a eace ea a d ga i e e a i be ee S a e af e he
b ea d i i e -S a e e a i hi i hi , ha i WWI.
The WWI a i ed af e a ce f eace, i ce he defea f Na e . D i g
hi i e a g ea be f i e a i a ga i a i e e c ea ed. The i e f
he he e fi eg e e a ga i a i (dea i g i h i e a i a
eace a d ec i , b a ec ic a d cia i e ) d i g he 19 h ca be
e ai ed b a e i g he e i h e e he e i e ai a
ga i a i i ha i e?
The b i a e / ea i ha he ga i a i had ai i he
c ea i fa eai e Sae i E e. The c cia i g i a he eace
f We ha ia i 1648 hich e ded he 30 ea a , hich had ed a a
Medie a E e. P i 1648 he c ce f a ified ch i i ia E e
d i a ed he hi i g a d he ac ice f i ica ife i e e. The a i g
e a e f he Pa ac i he O d R a E i e de a ed he
diffic ie f if i g ch a di e e ge g a hica a ea ch a he c i e f
E e, e e he i ' e e e e h ea e ed b he O a E i e.
De i e hi , a f f i a ffe ed b he d c i e f G d gi e a a a
a ab e a i d. I ided ch i ia e a d hei b ec he
i be g a g ea e c ea h.
Wi h he e i i g a d e e e ec i f a a a a b ce ai hi he
a d i h he ci i a be ee he ch i ia i ce f 1618 1648, he
ec f a i ica ified E e fai ed. The eace f We ha ia a d he
ea f U ech (1713) c ea ed he ba i f a e eig S a e e i
E e, a e e e ded he e f he d. Thi e ec g i ed he igh
f he S a e i h defi ed ge g a hica f ie ha i e i ia i , i c di g
e e e ed ai , ha e hei f f g e e ,
i e e i f he S a e i d e ic e i , a d c d c e a i
each he a e a ega ba e ha ea e eig e a i .
M e ge ed he a a a g ide e a i a g Sae .
I ead, i e e ged a i e a i a a ba ed he ac ice f S a e
ai a i g a ag ee e , ba ed ei he ea ie c .
The e ha ia c ce i /ide g i c ded he idea ha ai a
g e e a e he ba i f de i i e a i a cie : ac a d e a da,
hich ea eed e ec he ag ee e .F i e ai a eai ,
hi ea de-ce a i ed c b e eig S a e .
Gi e he e i e ce f a e eig S a e e , h did ' g e e c ea e
a e f i e ai a ga i a i h gh he XVII h ce ? Ma
a h ed a e hi e i . Fi a , e ca a ha he e a e f
e-c di i bef e ch ac i h d be a e :
1) he e i e ce f a be f a e f c i i g a i de e de i ica
i ;
2) a b a ia ea e f c ac be ee he e bdi i i ;
3) a a a e e f he be hich a i e f he S a e c -e i e ce;
 4) hei ec g i i f he eed c ea e i i i a de ice a d e a ic
eh d eg a e hei e a i i h each he .

Bef e he XIX h, he fi f he e e-c di i / e e i i e e i ed. A

f f di ac e i ed be ee he c f he E ea e a d ade
a d a e g e h gh E e d i g he XVIII h ce . The ea e f
c ac had b i a g a e i he 150 ea f i g We ha ia c d
ca ce be de c ibed a b a ia . A df f c ac a a fa e. I ha
bee ca c a ed ha he e e e 67 ig ifica a i he e i d be ee 1650
he begi i g f he XIX h; a i e a ic a iceab e f he a ge
be f a a , i hich g ea e a ici a ed each ide.
The i e a i a e ha e i ed ide E e a i eg a ed i he
E ea e i he XIC h ce . A , i h ed i e e c f
c ea i g i e a i a ga i a i : e ha e e e a e a e f ha . The
ai a a ge e f he Chi e e E i e a gi g f he fe da e
f he We e e i d a i g 1100 ea BC. he I e ia e f he
Ma ci ; he di ided a i g I dia f he a e a Cha i a he e f he
Ca e E i e f he XVII h ce ; he I a ic O a E i e. A he e
h ee e a e e e a fa i ia ih a ade, a ia ce , fede a i a d
e e f f di ac . N e f he d ced he e a e i i i
hich cha ac e i e i e a i a ga i a i .
Hi ica , e ca a ha he e e ib e e ce i ; he C ci f
A cie G eece hich a a f ee i g be ee a Ch ch c g e a d a
ee i g f he Leag e f Na i A e b . A h gh he ai e f
he e c fe e ce -a f he Pe a e Sec e a ia hich he ai ai ed- a
he afeg a di g f hi e a d ea e a d he eg a i f he Pi g i affic,
he a dea ih i ica a e f c he e ic i e e . The a had
a i a di a ic f c i .
The e a a he i d f e ce i : a edece /f e e f
h a i a ia i e a i a ga i a i ca be ee i he K igh f Sai
J h f Je a e , a e a he de f Ma a. The ad i i e ed
h i a i he h a d d i g he c ade , f he XII h ce he
XIII h ce . The a e had hei head a e he Medi e a ea
high a d f R de, C a d Ma a bef e bei g ba ed i R e. H e e , i
ee ha hi i e a i a de d a f ci i e f a E ea a e
e e ci ed e e e f e eig e a ea i hich i e a ed, a d -i deed-
c ai ed e eig e i e ce e e he .
A a f he e e a e , he a i icie i he e e i ed -a
h e i f he e- XIX ce E e- f d ha c ac i h he i ica
i a ei he i he be ige e f -if eacef - c d be a i fied b he
i f he e cha a d he cca i a e .
I 1786 Th a Jeffe ( h a e beca e P e ide ) ed a
i e a i a a a f ee de he c f a c ci f i i e a d a
a ba ad ia c i ee i de c .. f ba ba S a e i N h Af ica.
H e e , he idea de a ded c e a i a g d- e E ea S a e a d
he e ab i h e f a f ee f ded b a a a i e he e a i a a ie
ee fe h f e .
The ea h he XIX h ce ided ch fe i e g d f he
i e ai a ga i a i i E e ca be f d i he fi a
e-c di i : he a a e e f he S a e c -e i e ce i he ec g i i f he
eed f ea diffe e f h e ed eg a e e a i hi .
G e e ' g i g acce a ce f e de ice i h hich e a i c d be
c d c ed a e a ia f he ? i ica i a i 1814 a d a ia f
ec ic a d cia de e e . A ecific e i hi , hich c d
be c ide ed he a i g i f he hi f i e a i a ga i a i i
he Vie a C g e .

The Vie a C g e f 1814-1815 c dified he e f di ac he eb

e ab i hi g a acce ed de f eg a eacef e a i hi a g
e ea a e . Thi a a i a de e e i e f he e
i i i g e i g i e ae eai , i g di ac a hed
di c edi ed ac i i , he e ha e ed he i e a i a e , a e a he
i di id a S a e .
The a e ica e i hich ed he i de e de ce f he USA i 1776 a d
he F e ch e i f 1789 b gh e i ica fac i he
i e a i a ce e. P e i ,i a E ea S a e had bee a chie
f ef a he . The i e e f he S a e a d h e f he e had be
c e ge .
.. C ea h i E g a d de ia ed f hi a e a d a e he ce ai
i ica eade c ide ed Ja e II a i fac , a e d a a
i a ed. S i , he a he Ki g a ia e , he Ki g a a d he Ki g
eace ha e i ed i E g a d.
The e i i A e ica a d i F a ce ade a cha ge b a
e ig i g he a e. The a e ge had be he e f he
Ki g /Q ee e e i ega i ica he . I c d be he i e f
a i .
We ca de a d hi c ce b eadi g he A e ica Dec a a i f
I de e de ce, hich a ha g e e a e i i ed a g e ,
de i i g hei e f he c e f he g e ed. Tha he e e a
f f g e e bec e de c i e f he e e d , i i he igh f he
e e a e ab i h i . The e a a i edia e iceab e effec
i e ai a eai af e he e e i . The ic f he a e ica
e e ea e ed B i ai hi e a e e i a F a ce a a a
i h he e f E e.
Na e - h i f he e i a d ada e g i i e- a ched hi
a ac E e f he Ibe ia (S a i h) e i a R ia a d he
f f he edi e a ea he Ba ic. I he h f A ia, R ia,
B i ai defea Na e a d e e he e- e i a a ch i
F a ce. The e e e a i e f he ic i e ee i g a Vie a i 1814
had he a e f a eace ea e a e. The a had ide be f
c ide a i . The had c bi e i de defea Na e a d e e
E e f i g i he F e ch E i e. Thei e a ig had
e c e hei f e a d ga e he a cha ce e a e f e eig
a e ba ed he We ha ia c ce . The S a e e e e a i e a he
C ge he i a da d a d c dif he e f di ac
a d a i ac ice , b a ce he be i he
i e ai a e , ch a a e .
Wha a he C g e f Vie a? Wha did i e e e ? A he 4 a
E ea e , GB, R ia, P ia a d A ia ed he F e ch e i e
i he Na e ic Wa , Na e e c a ed i 1814. The a ed
a i g f he - a e i d. The ea begi i g i e e e ed b he
T ea f Cha (Ma ch 1814) hich e-affi ed deci i ha d be
a ified i he c g e f Vie a (1814-1815). The C g e f Vie a a he
fi f a e ie f i e a i a ee i g ha ca e be a he C ce
fE e he C g e S e a a a e f ge a eacef ba a ce f
 e i E e. I e ed a a de f ae ga i a i , ch a he
Leag e f Na i b a he UN.
The c g e f ie a a d he f i g e i c ded a f e i , ch
a he e ab i h e f a c fede a ed Ge a , he di i i f F e ch
ec a e , a e a i f i de e de a e , he e a i f he B b
Ki g i S ai , he e a ge e f he Ne he a d (i c di g ha i 1830
beca e he de Be gi ), he b i i h b idie i a ie .
The T ea f Cha i ed he e defea Na e a d bec e
he ba ic c e e f he C g e e , hich f ed he ba a ce f
e f he e decade . The ba ic i ci e f he E ea ba a ce f
e i ha i geE ea e h d be a ed achie e hege
a b a ia a f he c i e . Thi i be i i ed b ha i g a a
be f e e -cha gi g a ia ce c e d f e . The c g e f Vie a
b a ia di ed he Na e ic d a d a e ed e e he
a chie ha Na e had e h , i g b i g bac he c c f
hi .
U de he eade hi f Me e ich, h a he PM f A ia f 1809
1848 a d de he eade hi f L d La e eagh, he F eig i i e f GB
f 1812 1822, he C g e e a e e e e eace. U de he
c ce f E e, he a E ea e (GB, P ia, R ia, A ia
a d af e 1818 a F a ce agai ) decided ee eg a e e hei
diffe e ce . The g a a i e he d b de b a e i e he
ai e ha he c d ba a ce each- he a d e ai a eace. The
eade e e c e a i e i h i e e f e b ica i e i , hich
c d b h h ea e he a i E e. Thi a a he fi fi i d
i E ea hi a d ee ed ie c ec i e a age E ea
affai a d eh e eace. The C g e e ed he i h- a
c i i a Vie a a d a e he G ee i de e de ce.
Th ee a E ea c g e ace: he c g e f Ai -Cha e e
(1818) ha e ded he cc a i f F a ce a d he ea i g e
c g e e , beca e each a i ea i ed ha c g e ee a hei
ad a age . Di e ee e ed i h a e deg ee f effec i e e .
The C g e a he fi cca i i hi he e, a c i e a ca e,
a i a e e e a i e ca e ge he f a e ea ie i ead f e i g
e age a g e e a ca i a . The C g e f Vie a
Se e e , de i e a e cha ge , f ed he f a e f E ea
i e ai a i ic i he b ea f WWI i he e f 1914.
F he e, he c e a i e de a e ab i hed, i a e a ied
E ea i ica hi af e he fi a defea f Na e i 1815 1830 a
c ci ga f c e a i e a e- e - i c di g Me e ich a d he
B i i h F ei g i i e - a i ace c ai e i a d a
e i a f ce b e i g a de , i a ic a e i i g
a h i ie GB, P ia, R ia a d A ia e e ed hei c i e
e e a e ai f B a a i e a d ag eed ee eg a i
c fe e ce di c hei c i e e . Thi e i d c ai he i e f
he H a ia ce, a i i a ag ee e .
The c ce f E e a he i ica f a e ha g e f he
Q ad e a ia ce i e be 1815. The g a f he c e a i e a he
c g e , ed b Me e ich, a e-e ab i h eace a d abi i i E e.
T acc i h hi , a e ba a ce f e had be e ab i hed. Me e ich
a d he f Sae e e e ai e ied d hi b e i g d i g
fa i ie a d b c ea i g b ffe e a g a e . T c ai he i
e f F a ce, he h e f O a ge-Na a a he h e i he
Ne he a d (= Be gi ). T he h- ea f F a ce, Pied , fficia a
f he Ki gd f Sa di ia a e a ged; he B b d a a e ed
F a ce a d S ai , a e a he e f he egi i a e e he I a ia
S a e. T c ai he R ia E i e, P a d a di ided f he 4 h i e
a g A ia, P ia a d R ia.
The c ce f E e af e c g e f Vie a a ab e c ea e a e f
di e e i ad ed b he a c e ai e e f E e
ai ai hei e . The c g e e ed e i a e e
ea e ed he f ce f a i a i a d h d he ba a ce f e , hich
ge f ha c g e . The c ce f E e a f ded b he e
ha e e agai Na e : A ia, P ia, R ia, GB. A f he ee
e be f he Q ad e A ia ce, ha a a a ia ce f eace a d ec i
i E e. F a ce a e ab i hed a he e e e B i i h F eig ec e a
Ca e e eagh, he A ia cha ce Me e ich, he T a f R ia A e a de
I, T e ai e f F a ce, a F e ch a ba ad h ed f i g L i
XVIII h , he f Na e a d he e e e ed F a ce a he fi ic i f
Na e . He a ab e e gh i ica i e e diffe e hi ica
 e i d . He a ab e hi i fa f F a ce b a i g ha he
F e ch e e he e e ic i a d he h d be i hed. A f
he a e e be a i he c g e , c i g f S ai , P ga ,
S ede , De a , Ne he a d , S i e a d, he Pa a S a e, Ba a ia, b a
f he Re b ic f Ge a. Vi a , e e S a e i E e e a de ega i
he c g e f Vie a, a d e ha 200 S a e e e e e e ed. I
addi i , he e e e ci e e e ai e , c a i , e igi ga i a i
a d ecia i e e g (f e a e he e a a de ega i e ee i g
Ge a b i he de a di g a g f de e e . igi a e, a
c igh a a d f eed f e , e e hich c d be eached, a a
he a e e e a i e e e e c e a i e.
The C g e a f i a i h a d a e e e ai e . A f e ch e
a ha e c g e a che a , ai i da e , e e i g he fac ha
e e e ai e e ee i g he e e b ee i g ha d.
Rea big deci i ee a e b he big f . The e i a cha ged:
a chie hich e e c de ed e a i ece c e , hi e
P ia, A ia a d P ia ade a e i ia gai .
The a i a i ci e a e ec ed a a . The S a e a c ea ed e ec
he ba a ce f e i ci e. F a e i ia i f ie , hi ea ha
ce ai e i ie beca e ide beca e he e h d be a i d f b ffe
ea d F a ce. Thi i h he Ne he a d gai ed Be gi , he Ki gd
f Sa di ia gai ed he Re b ic f Ge a.
The C g e i ci a e e e:
- he e a ge e f R ia, hich gai ed f he D ch f Wa a
(P a d);
- P ia ac i ed he di ic f P a , he S edi h P e a ia,
We ha ia, he N he Rhi e a d;
- he c ida i f Ge a : f ea 300 S a e f he H R a
E i e (di ed c e e i 1806) i a ch e c e e
f 39 S a e (4 f he e e f ee ci ie ). The e 39 S a e e e i a e
a ge ii : e f he ee a ia e be - f a
e i ia i f ie - f he c fede a i (i he ca e f A ia ha
a ed ac i e e f he ).
- F a ce e e i ie ;
- i h he ea f Kie , N a a cceeded b he Ki g f De a
he Ki g f S ede . Thi a ed he a i a i e e hich ed
he e ab i h e f he i gd fN a he 17 h a 1814 a d
he b e e e a i i h S ede .
- A ia gai ed L ba d , Ve e ia a d he I a ; hi e f he
ce a a f Ia e Ab b g d a ie , ch a he
G a d-d ch f T ca , he d ch f M de a, he D ch f Pa a .
Q iea Ia a c ed (di ec ) b A ia.
- The Pa a S a e e e e ed he P e;
- The Ki gd f Pied - Sa di ia a e ed i ai a d
e i a d gai ed c f he Re b ic f Ge a;
- I he I a , Na e b he -i - a J achi M a a
igi a a ed e ai hi i gd f Na e b hi
Na e d i g he 100 da ed he e a i f B b
Fe di a d IV he h e.
- UK f he Ne he a d a f ed f he Ki g f O a ge, i c di g
b h he d i ce a d f a A ia ed e i ie i he h
f he Ne he a d ;
- O he e i ia ad e i c ded ig ifica gai f he Ge a
Ki gd f Ha e hich gai ed e i ie f P ia;
- P ia a e ed edi h P e a ia;
- S i e a d a e a ged a e a d i e a i a e ab i hed. S i
e ce a ie had a ed a ig ifica e i E ea a f e ea
h d ed ea he c g e i e ded e d hi a i de;
- P ga eac i ed a ci d i g a i e. P ga i hi ica
B i ai de a a d i h he B i i h cceeded i ha i g he
e-i c ai f O i e a (a ci ) hich d i g a i e e S ai .
B S ai did acce hi . O i . a d i di g ee e e
e ed P ga c a d he e i i e ai ed.
- GB ecei ed a f he e -I die a he e e e f he Ne he a d ;
- S ai e he f e D ch c fS b a Ma a;
- U de he ea f Pa i , GB b ai ed a ec a e e he US f I a
I a d a d he Se che e a e . Gb b ai ed a f e i he
Medi e a ea Sea i hich i a e i e e ed a d f hich i f gh
ha d agai Na e d i g Na e ic a .
B hich e e he di a ic c e e ce f Vie a? De i e he eff f
he ai E ea e e e c f ic a d a , i a a he
c ge e fai ed b 1823.
The e f he XIX h ce a a ed b e i a ii g/e
a d he i e f he idea f a i he he ed i a da ge ai ai
h/i e. I beca e e f he ca e f WWI. Wi h he c ce f E e,
he e i ia b de aid d b he c g e e e ai ai ed a d he e a
a acce a ce f he he e f ba a ce i h a agg e i . O he i e, he
c ge e fai ed. I 1818 he B i i h decided be i ed i he
c i e a i e ha did di ec affec he . The e ec ed a A e a de
I a e e f e e i . The c ce e fe a a a he
c g a f he g ea e e e e e aced b g i g i ica a d
ec ic i a ie . A fa hi ia a ha he c g e a ead i 1822
a ed he e d, he e a c g e ca ed e e he e d i g he
g ea e i a hea a f 1848 hich ca ed f a e i i f he
c ge f Vie a a d i f ie a g a i a i e .
The e i f 1848, i ec ie a he i g f ai
he e e' i g i g i e f he e e he ea f e i ,
e e a e ie f i ica hea a h gh E e. I e ai he
ide ead e i a a i E ea hi .
The e di e e e i a e ee i ii he c e a i e
age da f he C g e f Vie a a d a ed a a cha e ge i i i f
a ab e E e. The e i e e e ecia de c a ic i a e. Thei
ai a e e he d fe da c e a d c ea e a i de e de
ai a ae .
The e i bega i F a ce i Feb a , a ic a i Pa i , he e Ma
a ife a i ed. The , i i edia e ead fE ea d a
f he La i A e ica i h he e ce i f R ia ( c e a i e) a d GB
( ha ha a ead e e a de c a ic ef ). O e e e 50 c ie
e e affec ed e e if he e a c di a i c eai a g he
e i a ie . The i i g a ed b Sha a d a c a i i f ef e ,
idd e c a e a d f he 1 i e e e c i g f cie a g , i e
e . The i a i a defi i e de c f he -ca ed
c ge e , a beca e he e e i a a e e e c i gf a
ca ha g big a i - a e , b i a a e i i he e e ha i a
c i g f e e a d he cia c a e agai he head f S a e
g e e .

T i g de c ibe i he c e a he c g e f V a he c g e
e e h d a he a ia ce ha e e ig ed d i g i . F a ,
a ia ce ee e : he H a ia ce a d he Q ad e a ia ce. A a
e e i f he c g e f Vie a i i , P ia, R ia a d A ia f ed
R ia a he H A ia ce. The ea a ig ed he 25 h
e e . 1815. Hi g a a e e e Ch i ia cia a e a d adi i a
a chie . The i e i f he a ia ce a e ai e b ica i a d
ec a i i E e f i g he f e ch e i a a . The a ia ce
i a cceeded, a ea i he C i ea a ha ace f 1853
1855 a d he Pa i c fe e ce f eace f 1856.
E e e be f he C a i i i ed he a ia ce e ce f he UK-
ac i i a a ch iha e i ica hi h . GB did, h e e ,
a if he Q ad e a ia ce ig ed he a e da a he 2 d eace ea f
Pa i (20 h N e be . 1815). I e e ed he e f he c g e e hich
ad a ce E ea I e a i a e a i . The a ia ce fi f ed i 1813
e F a ce a d i ed aid each he . I beca e he Q i e a ia ce
he F a ce i ed i 1818. M ch deba e ha cc ed a g hi ia a
hich ea a e i f e ia i he de e e fi e ai a eai
i E e i he decade f i g he e d f he Na e ic a .
Acc di g he hi ia Ti Cha a , he i a e e ha acade ic a he
e ee b d b he e f he ea ie a d a f he
i e i a b e he e if i i ed he .
The H a he b ai chi d (idea) f a A e a de he fi , i gai ed
beca e E ea a ch did a ffe d he a b ef i g
ig i a d, a i b d a ch e a , a he ha hei g e e ,i
a ea ig e ce ig ed. A h gh i did fi c f ab i h he
c e hi ica ed c ica eb f e ha e b die he di ac f he
- Na e ic e a, i i f e ce a e a i g ha c e a c i ic
e ec ed. I a eca ed i he 1820 a a f e e i he he e f
he Q i e a ia ce e e ee fi he e f he g ea e f
E e. The Q ad e a ia ce, b c a , a a a da d ea a d he f
g ea e did i i e hei a ie ig i . Thei i a ai a bi d
he ig a e he e f he 2 d ea f Pa i f 20 ea . I
i c ded a i i f he c ac i g a ie e e hei ee i g a fi ed
e i d f he e fc i g hei c i ee hich e e he
ei f he a i a d he ai e a ce f E ea eace. A be
i h he di g f a . 6 f he ea i ha i d e ' ecif he e fi ed
e i d , he e e e ii i he ea f e a e c i i
a a ge he ga i ed c fe e ce . Thi ea ha he 1 c fe e ce i 1818
dea i h e ai i g i e f he F e ch a b af e ha , ee i g ee
a a ged ( a ba i ) add e ecific h ea , ch a h e ed b
e i .

A . 6 i e i a de a d he idea f ha i g eg a ee i g
i he i a i a d e e a i d f a ha ha e ed he
e ea c i e . Fi a , i he ea f he H a ia ce he e he
i ci e f i e e i e he a e ea e i e e e he e e
i E e, e e ide hei b de , b e ecia i he e i ie . I i
ie a hi i d f i a i f d e ic i dic i . S , he idea a
ha he H a ia ce i add e ed he defe ce f he a ie b i h d
be i e e ed a he defe ce f he e ab i hed de i E e, i e a f
ice a i E e. The Q ad e a ia ce ha i ci e f i e e i , i
i i ead a defe i e a ia ce i h he g a f ai ai i g eace i h
i a i g he a e e i ie .

15/09

I e a i a i a ad ec i e ge e a ed, b ei a a h , ch a
Ge e Be ha , he a he fi h ed hi ad ec i e i he e e e e i
.
I e ai a i ei e ed i a gc e :i i a i e .S ei e
i i ed he a he ad ec i e h d be ed. I e ca e e h d e
 he ad ec i e i e g e e a i e ae he e a e efe i g S a e ,
i i e acc a e. E e hi g ca be i e a i a .
If e a e a i g ab eai fa i d, f e a e di ac a d ,
e a e efe i g e eig a e . S e eig i he e faSae a
e i a di i a ec g i ed b he he S a e .
T he hi g : 1) he e a e S a e c ai i g e eig a e i ih
i e a i a ec g i i . A e a e c d be Pa e i e, a e ea ca e i
T a i ia, Nag Ca abach a ai f S a e ac i g a S a e , b
ih bei g i .
I e ca e e ha e e e a ec g i ed S a e hich ec g i e, e a ,
- S a e, a d he ha d ec g i e i .
S e eig i e f he e d ha e de a d he diffe e ce
be ee S a e .
We ha e e e be ha he e e e a i e f he S a e h a e cha ged
be a f di a ic a , a ba ad a d , a e b iged defe d a d
ec he S a e he e e e . C e a i a i e a i a e e fi d he
i i gi e b he fi a g a f each i e g e e a e e e a i e.

I i i a i de de a d a he e d, he c ce f
a a i a , hich i a f i e a i a . Whi e i he ca e bef e
e aid ha i e a i a i i i a ia e i de defi e
i eg e e a , b ha i i c ee g, i hi ca e, he e f
a a i a , e ca e hi ad ec i e i he a e a . S a a i a i
i ed he idea f e eig : i he ca e f a a a i a e e , e ha e a
big i e a f he e eig ha g e a a a i a e e , he
i a e a e i he E ea i (c a a d ee c i ). I he
a e f c a a d ee he a i a e eig d e e i a e, beca e
a he e i i he ha d f he i e a i a ga i a i . I hi ca e, e
ae i f f e e e a i e f he S a e , b e ae i f f
e e e a i e f ha ic. We ha e diffe e e a d diffe e ea i g f
ad ec i e : i e a i a i he ed, b a a i ag d a .
I i i a d ga i a i ae he a e hi g . I a ca e ,
i i i a e a f a i e a i a ga i a i .
I i i a a f f ga i a i f i e ai a eai . I e ai a
ga i a i i a f fi i i ha efe af a e f e a d
 b ec i e , a a i a i ed ad i i a i e i e a d hich ha a f a
ech ica a d a e ia ga i a i . I de be a i e a i a
ga i a i , e eed e e a ecific e e e : e eed a cha e a ea ,
a ag ee e e hi g i e . Each i e a i a ga i a i ha a
cha e : he U i ed Na i , he Red C , a he I e a i a O ic
C i ee. I a ca e i . g. efe eai be ee S a e :
i e ai a i i i ae a f eai be ee Sae .
I e a i a g ha e g a a d b ec i e , hich a e e e ed i he i e
a .
A i g i ha if he e i he ec e a ia : e e a ga h i cha ged
f he ad i i a i e hi g f he i e a i a ga i a i , a i d f
b ea c ac .
A a ech ica a d a e ia ga i a i i eed ff, e eed a a e a d a
b i di g h e a a e i dica ed i he i e a f he i e a i a
ga i a i .
Wha ab ga i a i a di i i : e i e e ha e a c e,
e a h e h e e e i a : b e ha e be c ea
ab hi i e. Ge e a , a i i i i he c e f a i e ai a
ga i a i : he e ea c i i i a i i i f he EU; he Ge e a
a e b i a i i i f he U i ed Na i .
Regi a ga i a i i e S a e ha be g he a e ge g a hica a ea
(EU).

F he C g e e he e i e i . Begi i g f c e a
hi . M e be ee he e igh e ed e i d a d a h ge a f ai f
he d (a he e i ).
The eigh ee h ce ha f e bee de c ibed a a c a ic e a f i i ed
a . I deed he ca e f he c f ic f gh i he e a f he F e ch Re i
a d Na e , ge he i h hei a ge- ca e c e e ce , ed e
bac ha he be ie ed had bee a e i e a d e ai a df
idea i he c ea i fa e de d. Th e a a e he e f g
ei d e i .
B i i h f eig i i e , L d G e i e, c e a i i eace i a:
be ee 1796 a d 1799, e eeded c e a i i eace e i d . Idea f
i e a i a c e a i a d ga i a i . D i g ce ie e had ec
 e a ed i e a i a c e a i . D e f S : c ci a g he e a e
ha c d be ab e fi d a a i de e i a eacef a ei d f
e i , i h a he i a fig e, a ie (Sai Pie e). B G e i e
idea did a f i e hi g a e ia . We ha e a a diffe e hi g
ab he ia T a A e a de he fi : he a e f he i a
ag i : he 22 f J e 1812, Na e a d he F e ch a i aded
R ia i h a dec a a i f a. I e e i f a ci i R ia cie :
fa e a d h e be gi g a e e e ab e eac a d he i ade ,
a i ic a . He be ie ed i g d. He a i i ed he C g e f
Vie aC g e . P i ci e : e ha 100 f S a e e e he e, b he
f ai S a e decided he f e fe e: R ia, U A ia, P ia. The
C g e had i ci e : d e ic i dic i : he i ci e f egi i ac : i
ea ha he ega i g ha i agai : Na e cha ged he di a , b
i h he C g e f Vie a he had e ed he d a hich a he e
bef e Na e . The ec d i ci e: he ce f he a e i g da d
he e e.
P i ci e ega di g f eig ic a d i e g e e a eai . N
hege ic a e b ba a ce f e . Whi e he UK i e i e e ed i he
e he ea a d i e a i a ade i h he US, he he h ee a e a e
ch e i e e ed i EU e i ie . R ia a d A ia e e i e e ed i
he ba ca a ea, hi e P ia a d A ia e e a i e e ed i he Ge a
Fede a i . I de be e ab he ba a ce f e , he T a ed
he H A ia ce ( e be be gi g ch i ia i : A ia ca h ic, P ia
e a , R ia d . The UK efe ed e ai ide beca e i did
acce ed he i ci e f i e e i : he ibi i f a f he e be
e e i he e i if he a e i de a b e . If i S ai
he e i a e e, he H ca i e e e. Diffe e f he i i a defe ce f
he S a e.
A a f he cie a a i g f a i d f c ai e f he a e.
1820-1821 a d 1830-1831 he H i e e ed i e i ie i hich e e
ee e i g beca e f he S a e e .B a h e e e ee h d
ha he H A ia ce.
The U did acce he i ci e, beca e he a ead had he H e f
C a d he Mag a Ca a hich a i a i i he Ki g e.
I a a i d f i e a i a ga i a i . I did ha e a a ,b e e
S a e c d decide i e e e i a S a e: i i ie i ia he e f
he eace ee i g e a i ha cha ac e i e he U i ed Na i ada .
I had c e, be ee a c e a i a d a ga i a i . F 1815 a d
20: he H A ia ce a a f a i i a a ia ce: ad ice a ea a : 3 f
h a d UK a d Q i e: 3-U -F a ce. Thi a ed 3 ea . The H
e had a a i g ife: 30 ea , af e he C i ea Wa .

16/09

Mea i g f i e a i a ga i a i . Ma defi i i .
The e a e diffe e i d f ga i a i : e ha e 8 c i e ia ed b A
J dge i 1995 i de defi e ga i a i . Acc di g hi a a i , i
de ha e a i e a i a ga i a i , i be c ed f a he e
c i e ia .
1) i de ha e a ge i e i e a i a ga i a i , e ha e e
a d ge i e ai : i c e a ea h ee S a e ; if he i e a i a
ga i a i i c ed f S a e , e a e a i g ab a
ag ee e .
2) he e be hi : h a f he ga i a i ? Me be hi be
i di id a c ec i e a ici a i ihf i g igh , a d i
be e ed e e i di id a ea hich i a f he a ea f he
i e a i a ga i a i . I ea ha h d ha e a i g e
ha e ec a he a ici a : he e a i g a g ha c
he h e ga i a i . (S a e ai a g ).
3) C i i : i ide f a f a c e gi i g e be he
igh e i dica e ec g e i g b die a d ffice c e
be c f a .
4) Office h d be f he a e a i a i a he a e i e. E e
he i e a i a i a i f he ga i a i .
5) B dge : i be d e b a b a ia c ib i f h ee S a e . If
a Sae i a i g a c ib i a I e a i a O ga i a i , ha
c ib i d e ea gi i g e he Me be S a e ; he
 b dge ha be i de each g a a d he ai f he
ga i a i , ac i i ie a d i i ; e i he ibi i d . 1965:
e a e a i g ab he E ea C i ie , De Ga e, P e ide f
F a ce, a g ed he E ea e ce ; ffice ee
a i g eae ea b dge he ai f he ga i a i ,
ih a i g he S a e h e hi b dge . The b dge i e f he
h e i f he ife f a i e a i a ga i a i .
6) I de e de ife: h e i h a e a i iha ga i a i h
ha he ca e i i de e de .e :i E e e ha e a fe ea
age cie ; ca he i e i de e de f he e ea i ?N ,
he a e i de e de ga i a i , he a e e ea ide i ie b
ih i de e de ife. B e ha e a ha he e a e i e a i a
ga i a i ha a e b i c ec i i h he i . g. b ha ca
i e i de e de : e a e efe i g he UN e : e f he ha e
i de e de ife e e if he a e b f he U i ed Na i a he
i ci e ga i a i .
7) E ide ce f c e ac i i ie ha be a ai ab e; ci i e ha e
de a d hich a e he ac i i ie f he i e a i a ga i a i .
D c e , e f c ci , a e b ie a d c i ee .
8) We ha e c ide i e e a he ca ed ega i e c i e ia , e e if
ge e a a d i f a he a e ed: ch a i ic a d ide gie ,
e c a e.. he a e ece a i de c a if a ga i a i .
I i ece a f e . a i g he he a ga i a i i a big,
ge g a h ..

The i e g e e a ga i a i a e c ide ed a i e g e e a
if he a e cha ac e i ed b 3 e e e a d c i e ia : e eed c
ibi i h ha ha i e g e e a ga i a i i c ed
b a e : i i a ega defi i i . We ha e he g e e i each S a e
ha ac a i e a i a e e ha he e i e ia
a ba ad a d i i e . I a de c a ic S a e ha i i e eed
he ibi i f hi S a e ha e he ag ee e he ig a e he
ga e; ge e a a i e a i a ag ee e eed e : ig a e
a d a ifica i ; he S a e i a f a ag ee e if i ha he
 a ifica i f hi ag ee e b he Pa ia e . Ob i he ced e
f he a ifica i i diffe e f a S a e.
- THE ORGANIZATION MUST CONSIST OF AT LEAST TWO QUALIFIED
MEMBERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM AND SHOULD BE CREATED
BY A FORMAL INSTRUMENT IF AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE
GOVERNMENTS AND NATIONAL STATES.
- THE ORGANIZATIONS MUST HOLD REGULAR PLENARY SESSIONS: ​ he
Sae h d a d a ici a e i eg a e a e i . UN: he
i a ga i he ge e a a e b a d he Sec i C ci ,
hich i c ed f 15 S a e . 5 e a e e be a e R ia, UK,
F a ce, US, Chi a; he he a e a i g. The Ge e a A e b ha
eg a e i , e eed he i g a d f ci f he
ga i a i .
- PERMANENT SECRETARIAT: ​ hich he he e a e i a d he
i g. a he ac i i ie a e e i ed b he e a e
ec e a ia , h i e a e.

S ecific c i e ia :

- e be hi : e e ga i a i (g e e a ) h d
be i i ed S a e , e i e e ha e -S a e e be , ch
a f e a e Pa e i e. The f a S a e i a S a e hich ha
bee ec g i ed b e e a e eig S a e ; he f a Sae
ec g i i g he -f a S a e ha a i d f i ica e . If
he e i a S a e ec g i ed b he US a d b Ma a, i i
ega a f a S a e, b i a ca e i i i e a f a S a e; he
ec g i i ha be d e b a he e be S a e , if e f
he d e ec g i e he S a e, i ac a e ai -f a.
- ai : he ga i a i i e ab i hed i de e he i e e
f a he e be S a e . The ai ca be a a i a i e e , b
a ea he ai h d be i ed he i e e f h ee S a e . e
Be e , e fec idea f ha ed a e : ec , defe ce a d
.I e e c e e ha ed b he e be .
 - c e: he ga i a i ha a c e hich i e ab i hed b
a ag ee e a ea a he i d fc i e a e.

UN: e a e ec e a ia , ge e a a e b , ec i c ci .

EU: i i a h b id f f i e a i a ga i a i beca e i ha
a e h ge be f ga , i h a ai f ai . I a
i i i e ha e he h e e e e a i e f he e be . The e
ae C ci i he e ea i :-C ci f he E ea
U i : i i c ed b he i i e , i c ec he head f
S a e a d head f g e e , he d f a i ; -
E ea C ci

The C ci f E ei a i i i f he E ea U i ,
i i a i e ai a g. e a i g i c i e .

​IGO VS NGO
Re i f he UN Ec ic a d S cia C ci : Feb a 1950, he
C ci ga e hi defi i i hich i c ide ed i a e:

EVERY INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION WHICH IS NOT CREATED BY

MEANS OF INTER- GOVERNMENTAL AGREEMENTS SHALL BE
CONSIDERED AS NON-GOVERNMENTAL INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATION.

We eed a ag ee e be ee g e e , he ie e ca c ide a
ga i a i a i e g e e a.

- Af ica U i : IGO, i i a i d f U i ade b 54 af ica S a e a d

i ha a f i e e i g b ec i e , ch a ida i , defe ce, eace,
h a igh , de e e , i a c ea ed b e af ica S a e i de
e c e he b e de ce ded f dec i ai .
- A e I e a i a : NGO
- A ab Leag e: IGO, i i ade b e ha 20 e be , i i i ed
ec ic de e e a d e be i he a ab d, i i a
IGO a d i e g e e a.
 - A cia i f he e e i f e: NGO.
- Ea Af ica C i : IGO, i i a i d f egi a ec ic
c eai .
- E ea U i : IGO
- H a Righ Wa ch: NGO
- M deci a f i e (d c ih b de ) NGO
- A ia- Pacific ec ic c e a i : IGO, ec ic c e a i a d
ai ab e c e a i , 21 S a e , he eed ai ab e de e e ,i
ha a ea e ha e a e ec ic de e e , b e i e a d
ai abi i ha de e .
- Sa e he Chi d e : NGO
- W d Vi i : NGO
- C ea h: IGO

IGO: A i e g e e a ga i a i (IGO) i a g f e be
( e eig ae ,c ie ) i g ge he i e f a e f-i e e .
S e IGO a e ega e i ie i.e. he ha e bee a ified b cha e . The
U i ed Na i i ag de a e f a ega c i ed IGO. I cha e i
he i e e f 192 e be a i . IGO ha a e cha e ed d e i
i a ega e e. B i he ig ifica a he ce ai d e i . F
e a e he -cha e ed G7 (G f Se e ) ha a a ee i g dea i g
i h he b a i e i ica a d ec ic c ce f he d' i d ia
eade ( he G7 a he G8 i 2014, he e e e be e ded R ia
f i a e ai f C i ea).

NGO: NGO. g a ha a NGO:

- i a - fi , a ci i e ' g ;
- i ga i ed a ca , a i a i e ai a e e;
- ca e f a a ie f e ice a d h a i a ia f c i ;
- i a ga i ed a d ecific i e ch a h a igh ,
e i e hea h.
A aigh f a d defi i i ...b e i e ai . The a chd g g G ba
P ic F a e f he e e i .

Wi i edia a ha a de ai ed a ic e ab NGO : ha he a e, h he ca
be c a ified, ha he d , a d h he a e ga i ed, f ded, a d i ed.
The egi i ac f e NGO i a c i i ed.

Tech ica , a ea , NGO d e a g e e age da. H e e ,

a NGO a e f ded b he g e e f e a e, a f - iia
g e e f eig aid i cha e ed h gh NGO . The G ee d
E c c edia f I e a i a Re a i di a ica ca hi i a i
e ie b e a ic (1172), hich igh be e ea e NGO ( i e
H a Righ Wa ch) h g e e f di g.

21/09

I de de c ibe he de e e f I e ai a ga i a i , e ca
di ide he hi ica ce i h ee ai a a d e : he fi ei
f he e d f he Na e ic Wa 1850 he begi i g f WWI; he he
e i d bef e he WWI 1 e . 1939; he hi d e i d i he e d f he C d
Wa .

C ce ed ac i c ea e iaea echa i f e c eai fi

a e i he i e ee h ce .

1. gi e ha a e a e he ai c i e f IO , he d had be i
i ae f ci i ga e eig i ica e i ie ; e eed e e a e e e
i de a ha hi ce a g d.

2. The e i de e de i eeded i ab e i e c ec i . Ec ica

ea i g, f 1915 he d a a i eg a ed.

3. a a e e a g ae f he f ic i a i i gf hei c e i e ce

4. a ecia i f he eed f g e a ce echa i .C eai d be

g d a d ii e e e e h a ici a e i hi c e a i . The
 ibi i ha e g d c e a i a ed a f a d i h he idea f
ibe a i . Thi idea a e ha if e ea e he a e f ee, i i fi d i
abi i beca e ec ic f ce fi d a e i ib i b he e e , i h
he i e e i f he S a e. The idea f ibe a i a d i e i ib i a d
abi i i a fe ed a i a i d f cia abi i a d e e ; if cie i
ab e, he i ica e i . The a e e i ib i i a fe ed a
he i e a i a e e , if he ade a e i ab e, he e a e c f ic
be ee g e e .

THE BEGINNINGS:

The a i g i ee C g e e he d b he ic i he Na e ic
Wa , he C g e f Vie a (1815) a d C g e f he H A ia ce (1818).
Thi i he c g e e he c ce f e e. C ce d e ai ai
i e a i a eace, e i dica c fe e ce a d he e f di ac . Be ee
1850 a d 1914, 105 c fe e ce e e he d de he b ad aegi f he C ce
e ea i g i a ce f i a e a di ac beca e a fac f ife i he
19 h ce . C fe e ce e e f e c ce a ed i adi g affai a d i
ec ic de e e a d c e a i . Thi idea f ee i g a
c bi ed i h he idea f i i i , hich a e a e i a i a d
cha ac e i ic f a i e a i a ga i a i , i ea ha he c ce a
e a i e ai a ga i a i , b ha he C g e f Vie a ha
c ea ed he d a cie i e a i a ga i a i ha i he Ce a
C i i f he Na iga i f he Rhi e.

Thi C i i a c ea ed bef e he C g e f Vie a: he T ea f 15

Oc be 1804 g e i g he c i e ied f i g he Rhi e,
c c ded b he F e ch E i e a d he H R a E i e f he Ge a
Na i i e f a ce f he Ge e a Re c i f 25 Feb a 1803 b he
E i e de a i a d ab i hi g he a i i e i e ce he Rhi e
i fa f he i i i f a Rhi e , c ea ed i Mai a fi i e a i a
ad i i a i ih e ibi i f ce a i i g he e ied e e
i g he Rhi e ha he e c d be ed i e a igabi i a d he a e
f he a h . The ga i a i a had he f c i f e i g di e
aii g f he e c i i f he c i . I he fi a a f he d c e
f he C g e f Vie a he e a a a hich ga e bi h he C i i ,
 hich a c ed b e e e a i e f he e be S a e . The e c i g
f he C g e c fi ed he e f he a iga i f he Rhi e ( he
f eed f he a iga i ) ha a e ab i hed bef e, a d i a e he ce a
c i i e ib e da a c e i ecifica i e e ed
ai hi i ci e. The T ea f Pa i f 30 Ma 1814 aid d he
i ci e f he f eed f a iga i he a i e ai a i e f
E e. Na iga i a he fi eed c ea e i e a i a c e a i hich
had b i ed he idea f i a e a c e a i , b i di g a e c ed
e be ee S a e .

The c i i had a i a ei de e he a iga i f he

Ri e , a d hi a e i a i de e i e a i a adi g a d
i e a i a c e a i a e . D i g hi e i d h e e , e ha e a
ha he e e e di a ic c fe e ce ce a ea i g hi e be
ha he ea e i ed he a ifica i b he e be S a e , f e . i 1838
he e a a addi i a a ic e i he C e i ha a ab he
a f da ge b a ce he Rhi e f he h a ife. ​I 1861, he
c i i ' ea a ed ​Ma hei ​, a d 17 Oc be 1868, he
C e i f Ma hei a ag eed : ​i a ab he ibi i f he
S a e hich e e e be ad c eg a i . Thi ag ee e i
g e he i ci e f Rhi e a iga i da . I a cha ac e i ed b he
e e.

The e be a e a e c e Ge a , Be gi , F a ce, he Ne he a d ,
a d S i e a d. The c e e i ed c e i a ig ed i S a b g b
he fi e e be f he c i i a d he U i ed Ki gd 20 N e be
1963 a d e e ed i f ce 14 A i 1967. The e ha e i ce bee addi i a
c .

We ha e a he i a e i hi : he a i g i f he
C i i f he Rhi e a d i g he 18 h ce a d ha i he a e
e i d he e e e he ca ed P b ic I e a i a U i : hi i e a i a
i ae c ed f i a e i di id a i ed f he ad a ce e f
i d ,c e ce, cie ific , he e a e e ha e h d ed fif
a f i hed i h a e a e f f ga i a i ( ecific ec ). The a e
c ide ed g e e a beca e he ee ecifica c ed b
 e be S a e a d a i a S a e . We ha e e e be ha h e -i eg.
g, a h gh he e i e g., he a ea ed i h e a ea i hich
i e ai ai a ch ei a ha bei g c ed i he a i a
b de : he e a e e e a ga i a i c ec ed i h c ica i , f e
I . Te eg a h U i (1865), I . Me e gica O ga i a i (1873),
U i e a a U i (1874), I . B ea f Weigh a d Mea e (1875).
The e I e a i a g. e e b i c ec i h e b ic c fe e ce .
The e ga i a i e e h b id, beca e he eec ed b S a e , b
a b i a e cie ie a d i di id a . E : h i he i e a i a ed c
h b id? Beca e i c bi e he g e e a a d -g e e a ee e .

Ma f h e P b ic I e a i a U i e e c ce a ed ec ic
de e e . We ha e h ee b ic i e ai a i hich i ed i
da : he fi e i he Pa i C e i f he ec i f he I d ia
P e (1884); he C e i f ec i f i e a a d a i ic
(c igh ) 1886; he Ad i i a i e B ea e ab i hed b hi c e i
1893 a d beca e he U i ed I e a i a B ea f he ec i f
i e ec a e ( hich i he W d I e a i a P e
O ga i a i ).

I 1890 he I e a i a U i f he P b ica i fC Ta iff a b

faci i a e he C ' adi g affai .

A i ae e- hi d fai ed i e he Fi W d Wa .

I 1889 he e a he I e Pa ia e a U i ha a a ched b he
e be f he a ia e , b a e beca e a i d f f .

The I e a i a B ea f he a e ica Re b ic (1890) a he ec f

he O ga i a i f A e ica S a e . O igi a i a e f e ade, b
he i beca e he a -a e ica b ea ha a a i ica b d hich f ed
he a a e ica Hea h O ga i a i , beca e f he eadi g f di ea e
ac b de , b i a ab e e e he ead f he a de ia ( he
S a i h e) 1918-1920.

I 1909 Da id L bi , f ded he I e a i a I i e f Ag ic ei Ia ,
R e. I 1930, he IIA b i hed he fi d ag ic a ce . Af e
W d Wa II, b h i a e a d a da e e e ha ded e he F d a d
Ag ic e O ga i a i (FAO) f he U i ed Na i . I fi di e i a ed he
ag ic a g ba a i ic , a d i 1929 i ga i ed he G db ea i g
W d Ce f Ag ic ea d ed he i a ac i i ie ch a
he Fi I e a i a C e i .. i de c he e d ci a d
abi i ed he fi I e a i a C e i a ec i .

I e ai a U i ee ic a ici a ed b he S a e , he ee
b e ed b he beca e he e e i e e ed. The c i e a b
bi a e a e c e a he ha bei g a f he ga i a i .

The he e a he bi h f he NG ga i a i , ch a he I e a i a
I i e f Ad i i a i e Scie ce, he Pe a e A cia i f R ad
C g e e ha i he W d R ad A cia i . The e ha e he
I e ai a C f hich a e e a ified b he US a d a he g
a ab bed i e e i i g ga i a i , ch a f e a e he
U i e a Radi Te eg a hic U i i he ITU (i . e eg a h U.) a d he
P a C i i I di FAO. The I e a i a S ga U i i 1920 i
he I e a i a S ga O ga i a i .

The Hag e S s em:

The fi a ab e de e e a he f he e ie h ce a he
Hag e S e f ee i g . F i g T a Nich a f R ia ca f a
c fe e ce di a a e , I e a i a Peace C fe e ce e e he d i
The Hag e i 1899 (27 S a e ) a d 1907 (44 S a e ).

The e f he e c fe e ce a ha a e ea S a e i
e e e i i ed i he c fe e ce i de di c i e ai a
eai a d i e ai a i ic . I 1907 he i a i a e g d:
be ee he c fe e ce e ha e had he R ia-Ja a a , he
a cca c i e be ee F a ce a d Ge a , f ig a ha a a a
c i g, he highe be f S a e a ici a i g a he c fe e ce a a c ea
ig a ha he e a he idea f a i g f he a ha a g i g ha e .

The idea f he e c fe e ce a a idea e a ed he e ab i h e f

a bi a i : he S a e had e c e i he be a he c i e . The ied
a id a a d fi d a a e c e i e a i a c f ic ; hi a he idea
de i e a i a ga i a i ; he idea f i g he a a e a d fi di g
a a i de i e a i a di e a e he e e ia idea f
i e a i a ga i a i .

The e a he I e a i a C f A bi a i i de e he ci i
di e.

The e a fa , beca e e had he d a .

I de de a d he de e e f i e a i a ga i a i e ha e
a e i acc ha i ha e i d he e a , f a hi ica i f
ie , a e h ge a f ai f he d; he e a he bi h f i e a
he de S a e a he e a d he f ai f a he he S a e . The ,
a he cie a a f i g: e ha e cia c a e i g a a e
i hi he cie , he e e e ' i g a d ee i h h ge e ,b
c e , d ce a d .. We a ha e a g ba i ed d f
e e e, e e ha e h e a d defe d f d, he e i he bi h
f he FAO, defe d e e f i d f di ea e a d . The 19 h i
he g Ce , he ea i g ha be de dc ai gi he h
ce , hich i he 20 h. he 19 h ce i he ea ce , e ha e he
a f ai f he d a d he S a e e ,b e ha e a a he i d
f a f a i beca e he d a ed bei g i e c ec ed: ec i
he g ba i a i , ha e ha e ic cha ge ; a f ai af e he
i d ia e i hich c ea ed he b ge i ie a d he e c a , he
idd e c a a d e e e h a a i gf e igh .

Pac a S Se a da: ha e e ec ag ee e : he f da e a idea f

i e a i a c e a i . We ha e fi d he hi f ga i a i i
hi h ge a e . The e cha ge a ed i he We ha ia C g e i 1648.

22/09

Ma hi ia hi ha he begi i g f he ife f i e a i a ga i a i
a ed f he We ha ia C g e . The C g e f Vie a e ab i hed he
c ce f e e: he ee i g e e i di a ic, b he e e ab e
 e c i e . The eff each a be e a ga i e a i a i d i g
c f ic . D i g he C g e e ha e he i a ea f he H
A ia ce f 1818.

Ta i g i c ide a i ha he O a e i e, f a hi ica i f
ie , a a f he e ea hi .S he ag i f hi a f hi
a ai E e. B i i ece a a ha , a i g f he c i ea
a , he e i ib i i E e a dec ea i g a d he e a a i c ea e f
c f ic , hich e e di ec i di ec c f ic . We had a fc i e a d i e
a .

Af e he c i ea a e had e i d f a ia ce : F a ce a d B i ai ee
c e a d c e , hi e a he begi i g f he ce he C ie e e
e agai he he ; Na e a agai he UK, he a i g a e he
e he ea . U a i g face a d a e a f e ea
c f ic , i fac i a i g c ea e c ie .

Le a hi ab he ea e E e: e ha e R ia a d A ia, hich
ee i g ai ai he e i ib i i ha a f e e. B d i g he
c i ea a he e c ie e e b iged di ide hei a ia ce a d
ha e diffe e a d fi d diffe e a ia ce . A ia a ab e acce he
e e ha R ia had e e ded i he Ba a , he a ea hich a e
i a f A ia a d i e . We ha e a ei c ide a i ha he
Ba a ae ee a aic f c e , a d ha e e ae ai ai a
i g a d a d ea i g f i i de e de ce, i de c ea e f ee S a e a d
h eSae .

D i g he c i ea a , R ia e ai ed a e beca e he U e e ed i he
a agai R ia a d A ia, he a ied, did g a . S i he fi i e
F a ce a d U d ge he agai R ia, b he i h e c ia i a d
a he e d f he 19 h ce U ied c ea e a a ia ce i h R ia i de
be e a ed i ca e f a . A he big cha ge i E e a he bi h f
Ge a i 1870-1871 i he P ia -F a ce Wa , he e e had he e d f
he F a ce e i e (i ha e , Na e III a ca ed) a d he bi h f
he Thi d Re b ic i F a ce ha a g i g a .

I ha e i d e i ib i a cha gi g a ha e e ag ee e :
 - Sa S efa ag ee e (1878): i a ab he idea f he c ea i f
S a e i he Ba a , ch a B ga ia. The ea af e he cha ce
Bi a ga i ed a C g e ab he Ba a i h he a ici a i f
e ea S a e , beca e a f he e e af aid ab he R ia
idea f a a i , i g c ec a he a ia e e i i g
a d E e i ide a i g a S a e, R ia, hich a he bigge
c i e e. Thi agg e i e beha i f R ia ed he he
e ea c ie c ai hi agg e i . S a i g f he ec d
a f he 19 h ce , he O a E i e a ed bei g e ea
( he ea E i e) a d e ea e a ed i g hi ea e i
de he c f ic i a i . Af e he e d f he Ba a
C fe e ce , S a e a a i fied i h he i ad ed d e he
g i e e i he a ea.

I hi e i d e ha e a had he e i fc ia i i Af ica, he
e fe ea c ie a c ce a ed i A ia a e a i g
f 1866. Thi c ia i did a bef e beca e i Af ica he e a
a a ia a d edici e e e i e ed agai he di ea e. Thi i d f e
c ia i a i a f he c i ai i de e i e ce ,
beca e h e i E e ee ge fficie . Thi e c ia i a
a he a a id ib e c f ic i E e, a d he agg e i e
a i de f he e ea c ie a a fe ed f E e Af ica. B i
ece a a ha a i Af ica he i a i a d he ba a ce f e
a g d: i fac , e ha e a ei c ide a i he i cide be ee
F a ce a d G ea B i ai a he e d f he 19 h ce (1898): F a ce a e
i e e ed ha e he c a ecific a ea a d i e f e ea (f
A a ic he Red Sea), hi e U a i e e ed i a he i e, hich a he
ca ed Cai Ca e i e f h h. If e d a a i e f Ca e
T Cai (Rh de ' d ea ) a d a he i e f Da a F e ch
S aia d( D ib i) b he Red Sea i he H ( he F e ch a bi i ),
he e i e i e ec i ea e S h S da ea he f Fa h da,
e ai i g i a egic i a ce. The F e ch ea e a i a d he B i i h
h ha i c d c -e i ; he a i ha c d cc a d h d he
c i g f he a e d be he e ab e ceed i h i a .
F he i cide , ha he b i ia f f e ch di ac , ha
i cide a a f ed i he Ge e Ag ee e , he E e e c dia e .

The he e a ace he Ma cca C i e a he begi i g f he 20 h

ce . A ha e , F a ce dec a ed i i e e M cc a d Ge a
ied ai ai i i f e ce ha C . The c i e e e ab
he fac ha he ge a i g ied e e i M cc ffe i g e i d f
ec i , a d ha ge e a ed he eac i f F a ce, b f ae i cide
ace (i hi e , e ha e he i c ea e f he idea f e e ge f
F a ce a d Ge a ).

I hi e R ia a a e big S a e; b i a ea , ec a
g a d he i d ia e i a a i g e h d ed ea a e
f he e f E e, he b ge i ie c a a e e i R ia; he i d
f e i a a ead b i g i R ia beca e f he bi h f e a ie .
The T a Nich a II a ca ef f h e ig a a d he did cha ge hi
bad a i eadi g he C . B he hi g i ha i 1904 a d 1905, i
de ee fa R ia be f ia e i , he T a a ed a
a agai Ja a i de defea i a d c e a big a f Chi a; i a
he fi i e ha a e ea C a defea ed b a -e ea C .
Tha T a h gh ha if he ed he c i a a , he d e he
C ' i e a b e . The hi g ha e e ged af e ha a e e ha
R ia eeded ef . The T a a d he C ee c ee a e
a d ea , he e a ibi i i ca e f a i ; i a ca e a a
d a e ace e ae.I i i a e igh ha he T a , bei g
a a e f hi i a i , e ha i a e i a f R ia ee a
a a be a e i a ib e a . S he a ed fi d ag ee e ih
he c ie i de fi d a ie .

The fi c fe e ce a c e ed a he i i a i f C Mi hai
Ni a e ich M a , he i i e f f eig affai f T a Nich a II f
R ia. I hi ci c a f 11 Ja . 1899, C M a ed ecific
ic f c ide a i : (1) a i i a i he e a i f a ed f ce a d a
ed c i i he de e f e a a e , (2) he a ica i f he
i ci e f he Ge e a C e i f 1864 a a a fa e, a d (3) a
e ii f he a ified B e Dec a a i f 1874 ega di g he a a d
c f a d a fa e. The c fe e ce e f Ma 18 J 29, 1899; 26
ai e e e e e ed. O A e ica c ie a ici a ed, he U i ed
S a e a d Me ic . A h gh he c fe e ce f 1899 fai ed achie e i
i a b ec i e, he i i a i a a e , i did ad c e i
defi i g he c di i f a a e f be ige e c a d he c eai g
a a d a d ea. F he , h ee dec a a i e e acce ed e hibi i g
he e f a h ia i g ga e , a he hibi i g he e f e a di g b e
(d d ), a d a he hibi i g he di cha ge f ec i e e i e
f ba . La , a d i a , a he ad i f he C e i f
he Pacific Se e e f I e a i a Di e , c ea i g he Pe a e C
f A bi a i , i ea ha he e a he idea c ea e e hi g c e a
i e a i a ga i a i .

S he e i a i a hi ica a age: ee i g a d he C g e e
i a g a ed i Vie a a e gh c ea e a ab e a d eacef E e.
Lea i g he e ibi i f i ga cie a d b e be ee E ea
c ie di a a ge e gh. The C g e e a
e gh e e a.C ie f d ha i a i a cha ge he
e a d he c ea ed a he e : he Hag e e . Thi e a
c e e diffe e f he e i e, b i a a f e i :
hi a a e i d i hich e e ic a e e ha he deci i had
be a e i acc .

O e i a he c ea i f i e a i a b die , ch a The I e a i a
C f A bi a i , hich i e f he e ga i a i ( ga i a i i a e
ge e a a , e eci e e defi e i a a C ), ha a he fi a age
a i i i ai ai f he i e a i a e a i f h e i e . Thi C
i c ide ed a IGO, a d e ha e a i d f a age i hich he e ea
S a e ied e e ea i e a e i . I a a i d f ga i a i
idi g e ice he i e a i a c i i g e he di e ;i
c d i e e ei a , b i a ca e if he e e e a di e , hi C
c de e i e i i g e i (C Pe a e e d A bi age). Thi
a e a C i he adi i a e e, b i a a i d f a bi a e
ib a , i ai a e di e hich a e i i e a i a ag ee e
be ee S a e a g i e ai a ga i a i i a e a ie . Thi
C a i e e i g he he e a a di e i ed he i e e a i
 he i a i f a i e a i a ag ee e , di e aii g f i e
ea ie , d e he di a ic i cide . Thi C a e a ed he
idea f e e i f a : he idea f e e i a b af e he fi
d a . Thi d e ea ha af e WWI he E ea did ha e he
idea f e e i f a . I ca be aid ha he C f a bi a i i a e
i a e f he Hag e e ; i had a Sec e a Ge e a , hich i e
f he ai e e e i de defi e a ga i a i f ha i d a d he
Hag e c fe e ce a gi e i h he a ici a i f a f S a e . The
I e ai a C i ba ed he c a , i ea ha i e e ce
a e a i g a ; a i g ab he e be , e ha 70 e be ace
i 1899 a d af e he ec d c fe e ce f The Hag e e ha 100 e be
f Sae ace i he I . C . I i a ea i e g e e a a d
i e a i a ga i a i , beca e i a ha ecific ai .

R ia a i e e ed i h ee e e e ha ca be hidde : he fi e a
ab he ea a d ab he ibi i each he ea e ea b
ci i ehic e , b a b iia e ; ec d, R ia a i e e ed i he
c ea i f a efe e ia a a d i f ec ic ade a d c e a d
a e e ea i g ide R ia; a d he hi d, R ia a i gi a
e ha d e ea a , R ia e ha he a c d be he e d f R ia,
he i ica c a de d ha he had he ia e i
de face a ib e a .

The Hag e S e Sec d c fe e ce (1907)

The c fe e ce f 1907, h gh fi ed b U.S. P e ide The d e

R e e , a fficia c e ed b Nich a II. Thi c fe e ce a f 15
J e 18 Oc . 1907, a d a a e ded b he e e e a i e f 44 a e .
Agai he a f he i i a i fa a e a acce ed. The idea
f i iai fa a e a b af e e die hich f d ha he
iia e di g a high: a i g a a i a a a defea , i
e f h a i e , b a i fi a cia e . The idea ha a b i g a
ha e e if eg i g i he a , he c a e e e i e ha ca
a a c ide hi a a defea ; b hi e idea a e gh acce hi
a f he ag ee e , a d he a a e ec ed. I a ea a
ab di a a e . B f hi c fe e ce he e a he idea f eg a i g
a,f e a e h c d c i acc di g i e a i a a . I fac ,
he d a e c e he fi d a,a d i a e i a
fi d a i d f a c de , i g ga i e he c d c i f he c f ic .

The c fe e ce did, h e e , ad e ea c e i eai g ch a e

a he e e f f ce f he ec e fc ac deb ; he igh a d
d ie f e a e a d e i a a d a d ea; he a i g f
a a ic b a i e c ac i e ; he a f e e e cha hi ;
b ba d e b a a f ce i a i e; a d he e ab i h e f a
i e ai a i e c ( e e e e ed i f ce). The c fe e ce f 1907
e e ed he dec a a i hibi i g he di cha ge f ec i e f ba
b did eaffi he dec a a i hibi i g a h ia i g ga a d e a di g
b e . The fi a ac f he c fe e ce e e he a i acce a ce b he
de ega e f he i ci e f c a bi a i a d he a i g f a be
f e (e i ), he fi f hich a he ec e da i ha a he
c fe e ce be ed i eigh ea , h e ab i hi g he c ce ha he
be a ha d e i e a i a be a h gh a e ie f cce i e
c fe e ce .

Thi c fe e ce ace i a e ea e i R ia hi : af e he
defea agai Ja a a d he i e a e i . The R ia Re i f
1905, a a he Fi R ia Re i , a a a e f a i ica
a d cia e ha ead h gh a a ea f he R ia E i e, e f
hich a di ec ed a he g e e . I i c ded e i e , ea a
e , a d iia i ie . I ed c i i a ef ( a e he
"Oc be Ma ife "), i c di g he e ab i h e f he S a e D a, he
i- a e , a d he R ia C i i f 1906. The 1905 e i
a ed b he R ia defea i he R -Ja a e e Wa , hich e ded i
he a e ea , b a b he g i g ea i a i b a a ie f ec f
cie f he eed f ef . P i icia ch a Se gei Wi e had fai ed
acc i h hi . Whi e he T a a aged ee hi e, he e e
f e had ed h e f he R ia e i i 1917, hich e ed i he
e h f he a ch , e ec i f he i e ia fa i , a d c ea i f
he S ie U i b he B he i . The idea ha R ia a i g fi d a
e i e ai a i i i ag ee e ch a he E e e c dia e. Whi e he
fi Hag e e a ed b R ia, hich had a e aid e e a
i ee a d a ( hich e e a acce ed b he c ie ), he
ec d c fe e ce a a a b he US e ide . Af e hi c fe e ce,
he e a he c ea i f he I e a i a P i e C : The I e a i a P i e
C a a i e ai a c ed a he begi i g f he 20 h ce ,
hea i e ca e . A i e a i a ag ee e c ea e i , he C e i
Re a i e he C ea i fa I e ai a P i eC , a ade a he Sec d
Hag e C fe e ce i 1907 b e e ca e i f ce, diffe e f he
I e ai a C f A bi a i .

The ca i g f i e (e e e i e , ehic e , a d e ecia hi )

d i g a i e i a adi i ha g e bac a fa a ga i ed a fa e i e f.
The I e a i a P i e C a hea a ea f ai a c
c ce i g i e ca e . E e a a d af , he c e i a i a i e f he
i e, i bei g b h he fi e e ea f a i e ai a c (a ed
a e e a bi a ib a ), a d i idi g i di id a i h acce he c ,
g i g agai he e ai i g d c i e f i e a i a a a he i e, acc di g
hich a e had igh a d d ie de i e a i a a . The
C e i a ed, a ic a b e e e i hi he U i ed S a e a d
he U i ed Ki gd , a a i a i f ai a e eig . The he ea
h he C e e ca e i f ce a ha E e a ab face a a
e ae.

Ta i g ab he US, i i ece a a ha i ha e he fe c e
E e, a i g ge i e ea a f he adi i a idea f he he
M e D c i e (1823) hich a ed ha f he eff b ai E ea
ae a ec fa i de e de a e i he A e ica d be ie ed
a " he a ife a i fa f ie d di ii a d he U i ed S a e . A
he a e i e, he d c i e ed ha he U.S. d ec g i e a d
i e fe e i h e i i g E ea c ie edd e i he i e a affai f
E ea c ie . Af e he ci i a a he e d f he 18 h ce ,U a d
US e ai ed e c e e he he , i h hei ecia e a i hi a d hei
ecia ade a e i a ;a di a i g ha e ca a ha i ea i
he US a i di ec i ed i E ea affai .

The i e a e i d:
I i a e ch f a a iai ea d aiai ee a i f IO .

Bi h f:

- he Leag e f Na i ( he Leag e): i e ca e i a a ca ed he

S cie f Na i .
- he I e a i a Lab O ga i a i (ILO)
- he Ba f I e a i a Se e e (BIS).

The Leag e a d ILO e e he i i i f hich he c ce f a

i e a i a ci i e ice, i de e de fa a i a i f e ce, ha de e ed
a d e e he hi ica a ecede f he c e f e e IO . The
e i f WWII de i ed he i i f hi Leag e a d e ha e a ha
he a d he i i f he Leag e e e i a i de de ig a be e
i ica e a dc e ai .
23rd Sept 2020

Wilson’s 14 points (January 1918)

Ludwig Dehio underlined that with the entrance of the US in WWI in 1917 there’s a
passage from the European history to the world history. Another crucial event which
occurred in 1917 is the Russian revolution, the Red Revolution. With this one,
another danger was coming, not only from imperialistic interest of the state, but also
from a new economic and political doctrine.

The real beginning of 1918 was very chaotic due to these events.

The European continent was hit by several wars before WWI1, even none of them had
been as destructive as this one. The situation was definitely conflictual. Even in the
American continent, several wars took place in which many European countries -
such as France, Spain, GB - were involved. Wilson’s idea was that, seen that human
beings were always living among wars, they had to stop them completely to reach a
permanent peace which could last for centuries. He saw WWI and the involvement of
US as the tool to put an end to all the wars. This speech was also justified by the fact
that, even if the US entered WWI on the 6th of April 1917 to join their allies,
Washington entered the war reluctantly. Unlike many European nations, the US
wasn’t fighting for territorial interests or as a revenge to past wars – as France,
Germany and GB were doing – but because they wanted to build up a long-lasting
peace for the whole world. He gathered several advisors and asked them to design a
plan for peace. Wilson and his advisors gave birth to the famous 14 points whose
main goal was to outline a strategy to end war. He set out specific purposes he
wanted to achieve throughout war, specifically a lasting peace. If the US had to fight
in the European continent causing the loss of many American soldiers‘life, they had
to establish exactly what they were fighting for. They outlined it through Wilson’s 14
points speech. Doing so, Wilson became the only leader fighting in the war to outline
1The Crimean war, the Russian-Turkish conflict, wars against Prussia and Austria, Italy vs Austria, France vs Germany,
the two BriBsh wars in China (known as the opium wars), wars in the Balkans
his war goals. He wanted to underline to the whole nation that they were fighting for
a higher purpose, not for personal interests. He also wanted the American people to
know that the US was living thanks also to the international trade, something that can
only be possible in peaceful times. His speech consisted of:

1. No more secret agreements between countries. Diplomacy shall be open to the

world. -> No more secret diplomacy, a kind of habit of the European countries.
This point was particularly addressed to Italy which subscribed the London
treaty secretly in April 1915 even if it was part of the Triple alliance (Germ. +
Austria-Hungary) changing its allies to have back Italian lands still under the
Austrian occupation. Nevertheless, this point wasn’t addressed only to Italy.
Seen that Italy didn’t receive the promised territories, the slogan “cut victory”,
came out. Italy won the war, but it didn’t receive any gains. Not only the Italian
government, but also the Italian public opinion grew resentment. This was one
of the reasons which favoured the rise of Fascism and allowed it to build a big
alliance with Germany. Both these two nations rejected the treaties signed after
WWI saying they were absolutely unfair and for this reason they had to be re-
negotiated. To sum up Wilson’s first point, its aim was to abandon definitely
the idea of managing in a secret way the international politics, that was –
according to Wilson – the best way to ruin relations among the states.

2. International seas shall be free to navigate during peace and war. ->
International seas should be free to navigate, firstly to preserve international
trade and secondly to avoid that several states can suffer from illness and
starvation because of lacking goods needed to look after the population. It was
a specific reference to the UK and to the sinking of the vessel Lusitania2, the
event which triggered the US decision to join WWI. The main essence of this
point was that seas and waters in general must be free from war.

2A civil vessel bringing goods and passengers from US to UK. In that specific moment, Germany was conducBng a
submarine warfare also throughout embargo towards GB.
3. There shall be free trade among countries that accept peace. -> Trade must be
as open as possible because it can guarantee international development,
reducing the reasons for war.

4. There shall be a worldwide reduction in weapons and armies by all countries.

-> If you have weapons, you can use them, if you don’t have any, you have to
try to solve your problem in other ways. Complete disarmament was the topic
of a very long conference which lasted two years. Unfortunately, this goal
failed, so states started to talk about reduction of disarmament. The term
reduction is less worrying for nation-states. To reduce weapons can be possible
(and it should be general), while the complete disarmament of a nation is not.

5. Colonial claims over land and regions will be fair. -> The idea of
decolonization wasn’t present at the time, but there was a less harsh attitude
towards colonies, which shouldn’t be just a simple land to exploit.

6. Russia will be allowed to determine its own form of government. All German
troops will leave Russian soil. -> In January 1919 the Russian army wasn’t
fighting anymore, so the German troops had no enemy to fight with. Russia
was going through a transformation of the state, but it was still unclear which
kind of state it was. For sure, it was no more an Empire. It was something
related to communism, but the situation was deeply unclear. There was no
Constitution, the law was very confusing. The Soviets had the power, but no
one knew what the Soviets were. The question was to understand what was
going to happen. GB and France, as well as Germany, were afraid that that
kind of revolution could also invest Western Europe. In any case, the US stated
 that Russia was able to do whatever it wanted on its soil and that other
countries had to abandon it, being Russia a sovereign state.

7. German troops will evacuate Belgium and Belgium will be an independent

country. -> Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg had been invaded by
German troops during war, even if they declared neutrality. After the congress
of Vienna, Belgium was put together with the Netherlands, although feeling an
independent state. It was an interesting state Belgium. France, the Netherland
and also Germany were interested in maintaining a peaceful situation in the
country - obviously, seen the consistent presence of French speaking
communities, the French need was more easily understandable. According to
Wilson’s point, Belgium should be respected as a neutral state, that meant that
German troops had to withdraw from it and it should be independent again, as
it was before WWI.

8. France will regain all territory including the disputed land of Alsace-Lorraine.
-> Alsace and Lorraine provoked a lot of wars. After the first one, that was the
French-German war (1870-71), Alsace-Lorraine was kept by Germany. The
defeat of France created a sense of revanchism, the French wanted to have
these two regions back. Revanchism was one of the causes of WWI. Therefore,
Wilson was suggesting to give the lands back to France to solve this dispute.

9. The borders of Italy will be established such that all Italians will be within the
country of Italy. -> Reference to all the Italian minorities that were under
Austrian-Hungarian Empire, especially in Slovenia and Sud Tirol. This topic
wasn’t enough for the Italians who wanted to have privileges in Albania and
the Balkan coast. Furthermore, to worsen the situation, the Yugoslavian State
(named the Kingdom of the Southern Slavs) was created in 1919 after WWI. It
included several territories in which Italian minorities were living. With the
creation of Yugoslavia, Wilson’s point could find a concrete application.
 10.Austria-Hungary will be allowed to continue to be an independent country. ->
Although Austria and Hungry were one of the countries which provoked WWI,
they couldn’t be victim of a revenge, especially from France and GB. Actually,
this point was partially applied because both states became independent.

11.The Central Powers will evacuate Serbia, Montenegro and Romania leaving
them as independent countries. -> This point was applied. Romania and
Bulgaria became independent, while Serbia and Montenegro became part of
Yugoslavia.

12.The Turkish people of the Ottoman Empire will have their own country. Other
nationalities under the Ottoman rule will also have security. -> This point hid
an important element that is the principle of self-determination of people. It
became a thorny issue, especially regarding Kurdistan that, according to this
point, should became independent. However, an independent Turkey was
needed to speed up the pacification process3 and that’s why France and
Germany (? Io direi GB) decided to keep Kurdistan inside the new-born state
of Turkey.

13.Poland shall be an independent country. -> Poland and the three Baltic states of
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania should become independent. Poland was
intended to become independent also according to another agreement, that is
the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. With this treaty, that Lenin ratified in March 1919
with the German troops, Germany joined territories in which it never entered.
Lenin was very worried about the conclusion of the war, because he was keen
to come back to Moscow and Saint Petersburg to conclude the struggle for
domestic power. Poland remained independent, while the three Baltic states,
according to the Soviet-German agreement signed in 1939, became part of the
Soviet Union.

3 That is the signature and the raBficaBon of the peace treaty.

 14.A League of Nations will be formed that protects the independence of all
countries no matter how big or small. -> A League of Nations (LoN)4 should be
created. Any kind of international cooperation failed in history, so Wilson’s
idea was to create an organization which could solve disputes among states in a
peaceful way. The term league recalls the league of ancient Greece, the one of
Italian municipalities and the one of modern history, for example the one
between Poland and Ukraine. It refers to an intergovernmental organization,
while the term society refers to a stricter organization, like a fusion among
several different states. On the opposite, for the LoN is the concept of
unanimity is very central. Many leaders of the allied nations were sceptical
about this point, in particular the French PM Clemenceau and the British PM
Lloyd George. Clemenceau thought that Wilson was too much idealistic and,
above all, he couldn’t accept a peace that didn’t blame Germany. The French
were very harsh towards the German, especially in terms of reparations, in fact
there was a specific clause in the Treaty of Versailles which blamed Germany
to the burst of WWI. They insisted on revenge and this element also helps us to
understand the transition from the Weimar Republic to the Third Reich. The
promise of the 14th point also helped to bring Germans to peace talks at the end
of the war. However, the results of the treaty of Versailles were much harsher
towards Germany than the points established by Wilson. The French attitude
can be justified if we consider the major economic losses that the Germans
caused to France during war(s).

President Wilson’s advisors for the plan were called the inquiry. They included
around 150 academics and were led by a famous diplomat called Edward House
WWI. President Wilson was given the Nobel prize for peace in 1919 for his efforts in
establishing peace not only in Europe but all around the world. In his speech he stated
that we have no right to condemn Germany nor to blame it, while France adopted

4 The term Society of NaBons isn’t correct in English, but it is used the French and in the Italian translaBons.
exactly the opposite behaviour. Finally, he referred to WWI as the “final war for
human liberty”, a higher term than freedom.

The treaty of Versailles

After the peace, five treaties were written, one for every defeated country: the
Versailles treaty for Germany, the Saint Germain treaty for Austria, the Trianon treaty
for Hungary, the Neuilly treaty for Bulgaria and, finally, the Geneve treaty with
Turkey (former Ottoman empire).

The Versailles treaty was negotiated at the Paris conference of 1919 and contains the
funding document of the LoN. Although the Paris conference was attended by a very
high number of delegations, there were four major parties: France (Clemenceau), GB
(Lloyd George), US (Woodrow Wilson) and Italy (Vittorio Emanuele Orlando). They
were the main leaders, those who discussed peace. Italy decided not to join
completely the peace conference because it disagreed with the first5 of Wilson’s 14
Points. For this reason, it abandoned the conference and showed itself as completely
against the peace treaty. US participated at the real beginning of the conference but
then the American delegation wasn’t deeply involved because the American Congress
told Wilson to leave the conference and come back to Washington and to come back
to the Monroe doctrine6. So, in practice just GB and France were the only powerful
states remaining at the peace conference and for this reason they determined the
clauses of the treaty. France harboured a deep resentment against Germany and

5That is, the condemnaBon of secret diplomacy and excluded Italy from the territorial gains promised to the Italian
government in the London Pact.
6That meant that, once the US saved Europe – and, in parBcular, France and GB – from war, European countries had to
conclude the pacificaBon process by their own.
wanted to take revenge on it, while GB was very interested in economic questions
and colonies. So, the Versailles treaty came out as the result of the willingness of
these two parties. This is the reason why the Versailles treaty is very nasty towards
Germany. It loudly condemned it. Germany was put it in the conditions to become a
very poor country after WWI. As far as territorial disputes are concerned, Germany
lost many territories both in the European continent (France was the main
beneficiary) and in terms of colonies (GB was the main beneficiary). Germany had
not simply to pay a huge amount of money for reparations, but also to transfer and
share its production. Sharing industrial production and territories, added to the
obligation to pay reparations put Germany in the conditions to have no chance to start
back with the reconstruction after the war. This awful economic situation had both
social and political consequences. The political power couldn’t tackle this hard
situation while the social claims grew stronger. At the end of WWI, Germany was
very weak. The only solution to get out from this deep economic and social crisis was
offered by Hitler in 1933.

1. The League of Nations

The treaty of Versailles contains also the Covenant of the League of Nations. It had to
be the means to help the international community to reach and maintain peace. The
Covenant entered into force on the 16th January 1920, when the first GA met. The
LoN had two official working languages: English and French.

Structure and membership: the organs of the League were the General Assembly, the
Council and Secretariat7. The GA met once a year and was composed of
representatives of all member states (about 40). It decided on the organization’s

7 The Secretariat is one of the criteria which classify internaBonal organizaBons.

policy. The Council included 4 permanent members8 - Japan, France, Italy, UK, in
other words the ones who won WWI (parallel with the UNSC9) - while others were
elected by the GA every three years. The Secretary prepared the agenda and
published the reports of the meetings.

The US is missing from the membership, such as the Soviet Union. The US decided
not to participate. Another similarity with the UN system is that also the LoN elected
rotating members (9)10. The criterium was - and still is – that non-permanent
members should be the double of the permanent ones. All the members were
represented in the GA (plenary organ). On the other hand, the Council was the
restricted organ to allow the organization to work fast. The members were never a
fixed number, many join, others withdraw. The members of the League had to respect
territorial integrity and sovereignty of other nation-states, even of non-members of
the League. No one can use force as a means to solve international disputes - or even
the threat to use it - member states have to reject its use11. Two examples of it are the
peaceful outcome of 1926 that the League negotiated during the Iraqi-Turkey conflict
over the province of Mosul and the resolution concerning a border dispute between
Colombia and Peru in the early 30s during which the LoN was a successful mediator.

The GA was a general meeting held annually by all the member states. The
proceedings of the GA appeared as a separate publication for the first three sessions.
The fist one was held in Paris in the date of the establishment of the LoN, that is 16th
January 1920. Until 1938, the proceedings were issued as a kind of special
supplement to the official journal of the League. Resolutions passed in the plenary
sessions were also published in a special supplement.12

8 Permanent members grew up to nine.

9 The UN can be, to some extent, considered the son of the LoN.
10 LoN: 4 permanent, 9 non-permanent; UN: 5 permanent, 10 non-permanent
11 Like, for example, sending an ulBmatum.
12 These supplements were numbered and they can sBll be consulted for research purposes.
The council’s main functions were to settle international disputes. Between 1920-39,
there were more than a hundred public sessions. Also, the minutes (written records)
of the Council were published in the official journal of the League.

The Secretariat was appointed to organize the day to day work of the League. It was
put under the direction of the Secretary general. The LoN had just 3 Secretary
generals: Sir Eric Drummond (1919-1933), Joseph Avenol (1933-1940), Seán Lester
(1940–1946) - remember their names. In 1946 the LoN died, passing the baton to the
UN. Secretary general had also to write the annual report of the League.

Aims: they were two. 1st: prevent war through realize several important measures,
such as disarmament (which was the ultimate goal), collective security, peaceful
resolution of disputes and the improvement of international welfare. 2nd: the
international cooperation in any field of cultural and social development. This aim
was necessary to have stable member states from an economic, political and social
point of view. Stability simplified the relationship among states in the international
community.

Membership: The number of the League’s members is difficult to be set. Between

1920 and 1939 a total of 63 countries became member states of the LoN. With the
beginning of the war, the LoN stopped its activity. The Covenant forming the League
of Nations was included in the Treaty of Versailles and came into force on 10 January
1920, with the League of Nations being dissolved on 18 April 1946; its assets and
responsibilities were transferred to the United Nations.

Limits:

1. US, URSS and Germany weren’t involved (Germ and URSS joined the LoN
but just for a while). Why Wilson – the father of the LoN - didn’t join? Wilson
announced his 14 Points on January 1918. They laid out a comprehensive
vision for the transformation of the world politics. Wilson believed that affairs
between countries should be conducted openly and based on two principles:
sovereignty and self-determination. Moreover, states had to abandon the use of
military force to settle disputes. Wilson’s vision for the post-war world was
influential in the founding of the LoN but only outside the US because his
intense lobbying effort for the US membership in the LoN clashed with a
strong opposition of the isolationist lobby. This last wanted President Wilson to
come back from the Paris conference so that he could focus his attention on the
internal affairs of the country. Two senators of the American Congress -
William Borah and Henry Cabot Lodge – were completely against the US
participation in the League because it meant being involved in the world
politics and so in the European problems. According to them, the US didn’t
have to lose time in trying to help the Old continent. Furthermore, US didn’t
need Europe no more. According to isolationists in the Congress, there was a
kind of violation of the American sovereignty by the LoN because they
couldn’t accept the principle of disarmament. So, the Congress voted against
the US participation into the LoN and the US never took part to the League.
This meant that those who proposed the creation of the LoN in order to reach
peace didn’t join in. This represented a strong limit.

Italy was a founding country and a permanent member, but it withdrew in 1937
because it began an aggressive war against Africa (Somalia, Ethiopia and
Abyssinia). Italy was a Fascist power that violated the territorial integrity of
another member state of the League. So, it was condemned to pay sanctions for
that aggression. Italy decided not to pay the sanctions - the only weapon of the
League – and to withdraw. By withdrawing, Italy didn’t have to pay the
reparations. So, another limit of the LoN was that sanctions could only be
addressed to member states of the LoN.

Germany withdrew in October 1933, followed by Japan.

The Soviet Union joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 for the aggression
of Finland.

The conference for the reduction and limitation of armaments that took place in
1932-34 was the reason of the German withdrawal. It was known as Geneva
disarmament conference (or World disarmament conference). In practice, it
failed to reach disarmament, exactly as the previous attempts did. Even if the
conference lasted long, it never came out with a resolution. The question of
disarmament remained one of the most important aims of the League in order
to reach the world peace.

Why was the Geneva disarmament conference held in those years? Because the
LoN started to work in the twenties, but also because in those years the French-
German relationship improved. In the mid-twenties there was a sort of
reconciliation between the two states, thanks to their foreign ministers Briand
and Stresemann. They gave birth to the spirit of Locarno, trying to rebuild a
dialogue between France and Germany. They managed to reconcile for a while
the relationship between the two enemy states. Germany was helped by the US
in order to recover economically, seen the American interest in the German
trade. Germany was recovering and its economy started to stabilize, while
France was softening its attitude toward Germany because it was satisfied by
the treaty of Versailles and at the same time felt responsible for the tragic
socio-economic situation in Germany. However, with the collapse of Wall
Street in 1929 the situation suddenly deteriorated. The German economy went
down again seen that the US couldn’t no more support it financially. With the
collapse of the economy, social problems rose again. The Nazis party was able
to reach the power and Hitler, in just one year, became the German chancellor
in January 1933. In any case, in 1932 the situation appeared to be more stable.
In addition, the need to prevent other economic crashes around the world made
disarmament a good way to save public money from being allocated to
armaments. Unfortunately, it was late.
 Germany started its transition into a Fascist power. In October 1933 both
Germany and Japan decided to leave the conference of disarmament and
withdrew from the LoN. In 1939 URSS was expelled from the LoN - just five
years after its admission in 1934 – due to the invasion of Finland which was
part of the Imperial Russia. With the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Finland became
independent, so URSS invaded it to have it back. During the WWII, two
different conflicts were hitting the city of Leningrad at the same time: on one
hand, the Leningrad siege by the Finnish army and the Nazi-Fascist army; on
the other one the Finnish-Soviet war. Finally, Finland gained independence at
the end of WWII.

The expulsion of the URSS was one of the last actions of the LoN whose
activity was crystalized by the advent of WWII on September 1st, 1939.

2. The aims that the organization had set itself are too vague. The only tool of the
League were sanctions (money, raw materials, embargo) which could be
bypassed and avoided by simply withdrawing from the League. There was no
concrete possibility for the League to be functional and effective. On the
contrary, the UN has the possibility to use force throughout peacekeeping
operations.

3. The League had no army at all. At least in the UN system there is the
possibility to use the national armies of the member states by assigning them a
mission which shows the UN flag and follows a resolution of the UNSC.

4. The structure was completely intergovernmental, so it needed the agreement of

all the member states, that is unanimity. For this reason, we refer to it with the
term league and not society.

5. Members had different will and desires. Moreover, they had different
interpretations of the final aims of the League. Especially in the 30s, France
wanted to go on with several tough requests toward Germany while GB
adopted the appeasement attitude. Moreover, GB didn’t believe truly in the
 LoN. Minor states which were born from the fall of the Ottoman Empire and
from the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire believed that the LoN was useful
only to maintain the status quo fixed at Versailles. Italy and Japan changed
their attitude towards the LoN, which they saw as the representation of the
winning powers of WWI. Being so wide the range of different wills of each
member states, it was impossible to work only on one direction to build peace.

So, the limits affecting the LoN regarded not only membership, but also the
governance, the principle of unanimity and finally the inability to exercise control
over the states that weren’t part of the League. These limits determined the complete
failure of the LoN. For this reason, it wasn’t able to prevent WWII.
28/09

The Leag e f Na i fai ed i i ai f eace ee i g.

Leag e e f ce eace : he C e a f he Leag e did a i f hi

c ai , beca e i did c ai a f a b iga i f i e be c e
he aid f he S a e b ec ed a ed f eig i a i .

- C ec i e ec i a i d ced f he fi i e b Ed a d Be e i
1924. D i g he Peace C fe e ce f i g he WWI Wi
ed a e i de e e c f ic a d de abi i a i . The
a ach hich a b i i Pa i a ade i de a id he
be ha ca ed he WWI. The Leag e a ed b id a e
a ec i i ie agai i e ia i a d cia e i ha
e e e e gi g; he eace ea e ab i hed he i ci e f i e a i a
ida i a d he i di i ibi i f eace.

The Leag e had e d he idea f di a a e , hich a acce ed

1
b eSae ch a I a a d Ge a (f diffe e ea ).

1
I a fe be a ed b he fac ha h e i e d e d i g he ig a e f he L d Pac
ee e ec ed a d I a a a i g f a h e La d i h I a ia i i ie a g he Ba a .
F Ge a he ea a c ide ed a h i ia i ha h d be f gh b Ge a .
The Leag e f Na i a a i g b i d he e f he a ae
di ac 2 i de figh hidde di ac .

M e e , i h he c ea i f he Leag e, he e e e a he i ci e f
i e ai a ida i a d he i di i ibi i f eace: he idea a ha eace
be e a e a d e e he e, eace be ha ed b h e S a e
c i g he I e a i a C i . I de d ha , e ha e a e
i a C e a , he Cha e f he Leag e f Na i .

A . 10 gi e he idea f e i ia i eg i , a i g ha a he e be
ai ai agai e e a agg e i he e i ia i eg i a d he i eg i f
he S a e . The L N a e e ab e ac h e S a e hich
be g he Leag e, i h ibi i i e e e he e e he S a e e e
e be f hi . ​ The member of he Leag e nder ake o re pec and
pre er e a again e ernal aggre ion he erri orial in egri and e i ing
poli ical independence of all Member of he Leag e. In ca e of an ch
aggre ion or in ca e of an hrea or danger of ch aggre ion he Co ncil
hall ad i e pon he mean b hich hi obliga ion hall be f lfilled .

I Wi idea he e e e a he c ce ha i a diffic i Pa i
c ea e he c e a , ha a cha ged, i a ic a a ic e 19 hich i ab he
A e b : i fac he A e b c d, f i e i e, i i e e be a e
e ie he c e f he ea i he e e ha i beca e i a icab e f
he ai e a ce f c ec i e eace a d ec i a ha a ic a e .
A ead i Ve ai e e e e e b d e ha he ea d ha e
bee e a . The idea f c ec i e ec i a e hi g ha d
cha ge i he ea . Thi i ci e a f e e e e e ged i 1923 i he
cca i f he T ea f La a e, hich e i ed he T ea f S e,
add e ed he O a E i e. Whe he O a Re i ace he
ea f S e a b e e beca e e f he a ie a e i i g
a e, a d i a ece a de ig a he ea i de c ide
h e S a e hich e e ged, ch a M de T e .

2
​Which a a e f Wi ' f ee i .
The i ci e f a ic e 19 a a ied a i he ca e , f e a e i he
Ag ee e f M ich (1938) ha e e ade ide he Leag e, b he
e e ade he de e 3.

Ar . 8​: The e be f he S cie ec g i e ha eace ee i g e i e he

ed c i f ai a a a e he i i c i e ih ai a
ec i a d he f fi e f i e a i a b iga i i ed f i ac i .
The C ci , a i g i acc he ge g a hica i a i a d ecia
c di i f each S a e, ha e ae a f ch ed c i f c ide a i
a d deci i b he a i G e e . The i ci e a a id f
h e a e a f he Leag e. The idea gi e i he a ic e a he de i e
a id a f e a.

Ar . 9: ​A e a e C i i ha be c i ed ad i e he C ci
he e ec i f he ii f A ic e 1 a d 8 a d i i a , a a a d ai
e i ge e a .

Te f Ma 7: A e a e C i i ha be c i ed ad i e he
C ci he e ec i f he ii f A ic e 1 a d 8 a d iia
a d a a e i ge e a .

Ar icle 12​: The Me be f he Leag e ag ee ha if he e h d a i e be ee

he a di e i e ead a e, he i b i he a e ei he
a bi a i i i b he C ci , a d he ag ee i ca e e
a i h ee h af e he a a d b he a bi a he e b he
C ci 4. Thi c ce f eacef e e e f di e a c ai ed a i
3
I 1938 Hi e Ge a decided eb i d a d b i he Lebe a , hich ea ha a he
Ge a i i ie had be a e de he Thi d Reich; i he S de he ge a i i a i i g
a d Hi e decided i ade he e. B i ai eac i a g d, e e a i g ab he
appea emen , ​decidi g acce hi i d f e i ia i a i . M i i, chai ed he i a
c fe e ce i de e ga i e he Ge a agg e i . U f a e , he c fe e ce a ade i
M ich, Ge a , ide Cec acchia a d h e h decided e e I a , F a ce, UK a d
Ge a , b cec acchia a i i ed he C fe e ce. The M ich ag ee e , ch a he
c fe e ce , e e ade ide he e f he Leag e, a d he fi a g a a d ai f he Leag e
hich a he ai ai i g f eace had c e e fai ed.

4
I a ca e de hi A ic e he a a d f he a bi a he dicia deci i ha be ade
i hi a ea ab e i e, a d he e f he C ci ha be ade i hi i h af e he
a ic e 12, 155 a d 17, hich a ed ha a S a e a ac i g a he a e a f
he Leag e, hi a ac had be c ide ed a a ac a he Leag e f
6
Na i c i .

U f ae , a h e i a idica e h d a e a ied he
Me be S a e ; h e h a e ide e e f ee d ha e e he a ed i
e f agg e i , a a d ..

Periodi ation of the collecti e securit

I i ib e di ide i hi f e :

The fi e i f 1919-1925: i i he e i d i hich he e e e a h

be e a ed c ec i e ec i . I fac he e a he e i d f he
R ia Re i , he Re i f he Y g T , he I i h Wa f
I de e de ce, he R h Wa . I 1919 i I a he e a he igi f fa ci di
c ba i e a d a i g f he 28 h c be 1922 I a a de he
fa ci e . I 1923, Hi e , h a i a gi a , ied he M ich P ch
hich fai ed b a i a he c ea i f he i age f a i a
cia i . Fa ci a d a i e e e ide gie hich e e b i de
ha e a i e a d a e a i e idea agai c i .A e f he
h ee f he a i a i e hich cha ac e i ed he 20 h ce a b i gi

b i i f he di e. I a ca e de hi A ic e he a a d f he a bi a ha be ade
i hi a ea ab e i e, a d he e f he C ci ha be ade i hi i h af e he
b i i f he di e.
5
If he e h d a i e be ee Me be f he Leag e a di e i e ead a e, hich i
b i ed a bi a i i acc da ce i h A ic e 13, he Me be f he Leag e ag ee ha he
i b i he a e he C ci . A a he di e a affec ch b i i b gi i g
ice f he e i e ce f he di e he Sec e a Ge e a , h i a e a ece a
a a ge e f a f i e iga i a d c ide a i he e f.
6
A ic e 16: ​Sho ld an Member of he Leag e re or o ar in di regard of i co enan nder
Ar icle 12, 13 or 15, i hall ip o fac o be deemed o ha e commi ed an ac of ar again all o her
Member of he Leag e, hich hereb nder ake immedia el o bjec i o he e erance of all rade
or financial rela ion , he prohibi ion of all in erco r e be een heir na ional and he na ional of
he co enan -breaking S a e, and he pre en ion of all financial, commercial or per onal in erco r e
be een he na ional of he co enan -breaking S a e and he na ional of an o her S a e, he her a
Member of he Leag e or no .
 he a e ea f fa ci : e e a i g ab he R ia cia i i 1924. I
1933 e a had he bi h f he hi d a i a ia e , hich a he
ge a e.

1925-1931: L ca Pac (L ca S i i ); Whe S e e a 7 a d B ia d8 e e

ab e eb i d eacef e a i be ee F a ce a d Ge a . Tha he
L ca S i i , Ge a e e ed i he Leag e f Na i . Be ee 1924 a d
1925 he e a a e i d ha e hi ia ca he g de e ie beca e
f he ie a d eacef a he e, he a i g e ie . I hi e i d, he
US a he i g h gh The Y g P a . I a a ga f e i g
Ge a ' W d Wa I e a a i i e i A g 1929 a d f a
ad ed i 1930. I a e e ed b he c i ee headed (1929 30) b
A e ica i d ia i O e D. Y g, h had bee e f he
e e e ai e i ed i a e i a-e aai e c i g
a a ge e he Da e P a f 1924. The I e -A ied Re a a i
C i i e ab i hed he Ge a e a a i a a he e ica a f 132
bi i , b a ac ica a f 50 bi i g d a . Af e he Da e P a a
i eai i 1924, i beca e a a e ha Ge a d
i i g ee he a a a e e a i defi i e e i d f i e9.

The Ke gg B ia d Pac ( Pac f Pa i , fficia Ge e a T ea f

Re cia i f Wa a a I e f Na i a P ic ) i a 1928
i e a i a ag ee e i hich ig a ae i ed e a
e e "di e c f ic f ha e e a e f ha e e igi he a
be, hich a a i e a g he ". The e e e echa i f e f ce e .
Pa ie fai i g abide b hi i e " h d be de ied f he be efi
f i hed b [ he] ea ". I a ig ed b Ge a , F a ce, a d he U i ed

7
​The ge a F ei g Mi i e .
8
​The f e ch F eig Mi i e .
9
The Y g P a ed ced f he a e b ab 20 e ce . A h gh he he e ica
a a 112 bi i G d Ma , e i a e US ca. $27 bi i i 1929 (US$ 119 bi i
i 2020) e a e i d f 58 ea , hich d e d i 1988, fe e ec ed he a a f
ch e ha a decade. I addi i , he Y g P a di ided he a a a e , e a
bi i G d Ma , US$473 i i , i c e : e c di i a a , e a
e hi d f he ,a da ab e a , e a he e ai i g - hi d , hich d
i c i e e a d be fi a ced b a c i f A e ica i e e ba c di a ed b
J.P. M ga & C .
Sae 27 A g 1928, a d b he a e af e . S ed b
F a ce a d he U.S., he Pac e ced he e f a a d ca f he eacef
e e e f di e . Si i a ii eei c a ed i he Cha e f
he U i ed Na i a d he ea ie , a d i beca e a e i g- e a e
ac i i A e ica ic . I i a ed af e i a h , U i ed S a e Sec e a f
S a e F a B. Ke gg a d F e ch f eig i i e A i ide B ia d. The ac
a c c ded ide he Leag e f Na i a d e ai i effec .

I 1929, a f eig i i e , B ia d f a ed a igi a a f a e

ec ic i fE e. De c ibed a B ia d' L ca di ac a d a a
a ec f F a c -Ge a a che e , i a hi a e Ge a ' ic
ec ic ec e a d f e i ica e . B ia d ade hi a i a
eech i fa faE ea U i i he Leag e f Na i 5 Se e be
1929, a d i 1930, i hi "Me a d he O ga i a i f a Regi e f
E ea Fede a U i " f he G e e f F a ce10.

I 1929, he e a he Wa S ee C a h, he ec ic c i i a ed i he US
a e ed a i E e; Ge a ffe ed a beca e f he ec ic
b da ie be ee he S a e . Si ce ha e , he de abi i a i f
Ge a a ed agai a d he e e e he ii g f he Na i-fa ci .

1931-1933: ec ic be - i e f Na i-fa ci ; i hi e i d, a i a
S a e bega dea i h hei i e a affai agai . I hi e i d he e
a a he Wa f he c f Ma ch ia, hich a ed he fi ei
e e i i e a i a e a i . The i - a a e e c f ic i c ide ed a
c f ic a f he Wa .

I he a e e i d i S h A e ica he e a he Chac Wa 1928-1938

(Pa ag a -B i ia/B a i ) C f ic dea i h i he 1930 a d he e ha e
a had I a ia -E hi ia Wa i 1936.

1933-1939: e d f Ve ai e e . Na i a cia i Ge a ef he
Leag e f Na i .

10
He h gh ha a fede a i , i e ha f he US, c d be he i i de a id i a
a d e de a be ee E ea a e ; b B ia d did a e e f a e ba ed
i e ag ee e a d ac : hi de i e a ea e a e id a d g e f a a i g
eace i E e.
C f ic dea ihi he 1920

The fi a a i ca be ade he -ca ed e ica c f ic : he

ae e ica beca e he a e ha d ed b he L N. The fi e i he
S edi h-Fi i h c f ic i 1920 f he a d I a d , hich a e a g f
i a d i he Ba ic Sea, hich e e ad i i e ed b R ia bef e he Fi a d
I de e de ce i 191811. Af e he a e a i , he edi h e e i i g he e
a ed be g S ede ; he Fi a d e e ed i he Leag e, B i ai
e e ed ha he i e c d ha e bee ed b he L N: The c i i
decided ha he i a d d e ai de he Fi i h a e, b e e ed he
e ab i h e f ai igh i defe e f he S edi h i i a d a
e e ed he de i i a i a i f he i a d. I hi ca e e ha e a i d f
eg ia i a d eacef i .

P i h-Li h a ia c f ic (Vi a, 1920 - 1923)

I a ia -G ee c f ic (C f , 1923)[ ai dea ih b he C fe e ce f
A ba ad ]

C f ic i M , 1924 - 1925 (G ea B i ai , T e )

G ee -B ga ia c f ic 1925 (De i Ka ). I 1925 G eece dec a ed a

B ga ia a d he g ee i aded he S a e; he Leag e f Na i ade a
ee i g i de e he di e a d i ed G eece e
c e a i . Thi a a e a e i hich he eacef e e e f
di e ed a d hi ha a e g he ed he Leag e.

Chac C f ic (1928-1938): e ha e a : he fi ei f 1928

1929 a d he ec d e be ee 1932 a d 1935. The Chac egi i ich f
e ce a d hi i a e i be ee B i ia/B a i a d Pa ag a 12. The
Leag e f Na i a aged a e d he a . I 1939 he e a he

11
I edia e af e he Re i f Oc be .
12
The Chac Wa a f gh be ee B i ia a d Pa ag a e c f he he a f he
G a Chac egi ( i S a i h a Chac B ea ) f S h A e ica, hich a h gh be
ich i i . I i a efe ed a La G e a de a Sed (S a i h f "The Wa f Thi ") i i e a
ci c e , f bei g f gh i he e i-a id Chac . I a he b die i i a c f ic f gh i S h
A e ica d i g he 20 h ce , be ee fi e c ie , b h ha i g e i
e i eighb i 19 h-ce a .
 ea ha ga e Pa ag a a a ge a f he e i a di a i 2009
ha he e ide f B i ia a d Pa ag a ig ed a fi a ag ee e fi he
b de .

Le icia-C bia-Pe , 1933 - 1934 a i de ha e c e e i

i he A a ai f e . The Leag e f Na i e a de ega i i 1943, a
a i ice a dec a ed a d he egi e de he ad i i a i f he
Leag e; he , i 1944 he egi a de i i a i ed a d B i ia had gi e Pe
he acce he e i .

I hi i e a e i d he Leag e f Na i ied fi d c ie f
de i i a i a i .

R ia -Fi i h Wa , 1939 - 1940, i h he cie i i e ded ha e

e ea a f Fi a d; hi a a ed ge he i h he WWII, beca e
acc di g he Ribbe -M Pac Fi a d a de S ie U i .

A e ic c f ic

Tha i c f ic be ee e e edi e a d a Sae ;i hi

i d f c f ic he Leag e had a e i e i f e ce.

The Occ a i f he R h i a e a e f a e ic a (Ge a :

R h be e g); i a a e i d f i i a cc a i f he R h egi f
Ge a b F a ce a d Be gi be ee 11 Ja a 1923 a d 25 A g
1925. F a ce a d Be gi cc ied he hea i i d ia i ed R h Va e i
e e Ge a defa i g e aai a e dic a ed b he
ic i e af e W d Wa I i he T ea f Ve ai e . Occ a i f
he R h e ed he ec ic c i i i Ge a , a d Ge a ci i ia
e gaged i ac f a i e e i a ce a d ci i di bedie ce, d i g hich 130
e e i ed. F a ce a d Be gi , faci g ec ic a d i e a i a e e,
acce ed he Da e P a e c e Ge a ' a e f a e aai
i 1924 a d i hd e hei f he R h b A g 1925. The
Occ a i f he R h c ib ed Ge a ea a e a d he g h f
adica igh - i g e e i Ge a . I hi i a i e ha e F a ce
ih a e g f ii a d he he ha d e ha e a e i d f
 e , he Wei a Re b ic13, a d he R h a a a i hich he ge a
g e e a ed e a i h ge a ec i de a a he
e aai f a . The e i a a ic a : i fac , h c d he Leag e f
Na i i e e e a ha e ? I deed, i i ece a e ha i e ha
F a ce a a e a e e be f he C ci a d ha i a e f he
i i g a i ; h c d ha e e e ed i f a e i g a f he R h ?
P bab E g a d, b i did c de i a .

Conflic s no handled b he LoN

A e ai f Fi eb Ia (1919/1920)

Rif Wa 1925 (M cc , dec i ai )

Ja a e e agg e i agai Chi a, 1937 - 1945: The Ja a e e i a i f

Ma ch ia bega 18 Se e be 1931, he he K a g A f he
E i e f Ja a i aded Ma ch ia i edia e f i g he M de
I cide . A a e d i Feb a f 1932, he Ja a e e e ab i hed he e
a e f Ma ch . Thei cc a i a ed i he cce f he S ie
U i a d M g ia he Ma ch ia S a egic Offe i e O e a i i
id-A g f 1945. The S h Ma ch ia Rai a Z e a d he K ea
Pe i a e e a ead de he c f he Ja a e e E i e i ce he
R -Ja a e e Wa f 1904. Ja a ' g i g i d ia i a i a d
iiai ai e ed hei g i g de e de ce i a d ea i f
he US. The US a c i hich e e ed ade i h he U i ed S a e ( hich
had cc ied he Phi i i e a d he a e i e) e ed i Ja a f he i g
hei e a i i he e i f Chi a a d S hea A ia. The i a i i
e i e ci ed a a a e a i e a i g da e f W d Wa II, i c a ih
he ec acce ed e f Se e be 1939.

Wi h he i a i ha i g a ac ed g ea i e a i a a e i , he Leag e f
Na i d ced he L C i i 14 (headed b B i i h i icia Vic

13
F m he ame f he lace he e he e C i i a made af e WWi.
14
E ed i 1931 b he Leag e f Na i i a a e e a a e he M de I cide , hich
ed he E i e f Ja a ' ei e f Ma ch ia. The L C i i , headed b L ,
i c ded f he e be , e each f he US, Ge a , I a , a d F a ce.
The L Re c ai ed a acc f he i a i i Ma ch ia bef e Se e be 1931, he
he M de I cide ace a he Ja a e e a ( ih a h i ai f he Ja a e e
B e -L ) e a a e he i a i , i h he ga i a i de i e i g i
fi di g i Oc be 1932. The abe f he i a i a e hica i egi i a e
ed he Ja a e e g e e i hd a f he Leag e e i e .

The i a ia -E hi ia a: Ia a he e ea S a e ha did ha e
a c , a d i a ified i ha i g e a d he e a a i d f
a ea e e f F e ch a d U . The Leag e did ' d a hi g e e if
E hi ia a a e be f he Leag e; i a he e f he gic f he
e ea c ce . Wi h hi deci i , he c edibi i f he Leag e had
ea e ed. O he 30 h, f a b F a ce, he e a a a e i e
ec i .

A e ai fA ia b Ge a , 1938

C ech-Ge a c f ic (S de e a d c i i ) 1938

A e ai f Da ig, Ma ch 1939

A e ai f A ba ia b I a , A i 1939

A e ai f he e f C ech a ia (A i 1939)

Ge a -S ie agg e i agai P a d (1939)

Conflic s deal i h, b o side he frame ork of he Pac :

U e Si e ia 1923: ea ed b he Leag e f Na i ,b e a a c f ic
ha b i e e i g he T ea f Ve ai e

S a i h Ci i Wa (1936 - 1939)

g e e ) ei ed he a ge Chi e e i ce f Ma ch ia. The Re de c ibed he a i fac

fea e f he Chi e e ad i i a i a d ga e eigh he a i c ai a d c ai f Ja a .
H e e , he e did di ec add e e f i chief g a : he ca e f he M de I cide .
I ead, i i a ed he Ja a e e i i ( ha he Chi e e had bee e ib e), i h
c mme a he h fal i f he Ja a e e claim . Al h gh he e a d b a Ja a '
g il am g he fi e c mmi i membe , he F e ch delega e i i ed ha Ja a ​ be a ed
a he agg e .
I he e d, he L Re ba ica e ed h he ea e e f he Leag e f Na i a d
i i abi i e f ce i deci i . The i a i a c ica ed b he e g h f i e i f he
L C i i e a ei e , d i g hich i e Ja a a ab e fi ec e i c
e Ma ch ia a d a h ab e e ec he c de a i f he Leag e i h i i .
 29/09

Another question related to the League, hich is the question of mandates; a

mandate is an authori ation granted b the LoN to a member nation to go ern a
former German or Turkish colon . That territor as called a mandate territor
or simpl a mandate . Article 22 of the Co enant of the League of Nations; it
is er important for e ample the S kes-Picot Agreement: it as a 1916 secret
treat bet een the United Kingdom and France, ith assent from the Russian
Empire and Ital , to define their mutuall agreed spheres of influence and
control in an e entual partition of the Ottoman Empire.
The agreement as based on the premise that the Triple Entente ould succeed
in defeating the Ottoman Empire during World War I and formed part of a
series of secret agreements contemplating its partition​1​.
The agreement effecti el di ided the Ottoman pro inces outside the Arabian
Peninsula into areas of British and French control and influence. The British-
and French-controlled countries ere di ided b the S kes Picot line. The
agreement allocated to Britain control of hat is toda southern Israel and
Palestine, Jordan and southern Iraq, and an additional small area that included
the ports of Haifa and Acre to allo access to the Mediterranean. France as to
control southeastern Turke , northern Iraq, S ria and Lebanon.
The mandates s stem as a compromise bet een an alliance and a
pre-armistice declaration gi en 5/11/1919.
There are three groups of Mandates: di ided according to the location of
territor . A) Former Turkish territories of Iraq, S ria, Lebanon and Palestine,
Pakistan (independence as pre iousl recogni ed but as still monitori ed) a
full independence b 1949 B) German colonies such as Tanganica ( hich is
toda part of Tan ania) hich as assigned to Great Britain; Togo Land
(France), R anda ( ent to Belgium), Cameroon: sort of control in order to
protect mandate. C) These former german colonies under class C became part of
a European Po er: South Africa, that no is di ided into Namibia and South
Africa, Namibia passed under the control of South Africa (GB); Ne Guinea

1
​The primarnegotiations leading to the agreement occurred bet een 23 No ember 1915
and 3 Januar 1916, on hich date the British and French diplomats, Mark S kes and
Fran ois Georges-Picot, initialled an agreed memorandum. The agreement as ratified b
their respecti e go ernments on 9 and 16 Ma 1916.
(Australia -GB), Western Samoa (NZ GB), Japan and Naruu (Australia- Gb-
NZ).
Ne t pe of mandate: it is the mandate of Saarland : regulation as in article 45
and follo ing the treat of Versailles about compensation. Of the fi e
menagers, one had to be German and the other had to be French, so there as a
kind of equilibrium. These territories ere economicall e ploitable b France:
in 1923 Saarland e perimented ith the split from German and asserted its
right to ar (GB threatened to respond) and follo ing the council of LoN said
that it had to be re ised.
The loN agreed on the plebiscite LoN reunited ith German (use of Nansen
passport). Case of Dan ig (free cit under the mandate of LoN): territorial issue,
Dan ig is a crucial territor in Europe (port on the North Sea), because
German anted to reunite again. Before Hitler came to po ership, in
No ember 1920, the cit of Dan ig as declared a free cit under the mandate
of the League of Nations. Poland is a state ith large national minorities
(German and Sla ik languages) national minorities had turned to the LoN to
address compliances.
In Januar 1934 Poland concluded a treat ith German (Third Reich) in order
to find bilateral solutions to the problem of minorities.
In september 1934 Poland suspended its cooperation ith LoN (Minorities
issues) sho ing the eakness of the League of Nations.
Treaties for the protection of minorities had to be signed and alread in ma
1933 the elections in Poland had turned to the majorit of National Socialism;
hat as happening in German as reflecting in Dan ig; ha ing a mandate
o er the cit as a protection o er the cit . In 1937 the national socialist
imposed the domination, at the beginning of WWII the national socialism
control in Poland as spreading, but also in other States here there ere
German minorities.
The LoN as also in ol ed in other kinds of acti ities.

Organi ation of h giene​: it as an international cooperation in the field of

public health, it started in 1907, the office in this ear as founded in Rome and
then mo ed to Paris. It as organi ed ith a council and an assembl .
Managing these issues the border of states as a problem, and that this issue
had to be sol ed on an international le el in order to sol e the urgenc . When
the LoN became acti e also in the public health field, man people thought that
ma be this organi ation ould ha e been gone under the influence of the LoN;
the US, hich as acti e in the public health organi ation, ere against the
integration of this organi ation in the LoN. During this period there ere t o
organi ations coe isting together during the t o ars periods. These 2 org.
cooperate after an initial period of opposition b the US.
In 1946 the 2 separated Org. merged into the WHO. The relati e strength of the
UN is from the po er of WW2 that tried to strengthen the eaknesses of LoN.
Regime for the protection of minorities in Eastern Europe is a topic question,
especiall in eastern Europe​2​. Minorities are the eak point of the borders (trace
people ho pass from one state to another: Ital Slo enia: in the north-eastern
Ital there as the problem of slo enians minorities; Denmark German , ith
a lot of Denmark minorities in the Northern part of German and ice ersa).
Poland and Ukraine al a s had problems ith minorities. It is er important to
understand that the issue of minorities is a question that does not onl ha e to
do ith the concept of human rights, but also ith that of the territorial
so ereignt of a state and the po er that this can e ercise o er its o n people.
When the peacemakers in Paris establish ne states the create a s stem of
protection for minorities​3​ (guarantees fundamental rights to them). Protect these
minorities because it as better to keep them quiet. There as the creation of a
s stem to take care of minorities also inside the League of nations.
Transformation bet een secret and public diplomac put the question on the
Agenda. The states respond to the compliances (more than 200 companies ere
registered), more than 80 about Romania/Bulgaria/Hungarian and Russian
minorities, more than 50 against 10 Yugosla ia, more than 10 against Turke
and Bulgaria; and most of compliances about Balkan and eastern states.
Minorities cannot --, because the cannot speak the state s language​4​. For the

2
Let s think about the problem of pogroms: a pogrom is a iolent riot aimed at the massacre
or e pulsion of an ethnic or religious group, particularl one aimed at Je s. The
Sla ic-languages term originall entered the English language to describe 19th- and
20th-centur attacks on Je s in the Russian Empire (mostl ithin the Pale of Settlement).
Similar attacks against Je s at other times and places also became retrospecti el kno n as
pogroms. The ord is no also sometimes used to describe publicl sanctioned purgati e
attacks against non-Je ish ethnic or religious groups. The characteristics of a pogrom ar
idel , depending on the specific incidents, at times leading to, or culminating in, massacres.
3
​This refers to article 10 and article 19 of LoN, b codif ing equalit , religious freedom,
material freedom such us using the mother tongue the idea as to protect the minorities.
There are the creation of collecti e rights hich refer to the communit ; if ou belong to a
communit and so ou ha e some rights.
4
It also has political consequences because these minorities couldn t speak the official
language and so the couldn t participate in​ political life and the couldn t be elected​.
T a d Ta f he Leag e: i a a big e , hich a c ec ed a
i h ec ic a d cia i e , i a e a ed c ec i e ec i .

We ca a e a di i i be ee ech ica a d i ica b idia b die , a d

he e e e a b die hich e e di ec i eg a ed i h he L N
Cha e .

The e e e a g h a i a ia , beca e i he e i d be ee he
a he e a a e i f ef gee , he e e e 5 i i ef gee be ee
1919 a d 1939 a d he ef gee i e a c ide ed e i a ; i ed
hi i e he e a a he e i f he i a ia i (B ga ia , T e ,
Ge a , Je i h, S a i h..).

A i a b d , hich a e de a d he g i ga e i h a
igh a he Na e Office f he Re a ia i f Pi e f Wa , The
Office I e a i a Na e e R f gi a e ab i hed i 1930 b he
Leag e f Na i , h af e he dea h f i a e a F id f Na e
c i e hi cce f i i e a i a aid f ef gee. I h c i ed
he ga i a i i Ge e a, S i e a d, f ded b Na e i 1921. The
Leag e a ided he ad i i a i e e e e f he Na e Office h gh
f fee cha ged f he Na e a i ce i e e e f e fa e a d
e ief e e b ai ed f i aec ib i . The ga i a i a
a e ia a d i ica ef gee . F ef gee f he Thi d Reich
f he ci i a - S ai , he Na e aid a a icab e, h gh a
c ie ef ed acce he ef gee . I i e f ch b e , he N be
Peace P i e a a a ded he ga i a i i 1938 f i ,b d e i
di i h af e a d , he i e e a ecei ed b a e
f ded ef gee ga i a i f he Leag e f Na i . The ffice a
di ed a he a e i e a he Leag e di ed he High C i i
(e ab i hed i 1933) beca e f he be di g Ge a ef gee
af e he di i f he Thi d Reich.

30/09/2020
Lead i a i a ci f he UK, he i e a c fe e ce i 1916, d i g
WW1, bef e he ed e . a d A e ica i e e i i he a , a d bef e a
a i a i f he c ea i f he LON.

S i ade i c fe e ce e e he d 3 ea bef e he bi h f he ILO.

The i ade i e e ed a c i g f c ie a ied i h Ge a ,
a d e e i g a i ' ab g. hich a b 3 ea a e .

The e g. had be a f d a ia e i hich cia e i

/ eed /de a d f he ab a e be di c ed a d e ed. G ba i a i
ace a he e d f he 20 h ce . The d a e e a , b he
cia e i a a a e be c ide ed i hi a i a b de , i
a be d a c e i . The ea h he ab e e ee i g
i hei be hich he ha ed i .

Re i a ie , i e I a ia Ma i i, R ia Ma , e e i e e ed i cia
i ic ad a e cia c a : he i g c a ha a a i e a i a
c a . The cia ch i i ai had a gi ee i i g cia a e . The
SC i e ded he he i g c a a d fa e , i a diffe e a e ha
he ef i g. SC i 1891, he e a he b ica i f a RERUM NOVARUM
( e hi g ), a big e d c e add e ed he d, a ed i h a a i
a e, i ca h ic ch ch. Thi d c e f he cia d c i e f he ca h ic
ch ch e ai ed c ea ha he d c i e i ba ed he de a d f ice,
i g a d a if i g he hei a d egac f he ch ch f a i g cia
ef . I a beca e E ea c ie ee c e he ca h ic
ch ch (FR, AUSTRIA, P a d, S ai , P ga ). The RERUM NOVARUM
a c ide ed i a f Ca h ic de a di g cia ef f he
g , b bef e he a he eea , a d af e he a i
beca e a big e e .

The ILO i he i ed he ib a , aff a d a f he cia ga f he

high ga i ed ga i a i f he e b die : i e he i a cia i f ab
ba ed i Ba i . Si ce he begi i g f he 20 h ce , i ce 1901. The F e ch
cia i A be Th a a ee e e he c e a i b de e i g a d
ga i i g he g. S Th a a a i gi i g a he e
a cia i he ibi i c eae i a ii e a . Diffe e
ag eed 2 h ge a e :

Ca i a i i d ia i a i ge e a ed a e hich c d ead a d
cia e .P e e ca i e a d ch i a i i ead cia
i a f ed i i .

S cia a e c d be ac ed b cia ef i hi he e i i g ia d
ec de . The cia e i a d figh agai e , c d be a aged
b ac i g cia ef i ide he ec ic a d de f ha i e.

P e i f ae affec i g he e i e d, he ce h ILO i ha
f d face a b e ac he d.

I 1919, he IO a ed ( i e ILO) ef ac i i ie de e ed h ee ai
i e:

- P ec i
- Redi ib i
- C ec i e ba gai i g

The ch i i a i ed b he c adi i a i fa f he
de e e f f ee a cia i ba ed he e f he de. E e
i i ed he i a ce f f ee e e i e ha ge e a e ec ic g h
fi a ce he cia e di g. i h ec ic g h, he e c i g ca be
ed c e cia e e e .

S cia ice ha e e bee he b ec f he e ica deba e i hi he ILO.

S cia ice a e e ac adic ed a e , i i a ce a d e e ce e e
e ed.

The 1919 c i i , dec a a i f Phi ade hia i 1944 e aced he e i

c i i , had a be f b ec i e ha c i ed he g.

The eg a i f he i gh , ha h d i c de he e ab i h e fa
a h f e da a d e ee . The eg a i f ab , he
e e i f e e , a d he i i g age. The ec i f he e
agai ic e , di ea e a d i a ide i gh . Ca e a he
i e, e e e aid da b da , a i ed da i aid. N ag ee e
e e , he ef e he e e e igh .

The i g ca ga i ed ade i e e hei igh a d be

ec ed. The e e e he b ec i e f he c i i f he ILO a e:
ec i f chi d e , g e e, e (i ca e f a e i ), ec i
f he e de h h d i g a a ce ai i i hei i e , he
ec g i i f he i ci e f e a e eai f f e a a e
( i g a a ec e , ea I ca be aid b ee , a a ge f age ha
eed be e ec ed). C ci e ha e ha e a a id i i
age, e e i e ha e igh ab e e e , ha i he i ci e
fe a e eai f f e a a e, i i a f da i f he ILO. The
a b ec i e a he ILO h d e ech ica ed ca i a d he a
f ge e a ed ca i . The ILO ac i i ie a he begi i g ai ed a achie i g a
he a/ b ec i e i he f f a i e ab c de i i ed b he egi a i ,
i e e ed i he cia ad a ced a i . The c i ee i
Lab egi a i i 1919, e defi e da i ie f he c ea i f ch
c de. I he c fe e ce, he I a ia a d FR e e e a i e gge ed he I .
ab c fe e ce ( he a ia e ) c d be ab e ad c e i ha
d be a a ica bi di g e be a e . FR a d IT gge ed he
c e i beca e c f e be a e a d ha h e d c e
h d be bi di g a d c a e be a e . The UK fa ed a
a a ic a ifica i e : f ig i g f he ac he i edia e
i e e ai , ih ha i g ai f he g e e i e e . The
ILO ec e da i ae i dica i e a d c e i be a ified b
a i a a ia e f e be a e . S he USA a a e e gi g ec ic
e , i h a f ee a e , i e ded e a IO f i g ec d ,
a d a e f ade a . Ec be a f ee a ib e, a d he a e
i e fe e i he ec . e be a e ca acce e ec he i dica i , if he
acce he g he a ifica i e i he a e e be .

S a e ha e i e e i a if i g a c e i , a i i e b i gi g he
c egi ai i i e i h highe e, b i a i a hea
c i e b di a ed a a e ii . S a e ha e bee i g
e e e ca e. Thi e i a he i e f he ad i f he ILO
c e i he high e da a ia e ai h he ILO ai e
 e ha a a bee de e ed de ai ed c di i . The 2
c e i (ab he 8H/da ) a b ic a i a a ified b he a
i d ia c de i e A be Th a i h bi di g c i e . S he
1 i i i ha g ha he i i decidi g he he ad a
c e i , ega d e f he ai ai f cia ice. De i e he e b ac e ,
ILO ca ied a c ide ab e a f ai e be ee WW1 a d
WW2: a f a d eg ia i ace. I a ca e, ILO ea
be ie ed i i a d e a e e d e.

ILO Ai ed a c e i g he B he i e i . ILO a acc ed f

be a i g he f da e a i e e f he i g c a , de he ha e f
ef i g ca i a i . The ILO b e e be ee
c de ed a be a e b he ed e a d SU, he c ie i hich he
i g ca h d be he i g c a . U i 1934, he UN ef ed i
ILO: E ea c ie e e ied ab ed da ge . I 1919-20, E ea
fea ed a hi g c i g f he ed (c i ) ide , a ea h i g
figh he ed da ge , e c ie did ee he b ac da ge . The e e
g figh i g, ha he e e ha be g he ILO, hich dd
h f he e ide he c i fa e . The ge . di . A be
Th a a e ed a d i g hich he e ed he i a ce f figh i g
agai e e e a e . The a e be ief a ed e c age he
f di g f WW2 de g a . I 1919, he ILO e ba ed a i i
c i ce e ha ef i a he i hich d e e
e e e e bei g. I ed di e i a e he ea i f he i gca
i he SU. A he a f 19+20, e be f he g e i g b d , ai ed he
ibi i f ai i g a e i i ie R ia f he ai e f
di a i g he ge f e , b i ga e d e i i .

A i c i ac i e e eac i a ed a he a f WW1 a d d i g he
ab e ce f he SU, he A e ica fede a i f ab ed ILO ca aig
agai f ced ab i he SU a d c ie i he ea e b c. Af e UN i ed
ILO i 1954 ( i ed i 1934- ef i 1940), he ILO beca e a a f f he 2
b c c ab a e he ba i f a g be ief i he eed f e ec
g h a d i c ea ed d c i i . He i i c fe e ce i 1987 a d ec ci i
f ha e i d a d he ab i h e f he b a he a f he 70 , he US
i hd e i e f f ILO f 1977 1980. The ILO e ied i i ce i
i i e c e a d he i ci e f c ec i e eg ia i i e e
ef i i he g a ed.

I he 90 , i a i i e e ed he ILO i h he c ea i f ffice f he b ea
f e ac i i ie , a d he b ea f e e ac i i ie : a i e a
ef i i i ai i g c ec he a e ica e eai (e e
a d e ) hich i e i e ha h. The e ied he e i e ce f
ga i ed cia a e a d f eed f a cia i e e ia he a c i i g
f he ILO. I 1948, C e i f eed f a cia i a d ec i f he
igh ga i e a a f da e a c e i f ILO. Si ce 1951, i
e f ce e ha bee de he c i ee f f eed f a cia i . Oi he
ibe a cia gic f ILO, he e e ce f a e e e a i e i i hi
c a ie i a g a a ee f ice, i ba a ce e i fa f he e ,
a d e e he cia i a i i e a ica i de ed he e
achie ed b he c a . The ILO c d a ha ab i ac di .
N a c ai ed a c de a i f ab a a c di b he di g
ch e b he ILO a i i ed b he C a a i ac ha a d e i
1914. The CAA g a a eed he igh i e. S a a G be , P e ide f
he USA fed f ab , ega ded hi a ic e a he ag a ca a f e ,a d
he e ee a added i he ILO e . S de he i f e ce f he USA
he dec f Phi ade hia c fi ed a d ha de ed he c de a i f ab a a
c di a i g ha Lab i a c di . The ILO ac e i e f
ab a c di a ea a 1920 , i fi i g a i i age. he g
de ega e f Pa ag a i 1920 aid he i c ai fa e i ci e ha
h ab ha be c ide ed a e cha di e, ha a i c de he
i ci e f i i i g he i g da , a d he i i age i ai
i d a i , hich a e e he 2 i , i 1944 d i g he a ,
gi de ega e f C bia e fa he b a i g h d be a
c di , he e h d be g a a eed i i g age. The i i age fi i g
c e i i 1928 a ad ed af e e e i e e ea ch a d i 1970 b a he
c e i ha e c aged a e i a a i i age e .

C i iced c i ici a d ILO, ha i c ib ed he e e a i

f ab a a c di b i i g he ca i a i e f he ga e. H e e
f 1919, he ILO ha a e he i e a h a i a ge g i c ed
f e e ed i he ab a e . The ca e f i f a e i I dia
 h a e 93 e ce f he ab f ce a e e c ded f he c e i .
He ce, he e be a a e c e hi i i . Da id M e d i g hi
a da e ed i he Ne Dea ad i i a i , ade i c ea ed d ci i
he ce e f he

Scie ific g f ab a d e ab a ed d ci i ic , he e ie a i ed
he dec a a i i Ge e a f he i a age e i i e headed b
B igh L da URWICK.

I c ea e i d ci i a i c ea e he ea h f e .H e e i e
e i a ce f e e h ef ed i c ea e age , hich fea ed a i ei
e e hich a a ead e e . I 1950, d c i i beca e a
i i f he g. i 1950 e Da id M e , aid ha f he d' i
f ie , he ea eed a f i c ea ed d c i . Acc di g M e,
e e ied edi ib ed ea e i c ea e hei a da d f i i g.
The e ide gica hif e e ed i e f:

1- a e f c e i ha e ed, a d he g d b ed i eff ide

ech ica e . S he c d a ea e e i a i i e ded ec
h . Righ , a d i e fai e a he ha c ea e c di i ece a f
g ea e e a i .

2-ai ed a e e i g a he ha ec i g e . The ILO c i ed

ca i ai e b ac i i ie e c age ec ic d ,
ecede ce e he a ea , i h he ec i e f a de ec i a
e e . A a f he e icie i fa f ec ic d , he ILO
i e e ed d ci i i i , 1952 e I ae . Thi e d ci i
age c a a age c aced de he a h i f he EOEC (e gf
ec c eai b i e i de a age he e c i gf he
a ha a ). The ai a i c ea e d ci i i c ie , a d figh
e , e e i g a e . he ILO d ci i i i e e he g ba
c e f he e e d ci i a cia i . Af e I ae , I dia,
Y g a ia, G eece, Pa i a ..

The e a d ci i ce e ide ai i g ga f h e i
cha ge f ab g. The d ci i a ach ch e b ILO e ab i hed he
 i ac f he ec he e e he cia . Th gh he g affi ed i cia
g a i h he ec fa e .

M e : d c i i gai e e i e ded i e he a da d f i i g f
e , a d c ea e cia be efi h d f f i, a d a ea e
i c ea e d ci i h d be eg ia ed. I 1950, M e de i ed he
e e a e a ed b he chi a ade i h eg ia e he a
d ci i h d be ga i ed, h gh he e c e i fe de f eed
f a cia i .

The i i i f he 50 he d i c f ic i h he a e i hich he g
a faced : i e agai he idea ha he cia he e had e ai e he
ec . A d e i ed he ibe a c ce i f he ade i , hich e e
g ded.

Fai G ba i a i : he hi d c a e i he ea b e f ILO C i i ifie

he e i e ce f he g i h a ec a g e , he 3 d c a e a ab e e
if he fai e f a a i e h a c di i f ab i a i d f b ac e
a he a i , e ha e d ha e e i he a ag d i ai f
e e e. S a he i e f i c ea i he g a figh i g f cia ice,
b i a c e f f ee ade a d g ba ec ic c eii , he d
a e d face di ad a age i h e e faci g ef f he be efi
f e . R be e ?

F i i ce i ILO, e e ged a a cia eg a f ec g ba i a i

a a ha i e i i ed he ca i a i c f h a a ic. S i e he
LON hich i a de e de , i a a E ea e e i e a fi . I 1930,
ha f f he 52 c ie ga he ed e e E ea . B he ic f WW1
d i a ed.

The a e ica a cia i ha Wi a a ac i e e be , a d a Sa e

G e , he ha ed he IL c i i i 1919 a d a ed a ig ifica ei
he di c i ega di g he bi h f he g. he US a i ed he ILO a he
SU i 1934 de i e e e ha i g bee a e be f he LON a d ha i g a a
e a b e e a ILO. The d d d i g hi e i d e e i i ed b
he egi a i i ace: i he ech d d d a he i e, hi e c ie had
e e i : he did e he ac f he ILO. (1H25)
Da id e e f ffice, he e a a g h i he be f e be :
e ha 70 i ed ILO a a c e e ce f dec ida i . The i e a i
f h ca e f , a d ILO had face e diffic ie i a ic a
d i g he deba e he c e i cia ec i f 1952.
Re e e a i e f e de e ed c ie , a ed ha i a i ib e f
he ad E ea .C e i 102 gge ed i a i g
c ie ch e he cia ec i ie ha fi hei i a i (a a ca e).

ILO a e cei ed diffe e f e ia c ie i 1947, i

ad ed e e a c e i hich e e ded he ai f hei cia
igh i e i ai .

Me i ai a ici a c d i e a ch i c ie . The b gh
Af ica e i he ab a e, b ai i g he a d de e i g a
a age e e a ed c e. Fi a e c age e be e
d c i e, a c i ee i d ced eace hich a i ed he ec
g h f ch c ie . The g ba hc ie e e e ab a ed i he fie d
f ech ica a i a a d de e e : 2 b ec i e hich beca e ce a i
1944 a d i e e ed de he UN c ehe i e ech ica a i a
ga a ched b he USA e . T a i 1944 a d he i a he
ga a ched i 1965. Wi h he e UN d fa e , he ILO a
e ib e f a e ce , ch a g ai i g ga ai ed a
i c ea ed ab d c i i . M e ha 2000 ec i e e ec i ed a d
e diffe e c ie (1950-59), he g i c ded a fe hi ga
a dc e f e i aff f de e i g c ie i he i ai i g
ce e e ab i hed i 1965. AIM: T f e ec d e ab e he ai
c ie i ed i hi ga , fi d hei ace i he i e a i a
g a . ILO ha bee i ed b f da e a e i e e d be ee he
i e f cia ice a d dec dif i g f ab , a d i e a a cia age
f ec g ba i a i he he . Af e WW2 he c d a a d dec i ai ,
he be f e be a e i c ea ed hi e he be a d i
beca e e diffic e e. S ILO had i g a ha i ied each
d i gi g diffic hi , ihi c e f i a ie g hich a
i e e ed e .
The diff f he f ILO e ai i efe e ce i , e e he he e e
a ified. The ILO ha a a ed i hi a c ai ace , c a ed
b g e , di e ge ie fe e a d e , a d he i e e
i e f, hich ha a a bee c e ed. The e e e i i i he ac i f ILO
i hei g a .

05/10

I a hi g a d da e f he WWII:

1 e e be 1939: a i g f he Sec d W d Wa ; a he e begi i g, e

ha e a a ia ce be ee F a ce a d G ea B i ai hi e Ge a a ac ed
P a d ge he i h he S ie U i 15. WWII a e ed i h he i a i f
P a d b he S ie U i a d a b Ge a ; F a ce a d G ea B i ai
e e a i g Ge a b i ef ed. F ha e ,Ia a ie
ead b ai ed i 10 J e 1940 beca e M i i a ied bei g
e a ed e e i he Wa , he ai ed he e i hich i ee ed ha
Ge a a ab i .

I he Pacific a ea, Ja a a a agg e i e e agai he US 7 dice b e

1941: a ac f Pea Ha b hich ed R e e dec a e Wa .

15
A he e begi i g, S ie U i a ide he c f ic ; he a ici a i a i di ec
a d beca e he S ie U i a i e e ed i c ie ch a Fi a d, he ba ic a e
a d a f a d. The e e i ie e e i he B he i R ia i 1919 he Le i
decided he B he i R ia ide he WWI, gi i g Ge a a he e i ie i
a a i g f . Le i a ed g f he a i de be c ce a ed a d i de
a c ce a e a he i e a eff e ab i h he e i . Whe R ia beca e he
S ie U i , S a i g a e big e a d he ig ed he Ribbe -M Pac .
Fi a e ha e he i i g f he S ie U i ; e i ,i de a id
he a f , Hi e a i g ha e a e i ib i i h he S ie
U i . A a ce ai i , Hi e ee ed de a d ha F a ce a d G ea
B i ai e e he i f bei g defea ed, i a he i e c e he
h eE e i h he agg e i f he S ie U i .

O e ha d, e ha e a g ea f ade b he S ie U i , G ea B i ai a d
ha e ai ed f F a ce; he he ha d e had I a , Ge a a d Ja a .
The f e e he ed b he S a e .

I i ece a a a e e ea ee e i de de a d he ec ica
c e a i be ee he US ecifica i h G ea B i ai , b a ih
F a ce bef e he Pea Ha b A ac . T e ha ace bef e he
e e i g f he US i he Wa .

- Le d-Lea e Ac : 11 Ma ch 1941 (P e ide R e e ): e , a fe

i e , e cha ge, ea e, e d, he i e di e f, a ch
g e e [ h e defe e he P e ide dee ia he defe e f
he U i ed S a e ] a defe e a ic e . I a he a ce f he
Ma ha P a . Thi Ac a e i a beca e i a ed he e d f
ha e i d f e a i ha he U i ed S a e had g e h gh
f i g he Fi W d Wa a d hich a a c i ed b he
Ne a i Ac . Af e he e d f he WWI, he U ca e bac he
16
M e D c i e . A ha e , he US a a i g e he
h ge ec ic b e a d he cia b e a e i 1929.

The Ne a i Ac e e a e ie f ac a ed b he U i ed S a e C g e
i he 1930 ( ecifica 1935, 1936, 1937, a d 1939) i e e he
g i g h ea a d a ha ed W d Wa II. The e e ed b he
g hi i ai i a d -i e e i i i he US f i gi
di i i e af e W d Wa I, a d gh e e ha he US d
bec e e a g ed agai i f eig c f ic . The egac f he Ne a i Ac
i ide ega ded a ha i g bee ge e a ega i e; he ade di i c i
be ee agg e a d ic i , ea i g b h e a a be ige e , a d he
i i ed he US g e e ' abi i aid B i ai a d F a ce agai Na i

16
​The US e e ed WWI i de he hei hi ica a , UK.
Ge a . The ac e e a ge e ea ed i 1941, i he face f Ge a
b a i e a ac U.S. e e a d he Ja a e e a ac Pea Ha b .

De c a ic P e ide R e e a d e ecia hi Sec e a f S a e C de

H e e c i ica f he Ne a i Ac , fea i g ha he d e ic he
ad i i a i ' i f ie d a i . E e h gh b h he
H e a d Se a e had a ge De c a ic a i ie h gh he e ea , he e
a e gh f he Ac a g De c a (e ecia S he e )
e e hei a age. A h gh C g e i a a i fficie
e ide a e ide ia e , R e e fe he c d aff d b he S h
a d a ge b ic i i , e ecia hi e faci g e-e ec i i 1936 a d
eedi g C g e i a c e a i d e ic i e . Wi h c ide ab e
e c a ce, he e ide ig ed he Ne a i Ac i a .

R e e ' S a e De a e had bbied f e ba g ii ha d

a he P e ide i e a ci e ec i e . Thi a e ec ed b
C g e . The 1935 ac , a ed b C g e A g 31, 1935, i ed a
ge e a e ba g adi g i a a d a a e ia i h a a ie i a a .
I a dec a ed ha A e ica ci i e a ei g a i g hi a e ed a
hei i . The ac a e e i e af e i h.

R e e i ed he ac af e I a ' i a i f E hi ia i Oc be 1935,
e e i ga a a da ii hi e I a a d E hi ia. He a
dec a ed a " a e ba g " agai he be ige e , c e i g ade fa i g
de he Ne a i Ac .

The Ne a i Ac f 1936, a ed i Feb a f ha ea , e e ed he

ii f he 1935 ac f a he 14 h .I a f bade a a
c edi be ige e .

H e e , hi ac did c e "ci i a ", ch a ha i S ai (1936 1939),

did i c e a e ia ed i ci i ia ife ch a c a d i . U.S.
c a ie ch a Te ac , S a da d Oi , F d, Ge e a M , a d S deba e
d ch i e he Na i a i de Ge e a F a c c edi .

I Ja a 1937, he C g e a ed a i e i a i g he a ade
i h S ai . The Ne a i Ac f 1937 a a ed i Ma a d i c ded he
ii f he ea ie ac , hi i e i h e i a i da e, a d e e ded
 he c e ci i a a e . F he e, U.S. hi ee hibi ed f
a i ga a e ge a ic e be ige e , a d U.S. ci i e ee
f bidde f a ei g hi f be ige e a i . I a c ce i
R e e , a "ca h-a d-ca " ii ha had bee de i ed b hi ad i
Be a d Ba ch a added: he P e ide c d e i he a e f a e ia a d
ie be ige e i E ea g a he eci ie a a ged f he
a a d aid i edia e i h ca h, i h he a g e ha hi d
d a he U.S. i he c f ic . R e e be ie ed ha ca h-a d-ca d
aid F a ce a d G ea B i ai i he e e f a a i h Ge a , i ce he
e e he c ie ha c ed he ea a d e e ab e a e ad a age
f he i i . The ca h-a d-ca c a e a e e i e af e ea .

Ja a i aded Chi a i J 1937, a i g he Sec d Si -Ja a e e Wa .

P e ide R e e , h ed he Chi e e ide, ch e i e he
Ne a i Ac i ce he a ie had f a dec a ed a . I d i g , he
e ed ha Chi a' eff defe d i e f d be hi de ed b he
egi a i : Chi a a de e de a i a d Ja a d ha e
bee ab e a e ad a age f ​ca h-and-carr ​. Thi aged he i a i i i
C ge h c ai ed ha he i i f he a a bei g de i ed.
R e e a ed ha he d hibi A e ica hi f a i ga
he be ige e , b he a ed B i i h hi a A e ica a
Chi a. R e e ga e hi Q a a i e S eech i Oc be 1937, i i ga
ea a f e ai a d a d " a a i i g" a agg e . He he
i ed a " a e ba g " e f ai c af Ja a .

Ea i 1939, af e Na i Ge a had i aded C ech a ia, R e e

bbied C g e ha e he ca h-a d-ca ii e e ed. He a
eb ffed, he ii a ed, a d he a da a e ba g e ai ed i
ace. I Se e be 1939, af e Ge a had i aded P a d, G ea B i ai a d
F a ce dec a ed a Ge a . R e e i ed he ii f he
Ne a i Ac b ca e bef e C g e a d a e ed ha he Ne a i Ac
a gi e a i e aid a agg e c .C g e a di ided. R e e
e ai ed e he i a i i , a d N e be 4, he ig ed he Ne a i
Ac f 1939 i a ,a i gf a ade i h be ige e ai (G ea
B i ai a d F a ce) a ca h-a d-ca ba i , h i effec e di g he a
e ba g . F he e, he Ne a i Ac f 1935 a d 1937 e e e ea ed,
A e ica ci i e a d hi e e ba ed f e e i g a e de ig a ed b
17
he P e ide . I a ed a fC g e hif , a i gf i ai i a d
a i g a fi e ad a e i e e i ; e ca a ha he Ge a
agg e i P a d ade he c g e a i g ha e he idea i h he
e ide ha he i a i had be aba d ed.

I J e 1940 F a ce fe , G ea B i ai a a e, he e figh i g. The

U i ed S a e e e i diffic i de he G ea B i ai , beca e he
e ha d he f d hi e f a i g e d he e e f he f he
e B i i h P i e Mi i e R e e a d he he ha d he f d hi e f
ab e i e e e i he A e ica C g e had gi e hi i f c e
a d .

The i e e be 1940, d i g he ba e f B i ai , he B i i h g e e
e he ca ed Ti a d Mi i : The Ti a d Mi i , fficia he B i i h
Tech ica a d Scie ific Mi i , a a B i i h de ega i ha i i ed he
U i ed S a e d i g he Sec d W d Wa i de b ai he i d ia
e ce e i he i i a e ia f he e ea ch a d de e e
c e ed b he UK he begi i g f W d Wa II, b ha B i ai i e f
c d e i d e he i edia e e i e e f a - e a ed d c i 18.

D i g Dece be 1940, R e e dec a ed ha he US e e he A e a f

De c acie a d ed e ii U a da he
C ea h a f Ca ada. I a i i ee ed, a i g ha hi
c eai d be be eficia G ea B i ai . B e hi g bega
cha ge e ecia ha he aga da, hich h ed he de a a i f
B i i h ci ie d i g he B i . P b ic i i ed R e e 19.

S e ca a ha he igi a a a ha R e e a d he a e ica
C ge a ed he G ea B i ai b e ai i g ide f Wa ; b d i g
ea Feb a 1941 a b gh ha he 44% f a e ica a i fa

17
​AA e ica hi a had be ec ed f a a ac ; hi h gh ce ai ca e
af e he 1917 e e , he he A e ica L i i a ia hi , hich a had A e ica ci i ia
b a d, a hi b he Ge a .
18
E e i d f d ci a ec e ed i B i ai i iia d ci .
19
hi a a c ee e a a d e diffic de a d, ab e a beca e f he
fi i e he h e f cie , i a ic a he E ea e, a c ee i ed.
 f gi i g aid he b i i h i h a i d f a ifica i ; he idea a i g
fi d a e i d f i ; ca h a d ca a g db a be i a
e gh. S P e ide R e e ied a f ca h a d ca i e hi g
e hich he a e f Le d Lea e Ac , i hich i a ib e gi e
he UK he he i eeded, a d he UK h d e e a a i ca .
Af e he fi h i i ie , he C g e acce ed hi idea, a d a he C g e
de d ha i a i a he G ea B i ai i de a e i figh
agai Ge a , i h he ibi i f he US a id he c f ic . Thi Ac
ha bee e ab a ed i de he G ea B i ai , b he i a e ed
20
Chi a a d he S ie U i .

The S ie U i a c ide ed a ide gica e e f he We , b a ha

i e b h he A e ica a d he B i i h e ha figh Na i Ge a i a
ab e ece a he he S ie U i , hich had bee f ced g
a af e he i a i f he Ge a . B A g 1942 he g ea a a ia ce
a ead . The S ie U i had de d he i a ce f bei g a f a
a ia ce i h Ch chi a d R e e , , i de be be e acce ed b
We e de c acie , i decided ab i h he C i e , he hi d
c i i e a i a , hich ided f he i f a he c i
a ie i E e a d i he d. I hi a he ed ha he a figh i g a
c e e . A he a e i e, a g ea dea f aga da a a bei g
ead i G ea B i ai a d he U i ed S a e , a i g i c ea b ic i i
ha he cie ai a ffe i g f he Ge a i a i . The
a ia ce a e ecei ed b A e ica b ic i i a e , R e e
f d b e bef e he A e ica C g e i bei g ab e e e d he
Le d Lea e he S ie a e . The be a ha he R ia ee
ab e d ce he ea , beca e a he i d ie e e ca ed i he
e e a f he e i , he e cc ied b he Ge a .

The e i cha ged af e he a ac f Pea Ha b ; f eig ic a e

di c ed b he C g e , he US e e i ed. I S i g 1944 he
C ge a ed a e ac i de e e he Le d Lea e Ac a d e ca
a ha d i g he Wa he a i de f he C g e a cha ged. The
ad i i a i f he Ac : R e e a e ha he ic e e i e

20
A d he i a gi e a a e hich a figh i g agai he a i . The S ie U i ecei ed
he Le d Lea e Ac he i a i aded b he Ge ma .
f he f eig ic g a ; he a he ed b Ha H i , he a
c i g he ai i a a e ica ic deci i .

A he i a e a he ig f he A a ic Cha e , 14 A g
1941, R e e + Ch chi : A gi a i e ea ai igh
ch e i g e e , he ea i g f ade e ic i a d a ea f
a di a a e . The d c e i c ide ed e f he fi e e
a d he e ab i h e f he U i ed Na i i 1945. He a i g
e ga i e he f e d de def ec a h e i a e ade i he
i e a e i d. Thi d c e a a T ea .

Ch chi a d R e e bega c ica i g i 1939, he fi f hei 11

ee i g d i g he a . B h e a e ed i ec e ; R e e a a
e -da fi hi g i . O 9 A g 1941, he B i i h ba e hi HMS P i ce f
Wa e ea ed i P ace ia Ba , i h Ch chi b a d, a d e he
A e ica hea c i e USS A g a, he e R e e a d e be f hi
aff e e ai i g. O he fi ee i g, Ch chi a d R e e ee ie f
a e i Ch chi aid, "A g a , M . P e ide ." R e e e ied,
"G ad ha e ab a d, M . Ch chi ."Ch chi he de i e ed he
e ide a e e f Ki g Ge ge VI a d ade a fficia a e e , hich,
de i e a e , he ie d c e ha a e e fai ed ec d.

The A a ic Cha e ade c ea ha he U i ed S a e ed he B i i h i

he a . B h a ed e e hei i ega di g hei a i ci e a d
h e f a eacef a d a d he icie ha he ag eed f
ce he Ge a had bee defea ed.[7] A f da e a ai a f c he
eace ha df , ecific A e ica i e e a d a a eg ,
a h gh A e ica i e e a ea ed i c ea i g i e .[8]

The e e e eigh i ci a c a e f he cha e :

- N e i ia gai e e be gh b he U i ed S a e he U i ed
Ki gd .
- Te i ia ad e be i acc d i h he i he f he e e
c ce ed.
- A e e had a igh e f-de e i a i .
- T ade ba ie e e be e ed.
 - The e a be g ba ec ic c - e a i a d ad a ce e f cia
e fa e.
- The a ici a d f a d f ee f a a d fea .
- The a ici a d f f eed f he ea .
- The e a be di a a e f agg e ai a dac
di a a e af e he a .

The hi d c a e c ea a ed ha a e e ha e he igh decide hei f

fg e e b fai ed a ha cha ge a e ece a i b h cia a d
ec ic e achie e f eed a d eace. The f h c a e, i h e ec
i e a i a ade, c ci e ha i ed ha b h " ic [a d]
a i hed" d be gi e a e acce " e a e ." Tha a a
e dia i f he i i e ade e a i ha had bee e ab i hed i hi
E e af e W d Wa I, a e e ified b he Pa i Ec Pac . O
ca e e e di c a i a , cia , a d ec ic c di i ha d
be ece a af e he a , de i e hei ig ifica ce.
 06/10

In WWII he e a he ead of in e na ional o gani a ion ; he de a a ion of

he Wa and he a omic bomb made all he Co n ie ea ch fo coo e a ion in
o de o manage he in e na ional o de and eace.
All he mo im o an S a e in he conflic hich ied o make and c ea e a
o ible o o ld a o d, ch a China, he E o ean go e nmen in e ile
ch a he F ench one, he So ie Union, he UK, he US. All he e co n ie
coo e a ed e clo el in o de o fo m f e ac ion. The di c ion ended in
he T i a i e mee ing , he Big Th ee mee ing , hich held con in o l d ing
he a and he e e o king in o de o di c abo al o he o gani a ion ;
he ied o eo gani e he LoN and al o change ome di o i ion abo he
In e na ional Labo O gani a ion and he c e a mo ed o he US in
o de o be mo e ec e. The e l of he e mee ing led o he c ea ion of he
Uni ed Na ion and hei eciali ed agencie . The e e e momen in hich
hi idea came o and ome agencie e e c ea ed al o befo e he c ea ion of
he Uni ed Na ion ; he conce of he Uni ed Na ion o gani a ion a a fo m
fo he e lemen fo he main enance of eace and in e na ional e ilib i m
a di c ed ecificall b he allie .
In 1942 he Allied Na ion me in Wa hing on in o de o ado he Cha e and
o ign a decla a ion b The Uni ed Na ion ; i a an e e ion in ha
momen limi ed o he allied in he Wa , o he idea of UN a Uni ed again
na i fa ci m. The e e ion a ed and emained on he floo in o de o be
ed in he f e. I a ag eed b he US, UK, So ie Union and China.

In 1944 he e a he D mba on Oak Confe ence and i a al o held in

Wa hing on, he ec e a e, beca e, in he e ce ion of Pea l Ha bo , he
ame ican e i o a f ee of mili a o e a ion .
A hi oin he LoN coo e a e in o de o b ild ano he cha e fo he Ne
o gani a ion, and in 1945, in San F anci co, delega e f om 15 Co n ie me o
ado he Cha e of he UN.
The e ion of in ol ing he LoN aff, i h he e ce ion of e e al elemen
of he Sec i Co ncil and he Economic Social Co ncil, he UN la gel
mimic he LoN c e. The e imila i ie a e d e o he fac ha he LoN
a he onl e am le of a com le e in e na ional o gani a ion o be follo ed.

The econd ini ia i e a ed in 1942, a a con e ence of he US being d a n

in o he conflic af e he Pea l Ha bo e ha e he US T ea Sec e a ,
Mo gen ha , ho ini ia ed die in f e in e na ional financial olicie , o
hile e ha e oli ician in ol ed in oli ical and ec i ma e , e ha e
al o o he , ch a oli ician f om he US, ha e e o king on he financial
able. Mo gen ha eached an in e na ional ag eemen o elimina e he
com e i i e e al a ion and moni o e change con ol a ell a e abli hing a
Bank of he Uni ed and A ocia ed Na ion . He ho gh ha i a im o an
o o k in o de o find eg la ion fo he f e af e he a , o king on he
e ol ion of conflic in o de o a oid f e conflic 1​​ .
Po e ha co ld lead o ocial di ion and in abili and ob io l o
dic a o hi had o be e en ed. I a nece a o o k i h he e en ion
of a and o g a an ee all co n ie o eb ild an economi in o de o a oid a
degene a ion of he oli ical em. Fo he e ea on Mo gen ha had hi
idea: he nde ood ha he idea had o be ha ed no onl be een he Big
Alliance, b al o in all ho e co n ie hich an ed o figh again
dic a o hi . Tha c ea e a m l ila e al o de . I ed he e e ion of
embedded libe ali m, in o de o ha e a kind of libe ali m in he con c ion of
ne S a e . The e a al o he idea of an In e na ional abili a ion f nd.
Ac all e ha e o a ha hi economic coo e a ion a al o im o an
beca e e ha e an im o an b i i h fig e ho a o king in he UK
ea , a aff membe of ano he mini e of T ea , John Ke ne ; he
e ol ed he conce of he In e na ional Clea ing Union hich a ela ed on
moni o ing e change ; e ha e o a ha Ke ne o ld be im o an in o de
o de ign he in e na ional economic a e of he o a o ld.

Decla a ion of he Uni ed Na ion 2​​ of 1942 i a done on he 1 Jan a .

In h ee ea e had a lo of momen defining he in e na ional coo e a ion
among he alliance:
- in 1943, f om 18 Ma o he 3 d of J ne 1943, in Ho S ing , in Vi ginia
on Food and Ag ic l e. Thi Confe ence a a Uni ed Na ion
1
​We can
no a ha he bi h of he Na i fa ci m a d e o he bad economic i a ion
ha a afflic ing he Weima Re blic.
2
Thi e e ion a ed in o de o define he big alliance of he Wa .
 Confe ence. I i nece a o emembe ha , e en if he official da e of
bi h of he Uni ed Na ion a an o gan of mili a coo e a ion and fo
in e na ional ec i , in eali he g ea allie of he Second Wo ld Wa
e e al ead a ing o e hi conce of he Uni ed Na ion eci el
beca e he e e al ead o king ince 1942 in o de o c ea e a able
c e fo he o -Wo ld Wa II e iod. In ha Confe ence he e e e
ome hing like 44 S a e hich e e di c ing he food i a ion and
all he mea e ha had o be ado ed in o de o g a an ee anda d of
n i ion fo he o la ion. S ecificall , in hi UN Confe ence, e can
ee ecial a en ion on ecific i e , ch a h nge ,
nde no i hmen , mo ali and o he di ea e . The ied o ha e a lan
fo a la ge e iod. Thi og am o ld be eali ed hank o ome hing
el e, in he en e ha he Confe ence de elo ed a og am incl ding he
e abli hmen of he Food and Ag ic l al O gani a ion, o he ke oin
of he Confe ence a o a f om a i a ion in o de o c ea e
a ailable da a and a i ic , fo hi ea on ha confe ence ongl
de elo ed a og am. A a e l , he FAO a c ea ed and i became a
eciali ed agenc of he UN in oc obe 1945.
In he mean ime he e a he c ea ion of a commi ion ha a ed
o king on ha ne i e, ing o collec da a and in o de o hink
abo he c ea ion of a ecific c e of he o gani a ion.

- Then e ha e ano he im o an e : e e al mon h la e , beginning of

no embe 1943 and he ame 44 allied S a e , ag eed in A lan ic Ci in
Ne Je e , o e abli h he e Uni ed Na ion Relief fo Ref gee ;
ac all hi name a diffe en beca e he o gani ed hi UNRRA
Uni ed Na ion Relief and Rehabili a ion Admini a ion . Ve
common in i ion e e mean o find ol ion o he elief of ef gee
and eo le all o e he Wo ld; UNRRA became he la ge non-mili a
in e go e nmen al o gani a ion a ha ime. The e e e a h ge n mbe of
eo le ho e e ic im and ef gee and di laced eo le of he Wa .
Thi admini a ion o e a ed f om No embe 1943 o J ne 1947 in
E o e and a li le bi longe in A ia (19 Ma ch 1949 in China). I had
e e al billion dolla and e c ed 7 million eo le.
Thi o gani a ion a o be a non- e manen ol ion o ol ing he
ef gee oblem of he Second Wo ld Wa ; ho e e , henomena ch a
decoloni a ion led, e en in b e en ea , o a e high g o h of
 ef gee . So he e e e ome confe ence , like he one in Mon eal in
Se embe 1944 and in London in A g 1945. The la mee ing a
im o ible beca e WWII ended in Ma (8) of he ame ea .

- In e na ional Labo Confe ence in Philadel hia in 1944. Thi

o gani a ion had o make i e ence fel fo demon a ing ha nlike
he LoN i a o king ell. Wo king in o de o comm nica e ha i
a ill good o kee o king on i field and fo i o e . Thi O g.
decided kee on o gani ing confe ence , one of he mo im o an in
a held in 1944, be een a il and ma in Philadel hia and hi
o gani a ion confe ence o gani ed a kind of lan fo he o - a
i a ion in e i ing i con i ion and im o e hi o gani a ion, ing
o find he a o be inde enden f om he LoN and b oaden he
objec i e , efo m he o gani a ion b al o he legi la ion. A he end of
ha confe ence, he o g. ado ed he Decla a ion of Philadel hia, i h he
objec i e hich e e enla ged and i h hi confe ence.
The idea a o 1) omo e ocial j ice; 2) con olida e in e na ional
eace; 3) co ec he a e n of in e na ional com e i ion.
The In e na ional o gani a ion foc ed on he indi id al and i h
m l idimen ional a ici a ion f om he ocie and i nde lined he
im o ance of economic and ocial ad ancemen .
A he clo e of he confe ence, he delega e e e ecei ed b P e iden
Roo e el in he Whi e Ho e, beca e he in ended o demon a e hi
belief in in e na ional coo e a ion and al o he fai h fo he o k of he
O gani a ion.

- B e on Wood Confe ence (1-22 J l 1944): bo h Uk and US de elo ed

idea fo he o a Wo ld; Mo gen ha and Ke ne made hi ini ia i e
a and hi a i de in 1942.
The B e on Wood Confe ence, fo mall kno n a he Uni ed Na ion
Mone a and Financial Confe ence, a he ga he ing of 730 delega e
f om all 44 Allied na ion a he Mo n Wa hing on Ho el, i a ed in
B e on Wood , Ne Ham hi e, Uni ed S a e , o eg la e he
in e na ional mone a and financial o de af e he concl ion of Wo ld
Wa II. The confe ence a held f om J l 1 o 22, 1944. Ag eemen
e e igned ha , af e legi la i e a ifica ion b membe go e nmen ,
e abli hed he In e na ional Bank fo Recon c ion and De elo men
 (IBRD, la e a of he Wo ld Bank g o ) and he In e na ional
Mone a F nd (IMF). Thi led o ha a called he B e on Wood
em fo in e na ional comme cial and financial ela ion .
I a abo he di c ion of an In e na ional Financial S c e; a he
e beginning e e one belie ed ha he Confe ence o ld ha e been a
fail e, b hen i a e good and ef l fo in e na ional coo e a ion.
One of he mo im o an c e ha he Confe ence ga e bi h o a
fo e am le he In e na ional Mone a F nd​3​ and he In e na ional Bank
fo Recon c ion and De elo men 4​​ (Wo ld Bank) and al o he
In e na ional T ade O gani a ion.
The need fo o - a We e n economic o de a e ol ed i h he
ag eemen made on mone a o de and an o en em of ade a he
1944 B e on Wood Confe ence. The e allo ed fo he n he i of
B i ain' de i e fo f ll em lo men and economic abili and he
Uni ed S a e ' de i e fo f ee ade. The B e on Wood em of egged
e change a e la ed in o he ea l 1970 .
The US infl ence led o he fac ha he In e na ional Mone a F nd and
he Wo ld Bank a e bo h Uni ed Na ion eciali ed agencie , mean ha
he ha e a e diffe en e of go e nance f om he o he agencie of
he Uni ed Na ion :
- he IMF ha a inci le of e on ibili : i ha a code of cond c
in o de o manage he in e na ional ade em and e change ;
- i ha o o ide ho - e m financial e o ce fo co n ie ,
imbalanced and no o ong;
- i in ended o di c in e na ional mone a ma e .

The Wo ld Bank a ini iall e i h he ela i el mall ca i al

b c i ion and de ended on i a e in e o fo m ch of i e o ce ; and
ince he onl o a ca i al ma ke i h ade a e li idi , he Wo ld B. a
led b E gen Me e , a US ci i en.

3
The In e na ional Mone a F nd (IMF) i an in e na ional o gani a ion, head a e ed in
Wa hing on, D.C., con i ing of 189 co n ie o king o fo e global mone a
coo e a ion, ec e financial abili , facili a e in e na ional ade, omo e high
em lo men and ainable economic g o h, and ed ce o e a o nd he o ld hile
e iodicall de ending on he Wo ld Bank fo i e o ce .
4
ho e o e a o eed econ c ion af e he Second Wo ld Wa and o fo e
economic de elo men , e eciall h o gh lending o b ild inf a c e.
The In e na ional T ade O gani a ion (ITO) a he o o ed name fo an
in e na ional in i ion fo he eg la ion of ade. Led b he Uni ed S a e in
collabo a ion i h allie , he effo o fo m he o gani a ion f om 1945 o 1948,
i h he cce f l a ing of he Ha ana Cha e , e en all failed d e o lack
of a o al b he US Cong e . Un il he c ea ion of he Wo ld T ade
O gani a ion in 1994, in e na ional ade a managed h o gh he Gene al
Ag eemen on Ta iff and T ade (GATT)​5​.

In he mone a confe ence of B e on Wood , he ame ican go e nmen

decided o a end a man delega ion a o ible, e had ome hing like 700
delega e f om he 44 ni ed and a ocia ed na ion .
Toge he i h ade, he e a ano he olic field ha a cce f l: i a
he Ci il a ia ion, he e a a mee ing in dec 1944 fo he ado ion of he
Con en ion of he Ci il A ia ion: hi Con en ion, al o kno n a he Chicago
Con en ion, e abli hed he In e na ional Ci il A ia ion O gani a ion (ICAO), a
eciali ed agenc of he UN cha ged i h coo dina ing in e na ional ai a el.
The Con en ion e abli he le of ai ace, ai c af egi a ion and afe ,
ec i , and ainabili , and de ail he igh of he igna o ie in ela ion o
ai a el. The Con en ion al o con ain o i ion e aining o a a ion. The
US had e ed o ch a con en ion in o de o manage he defence he
f eedom of he k e ; he became he ma e of he k e , o he o he S a e ,
eeing he g o h of US infl ence in he kie and in a ia ion, did no in end o
acce he e ag eemen , al o claiming ome o of o e eign in hei kie .
The mo o ied e e London and Mo co .

D mba on-Oak Confe ence: The D mba on Oak Confe ence o , mo e

fo mall , he Wa hing on Con e a ion on In e na ional Peace and Sec i
O gani a ion, a an in e na ional confe ence a hich he Uni ed Na ion a

5
The Gene al Ag eemen on Ta iff and T ade (GATT) i a legal ag eemen be een man
co n ie , ho e o e all o e a o omo e in e na ional ade b ed cing o
elimina ing ade ba ie ch a a iff o o a . Acco ding o i eamble, i oe a
he " b an ial ed c ion of a iff and o he ade ba ie and he elimina ion of
efe ence , on a eci ocal and m all ad an ageo ba i ."
The Wo ld T ade O gani a ion (WTO) i an in e go e nmen al o gani a ion ha i conce ned
i h he eg la ion of in e na ional ade be een na ion . The WTO officiall commenced
on 1 Jan a 1995 nde he Ma ake h Ag eemen , igned b 123 na ion on 15 A il 1994,
e lacing he Gene al Ag eemen on Ta iff and T ade (GATT), hich commenced in 1948.
I i he la ge in e na ional economic o gani a ion in he o ld.
fo m la ed and nego ia ed among in e na ional leade . The confe ence a
held a D mba on Oak , in Wa hing on, D.C., f om A g 21, 1944, o
Oc obe 7, 1944. The D mba on Oak Confe ence con i ed he fi
im o an e aken o ca o a ag a h 4 of he Mo co Decla a ion of
1943, hich ecogni ed he need fo a o a in e na ional o gani a ion o
cceed he Leag e of Na ion . A he confe ence, delega ion f om Re blic of
China, he So ie Union, he Uni ed S a e , and he Uni ed Kingdom delibe a ed
o e o o al fo he e abli hmen of an o gani a ion o main ain eace and
ec i in he o ld​6​.
The con e a ion e e held in o ha e , ince he So ie e e n illing o
mee di ec l i h he Chine e. In he fi ha e, e e en a i e of he So ie
Union, he Uni ed Kingdom, and he Uni ed S a e con ened be een A g
21 and Se embe 28. In he econd, e e en a i e of Re blic of China, he
Uni ed Kingdom, and he Uni ed S a e held di c ion be een Se embe 29
and Oc obe 7.
The a ed o e of he o o ed in e na ional o gani a ion e e:

- To main ain in e na ional eace and ec i ; and o ha end o ake

effec i e collec i e mea e fo he e en ion and emo al of h ea o
he eace and he e ion of ac of agg e ion o o he b eache of
he eace, and o b ing abo b eacef l mean adj men o e lemen
of in e na ional di e hich ma lead o a b each of he eace;
- To de elo f iendl ela ion among na ion and o ake o he a o ia e
mea e o eng hen ni e al eace;
- To achie e in e na ional coo e a ion in he ol ion of in e na ional
economic, ocial and o he h mani a ian oblem ; and
- To affo d a cen e fo ha moni ing he ac ion of na ion in he
achie emen of he e common end .
On Oc obe 7, 1944, he delega e ag eed on a en a i e e of o o al
(P o o al fo he E abli hmen of a Gene al In e na ional O gani a ion) o

6
Among he e e en a i e e e he B i i h Pe manen Unde -Sec e a of S a e fo Fo eign
Affai , Si Ale ande Cadogan; So ie Amba ado o he Uni ed S a e And ei G om ko;
Chine e Amba ado o he Uni ed Kingdom Welling on Koo; and U.S. Unde -Sec e a of
S a e Ed a d S e ini J ., each of hom chai ed hi e ec i e delega ion. (When Cadogan
a called back o London af e he fi half of he confe ence, leade hi of he delega ion
a a med b Ed a d Wood, 1 Ea l of Halifa , he B i i h amba ado in Wa hing on.)
The confe ence i elf a chai ed b S e ini , and U.S. Sec e a of S a e Co dell H ll
deli e ed he o ening add e .
mee he e goal . The di c ion a he confe ence ega ding he make- of
he Uni ed Na ion incl ded hich a e o ld be in i ed o become membe ,
he fo ma ion of he Uni ed Na ion Sec i Co ncil, and he igh of e o ha
o ld be gi en o e manen membe of he Sec i Co ncil.
The e o o al e e al o in he fi D af of he UN Cha e .

Thi Confe ence lef n e ol ed and o ened ome i e , mo e o he E o ean

i a ion in ha momen : hi i e e e di c ed in he Yal a Confe ence
(al o kno n a he C imea Confe ence and code-named he A gona
Confe ence), held Feb a 4 11, 1945, a he Wo ld Wa II mee ing of he
head of go e nmen of he Uni ed S a e , he Uni ed Kingdom, and he So ie
Union o di c he o a eo gani a ion of Ge man and E o e. The h ee
a e e e e e en ed b P e iden F anklin D. Roo e el , P ime Mini e
Win on Ch chill, and P emie Jo e h S alin, e ec i el .
The aim of he confe ence a o ha e a o - a eace ha e e en ed no
j a collec i e ec i o de b a lan o gi e elf-de e mina ion o he
libe a ed eo le of o -Na i E o e. The mee ing a in ended mainl o
di c he e-e abli hmen of he na ion of a - o n E o e. Ho e e , i hin
a fe ho ea , i h he Cold Wa di iding he con inen , Yal a became a
bjec of in en e con o e . Yal a a he econd of h ee majo a ime
confe ence among he Big Th ee.
I a eceded b he Teh an Confe ence in No embe 1943, and a follo ed
b he Po dam Confe ence in J l 1945. I a al o eceded b a confe ence
in Mo co in Oc obe 1944, no a ended b P e iden Roo e el , in hich
Ch chill and S alin had oken of E o ean We e n and So ie he e of
infl ence.
The ke oin of he mee ing e e a follo :
- The Decla a ion of Libe a ed E o e a c ea ed b Win on Ch chill,
F anklin D. Roo e el , and Jo e h S alin d ing he Yal a Confe ence. I
a a omi e ha allo ed he eo le of E o e " o c ea e democ a ic
in i ion of hei o n choice". The decla a ion ledged, " he ea lie
o ible e abli hmen h o gh f ee elec ion go e nmen e on i e o
he ill of he eo le." Thi i imila o he a emen of he A lan ic
Cha e , hich a , o" he igh of all eo le o choo e he fo m of
go e nmen nde hich he ill li e."
- Ag eemen o he io i of he ncondi ional ende of Na i
Ge man . Af e he a , Ge man and Be lin o ld be li in o fo
 occ ied one . S alin ag eed ha F ance o ld ha e a fo h occ a ion
one in Ge man , b i o ld ha e o be fo med o of he Ame ican
and B i i h one .
- Ge man o ld nde go demili a i a ion and dena ifica ion.
- Ge man e a a ion e e a l o be in he fo m of fo ced labo . The
fo ced labo a o be ed o e ai damage ha Ge man had inflic ed
on i ic im . Ho e e , labo e e e al o fo ced o ha e c o , mine
ani m, and do o he o k. ( ee al o Fo ced labo of Ge man af e
Wo ld Wa II and Fo ced labo of Ge man in he So ie Union).
- C ea ion of a e a a ion co ncil hich o ld be loca ed in he So ie
Union.
- The a of Poland a di c ed. I a ag eed o eo gani e he
comm ni P o i ional Go e nmen of he Re blic of Poland ha had
been in alled b he So ie Union "on a b oade democ a ic ba i ." The
Poli h ea e n bo de o ld follo he C on Line, and Poland o ld
ecei e e i o ial com en a ion in he e f om Ge man . S alin
ledged o e mi f ee elec ion in Poland.
- Roo e el ob ained a commi men b S alin o a ici a e in he Uni ed
Na ion .
- S alin e e ed ha all of he 16 So ie Sociali Re blic o ld be
g an ed UN membe hi . Thi a aken in o con ide a ion, b 14
e blic e e denied; T man ag eed o membe hi fo Uk aine and
Belo ia hile e e ing he igh , hich a ne e e e ci ed, o eek
o mo e o e fo he Uni ed S a e .
- S alin ag eed o en e he figh again he Em i e of Ja an "in o o
h ee mon h af e Ge man ha ende ed and he a in E o e i
e mina ed", and ha a a e l , he So ie o ld ake o e ion of
So he n Sakhalin and he K il I land , he o of Dalian o ld be
in e na ionali ed, and he So ie lea e of Po A h o ld be e o ed,
among o he conce ion . Fo he bombing of Ja an, ag eemen a
eached on ba ing Ame ican B-29 nea he mo h of he Am Ri e in
he Kom omol k-Nikolae k a ea (no nea Vladi o ok a ea lie
o o ed), ho gh hi did no e en a e. Gene al An ono al o aid ha
he Red A m o ld ake he o he n half of Sakhalin I land a one of
i fi objec i e , and Ame ican a i ance in he defence of Kamcha ka
o ld be de i able.
 - Na i a c iminal e e o be fo nd, and on ial in he e i o ie
he e hei c ime had been commi ed; Na i leade e e o be
e ec ed.
- A "Commi ee on Di membe men of Ge man " a o be e .I
o e a o decide he he Ge man a o be di ided in o e e al
na ion .
A he Yal a confe ence in Feb a 1945, he So ie Union, B i ain, and he
U.S. had ag eed o c ea e a e o o e on mili a in e en ion a he ne
Uni ed Na ion . A long a he e e no a of he di e, he Big Fi e o ld
be allo ed o e o a bi a ion o in e en ion b he UN in in e na ional
di e . Fo man , hi eemed he be me hod o en e ha he g ea o e
o ld o he in e na ional o gani a ion. The UN had o be diffe en f om
he Leag e of Na ion ha had failed o e ain membe . The e o co ld c ea e
b -in and e en a membe f om lea ing o no joining he o gani a ion in
he fi lace. Ve o i ed onl in ecial momen , onl hen he e alking
abo di e.

Ano he lacking ag eemen in D mba on Oak a abo he f e of

e i o ie . So he al o di c ed he f e of colonie , and i a ag eed ha
he b i i h colonial e i o ie co ldn be laced nde he admini a ion of he
UN em.
Th ee e of e i o ie :
- The manda ed e i o ie of he LoN;
- Te i o ie o be aken f om Ja an and Ge man af e he end of he Wa ;
- Te i o ie ha e e o be ol n a il laced nde he UN ee hi b
he colonial o e .
- The colonie of Ge man and Ja an ho ld be ea ed in a diffe en a
f om ho e of F ance and he UK.

In Yal a, a da e a e fo he ina g al mee ing fo he ne o gani a ion: i

a aid ha hi confe ence ho ld be held in San F anci co, he US had he
igh o in i e all ho e co n ie ha had igned he Decla a ion of he Uni ed
Na ion in 1942 (Jan).
Befo e o gani ing he San F anci co Confe ence in A il, i a i la ed ha
all na ion ho ld go o a i h he a i o e ; in fac , n il hen, fo
e am le, he So ie Union had no e decla ed a on Ja an.
 07/10

The di c ion abo he c ea ion of he Uni ed Na ion O gani a ion en on,

al o in ano he im o an confe ence: The Uni ed Na ion Confe ence on
In e na ional O gani a ion (UNCIO), commonl kno n a he San F anci co
Confe ence, a a con en ion of delega e f om 50 Allied na ion ha ook
lace f om 25 A il 1945 o 26 J ne 1945 in San F anci co, Califo nia, Uni ed
S a e of Ame ica. A hi con en ion, he delega e e ie ed and e o e he
D mba on Oak ag eemen of he e io ea . The con en ion e l ed in
he c ea ion of he Uni ed Na ion Cha e , hich a o ened fo igna e on
26 J ne, he la da of he confe ence. The confe ence a held a a io
loca ion , ima il he Wa Memo ial O e a Ho e, i h he Cha e being
igned on 26 J ne a he He b Thea e in Ci ic Cen e . A a e adjacen o
he ci ' Ci ic Cen e , called "UN Pla a", commemo a e he confe ence.

P e a a ion and backg o nd.

The idea fo he o o ed Uni ed Na ion began a a of he i ion of US
P e iden F anklin Roo e el in hich he Uni ed S a e , he So ie Union, he
Uni ed Kingdom and China o ld lead he o -Wo ld Wa II in e na ional
o de . The e co n ie , i h he addi ion of F ance, o ld a me he
e manen ea on he Uni ed Na ion Sec i Co ncil. A he Feb a 1945
confe ence in Mal a, i a o o ed ha he e manen membe ha e e o
o e . Thi o o al a ado ed ho l af e a he Yal a confe ence. While a
Yal a, he began ending in i a ion o he San F anci co confe ence on
in e na ional o gani a ion. A o al of 46 co n ie e e in i ed o San F anci co,
all of hich had decla ed a on Ge man and Ja an, ha ing igned he
Decla a ion b he Uni ed Na ion .

The d af of he Uni ed Na ion Cha e a di ided in o fo ec ion , each of

hich a died b a commi ion. The fi of he e a e on ible fo he
o gani a ion' o e , inci le , membe hi , ec e a ia and he e ion of
amendmen o he Cha e . The econd con ide ed f nc ion of he Gene al
A embl . The hi d deal i h he Sec i Co ncil. The fo h deal i h he
a e men of he d af S a e of he In e na ional Co of J ice, hich had
been d af ed b a eam of legal e e f om 44 co n ie , mee ing in
Wa hing on in A il 1945. A he confe ence, delega e e ie ed and
ome ime e o e he e ag eed on a he D mba on Oak confe ence. The
D af of he confe ence a di c ed b all he a ici an in o de ha e e
S a e ho ld e e i efe ence on an kind of o o al.
I a ag eed ha each commi ion o ld decide b a majo i ; he
O gani a ion e a ide he adi ional di loma ic oc oced e of nanimi al o
ed e io l in he LoN. The confe ence decided ha he E ec i e
Commi ee of he S on o ing S a e a o ed o be bigge b o he 10
S a e in o de o gi e he malle S a e a mo e o e f l ole d ing he
Confe ence. E e commi ion had i Chai /Ra o e , and ho ed ha he
confe ence Sec e a ia , hich a chai ed b aUS di loma , Alge Hi , la ed
a ole of i o n.

The fi i e af e he o ening ce emon a abo he a ici a ing

Co n ie ; he 21 La in Ame ican S a e a ked fo he a ici a ion of
A gen ina. In fac , he confe ence di ec l in i ed fo addi ional co n ie :
Denma k (ne l libe a ed f om Na i occ a ion), A gen ina and he So ie
e blic of Bela and Uk aine. The a ici a ion of he e co n ie a no
i ho con o e . The deci ion on he a ici a ion of A gen ina a
o bled beca e of So ie o o i ion o A gen ina membe hi , a g ing ha
A gen ina had o ed he A i Po e d ing he a . Se e al La in
Ame ican co n ie o o ed he incl ion of Bela and Uk aine nle
A gen ina a admi ed. In he end, A gen ina a admi ed o he confe ence
ih o f om he Uni ed S a e and he de i e fo he a ici a ion of he
So ie Union a he confe ence a main ained.
The a ici a ion of Bela and Uk aine a he confe ence came a a e l of
Roo e el and Ch chill' conce ion o Jo e h S alin, he So ie leade ho
had o iginall e e ed all e blic of he So ie Union o ha e membe hi
in he Uni ed Na ion , b he US go e nmen la nched a co n e o o al in
hich all US a e o ld ob ain membe hi in he Uni ed Na ion . The
co n e o o al enco aged S alin o a end he Yal a Confe ence b acce ing
onl Uk aine and Bela ' admi ion o he Uni ed Na ion . Tha a in ended
 o en e a balance of o e i hin he Uni ed Na ion , hich, in he o inion of
he So ie , a nbalanced o a d he We e n co n ie . Fo ha o e,
modifica ion e e made o he con i ion of he o e blic in e ion o
ha Bela and Uk aine in e na ional legal bjec e e limi ed hile he
e e ill a of he So ie Union.
Poland, de i e ha ing igned he Decla a ion b he Uni ed Na ion , did no
a end he confe ence beca e he e a no con en on he fo ma ion of he
o a Poli h go e nmen . The efo e, a ace a lef blank fo he Poli h
igna e. The ne Poli h go e nmen a fo med af e he confe ence (28
J ne) and igned he Uni ed Na ion Cha e on 15 Oc obe , hich made Poland
one of he fo nding co n ie of he Uni ed Na ion .
I i ell kno n ha Poland a no e en a he ina g al confe ence of he
Uni ed Na ion in San F anci co in 1945, b i i no al a nde ood ha
de i e ha Poland i ne e hele one of he fo nding membe of he UN.
Al ho gh he ce emonial ina g a ion of hi a g bod had o ai n il he
Second Wo ld Wa came o an end, he Uni ed Na ion a ac all fo nded in
Jan a 1942 i h he igning of he Decla a ion of he Uni ed Na ion b he
go e nmen of he 26 fo nding a e , incl ding he Poli h a ime
go e nmen -in-e ile ba ed in London​7​. Which kind of Poland had o a ici a e
a he Confe ence? A he end, A gen ina, Bela and Uk aine ecei ed he
in i a ion o a ici a e a he confe ence; hile Poland didn 8​​ .

7
The Ge man and So ie agg e ion again Poland in Se embe 1939 com elled he Poli h
go e nmen and he Poli h e iden o lea e he co n and eek ef ge in Romania,
Poland all . Af e c o ing he bo de , Poli h official e e in e ned b he Romanian
go e nmen and de ained in ecial cam . Af e he fall of F ance, he Poli h
Go e nmen -in-E ile mo ed o London and a ecogni ed b man co n ie ; i cond c ed
i o n fo eign olic and o e a ed a ne o k of di loma ic and con la o .
I ima goal a o figh he occ ie , coo e a e i h he Allie in he an i-Hi le
coali ion, fo m a Poli h a m , a i co n le Poli h ef gee and o hel he ffe ing
o la ion in he occ ied homeland. None hele , in No embe 1939 he Poli h a ho i ie
a ed o king on a ojec o c ea e a o - a em of collec i e ec i ha o ld
en ail he e abli hmen of fede a ion in E o e.
8
The Poli h oblem a e im o an and no negligible fo he ec lia go e nmen
i a ion: in fac , he legi ima e go e nmen a he o b eak of he a had aken ef ge in
e ile in London; he go e nmen ha a in Wa a a he go e nmen of L blin, a
comm ni go e nmen nde f ll So ie infl ence; he ma e a e ol ed i h a e ol ion
of he big h ee.
One of he i e of San F anci co a he infl ence of he malle S a e : he
e ion a abo he Gene al A embl , and he deci ion abo he b dge
and ho hi b dge had o be ed; o he e ion a im o an and e e one
in ended o ha e a ole on ho o end and on hich a e he hing o gi e
io i o. The Sec e a Gene al, ho ha d ie in e m of hi b dge
agenda, had o be elec ed b he Gene al A embl , and he Sec e a Gene al
o ld be allo ed o b ing an ma e hich co ld f igh en in e na ional eace
and ec i o he a en ion of he Sec i Co ncil.
A long a he Sec e a Co ncil did no ha e he i e on i Agenda, he
Gene al A embl o ld al o be able o di c ec i i e and eace.
E anding he com e ence of he Gene al A embl led he malle a e o be
mo e a ici a i e; in he Gene al A embl i i diffic l o make o oice o
be hea d, b i i im o an .

Colonie and elf go e ning e i o ie :

The colonial admini a ion a ano he i e ha conce ned mall S a e a
ome of hem e e colonie o manda e e i o ie ; F ance and Uni ed Kingdom
ef ed o lea e hei colonie , and malle a e an ed f ll inde endence he
end of coloniali m all a o nd he o ld, in o de o ha e ne elf go e nmen ;
o he e ion a ha on one hand ho e ho had g ea colonial em i e didn
in end o gi e f ll inde endence, hile ho e hich e e colonie an ed o
become inde enden . The e ion a o e come, changing he defini ion and
he name, b no changing he meaning: i a he idea of he o-called elf-
go e nmen , i h a ecial decla a ion on elf go e ning co n ie hich a
ado ed in he Cha e XI, The decla a ion conce ning he elf- go e ning
e i o ie . The em of manda e ado ed in 1919 a no longe c en and
needed o be efo med; h hi em a ab o bed b he ne conce of
elf-go e nmen b he o called The Uni ed Na ion T ee hi Co ncil
(F ench: Con eil de elle de Na ion nie ) i one of he i inci al o gan
of he Uni ed Na ion , e abli hed o hel en e ha e i o ie e e
admini e ed in he be in e e of hei inhabi an and of in e na ional eace
and ec i . The e i o ie mo of hem fo me manda e of he Leag e
of Na ion o e i o ie aken f om na ion defea ed a he end of Wo ld Wa
II ha e all no a ained elf-go e nmen o inde endence, ei he a e a a e
na ion o b joining neighbo ing inde enden co n ie . The la a Pala ,
fo me l a of he T Te i o of he Pacific I land , hich became a
membe a e of he Uni ed Na ion in Decembe 1994. The em of manda e
had he efo e no been aboli hed, b had im l been e laced on ano he
o gan i h a diffe en name.

The delega ion ag eed on a ole fo egional o gani a ion nde he " mb ella"
of he Uni ed Na ion . The delinea ion of he e on ibili ie of he Sec e a
Gene al, a ell a he c ea ion of he Economic and Social Co ncil and he
T ee hi Co ncil a al o deba ed, e en all e l ing in a con en . The
i e of he e o o e of he e manen membe of he Sec i Co ncil
o ed o be an ob acle on he e o each ag eemen on he Uni ed Na ion
Cha e . Se e al co n ie fea ed ha if one of he "big fi e" a med a
beha io ha h ea ened eace, he Sec i Co ncil o ld be hel le o
in e ene, b in he ca e of a conflic be een o co n ie ha a e e manen
membe of he co ncil, he co ld oceed a bi a il . The efo e, he an ed
o ed ce he co e of he e o. Ho e e , he g ea o e in i ed ha he
o i ion a i al and e ed he fac ha he Uni ed Na ion a fo
main aining o ld eace. Finall , he g ea o e go hei a . On 25 J ne,
delega e me fo he la ime in lena a he San F anci co O e a. The
e ion a chai ed b Lo d Halifa , he head of he B i i h delega ion. A he
bmi ed he final e of he Cha e o he a embl , he aid: "The e ion
e a e abo o ol e i h o o e i he mo im o an hing ha can ha en
in o li e ." The efo e, he o o ed o o e no b ho of hand b b
ha ing ho e in fa o and. Each of he delega ion hen ood and emained
anding, a did he c o d ga he ed he e. The e a hen a anding o a ion
hen Lo d Halifa anno nced ha he Cha e had been ado ed nanimo l .
If e fail o e i , e hall be a all ho e ho ha e died o ha e migh
mee he e in f eedom and afe o c ea e i . If e eek o e i elfi hl fo
he ad an age of an one na ion o an mall g o of na ion e hall be
e all g il of ha be a al.
The Uni ed Na ion did no in an l come in o being i h he igning of he
Cha e ince in man co n ie , he Cha e had o be bjec ed o
a liamen a a o al. I had been ag eed ha he Cha e o ld come in o
effec hen a ified b he go e nmen of China, F ance, B i ain, he So ie
Union, he Uni ed S a e , and a majo i of he o he igna o co n ie and
hen he had no ified he US De a men of S a e of hei a ifica ion , hich
ha ened on 24 Oc obe 1945.
I i e nece a al o o face he e ion of he f e of he LoN: he UN
a he hei of he LoN ince hi old o gani a ion failed i aim o a oid a .
The LoN e e bo n in ide he T ea of Ve aille, hich he En en e igned
i h Ge man , o i a a ea ha o ed e e al diffic l ie o Ge man ,
anche he LoN ill emained in ide ano he kind of in e na ional ea ; hile
d ing he nego ia ion of he e abli hmen of he Uni ed Na ion , he US
P e iden F anklin Delano Roo e el , ied o find he a o e a a e an eace
ag eemen i h he Cha e of he f e UN; he died j befo e he UN
o ening ce emon (12 h A il 1945) and he a cceeded b T man.

12/10

The c e of he Uni ed Na ion O gani a ion.

The e a e h ee o gan in he Uni ed Na ion and all he e o gan had been

e abli hed b he Cha e of he UN, he fo nding ea of he UN.

The Gene al A embl .​ The UN Gene al A embl i he delibe a i e a embl

of all he UN membe S a e . I mee in eg la e ion once a ea , hich a e
nde a P e iden ha i elec ed b all he e e en a i e ; he o e of he
A embl a e o o e ee he b dge of he UN, hi i an im o an o e
beca e i mean o check he oli ical agenda, all he oli ical io i ie a e
li ed and he mone and f nding a e e im o an in o de o o gani e hi
agenda on he io i ie and he o ibili ie . If he Gene al A embl di ag ee
i h he oli ical agenda, i can e e he o inion b he a ifica ion o non
a ifica ion of he b dge . Then, he b dge ha al o o be ado ed; ome ime
he A embl a k fo ome modifica ion of he b dge ; ano he o e i he
o ibili and he o e o a oin he non e manen membe of he Sec i
Co ncil; he Sec i co ncil ha com o ed of of e manen membe , he
o he a e non e manen ; he non e manen a e o a ing, and he deci ion of
he S a e en e ing in he ec i Co ncil i decided b he Gene al A embl .
I decide fo he admi ion of ne membe , follo ing he o o al made b
he Sec i Co ncil; he UN i an in e na ional o gani a ion ha i o ened,
ne membe can be acce ed; ho e membe ha e o a k o en e o he
Sec i Co ncil; hen, oge he i h he GA, he decide o acce o no he
ne membe .
We ha e o emembe ha he Gene al A embl make ecommenda ion in
he fo m of Re ol ion . I can be aid ha i can e e o inion af e ha
membe a e a k fo he e ecommenda ion 9​​ . The ecommenda ion a e no
com l o and can be ed a gge ion o he Sec i Co ncil hich can
make deci ion .
The A embl e abli hed a ide n mbe of b idia o gan , o i a able o
c ea e a ide UN em.

The Sec e a ia ​. I i com l o in o de o define he elemen of he

In e na ional O gani a ion. I i he admini a i e o gan of he UN; i i headed
b he UN ec e a Gene al, ho i a i ed b a a of in e na ional ci il
e an o ld ide; he aff of he ec e a ia i o ided b he membe a e
b ci il e an ; in ome ca e he e i he o ibili o accede f om he
Membe S a e .
The fi o e of he Sec e a ia i he o ing of he o he bodie
admini a i el . I mean ha he o gan o he o gani a ion on
confe ence , o ing he i ing of e o and ca e die ; and o ing
he e a a ion of he b dge . I i con ide ed one of he mo im o an o e ;
i o ide die , info ma ion and o he facili ie needed b he o he o gan ;
i ca ie o a k b he Sec i Co ncil and b he Gene al A embl and he
o he bodie .

9
Talking abo C ime , in Ma ch 2014 a efe end m a gi en in C imea, acce ing 90% o
en e in he R ian Fede a ion; o P e iden P in igned an ag eemen fo he anne a ion.
A he momen , he Gene al A embl ga e a e ol ion a ing ha hi kind of efe end m
co ldn be acce ed, beca e C imea a al o a mi of Uk aine o la ion. E en all
C imea en e ed he R ian Fede a ion nofficiall ; ome a e ecogni e hi anne a ion,
hile he UN do no . A he momen , in he UN he e a e ill di c ion on he memo ie
gi en b Uk aine and R ia; Uk aine i ecalling he deci ion of he Hel inki Confe ence,
alking abo he in iolabili of he f on ie . Tha kind of inci le of he in e na ional la
gi en in 1975, an S a e can be iola ed in f on ie ; Uk aine efe o he fac ha he ian
a m en e ed C imea and o i a a kind of iola ion. On he o he hand, R ia in
an ei ing a ing ha he ian a m a al ead in c imea ho ed b Uk aine and R ia
i ecalling ano he inci le of he In e na ional La , one of he 14 h oin , abo he elf
de e mina ion of eo le; if he ian majo i of c imea decided o go back in R ia, i ha
o be ecogni ed. Till no he gene al a embl i managing he e o o i ion . An a ,
h o gh e ol ion, he a embl ied o e e i elf.
The Sec e a ia i ic l linked o he GA beca e he GA elec he UN
Sec e a Gene al fo 5 ea .

Sec i Co ncil.​ I i cha ged i h he main aine of in e na ional eace and

ec i ; i aim a e de igned in he UN Cha e and he a e fo e am le he
e abli hmen of he eacekee ing o e a ion ; he e abli hmen of in e na ional
anc ion ; he a ho i a ion of mili a ac ion .
Peacekee ing can be done bo h b ci il and mili a e an and bodie , and i
can be done bo h h o gh a kind of in e o i ion of fo ce , ob e ing fo ce , o
h o gh mili a ac ion .
The g eenline in C i a UN eacekee ing and he mili a aff ha no
com ac ified, i i he e in o de o main ain eace; he eacekee ing o e a ion
a o nd he o ld a e al o in no he n Af ica. The fi eacekee ing o e a ion
a in 1948 d ing he b ilding of I ael in o de o o he a ab-i lael a .
We ha e UN fo ce , b ho e fo ce a e gi en b he membe S a e ; he UN
ag eed i h he membe S a e fo he mili a o e a ion .
In e na ional anc ion in ecen ea a e he one gi en o No h Ko ea and
I an.
The LoN anc ion hi he S a e b dge ; e en he ci il ocie and he blic
o inion e e again : h do e ha e o a fo ome hing e didn commi ?
The oli ical e on ibili fo in e na ional i a ion a e o he go e nmen
and no o eo le; o he Uni ed Na ion e he o called in elligence
anc ion . The limi i ha ho e ho a e e on ible a e no o o en in o de
o gi e he mone and in man ca e hei mone i hidden, i i ie
im o ible o kno ho o b ing ha .
The fi e ion of he Sec i Co ncil a held on he 17 h of Jan a 1946
a Ch ch Ho e in London; ince ha fi mee ing, he co ncil ha e a eled a
lo , mee ing in man ci ie like Addi Ababa and Pa i ; i i laced in he
e manen head a e of he UN, Ne Yo k.
The of he non e manen membe a e elec ed b he GA. The ec i
Co ncil i com o ed of 15 membe .
- 5 membe a e he e manen membe and he ha e he e o o e ,
hich on WWII.
- e e o ea , he GA elec 10 non e manen membe of he
Sec i Co ncil.
The SC ma ado com l o e ol ion . The e o o e mean ha in
e e al e ion ela ed o he main enance of in e na ional eace and ec i
 he e i he e ion of he ag eemen b he fi e e manen membe ; if one of
he S a e a no, he e ol ion doe n a . The e o o e ca ed ome
oblem d ing he Cold Wa e iod in hich e had he bi ola i ed o ld
and he US and So ie Union gene all o ed once again he o he .

In e na ional Co of J ice.​ I i he ni e al Co fo in e na ional la and

i i he ima j dicial o gan fo he Uni ed Na ion . The head a e i in he
Hag e. The main f nc ion a e o e le legal di e bmi ed o he Co b
he S a e ; if he e a e e ion be een he S a e , i can go in f on of he
Co .
I o ide ad i o o inion on legal e ion bmi ed o he Co b
o gan and b he Gene al A embl and gene all i i an fo med in o
in e na ional la . The e i no e o o e and he deci ion a e aken i h he
majo i em, hich i con ide ed ea ie o be managed. I i com o ed of 15
j dge fo 9 ea e m and he a e elec ed b he Gene al A embl .

The T ee hi Co ncil.​ The Uni ed Na ion T ee hi Co ncil (F ench:

Con eil de elle de Na ion nie ) i one of he i inci al o gan of he
Uni ed Na ion , e abli hed o hel en e ha e i o ie e e
admini e ed in he be in e e of hei inhabi an and of in e na ional eace
and ec i . The e i o ie mo of hem fo me manda e of he Leag e
of Na ion o e i o ie aken f om na ion defea ed a he end of Wo ld Wa
II ha e all no a ained elf-go e nmen o inde endence, ei he a e a a e
na ion o b joining neighbo ing inde enden co n ie . The la a Pala ,
fo me l a of he T Te i o of he Pacific I land , hich became a
membe a e of he Uni ed Na ion in Decembe 1994.

The Uni ed Na ion Economic and Social Co ncil ​(ECOSOC; F ench: Con eil
conomi e e ocial de Na ion nie , CESNU) i one of he i inci al
o gan of he Uni ed Na ion , e on ible fo coo dina ing he economic and
ocial field of he o gani a ion, ecificall in ega d o he 15 eciali ed
agencie , he eigh f nc ional commi ion and he fi e egional commi ion
nde i j i dic ion.
ECOSOC e e a he cen al fo m fo di c ing in e na ional economic and
ocial i e and fo m la ing olic ecommenda ion add e ed o membe
a e and he Uni ed Na ion em. In addi ion o a o a ing membe hi of 54
UN membe a e , o e 1,600 nongo e nmen al o gani a ion ha e
con l a i e a i h he Co ncil o a ici a e in he o k of he Uni ed
Na ion .
ECOSOC hold one fo - eek e ion each ea in J l , and ince 1998 ha
al o held an ann al mee ing in A il i h finance mini e heading ke
commi ee of he Wo ld Bank and he In e na ional Mone a F nd (IMF).
Addi ionall , he High-Le el Poli ical Fo m (HLPF), hich e ie
im lemen a ion of he 2030 Agenda fo S ainable De elo men , a e con ened
nde he a ice of he Co ncil e e J l .
The Co ncil con i of 54 Membe S a e , hich a e ann all ea l b he
Gene al A embl fo o e la ing h ee- ea e m . Sea on he Co ncil a e
alloca ed en ing e i able geog a hic o a ion among he Uni ed Na ion
egional g o , i h 14 being alloca ed o he Af ican G o , 11 o he
A ia-Pacific G o , 6 o he Ea e n E o ean G o , 10 o he La in Ame ican
and Ca ibbean G o and 13 o he We e n E o ean and O he G o .

13/10

Peacekee ing i no officiall men ioned in he UN Cha e , b i a

nece a o e in o de o e ec he aim of he UN.
The i ion of eacekee ing changed oo m ch af e WWII. The ne
eacekee ing o e a ion, he o-called ne gene a ion, changed a lo d ing he
Cold Wa ; he e o e a ion a e died no b hi o , b b oli ical cience,
he a e a of heo ie ch a conflic , e en ion of conflic , conflic
e ol ion, eaceb ilding..
The eacekee ing a e hi o icall old, he 1948, in e na ional a med fo ce
e e ed o cea e-fi e bo h in Ka hme e and in Pale ine. The e of ch
fo ce be een a a ie a e abli hed in 1956 in he S e C i i and had
aken in hi o man ha e , b he e o gani ed o be eacef l e en if he
in ol e mili a oo . The mili a fo ce of he UN el on he na ional
a mie ; if a eacekee ing o e a ion i o gani ed b he e of mili a fo ce of
F ance, hi i no an mo e o ha a e, beca e he ha e o follo he
line of he Sec i Co ncil.
D ing he Cold Wa he e e e he cla ic/fi gene a ion of eacekee ing,
ed in Af ica, A ia and he Middle Ea . Be een 1948 and 1988, in 40 ea ,
he UN nde ook 13 eacekee ing o e a ion in ol ing gene all a med oo
f om ne al co n ie o f om co n ie of he Sec i Co ncil, o in ho e 13
o e a ion gene all he mo of en he oo e e aken f om Canada,
S eden, No m a , Finland, I al , I eland.
Tha n mbe a lo ; he e a ome hing no o king in he Sec i
Co ncil. The ea on h he e e o lo a ela ed ha e e e in he
con e of he Cold Wa and he e of he e o o e , gene all he US and
So ie Union ed he UN a a able fo conf on a ion and ed e o one again
he o he .
Then, i h he end of he cold a , he challenge of eacekee ing became
mo e com le in o de o e ond o a and he e he ci ilian o la ion a
ffe ing, e ha e he bi h of he econd gene a ion of eacekee ing
o e a ion . 1989 a he age in hich he e a he end of he So ie Union
block in E o e.The end of he Cold Wa i in 1991, hen he So ie Union
ended i life. So ince 199 e ha e he Second Gene a ion.
The diffe ence be een he o e ; nlike he fi , he econd one of en
in ol ed he ci ilian e e and elief eciali a he mili a aff ch a
oldie . We had no onl an a m , b al o ci ilian and an kind of e e
needed. Ano he diffe ence i ha oldie in ome econd mi ion e e
a ho i ed o em lo fo ce fo ea on o he han elf-defence, he co ld ac
a oldie .
The goal of he econd gene a ion e e b oade and m ch con o e
in ol ed he e of he oo , he aim e e no e clea in o de o
ono nce kind of j dge in o de o define he ali of he econd gene a ion
of eacekee ing. Mo e o le he defini ion of he o he e of eacekee ing
ha e ha e oda a e coming f om he o Cold Wa e iod, af e 1991.

Peacekee ing.
The bo nda ie be een conflic e en ion, eacemaking, eacekee ing,
eaceb ilding and eace enfo cemen ha e become inc ea ingl bl ed. Peace
o e a ion a e a el limi ed o one e of ac i i . While UN eacekee ing
o e a ion a e, in inci le, de lo ed o o he im lemen a ion of a
cea efi e o eace ag eemen , he a e of en e i ed o la an ac i e ole in
eacemaking effo and ma al o be in ol ed in ea l eaceb ilding ac i i ie .
Toda m l idimen ional eacekee ing o e a ion facili a e he oli ical
oce , o ec ci ilian , a i in he di a mamen , demobili a ion and
ein eg a ion of fo me comba an ; o he o gani a ion of elec ion ,
o ec and omo e h man igh and a i in e o ing he le of la . UN
eacekee ing o e a ion ma e fo ce o defend hem el e , hei manda e,
and ci ilian , a ic la l in i a ion he e he S a e i nable o o ide
ec i and main ain blic o de .
Peacekee ing i one among a ange of ac i i ie nde aken b he UN o
main ain in e na ional eace and ec i h o gho he o ld. The o he
ac i i ie a e:
conflic e en ion and media ion
eacemaking
eace enfo cemen
eaceb ilding

​Conflic e en ion.
Conflic e en ion in ol e di loma ic mea e o kee in a a e o in e -
a e en ion and di e f om e cala ing in o iolen conflic .
I incl de ea l a ning, info ma ion ga he ing and a ca ef l anal i of he
fac o d i ing he conflic . Conflic e en ion ac i i ie ma incl de he e of
he Sec e a -Gene al good office , e en i e de lo men of UN mi ion
o conflic media ion led b he De a men of Poli ical Affai .

Peacemaking.
Peacemaking gene all incl de mea e o add e conflic in og e and
all in ol e di loma ic ac ion o b ing ho ile a ie o a nego ia ed
ag eemen .
The UN Sec e a -Gene al ma e e ci e hi o he good office o facili a e
he e ol ion of he conflic . Peacemake ma al o be en o , go e nmen ,
go of a e , egional o gani a ion o he Uni ed Na ion . Peacemaking
effo ma al o be nde aken b nofficial and non- go e nmen al g o , o
b a ominen e onali o king inde enden l .

​Peace enfo cemen .

 Peace enfo cemen in ol e he a lica ion of a ange of coe ci e mea e ,
incl ding he e of mili a fo ce. I e i e he e lici a ho i a ion of he
Sec i Co ncil.
I i ed o e o e in e na ional eace and ec i in i a ion he e he
Sec i Co ncil ha decided o ac in he face of a h ea o he eace, b each of
he eace o ac of agg e ion. The Co ncil ma ili e, he e a o ia e,
egional o gani a ion and agencie fo enfo cemen ac ion nde i a ho i
and in acco dance i h he UN Cha e .

​Peaceb ilding.
Peaceb ilding aim o ed ce he i k of la ing o ela ing in o conflic b
eng hening na ional ca aci ie a all le el fo conflic managemen , and o
la he fo nda ion fo ainable eace and de elo men . I i a com le ,
long- e m oce of c ea ing he nece a condi ion fo ainable eace.
Peaceb ilding mea e add e co e i e ha affec he f nc ioning of
ocie and he S a e, and eek o enhance he ca aci of he S a e o effec i el
and legi ima el ca o i co e f nc ion .

​Hi o of UN a a eacekee e .

Namibia: 1946 UN GA So h Af ica. So h Af ica a an im o an a of

he Common eal h. Thi conf on a ion a bo n a a con e ence of he fac
ha So h Af ica an ed o anne Namibia. I a in e e ed in la ge bo de of
he S a e in o h ea e n Af ica on he A lan ica Sea. In 1946 he GA ef ed
he So h Af ica olic b in a a in hich he e a a kind of e change,
beca e in an ca e Namibia en e ed nde he admini a ion of So h Af ica,
and i a o ible beca e UK a a e manen membe of he Sec i
Co ncil; o e can a ha officiall he oli ic of So h Af ica a n
ecogni ed, b in ac ice Namibia en nde he admini a ion of So h
Af ica. The Gene al A embl a ked he In e na ional Co of J ice fo an
ad i o o inion fo he Namibian Legal S a . We ha e a S a e ha decided
he oli ic of ano he S a e. The ICJ ga e he J dgmen abo he e ion and
led ha he UN had a med he o e ha a in e ed in ela ion of
Namibia, So h Af ica, hich had al ead occ ied Namibia in he Wa a
admini e ed a a e i o of he LoN ince 1920 didn ha e o change
e i o ie a ; he ICJ a ing o e hi o o ol e he i a ion; i a
 aid ha Namibia a nde he manda o em of he LoN ince 1920. Fo
ha ea on, ince i a al ead decided ha he manda e em o ld be
e med b he UN hank o he T ee hi , Namibia co ldn be nde
he con ol of So h Af ica. So, he e ion a o ened beca e in an ca e
he e a a S a e ac inge like i a he Landl hile he ICJ a ono ncing
ome hing diffe en , and he e ion en on n il he 60 , and d ing ha ime
he ICJ again i e ed a ling again Namib a, beca e e e al S a , o he
S a e e e o o ing o a a heid, al ho gh he e a he mo emen of Af ican
S a e , he o i ion of So h Af ica, hank o he ole of UK, a high. In 1966
he e ion e ned once again in he GA hich decided o e mina e So h
Af ican a ho i in a kind of legal oced e, i a ed i h a kind of a e
long ac ion f om a j idical oin of ie and hi i a ion a ed o be e
i ing fo all he in ol ed a e and all ho e a e hich e e in ol ed in he
decoloni a ion.

The e a e o elemen ha ho ed in ha ca e he eakne of he UN:

- The fi a ha if he e i a S a e ha doe no acce com le el he
deci ion of he GA, j ice i e lo o ake ac ion;
- The oli ical ac ion a affec ed b he e ion ha no all he a e
ha e he ame eigh in he UN; UK, in e e al geog a hic a ea
emained he colonial o e .
The e ion of Namibia nde line he lo ne of he olic and ol ion of
he e ion.

Pale ine 1947 (No embe ) he UN o ed he a i ion of Pale ine in o o

e a a e Je i h and Pale inian S a e , a he cce ion of he B i i h manda e
ha o ld ha e ended in Ma 1948. Tha kind of b i i h manda e a he
he i age of he ell kno n Balfo decla a ion of 1917 hich omi ed a
homeland fo he Je i h in I ael and af e he end of he WoWWI he LoN
ga e o B i ain he manda e.
Then, he a i ion e l ed in an a med-conflic ed, he in e na ional ob e e
kne ha i co ld lead o a a and o he UN en a media o in o de o find a
ol ion and o e en a conflic ha co ld be m ch onge . The media o
a killed b a mili an g o , he ma age a ha no media ion o ld ha e
been acce ed. B he nego ia ion en on, b he e ion a ha he
in e e of Eg a h ge in hi a ea and in ea l 1949 he e a an a mi ice
be een I ael and Eg and hen a cea e-fi e be een I ael and he o he
neighbo ing S a e . In an ca e, in J ne 1948 he Un al ead la nched he fi
eacekee ing mi ion beca e of he fea of a egional a . The in e e a o
a e he e i o ie fo a e ong conflic . The name of he o e a ion a UN
e i ion o gani a ion, he a k a igned o he mi ion:
- To a i he media o , ha a en af e he a a ina ion of he
e io one;
- The econd one, coming f om he fi , a o moni o he
im lemen a ion of he cea e-fi e be een I ael and he A ab S a e.

Some hing imila of a a i ion ha ened al o in India in 1947, hi ime

in India he e e e he indie and he m lim ; he e a he o a
heo ; he na ion ho ld be di ided in o o, in Jan a 1949 he SC
e abli hed he econd mi ion, called he UN mili a ob e e g o in
India and Paki an, hich ill e i oda ; he idea a o moni o he
i a ion in Ka hmi . In 1948 and 49 e ha e o hi o fi
eacekee ing o e a ion a ing i h he idea of moni o ing.

Ko ean Wa : hi a e loded on he 25 J ne 1950. Tha da a S nda :

gene all , in he ime of he cold a , he e en in he fa Ea a ed gene all
on S nda , hen he We e n Wo ld a lookin TV fo he foo ball ma che ,
hen he o ld a ending ime in ome hing f n.
Af e he ende of Ja an, a he end of Wo ld Wa II, on 15 A g 1945,
Ko ea a di ided a he 38 h a allel in o o one of occ a ion, he So ie
admini e ed he no he n half and he Ame ican admini e ed he o he n
half. In 1948, a a e l of Cold Wa en ion , he occ a ion one became
o o e eign a e . A ociali a e a e abli hed in he no h nde he
o ali a ian leade hi of Kim Il- ng and a ca i ali a e in he o h nde he
a ho i a ian leade hi of S ngman Rhee. Bo h go e nmen of he o ne
Ko ean a e claimed o be he ole legi ima e go e nmen of all of Ko ea, and
nei he acce ed he bo de a e manen . (J a Ge man , in he ca e of
Ge man e ha e e and ea hile in he ca e of Ko ea e ha e no h and
o h). We a e in he f ame o k of he Cold Wa , n il 1950 e ha e onl
indi ec conf on a ion ; b in e embe 1949, he So ie Union eali ed he
fi and cce f l e e imen on he a omic bomb; in a med fo ce So ie
Union eached he ame le el a he US. A kind of ne e can be done, and he
idea a ing o conf on in an a ea hich a no oo dange o in he en e
 ha he agg e ion in an e o ean a e he co ld immedia el o oke he
eac ion of one of he o e o e , hile ing o e one' eng h in
ano he a ea o ld ha e been m ch ea ie .
The e i al o he ecific o of Ko ea; i a anne ed o Ja an f om he ea l
20 h cen , he ha ed he ame de in of he Second WW.
In he Confe ence in Mo co , Ko ea a decla ed a e io nde he
admini a ion of fo majo co n ie : he US, So ie Union, UK and China.
The i a ion i e ac l he ame of Ge man , i h he diffe ence ha in
Ge man he e a F ance and no China. In 1947 he UN e abli hed a UN
Commi ion fo Ko ea in o de o o gani e f ee oli ical elec ion ; he e e
helded in So h Ko ea in 1948, b he So ie Union denied he em o a
commi ion of he Un fo Ko ea o acce he No he n a and o e abli h i
o n go e nmen hich a no elec ed; i a he a of ac ing hen i
an ed o c ea e a S a e i h i oli ical ie ; in Decembe 1948 he GA
e onded b o ing a e ol ion, he 195, hich decla ed ha he go e nmen
of he So h a he onl legi ima e e e en ing Ko ea; al ead a he end of
1948 he GA decided o ecogni e onl he So hm being he one of he No h
no elec ed b he ci i en . Se e al hi o ical elemen a ed ha ening.
No h Ko ea an ed a nifica ion a ing he a on S nda 25 J ne 1950.
F om he mili a e ion of he eall fi momen , he a m of he No h
ea il en e ed he So h, i eemed ha he nifica ion a o ible nde a
comm ni egime, and i a dange o fo he We e n o ld. The UN e e
a ked o in e ene, and he SC cooled nde he US e e on a kind of UN
o o he o h; ddenl af e he in a ion, he SC a a ing ha all he
UN had o o he So h. On he 7 h of J l , o eek af e , he SC called
on he US o a me he leade hi of he UN mili a fo ce , hich e e
con olled b D gla McA h , an im o an gene al of WWII in he Pacific
A ea, and he mili a mi ion a nde he flag of he UN hich e e able o
ejec Ko ean no he n a m in hei land. The SC a able o ono nce i elf
a ing ha i can a a mili a mi ion in Ko ea.
We ho ld ecall ano he hi o ical e en ; in 1949 ano he e ol ion ook lace,
he China Re ol ion. T o China came o , he na ional and he comm ni ;
e ha e o diffe en chine e go e nmen ; hich one ho ld be in he
e manen co ncil? The ca i ali one a con ide ed he legal one, and fo hi
ea on he So ie Union lef he Chai of he Sec i Co ncil in o de o
o e , o i co ldn e he e o o e in he Ko ean oblem, o i a
o ible fo he US o o gani e he mili a o inion. F om 1956 o 1969 e o
 o e a ed 15 ime . The mi ion a able o e o e he bo de on he 38
a allel, o he a a clo ed i ho an change .

S e c i i . 1956. The UN mi ion ook a g ea e and ignifican follo ing in

ha c i i . The UN de lo ed he UN Eme genc Fo ce, hich a o moni o
he i hd a al be een I ael, UK and F ance and o c ea e a b ffe one in he
Sinai Penin la be een he a in ol ed. Sinai a im o an fo Eg and
I ael; hile all he in ol ed a ie , he UN ho ld o e he e a mi ion fo he
cea e-fi e. In hi ca e, he SC failed o each an ag eemen on ho o e ond,
beca e of he e of e o f om he UK and F ance. An of he membe a e
ha e he e o o e and in hi c i e he o o e e en in ol ed. F ance
and he UK e e no hel ed b he US and o ha a a fail e. F ance and he
UK had come o I ael' aid b in ading Eg af e ha I ael had in aded
Sinai Penin la and Ga a o co n e he Pale inian a ak o b eak Eg
blocade o he Go lf of Akaba, ha had c off he acce o he Red Sea o
I ael, o he clo e and na ionali a ion of he S e Canal b Eg in J l
1956 la ed a ecific and di ec ole in he conflic , and Wa hing in, hich had
no be info med of he a ack b he e e n o e , e e e o o ed o
in e en ion and he GA ied o ha e a e ol ion fo eace in o de o e en
he confic ; in i fi eme genc ecial e ion e e , he GA info med al o he
UN ec e a gene al and a ked him o e abli h a UN Eme genc Fo ce. The
GA, b a la ge majo i , called fo he immedia e end of he ho ili ie fo he
i hd a al of I lael fo ce behind and an emba go,a mili a aid and e o
eo en he S e Canal. The US c i ici ed UK and F ance and e e on
hem; i h he con en of Eg he UN Fo ce a de lo ed in he Eg ian
e i o , ehicle I ael ejec ed i ; he Em.Fo ce in he eg o an e i o a o
fo m a b ffe . The Fo ce a nde he di ec a ho i of he Sec e a Gene al
ho a con l ing i h he SC and G anf he Fo ce emained in he egion
n ile Ma 1967 and he i a ion in he a ea ha no o be con ide ed ol ed,
beca e ano he a ha ened, he one of 1967 and hen in 1973 i h he Yom
Ki Wa , in hich he Fo ce a e-e abli hed. In 1958 Un ob e a ion
g o in Lebanon a c ea ed in o de o e en a mie en e ing Lebanon.

The o e a ion in he 60 : be een 1960 and 64, he UN de lo ed he UN

o e a ion in Congo. The manda e of hi o e a ion a o moni o he
i hd a al of he oo f om he ne Inde enden Re blic of Congo i h he
manda e o e en a ci il a ; he manda e a o moni o he Belgian oo ,
he colonial o e in Congo and o e en and moni o he e of ea on .
In he 60 mi ion e e al o eacekee ing o e a ion in Ne G inea be een
Indone ia and he Ne he land ;
Then e had al o mi ion in Yemen, o ce if he im lemen a ion of hi
engagemen ag eemen be een Sa di A abia and he Uni ed A ab Emi a e ;
C (colon of he UK) hen a mi ion a done in o de o c ea e a
b ffe one be een he T ki h and he C io e , he g een line had o be
e led in o de o a oid he o ibili ha he o a co ld mee and eali e
li le conflic . In hi ea , he e a ano he o e a ion in he Dominican
Re blic o cea e fi e be een o fac ion in he an i ion of a ne
go e nmen . And hen he mi ion n il 1978 in he Ka hme e one. We ha e o
a ha he e o e a ion e e in he con e of decoloni a ion.

UN and Cold a .
Ea -We conf on a ion Non-Aligned mo emen : a mo emen ha a
o gani ed in Band ng, he Ca i al of Indone ia in 1955; in ha confe ence, ha
a o gani ed and a ended b Af ican and A ian S a e and Y go la ia.
The Non-Aligned Mo emen (NAM) i a fo m of 120 de elo ing o ld a e
ha a e no fo mall aligned i h o again an majo o e bloc. Af e he
Uni ed Na ion , i i he la ge g o ing of a e o ld ide.
D a ing on he inci le ag eed a he Band ng Confe ence in 1955, he
Non-Aligned Mo emen a e abli hed in 1961 in Belg ade, SR Se bia,
Y go la ia h o gh an ini ia i e of he Indian P ime Mini e Ja aha lal Neh ,
Ghanaian P e iden K ame Nk mah, Indone ian P e iden S ka no, Eg ian
P e iden Gamal Abdel Na e and Y go la P e iden Jo i B o Ti o. Thi led
o he fi Confe ence of Head of S a e o Go e nmen of Non-Aligned
Co n ie . The e m non-aligned mo emen fi a ea in he fif h confe ence
in 1976, he e a ici a ing co n ie a e deno ed a "membe of he
mo emen ".
Then in Se embe 1961 mo e han 20 S a e me in ano he Confe ence, in
Belg ado, Y go la ia Ca i al. The e m non-aligned a coined b Indian
P ime Mini e Neh beca e he had fo m la ed fi e illa :
- M al e ec fo each o he ' e i o ial in eg i and o e eign .
- M al non-agg e ion.
- M al non-in e fe ence in dome ic affai .
- E ali and m al benefi .
 - Peacef l co-e i ence.

The o e of he o gani a ion a en me a ed b Fidel Ca o in hi Ha ana

Decla a ion of 1979 a o en e " he na ional inde endence, o e eign ,
e i o ial in eg i and ec i of non-aligned co n ie " in hei " ggle
again im e iali m, coloniali m, neo-coloniali m, aci m, and all fo m of
fo eign agg e ion, occ a ion, domina ion, in e fe ence o hegemon a ell
a again g ea o e and bloc oli ic ." The co n ie of he Non-Aligned
Mo emen e e en nea l o- hi d of he Uni ed Na ion ' membe and
con ain 55% of he o ld o la ion. Membe hi i a ic la l concen a ed
in co n ie con ide ed o be de elo ing o a of he Thi d Wo ld, ho gh he
Non-Aligned Mo emen al o ha a n mbe of de elo ed na ion .
Al ho gh man of he Non-Aligned Mo emen ' membe e e ac all ie
clo el aligned i h one o ano he of he e o e ( ch a he Peo le'
Re blic of China, an ob e e , o he R ian Fede a ion, no a ici a ing in
he Non-Aligned Mo emen ), he mo emen ill main ained cohe ion
h o gho he Cold Wa , e en de i e e e al conflic be een membe
hich al o h ea ened he mo emen . In he ea ince he Cold Wa ' end, i
ha foc ed on de elo ing m l ila e al ie and connec ion a ell a ni
among he de elo ing na ion of he o ld, e eciall ho e i hin he Global
So h.
Thei oice in he 60 emained diffic l o a oid he ea . e conf on a ion,
b he an ed o b ing hei aim in he GA.

14/10

The Cold Wa .

While i h he defini ion of o a e iod i ome hing ela ed o ime,

indica ed he momen af e WWII; hile he cold a i a oce ha ook
lace in ha ime, i h he bi h of o o e and a conf on a ion be een ea
and e and i i e cei able in e e a of he o ld. Af e WWII non o he
cold a , b he e e e al o o he oce e , ch a decoloni a ion and he
e o ean in eg a ion.
The g and alliance o a a ed o come o end; he need of a e en no
gen an mo e. D ing he la in e na ional Confe ence of Yal a and Po am,
hi conf on a ion came o , and af e he end of he a e ha e he di i ion in
he he e of infl ence.
Di co de F l on, he I on C ain b Ch chill hi ideal line i a bo de
hich i a kind of all in in e na ional ela ion, e a e mo ing in o a diffe en
kind of o ld; E o e' no he hea of he ela ion an mo e. Thi in e na ional
en ion o igina ed he need fo mili a in e na ional o gani a ion i h he aim
of ec i ; he gen need fo eacef l ela ion a fel b e e S a e, b he
ne cena io o ened he fea of a iolen conf on a ion be een he o block .
The o o e o gani ed hei mili a o gani a ion.
E e hing a ed i h he B el ea , Belgi m, in 10 ea a lo of IGO
a ed hei life; in ha e iod IO a ed o king.

Mili a IO.
B el T ea . Mili a defence fo ec i .
The T ea of B el , al o efe ed o a he B el Pac , a he fo nding
ea of he We e n Union (WU) be een 1948 and 1954, hen i a
amended a he Modified B el T ea (MTB) and e ed a he fo nding
ea of he We e n E o ean Union (WEU) n il i e mina ion in 2010. The
ea o ided fo he o gani a ion of mili a , economic, ocial and c l al
coo e a ion among membe a e a ell a a m al defence cla e.
The ea a igned on 17 Ma ch 1948 b Belgi m, F ance, L embo g, he
Ne he land and he Uni ed Kingdom, he membe of he We e n Union, a an
e an ion o he T ea of D nki k, hich had been igned be een B i ain and
F ance he e io ea o g a d again o ible Ge man o So ie agg e ion
af e he end of Wo ld Wa II, a m al a i ance alliance and emained in
fo ce fo 50, a fi ic im of Ge man .
F om ha ea , e ha e he mo im o an e of he B el T ea , hich
ook ha alliance l he co n ie of he BENELUX.
The need o back he commi men of he No h A lan ic T ea ih
a o ia e oli ical and mili a c e led o he c ea ion of he No h
A lan ic T ea O gani a ion (NATO). In Decembe 1950, he a ie o he
T ea of B el decided o an fe he head a e , e onnel and lan of
he We e n Union Defence O gani a ion (WUDO) o NATO, ho e S eme
Head a e Allied Po e E o e (SHAPE) ook o e e on ibili fo he
defence of We e n E o e.
The e abli hmen of NATO, along i h he igning of a cce ion of ea ie
e abli hing he O gani a ion fo E o ean Economic Coo e a ion (A il 1948),
he Co ncil of E o e (Ma 1949) and he E o ean Coal and S eel Comm ni
(A il 1951), lef he T ea of B el and i We e n Union de oid of
a ho i . The ea had o la 50 ea , and ing he d a ion of a ea
mean o c ea e an in e na ional ag eemen a a d a ion. If he a ie in ended
o go on, he im l enla ge he d a ion. The e i j an e ce ion, he ea
ega ding he c ea ion of he E o ean Union, beca e in ha ca e in UE he e
e e ea ie i ho d a ion, he la mo e o le fo e e .
The B ea o ided he c ea ion of an o gani a ion, called he B el
ea o gani a ion, i a an o gani a ion fo mili a o e a ion b al o fo
collec i e elf defence in ca e of a . The ca e of a a a a coming fo
Ge man , all of hem e e o ied abo he ge man agg e ion again. The
D nki k a igned onl o ea af e he a and he one of B elle a
he enla gemen .
Wi h he de elo men of he Cold Wa , i a ed ha ing a ic la ignificance
a a con e ence of e en ha ook lace in o he a of E o e, he hing
ha ening in P ag e in Feb a 1948, o j he mon h befo e he igna e of
he ea . In P ag e, nde he e e of Mo co , a o o ie go e nmen
a in alled ing he fo ce, in o de o eo gani e C echo lo akia a ac
comm ni a e nde he infl ence of he So ie UNion. In 1948-49 he e a
al o he Block of Be lin. We e n E o e eali ed ha i a in he middle of
he o alliance , an alliance a done in o de no o be a ic im of he
conf on a ion.
In e embe 1948, af e he Be lin Blockade, he B el o gani a ion a ed
and i a e in eg a ed ai defence, and i a e a join command
c e in o de o eo gani e a kind of a m . B f om he diffic l cena io,
ome hing mo e ha ened; a kind of e l of he Blockade a he idea of
Wa hing on o eali e a mili a o gani a ion i h i allie ; he US idea a o
o gani e ome hing be een No h Ame ica, meaning Canada and he US, and
ho e co n ie hich e e a of he B el T ea .

The o gani a ion of B el a able o ha e a kind of c e ef l al o fo

o he in e na ional o gani a ion, he US ho gh i h he B el ea o g,
eaching an ag eemen of a defen i e ac e can a nego ia ion al o o o en
 hi defen i e ac al o o US and Canada; nego ia ion o o en he T ea
a ed in oc ob e 1948, and he nego ia ion a ed in decembe al o be een
Wa hing on, Canada + he 5 membe of B el . In 1949 he in i ed o he 5
S a e o join hi mili a in e na ional o g, ecificall Denma k, Iceland,
I al , No a and Po gal. The idea a o o en hi mili a in e na ional
o gani a ion choo ing a S a e ha had a geog a hical o i ion in e e ing fo he
US. I al a a he bo de of he i on Co , No a and he o he of he no h
e e im o an fo he ea, Po gal fo he e e n bo de . Thi ne
nego ia ion led o he No h A lan ic T ea ha a igned in Wa hing on on
he 4 h A il 1949, and i en e ed in o fo ce e e al mon h af e , A g 1949.
In e embe , he fi e ion of he No h A lan ic Co ncil ha a e abli hed
b he ea , a held in he US, in Wa hing on, and follo ing he blica ion
of he ea b i 12 membe , he So ie Union o e ed, i immedia el
eali ed he aim of he ea , a e a a ion in ca e of agg e ion, b al o a kind
of a ack. The So ie Union aid ha he ea a again he UN Cha e , in
an ca e he UN immedia el GA ejec ed hi a g men a ing ha he ne
ea a a defen i e e ion and i a efe ing o Ge man and no o he
ea e n Bloc.
All he a ie of he ea eaffi med hei fai h in he o e of he UN
Cha e , omeho he a link be een he ea and he Cha e , and he
eamble of he ea nde lined he de i e o li e in eace ill all eo le and
go e nmen of he all Wo ld.
The a ie al o nde lined ha he o ld afeg a d h man inci le a
f eedom, common he i age, ci ili a ion of hei eo le, meaning ha hi
ci ili a ion a fo nded on inci le of f eedom, le of la and democ ac ,
defending f om comm ni m. The A lan ic T ea , he in ended o omo e
abili in he A lan ic a ea and o o k fo he e e a ion of eace and
ec i , i a no in con adic ion i h he UN Cha e , beca e i emb aced
he ame al e of he UN aim .

The a age be een he No h A lan ic T ea and NATO (3 ea be een he

​ and in
o ea ie ). Af e he c ea ion of he o Ge manie , in Ma 10​
​ 1949, he US go e nmen a
Se embe 11​ ing an effo in o de o ec e
he e e n a of E o e. Af e he end of he Wa , Ge man a di ided in o
o a e , he had no name and con i ion im l beca e he inne ee

10
Fede al Re blic of Ge man , We .
11
Democ a ic Ge man Re blic, Ea .
 ai ing in o de o find a ol ion, bo h US and So ie nion an ed o nif
he o ge manie , b e e of each an ed o ha e i o n infl ence on he
en i e Ge man ; b none of hem in ended o ake a e back, in 1949 i a
decided ha i o ld ha e im l emained a e a a e S a e i h o e a a e
name and con i ion .

The US in ended o find a a o eo gani e he ec i fo he a ea of he

No h A lan ic. The fi e fo he bi h of NATO ha ened in 1949, i a
e abli hed b he mini e of defence and he fo eign mini e of he A lan ic
T ea hi kind of mili a defence; he Defence Commi ee a con i en of
he defence mini e of he membe a e and i a o o in eg a e lan fo
he defence of he non a lan ic egion . A la ge n mbe of mili a bodie e e
fo nded, he defence financial and economic commi ee, ano he boa d fo
mili a od c ion.. changing he in e na ional cena io, al o o gani a ion
changed and he a lan ic ea a he fi one.
In 1950 he Co ncil ado ed a fo ea defence lan; he 1950 i im o an
beca e he A lan ic ea ado ed he lan beca e he cold a a ed in o a
Ko ean Wa o in o a ho a . The a co ld ha en, beca e of ha he No h
A lan ic T ea immedia el eac ed in he ca e in hich he cold a co ld be
o n in an ho a al o in E o e, e eciall in Ge man .
The Co ncil had a lo of o k and i became a a en ha i a no longe able
o coo dina e he mee ing of all he bodie and he agencie ha e e kee ing
on mee ing in London. In 1950 a non-mili a bod a c ea ed in o de o
eg la e he mee ing and o on. The oli ical de elo men of he oli ical
cena io boo ed o in i ionali a ion and i i im o an o emembe ha he
ci ilian agencie of he No h A lan ic a o gani e , he co ncil delega e
fo med a ne e manen o king bod ; hei S a a eno nced beca e he
no longe e e en onl he fo eing mini e , b al o all he mini e
in ol ed in he co e of he o gani a ion.
In Ma 1951, a mall in e na ional o king aff a e abli hed in London,
and ag eemen e e eached on he ole and on he a of he na ional
mili a fo ce hich e e o o e a e nde he command of he No h A lan ic
Co ncil; i a decided al o o in ade G eece and T ke o join, ha decided
o a hi join in 1952, o medi e ian S a e in an A lan ic o gani a ion, b
I al , G eece and T ke e e all on he boa d of he I on C ain. I a
im o an fo he US o in eg a e hem in he Alliance.
We ha e o emembe ha he ela ion be een T ke and G eece e en
e good ince he inde enden a in he 20 , o he in i a ion co ldn be
done o onl one of he o co n ie .
Al o in 1952, f he eo gani a ion e e im lemen ed; he mo im o an
a he No h A lan ic Co ncil becoming a e manen bod (Pa i ); all he
mini e conce ned i h he T ea , hich became in ha momen an
o gani a ion, e e e e en ed in hi Co ncil. The change and he
eo gani a ion an fo med i in he No h A lan ic T ea O gani a ion i h he
o gani a ion of e manen bodie and in i ion .
Then, o en e g ea e coo e a ion be een he Co ncil and he o he mili a
a ho i ie , i a decided o mo e he ci ilian e an f om London o Pa i
i h he Co ncil​12​. NATO a ed o ha e al o a Sec e a Gene al; i a no a
delega ion membe , b a i a in he ca e i h he LoN, i a in
in e na ional ci il e ice, o i i im o an o emembe ha he e manen
bodie i a c i e ion in o de o define an in e na ional o gani a ion a ch.
The e e e o e im o an Sec e a Gene al : one coming f om Belgi m,
ho a called Hen S aak, an im o an e o ean leade and of he e o ean
in eg a ion (1957-1961), and ano he one, Ha ie Solana (1995-1999). Wi h he
change of he in e na ional and he fall of he So ie Union and af e he end of
he Cold Wa , NATO o gani ed i h R ia he o-called Pa ne hi fo
Peace . When P in came o o e , he ian fo eign olic changed a lo and
o i a a li le bi abandoned.
In he econd o o ld a e iod he e e e in We e n E o e o
Hi o ical fo eign oli ic line : one called he A lan ici m, o he lojali o
Wa hing o n, and hen E o eani m, he idea of being concen a ed o
o e come he o ibili of o he a nif ing he Na ional S a e of We e n
E o e, coming he idea f om Jean Monne : he ca e of a , a e fo e am le
eligion, econom , oli ic , boa de , e i o ie and he aid ha i a
nece a o nde line ha ho e a e e coming f om he fac ha e a e
diffe en na ion a e , b if e a e oge he , i o ld be ea ie o ha e eace
and coo e a ion. He a able o a i h he fi e o ean comm ni , he
one of Coal and S eel, made b 6 co n ie , BENELUX, I al , F ance, We e n
Ge man . Ge man a con ide ed a kind of enem fo all he o he a e , in

Pa i had al ead eno a ed a

12
c e hinking i o ld become he head a e of he
Uni ed Na ion Gene al A embl , b hi b ilding a la e ed a he head a e of
NATO.
 he ca e of Monne , he a able o con ince Sh man o ha e an alliance.
S a ing f om 1951 e ha e al o he fi one e o ean comm ni .
In 1952 he 6 co n ie ied o omo e ano he comm ni , he E o ean
Defence Comm ni , hich failed. I a a ecific e o ean ea coming o
f om he o o al of an I alian, Alcide De Ga e i; b if e ha e a e o ean
co n , i ill e ond o he e o ean commend i h a e o ean defence
em, o e need an e o ean go e nmen and he e o ean S a e. Fo hi
ea on, he o o al of he T ea a o gani ed in o de o con ain in a icle 38
he fac ha he A embl of he Comm ni in he fi e ion a e e fo he
A embl in a Con i ional A embl ho ld be immedia el done. I had o a
ea , in ide he e a hi a icle, o he A embl ho ld mee in o de o
c ea e a con i ion fo a Union of E o ean S a e ; b fo he ea on ha in
1953 S alin died and fo he ea on ha in 1953 he Ko ean Wa ended, and he
big i alian o o al Alcide De Ga e i died in 1954, he o o al failed. I
mean ha he igna e a done, b no he a ifica ion. So in 1954 he i alian
and he f ench go e nmen didn a if . The fail e demon a ed ha he
mili a e ion emained im o an fo he na ion a e, hich in ended o
e e e he na ional a e o e on he e i e .
The ea mamen of Ge man a a e im o an i e, beca e i a he
hea of E o e, and o i a im o an o ha e a ong Ge man o figh
again a o ible agg e ion f om he ea e n e o e.

19/10

F ance, in 1966, decided o i hd a f om NATO; F ance came back in A il

2009.
In The Cold Wa , e had a bi ola o de in o de o hich e had he
con a o i ion be een ea and e ; o al o he ea had o c ea e an alliance
ch a he one of he We .
The Wa a Pac 1955.
In Ma 1955, 8 comm ni co n ie igned a kind of T ea of F iend hi in
Wa a ; he e e e he Se en Si e , e en comm ni a e of E o e:
So ie Union, Poland, Romania, H nga , C echo lo akia, Ea e n Ge man ,
B lga ia and e had al o Albania fo e e al ea , i a con ained in he
o ie o gani a ion, he Comecon and he Wa a Pac , b ince i didn
acce he De S alini a ion d ing he Kh hche e iod, i a a a ;
hi i he ea on e i a n con ide ed in.
Thi ea a indica ed a a ea of f iend hi coo e a ion and m al
a i ance; m al and a i ance i e ed in in e na ional ela ion , he idea
of being oge he , m al i ed in he So ie con e in o de o gi e he idea
of nion. I a igned and i ga e bi h o ano he o gani a ion, hich a
kno n a he Wa a Pac o Wa a T ea O gani a ion. I a igned in
e on e o he We Ge man acce ion o NATO in 1955 (Ma ).
Thi ac efe ed o he objec i e and inci le of he UN, and i membe
e e aiming o defend each o he if one o mo e a e e e a acked. The ea
e abli hed a oli ical con l a i e commi ee, ha a com o ed b he fo eing
and defence mini e and b he head of S a e , b being in he comm ni
a of E o e mean ha he e e e ho e e e en a i e , b e ha e o ne e
fo ge ha he e a al o he Sec e a of he Comm ni Pa . The head of
a e a nece a , b in he e ca e he mo im o an man i he Gene al
Sec e a of he comm ni a .
O he bodie , oge he i h he Poli ical Con l a i e Commi ee e had al o a
Join Sec e a ia ; he hi d a he Pe manen Commi ion hich a he bod
ha o ided olic ecommenda ion, a kind of bod ha ga e he
ecommenda ion o he Con l a i e bod .
So he e e e he e bodie , b i a nece a o ha e al o a join command,
hich oge he he a m fo ce of he S a e and i a im o an beca e hi
ac in e ened in e e al momen .
The Pac a ed in he o ie bloc in ead of an e e nal a ack, in fac i a
​ and in 1968 ano he in e en ion in C echo lo akia,
ed in 1956 in H nga 13​
he e a commi ee of mini e of defen e a o gani ed in he Wa a Pac .
The Pac a im o an fo bila e al ag eemen be een membe S a e and
he e a mi o ing h ag eemen be een he So ie Union and he S a e in
he ela ion of he a of he a med fo ce ; he ed a m had he command
e ice ead in all he ea e n co n ie , af e he colla e of he So ie

13
Im e Nag ho an ed o abandon he o ie em.
Union, one of he e ion ela ed o he Ea a he e n o R ia of he
oldie e en in he co n ie .
Onl in 1967, a co ncil of fo eing mini e a e in o de o ha e oli ical
coo e a ion.
The oli ical meaning of he ac emained ignifican l eak in com a i on o
NATO, beca e he big o e of he So ie Union in he Pac a oo ong.
The US had he ame ole, b in NATO e had al o he o ibili o make
hei oice co n , ch a F ance and UK, b al o We Ge man .
The in en ion of mo ing o a d oli ical coo e a ion a ef l in o de o
mo e e e al idea of in eg a ion gi en on he le el of e o ean in eg a ion.

Sec i Coo e a ion in o he a of he o ld

​ i Pac ​, 30 A g 1947: an ag eemen igned in 1947 in Rio de Janei o

R
among 18 co n ie of he Ame ica d ing a confe ence on eace and ec i .
In e Ame ican T ea of eci ocal a i ance, RIO Pac . I came in o fo ce in
1948 and i con ained o 25 a e , o he n mbe enla ged d ing ime . The
cen al inci le con ained in i a icle i ha an a ack again one i o be
con ide ed an a ack again hem all; hi a kno n a he hemi he ic
defen e doc ine. De i e hi , e e al membe ha e b eached he ea on
m l i le occa ion . The egion i eci e, i had he e e n hemi he e, al o
Canada, e en if i a no a of he T ea . I a in oked on e e al
occa ion in bo de di e and al o mili a one , ch a in 1965 in he
Domenican Re blic and al o he a of he Falkland Mal ina . C ba a
e cl ded in 1962 hen F idel Ca o came o o e .

​CONDECA​, Decembe 1963: he Cen al Ame ican Defen e Co ncil, hi i a

ani h ac on m a an alliance of Cen al Ame ican co n ie (El Sal ado ,
Co a Rica, G a emala, Hond a , Nica ag a, and Panama, US a ad i o
membe ). I a c ea ed b a ea igned on 14 Decembe 1963 in G a emala
Ci . Common o e of elling he a io lef - ing g e illa mo emen
ha h ea ened abili in he egion d ing he Cold Wa . Co a Rica, hich
had no anding a med fo ce , a ici a ed a a membe . I i no def nc .
I a fo med in di ec e on e o he C ba Mi ile c i i in 1962. F om he
80 he o o ed change , i became an in men of he US olic again
Nica ag a andini a go e nmen , i a e cl ded b he membe hi , hi kind
of oli ical hif ga e CONDECA no ea on o kee on lea ing. S a ing f om
he econd a of he 80 i a n' ed an mo e.

The economic o gani a ion a ing f om he econd o a Wo ld.

E e hing a ed i h he B e on Wood confe ence, hich a held in 1944
and hich a abo he lanning of he Wo d in he economic he e; he
famo economi Ke ne ook a in ha im o an Confe ence. The fi
in e na ional economic o gani a ion ha a de igned in BW a he
In e na ional Mone a F nd on ha occa ion. D ing he confe ence i a
decided o ha e e change a e , he al e of each c enc had o be he ame, i
didn change. The dolla had a fi ed al e i h gold; all he o he c encie
had he ame and fi ed al e o dolla . The fi ed e change a e emained alid
n il 1971, hen Ni on decided ha he US a n' able o g a an ee hi al e
be een gold and dolla .

O he o gani a ion ha a bo n in BW a he ​The In e na ional Bank fo

Recon c ion and De elo men ​ a c ea ed in 1944 o hel E o e eb ild
af e Wo ld Wa II. Toda , IBRD o ide loan and o he a i ance ima il
o middle income co n ie . IBRD i he o iginal Wo ld Bank in i ion. I
o k clo el i h he e of he Wo ld Bank G o o hel de elo ing
co n ie ed ce o e , omo e economic g o h, and b ild o e i .
IBRD i o ned b he go e nmen of i 188 membe co n ie , hich a e
e e en ed b a 25-membe boa d of 5 a oin ed and 20 elec ed E ec i e
Di ec o . The in i ion o ide a combina ion of financial e o ce ,
kno ledge and echnical e ice , and a egic ad ice o de elo ing co n ie ,
incl ding middle income and c edi - o h lo e income co n ie .
I a ob io l led b he US. The name aid ha i a no he Wo ld Bank
a oda , beca e hi IBRD had he o a k econ c ion and
de elo men , i had od c i e o e , im l mo ing ca i al onl fo he e
o e , no fo ec la ing o o he economic aim .
In o de o ha e an e ilib i m in he balance of a men fo a able
econom . The Bank a a oin ed o ha e a e ong eb ilding of he
We e n econom . Thi Bank a im o an fo he in e na ional economic
olic of he US, beca e o hi bank, e ied o ha e he fi economic
coo e a ion among ho e a e hich e e allied i h he US in e e n
e o e.
In he ame e iod e ha e he bi h of he IMF.
Fo nded on 27 Decembe 1945, he ​In e na ional Mone a F nd ​aim o
omo e in e na ional mone a coo e a ion, facili a e in e na ional ade, fo e
ainable economic g o h, and make e o ce a ailable o membe
e e iencing balance of a men diffic l ie .
The ag eemen e e aken in o he BW confe ence. I became o e a ional in
Ma 1946, and i had 39 membe a e hich inc ea ed; in he middle of he
60 he membe e e mo e han 100. I a con ide ed im o an in o de o
de elo he econom of a e ea ching fo inde endence, i a im o an fo
decoloni a ion o o he a e a of comm ni m, Romania, H nga and
Poland an ed acce a ing f om he 70 , clo ing he S alin and K che
e iod; e ha e o a ha B ejne had a diffe en a i de o a d he
economic coo e a ion.
Romania joined in 1972, H nga 1982, Poland 1987; a he end of he Cold
Wa he e fo me comm ni e e follo ed b B lga ia and Albania in 1990
and in 1992, he el e fo me o ie e blic joined he F nd.
The in e na ional F nd and he Bank had a boa d of go e no , ho e e he
highe o i ion in he na ional Bank ; in hi boa d all membe a e e e
e e en ed, i me once a ea in e embe and he go e no a e gene all he
cen al bank e iden ; ome ime he co ld be al o he finance mini e
e on ible o ake deci ion fo he go e nmen he e e en .
The deci ion in he IMF a e aken i h a im le-majo i , e en if he e a e
ca e in hich he majo i i alified; e ha e no nanimi and no e o
o e , ha e a in o he o gani a ion hich can block all he f nc ioning
and he o king of he c e.

Then e ha e an ag eemen ha a o o ed in ead of an in e na ional

o gani a ion. F ee ade a al ead o o ed b in e na ional o gani a ion
and i a a le on lea ned d ing he in e a e iod.
Al ho gh in e na ional ade a con ide ed defini el im o an fo he
econ c ion, he e io o gani a ion (Bank and F nd) e e lacking fo he
a ec of in e na ional ade; al ho gh he e e able o c ea e he condi ion fo
ha ade, he e e nable o hal a e in engaging f ee ade ac ice; bo h
US and UK, d ing he a , e en' able o each an ag eemen ; US an ed f ee
ade, hile UK had he ie of f ll em lo men hich had o be achie ed ha
hi ade co ld be libe ali ed. Fo ha ea on, no ag eemen on he
in e na ional ade ill be eached d ing he a e iod. The US go e nmen
al o ega ded e im o an o each an ag eemen on he f ee ade, he ea on
h in ided an in Oc obe 1945, af e he end of he Wa , he US demon a ed
ha he e e in e e ed in ing o go on i h he A lan ic Ca che b in i ing
15 a e and al o he So ie Union, o confe ence bo h on ade and
em lo men nde he a icio of he UN. The US e e ing o in ol e he
UK again, a ing ha i a a confe ence abo labo and he e e in he
condi ion o o k on he Lend and Lea e and he idea of in e na ional ade a
o an S a e. In decemb e 1945 he U e en ed a o o al o e and
in e na ional ade and inc ea ing em lo men ; he Ne he land objec ed
beca e i ho gh ha he o i ion of he UK e e en ing al o Canada, India,
Ne Zealand, A alia, a oo ong com a ed o he com o i ion of all he
e o ean con inen . Onl 6 e o ean con inen al hich e e Belgi m,
Ne he land , L embo g, F ance, and Ceco lo akia and So ie Union. The
la e , i h he comm ni em, ejec ed he idea of kee ing on i h ha
confe ence and o en o . E en if he Ne he land mo ed he objec ion, he
US ejec ed he idea o incl de No a , beca e he o de ed i o a iha
limi ed n mbe of a e ; ing o o k on a mall le el. The US cla ified he
de ail of he ame ican ie in a memo and m gi en in feb a 1947 and i
a o gani ed a a kind of in e na ional confe ence fo ade and em lo men .
I a o gani ed b Eco oc. I had membe of hi co ncil, ch a Chile,
Lebanon and No a and o be in i ed o he confe ence, o he US ejec ed he
Ne he land o o al o in i e No a , b he UN, h o gh he ECOSOC e e
able o o en a bi he e o ean a e a ici a ing in he confe ence. I a
o gani ed in 1947, hich a long, i a ed in No embe and clo ed in Ma ch
1948 and i a o gani ed a a UN confe ence, a ing ha he ag eemen
ho ld be eali ed in he UN f ame o k. In 1947, a a eo gani a ion of ha
confe ence, he GATT (in ead of In e na ional T ade O gani a ion) a
o gani ed. In 1944, af e he end of he GATT; i a b i ed b an
o gani a ion hich a he WTO

Gene al Ag eemen on Ta iff and T ade: 30 Oc obe 1947. I en e ed in o

fo ce on 1 Jan a 1948. I emained in effec n il he igna e b 123 na ion
in Ma ake h on 15 A il 1994, of he U g a Ro nd Ag eemen hich
e abli hed he Wo ld T ade O gani a ion (WTO) on 1 Jan a 1995.
 20/10

O gani a ion fo E o ean Economic Coo e a ion​ (1948-1960), hich a hen

b i ed b he O gani a ion fo coo e a ion and de elo men in he We e n
Bloc, hile in he ea e n block e had he Comecon, Co ncil fo m al
economic em fo he a e belonging o he So ie Bloc.
16 A il 1948. I a connec ed o ano he ame ican og amm, ha a
la nched in he 15 J ne 1947, he Ma hall Plan, follo ing he T man
Doc ine, o hel and o he con c ion of he E o ean Econom , in
o de o ha e a c i i leading o a a ; on he o he hand, he US ho gh he
E o ean economic c i e co ld no feed he US econom an mo e. In o de o
gi e ha hel , he didn an o ha e bila e al ag eemen , b aid ha he EU
a e ha ame ican f nd co ld go o he EU a e h o gh an o gani a ion
hich had o be e on ible fo he admini a ion and o ha e he mone f om
Wa hing on o he E o ean S a e . The Ma hall Plan a he eall beginning
a o en o all he co n ie , o i a n' a ca e ha he ea en bloc a in i ed
o a ici a e in he Pa i Confe ence of J l 1947 hinking ha he lan a
ome hing like he Land and Lea e.
The o ie nion didn acce he official blica ion of he S a e b dge ,
beca e i mean o le he o ld kno hich i he S a e of he S a e . The
So ie Union decided o ef e he Ma hall Plan and in i ed he o he
comm ni a e no o join i . Thi a he ea on h , d ing he confe ence
and he igna e of he fo nding o gani a ion ha ho ld ha e he Ame ican
mone among he EU S a e , he So ie Union and i allie didn acce o
en e .
18 fo nding co n ie : A ia, Belgi m, Denma k, F ance, G eece, Iceland,
I eland, I al , L embo g, Ne he land , No a , Po gal, S eden,
S i e land, T ke , Uni ed Kingdom, and We e n Ge man . The US,
 oge he i h F ance and UK inci ed o a ici a e of e e al co n ie : I al ,
beca e he e a a ong comm ni a ie and bo h US and UK e e
o ied ha hi a co ld in he oli ical elec ion; han ano he co n
im o an e e e n Ge man , beca e i a di ided and i a he hea of
e o e, and i ho ld be con ide ed a of he We e b Bloc, an im o an a
in ode o eng hen e e n e o e. I a in e e ed in ho e co n ie hich
e e going o go h o gh he e o ean in eg a ion.
Aim: omo e coo e a ion be een a ici a ing co n ie and hei na ional
od c ion og amme fo he econ c ion of E o e,
de elo in a-E o ean ade b ed cing a iff and o he ba ie o he
e an ion of ade,
d he fea ibili of c ea ing a c om nion o f ee ade a ea,
d m l i-la e ali a ion of a men , and
achie e condi ion fo be e ili a ion of labo .
In 1960 hi o gani a ion ned in o ome hing diffe en , beca e i ned in o
he O gani a ion fo Economic Coo e a ion and De elo men ; he con en ion
a igned in decembe 1960, and af e he igna e i a nece a he
a ifica ion a i e long, and fo ha ea on i a ed o o k in Se embe
1961.
F om OEEC o OECD
OEEC a e laced b he O gani a ion fo Economic Coo e a ion and
De elo men (OECD), ho e Con en ion a igned on 14 Decembe 1960
and in o fo ce on 30 Se embe 1961.
36 membe S a e (A alia, A ia, Belgi m, Canada, Chile, Denma k,
E onia, Finland, F ance, Ge man , Ja an, G ea B i ain, G eece, I eland,
Iceland, I ael, I al , La ia, Li h ania, L embo g, Me ico, No a , Ne
Zealand, The Ne he land , Poland, Po gal, C ech Re blic, Re blic of
Ko ea, Slo ak Re blic, Slo enia, S ain, Uni ed S a e , S eden, S i e land,
T ke , H nga ).
The mi ion of he OECD i o omo e olicie o im o e he economic and
ocial ellbeing of ci i en o ld ide.
The OECD c e con i of h ee main elemen : 1. he OECD membe
co n ie , each e e en ed b a delega ion led b an amba ado . Toge he ,
he fo m he OECD Co ncil. Membe co n ie ac collec i el h o gh
Co ncil (and i S anding Commi ee ) o o ide di ec ion and g idance o he
o k of O gani a ion; he OECD S b an i e Commi ee , one fo each o k
a ea of he OECD, l hei a ie of b idia bodie . Commi ee membe
ae icall bjec -ma e e e f om membe and non- membe
go e nmen . The Commi ee o e ee all he o k on each heme
( blica ion , a k fo ce , confe ence , and o on). Commi ee membe hen
ela he concl ion o hei ca i al ; he OECD Sec e a ia , led b he
Sec e a -Gene al, o ide o o S anding and S b an i e Commi ee . I
i o gani ed in o Di ec o a e , hich incl de abo 2,500 aff.
Thi o gani a ion doe n' ha e he o e o enfo ce i deci ion nanimo l ,
o i i ecogni ed a a highl infl en ial bli he of mo l economic da a
f om diffe en kind of blica ion and ann al e al a ion and anking of he
membe co n ie . I i im o an o ha e hi da a , beca e he can gi e an
anal i . The o gani a ion bli he and da e a model a e con en ion, a
kind of model hich i accom anied b commen a ie . O he blica ion a e
made fo he m l ina ional en e i e , and he a e o ic of he blica ion fo
he o gani a ion beca e hi o gani a ion bli hed g ideline . The delega e
a end all he mee ing and he al o mee a a mini e le el, i h ema ic
mee ing . We al o ha e a Gene al Sec e a ia . The o gani a ion i ill ali e.
Non e o ean co n ie e e in e e ed o en e , A gen ina, B a il, Pe and
Mala ia. Thi o gani a ion a e he ea af e he a of he Cold Wa .

The So ie Union ied o gi e a e on e o hi o gani a ion f nding he

COMECON o CMEA (1949-1991) i e in he ame momen , beca e a
confe ence a held in Mo co be een he 5 h and he 8 h of Jan a 1949
and in ha confe ence he Co ncil fo M al and Economic A i ance a
f nded.
The Co ncil fo M al Economic A i ance a e abli hed in Jan a 1949
o facili a e and coo dina e he economic de elo men of he Ea e n E o ean
co n ie belonging o he So ie bloc. Comecon o iginal membe e e he
So ie Union, B lga ia, C echo lo akia, H nga , Poland, and Romania.
Albania joined in Feb a 1949 b cea ed aking an ac i e a a he end of
1961. The Ge man Democ a ic Re blic became a membe in Se embe 1950
and he Mongolian Peo le Re blic in J ne 1962. In 1964 an ag eemen a
concl ded enabling Y go la ia o a ici a e on e al e m i h Comecon
membe in he a ea of ade, finance, c enc , and ind . C ba, in 1972,
became he 9 h f ll membe and Vie nam, in 1978, became he 10 h.
Head a e e e e abli hed in Mo co .
S c e: Co ncil made b he mini e and he Sec e a Gene al of he
Comm ni Pa (delibe a i e bod ); E ec i e Commi ee, made b he aff,
 he o gan hich had o do n he deci ion of he co ncil; Sec e a ia a a
e manen fig e. The e a he alified majo i and each o e had a diffe en
eigh (So ie Union). The comecon f ecogni ed E o e onl i h he
bila e al and m al ecogni ion ag eemen in 1988, b in 1989, hen he all
a o n do n, comeconf ended i ac i i , i a fo mall fini hed in 1991
i h he Wa a Pac .
COMECON i abo oli ical belonging ( he e e e al o Vie nam and C ba). I
a no cce f l and i a mo ing fo in e men in Af ica and in he a omic
de elo men fo ene g .
All he membe e e affec ed b dee economic oblem gi en b he
lanned econom . We ha e a kind of o g o of co n ie : ho e hich
ied, f om a oli ical oin of ie , o ha e a eac ion o he o ie nion, ch
a H nga , Poland and Cecolo echia, hich e e hel ed; COMECON and he
e o ean comm ni ne e ecogni ed each o he , k a fo bidden fo he
COMECON membe o ha e ag eemen i h e . in he 70 he e 3 co n ie
began he coo e a ion i h he e o ean comm ni of ade, ha h he
hen e e able o join he EU.

21/10

E o ean comm ni and E o ean Union.

PHASES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION HISTORY.

I a ed in he 1950 mid 1960 beginning on he in e na ional a ena
a ne kind of ac o a ea ed. We ha e momen of cce and c i i . The UE
he o en on and i i one of he mo im o an in e na ional o gani a ion
mid 1960 1986 c i i .
1986 1993 cce
1993 2005 idening and con olida ion.
2005 2009 Con i ional/iden i c i i
2010 - ? economic c i i ; oli ical c i i ; ani a ian c i i .
If e an o ha e he beginning of he e o ean in eg a ion oce , 9 Ma
1950 i h he Sch man Decla a ion.

The Sch a Dec a a i

E o e ill no be made all a once, o acco ding o a ingle lan. I ill be
b il h o gh conc e e achie emen hich fi c ea e a de fac o olida i . The
coming oge he of he na ion of E o e e i e he elimina ion of he age-old
o o i ion of F ance and Ge man . An ac ion aken m in he fi lace
conce n he e o co n ie ..
I o o e ha F anco-Ge man od c ion of coal and eel a a hole be
laced nde a common High A ho i , i hin he f ame o k of an
o gani a ion o en o he a ici a ion of he o he co n ie of E o e.
The olida i in od c ion h e abli hed ill make i lain ha an a
be een F ance and Ge man become no me el n hinkable, b ma e iall
im o ible.
The hi o ical conflic be een F ance and Ge man had o o e come: kno ing
he ca e of he a , e can ha e a li of elemen , b he e i an an e ;
conflic a i e he e he e i a di i ion be een a e , if e a e able o
elemen oge he , elemen and conflic can be ol ed i ho he need o e
he fo ce and hank o legal adj men and di c ion . The com a i on i he
fede a ion of he US, ing o ol e he conflic i h he con i ion.
Sch man a gge ed b an im o an chancelie , Jean Monne ; he idea a
he follo ing: F ance and Ge man ha e al a been di ided beca e of he
o e ion of mine al e o ce in ecific a ea , fo e am le in he R h Saa
and o on; if F ance and Ge man o ld be able o o gani e a nion in o de o
ha e a managemen of ha a ea, no o he conflic ill a i e. Sch man
gge ed o he chancello of he e e n Ge man o acce he c ea ion of he
E o ean Coal and S eel comm ni and o ened he in i a ion o o he
co n ie in e e ed in joining he con en ion.
The idea i o a oid he di i ion and o a oid an o he e o ean a . He aid
ha e need o c ea e an a ea of eace, eal h and abili . The e o d a e
ed in ide he doc men of he e o ean nion in o de o g a an ee eace. Hi
idea a o gi e he idea of eace and abili , b al o he idea of eading a
kind of democ a ic o be o o ed bo h o he na ionali a ie ha in hi
momen e e ing o a i e again, b al o o e e al fo m of o ali a iani m,
ecificall of he Ea e n E o e.
The e e e o he im o an elemen : he idea of ha ing an inde enden e e n
E o e f om bo h he US and So ie Union, o find a lace in he EU in he
Wo ld i ho he limi of he e o e . The la b no he lea i abo
economic o e i , ha ing he o ibili of g o ing all oge he i ho
ha ing diffe ence be een S a e , i can be ano he oin in fa o of eace. So
he idea of eace a gi en b oli ic , b al o b econom .
Acco ding o hi decla a ion, The e o ean Coal and S eel comm ni had o
be c ea ed. We ha e he igna e in 1952 of he Pa i Ag eemen , and he
o gani a ion a ed o o k in J l .
We e n Ge man immedia el acce ed he o o al, he idea a ing o
lea e he iolen a and ing o en e in o he EU co n ie a a clean
Co n ; he e e e he ame ea on fo I al , hich a a ing he econd
oce of ind iali a ion and i a oo o i had a chance o ha e a
ma e ial fo he od c ion. Then e al o had he BENELUX S a e , he
kne ha he e e be een Ge man and F ance and o he kne ha he
o ld ha e been he fi ic im of a conflic , he need o go in o ha kind of
o gani a ion, and he e e al o al ead o king in a common a , beca e
he al ead o igina ed he Benel .
The Sch man Decla a ion:
B ooling ba ic od c ion and b in i ing a ne High A ho i , ho e
deci ion ill bind F ance, Ge man and o he membe co n ie , hi o o al
ill lead o he eali a ion of he fi conc e e fo nda ion of a E o ean
fede a ion indi en able o he e e a ion of eace.
F ance, Ge man , I al , Belgi m, he Ne he land and L embo g acce ed
he lan fo he e abli hmen of he E o ean Coal and S eel Comm ni , b
igning he fo nding Pa i T ea (1952).

The in i ion of he ECSC e e he High A ho i ( hich i no E o ean

Commi ion), he Common A embl ( ha i no he E o ean Pa liamen ),
he S ecial Co ncil of Mini e and he Co of J ice. A Con l a i e
Commi ee a e abli hed along ide he High A ho i , a a fif h in i ion
e e en ing ci il ocie .
The S ecial Co ncil of Mini e , i he co ncil ha no e call a he Co ncil
of The Union, hich i diffe en f om The E o ean Co ncil i he mee ing of
he head of a e and go e nmen . The co ncil i managed b an
in e go e nmen al oin of ie , o e ha e o e ec he o e eign of he
Sae
The High A ho i i he inno a ion of hi comm ni , beca e i a
managed i h ano he idea of go e nance, he ana ional idea of go e nance,
hi i a ne idea beca e i a ha he o e eign of he na ion a e i no
e i ing an mo e, beca e i goe o a S ana ional A ho i .

The Co of J ice ole i o ono nce en ence abo a el ha ening

among S a e , among S a e and E o ean In i ion , b al o among ci i en
and admini a ion in gene al. The od c ion become e o ean la ,
belonging o he h mani a ian em.
The Common A embl a com o ed a he beginning b a liamen a
membe of he na ion S a e ; onl in 1979, he an fo ma ion of he A embl
in he E o ean Pa liamen ga e he igh o he ci i en o elec di ec l he
e o ean a liamen membe .

The em i h b id, i i mo e han an in e na ional o gani a ion, e ha e

diffe en bodie , e don need a Pe manen Sec e a ia , he a e i e
emini cen of he em of a na ion S a e. Al ho gh i i nece a o a ha
he com e encie of he e in i ion a e e diffe en com a ed o he
in i ion in he na ion S a e . Fo e am le, he Pa liamen ha no igh of
legi la ion, i can od ce i b oge he i h he o he bodie , beca e he
legi la i e ini ia i e i ill o he Co ncil , in hi ca e he Co ncil of he
E o ean Union.
The E o ean Commi ion i no he e e ec i e bod .

The follo ing b ilding of he E o ean Comm ni came o in 1958 i h 2

ne Comm ni ie : EEC (le a he ingle ma ke ) and E a om, e abli hed
b he Rome T ea . The meaning of a omic ene g i no mili a , i he
meaning of he ci il e of a omic ene g , in o de o be ed in o de o e e
he ci il o la ion. Among 1952 and 1958 e had he o he a age of he
E o ean Defen e Comm ni hich failed beca e i a hing fo he
c ea ion of an E o ean Fede a ion, i a oo m ch, a king he na ion S a e o
di a ea in fa o of a big Fede a ion a no acce ed.
Ano he e i he bi h of he E o ean Union i h he Maa ich ea in
1993, i a igned in 1992. Thi e e en a ion i he a chi ec e of he
E o ean Union, ha had been changed b ano he ea .
In ide he Maa ich ea e had 3 illa :
1) E o ean Comm ni and E a om, he E o ean Coal and S eel
Comm ni i no indica ed beca e i la ed 50 ea ( n il 2002) and i
a ab o bed in he fi illa in a go e nance oin of ie i i called
he illa of ana ional go e nance.

2) The Common Fo eign and Sec i Polic , ha changed name a million

of ime ; ha he E o ean Union a Common Fo eign Poli ic ? e can
a ha , he fo eign i ill o each membe a e ; o in hi illa he
go e nance i in e go e nmen al.

3) J ice and Home Affai Coo e a ion, he idea i ling o e he

dome ic affai of he Membe S a e he dome ic affai emain
o he membe S a e coo e a i e illa , in hi illa , o in hi o ic,
each membe can coo e a e i h he o he , coo e a ion i ba ed on ill,
beca e if I don an I can emain i ho a ici a ing in hi
coo e a ion.

The EU enla ged d ing i hi o ;

- 1951 Belgi m, F ance, Ge man , I al , L embo g and he Ne he land
(ECSC).
- 1957 EEC and EURATOM
- 1973 Denma k, I eland and he UK
- 1981 G eece beca e i ended i h he e e ience of he colonel
dic a o hi .
- 1986 Po gal and S ain fo he ame ea on a G eece.
- 1995 A ia, Finland and S eden 4 h enla gemen .
- 2004 C , C ech R., E onia, H nga , Li h ania, Le onia, Mal a,
Poland, Slo enia and Slo akia 2007 B lga ia and Romania 5 h
enla gemen .
- 2013 C oa ia
- 2020: B e i in he fi ea ie (Coal and S eel, E a om and o on )
o ided onl he o ibili o join and no o lea e; hi one al o o
lea e.
Diffe ence be een he fif h enla gemen and he fo h enla gemen : he 4 h
enla gemen a ed i h he 5 h one; A ia, Finland and S eden a ked o join
in 1994, hile he o he co n ie a ked i in 1992. The ea e n co n ie ,
coming o of he o ie e e ience, in ended o go fa fo an o ibili of
ano he c ea ion of he So ie Union.

Li bon T ea : igned 31 Decembe 2007 and en e ed in o fo ce in 2009.

The E o ean co ncil i made of he head of a e and go e nmen of he 27
EU co n ie . The efo e i i he mee ing of he EU o e ec i e , ho define
he io i ie and gene al line of E o ean olic . F he mo e, hi in i ion
i e on ible fo he mo im o an a oin men , f om he e iden of he
commi ion ( aking in o acco n he e l of he E o ean ) o ha of he
E o ean cen al bank.
The Co ncil of he E o ean Union i made of 27 mini e f om each a e,
ho mee on he ba i of he ma e nde di c ion. I i one of he o
legi la i e b anche of he EU, oge he i h he a liamen i modifie and
o e on he o o al of he commi ion. Fo cing he com a i on a li le, one
co ld a ha if he a liamen i he lo e ho e ( he one ha e e en all
ci i en ), he EU co ncil i he e ho e, hich e e en he in e e of he
go e nmen of he indi id al membe a e .

EU af e Li bon.
- A E o ean Co ncil P e iden
i h a 21 2 ea e m, ed cing he
o a ing Co ncil P e iden ' ole.
- A ingle fo eign affai o
c ea ed b me ging he E e nal Rela ion Commi ione i h he CFSP
High Re e en a i e.
- Cha e of F ndamen al Righ f om 2000 made legall binding.
- Pilla me ged o 1 legal e on enabling he Union e e o
be a o ea ie .
- E o ean Co ncil e a a ed officiall f om he Co ncil of Mini e .
- Mo e o e f l Pa liamen b mean of e ending he codeci ion
oced e o mo e olic a ea .
- A ece ion cla e
- Mo e do ble majo i o ing o ne a ea of olic in he E o ean
Co ncil and he
- Co ncil of Mini e , f om 2014 on.
- Na ional a liamen engaged b e anding c in - ime of legi la ion
and enabling hem o join l com el he Commi ion o e ie o
i hd a legi la ion.
- M al olida i obliged if a membe a e i he objec of a e o i
a ack o he ic im of a na al o man-made di a e .
- Ci i en Ini ia i e o be con ide ed b he Commi ion if igned b 1
million ci i en .
- Enhanced coo e a ion e ended o CSDP i e .
- An E e nal Ac ion Se ice
- Fo e een ini ia i e , ending membe a e f he im lemen a ion
deci ion:
- Pe manen S c ed Coo e a ion in Defence
- EU P blic P o ec o
- Acce ion o he ECHR and he Co ncil of E o e.