Dhana Garcia ECE102

A22 Power Amplifiers

 An amplifier is a device that receives a signal from some pick-up transducer or other input
source and provides a larger version of the signal to some output device or to another amplifier
stage.
 In small signal amplifiers, the main factors are usually amplification linearity and magnitude of
gain.
 The amount of power–handling capacity and power efficiency, in small-signal amplifiers, is of
little concern since signal voltage and current are small.
 An example of a small-signal amplifier is a voltage amplifier, which provides voltage
amplification primarily to increase the voltage of the input signal.
 A large-signal amplifier or power amplifier, on the other hand, primarily provide sufficient power
to an output load, typically a few watts to tens of watts.
 The main features of a large–signal amplifier are the circuit’s power efficiency, the maximum
amount of power that the circuit is capable of handling, and the impedance matching to the
output device.

 Power Amplifiers are classified based on the percentage of the input cycle for which the
amplifier operates in its linear region
 Amplifier classes represent the amount the output signal varies over one cycle of operation for a
full cycle of an input signal
 In class A amplifiers, the output signal varies for a full 360⁰ of the cycle.
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 the class B amplifier provides an output signal varying over one-half the input signal cycle, or for
180° of signal, so that, for audio, two output devices in "push-pull" must be used
 For class AB amplifier, the output is halfway between class A and B, which is between 181° to
200 degrees typically, and also requires push-pull operation for audio application.
 The Class C amplifier, the output is biased for operation at less than 180⁰ of the input cycle.
Class C amplifiers are usually used for tuned circuits such as radio communications systems.
 The Class D amplifier is a form of an amplifier using pulse or digital signals which are ‘on’ for a
short interval and ‘off’ for a longer interval.

 One of the concerns when designing large signal amplifiers, aside from the output power, is the
amplifier efficiency.
 Since these amplifiers provide enough power to the load, it is, therefore, a must to evaluate the
amount of AC power delivered to the load, from the source.
 We can define percentage efficiency in amplifiers is defined as the rms output power dissipated
in the load divided by the total DC power taken from the supply source.
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 In order to stabilize the transistor circuit, bias stabilization techniques must be used.
 Bias stabilization deals with the control of the operating point, or Q point, from excessive shift to
the present position.
 In small signal amplifiers, the stabilization technique used is the biasing stabilization technique.
In this method, resistors are used to stabilize the circuit.
 Since power amplifiers produce large powers, hence it is impractical to use this method of
stabilization.
 In power amplifiers, the way they are stabilized is by the use of a heatsink. This method is called
the compensation technique.
 The power transistor is attached to a material called a heatsink, in order to dissipate the heat,
and transfer it to air, produced by the power transistor.

Series-Fed Class A Amplifier

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 The circuit shown is an example of a series–fed class A amplifier.

 The resistor element at the collector is where the load is connected.
 This circuit can be biased so that the transistor will operate for the 360° of the input cycle.
 The differences between this circuit and the small-signal amplifiers, is that the signals handled
by this large signal amplifier are in the range of volts, and the transistor used is a power
transistor, which is capable of operating in the range of a few to tens of watts.
 The beta of a power transistor is generally less than 100, and the overall amplifier circuit uses
power transistors that are capable of handling large power or current, while not providing much
gain.
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A22 Power Amplifiers

 The significance of the VCE cut–off and IC saturation is that, from these two levels, we can
sketch the DC load line, as shown in the figure.
 The Q point or the operating point of the transistor is the intersection of the DC load line and
the quiescent level of the base current.
 Graphical Method

 When the input AC signal is applied to the amplifier, the output will vary from its DC bias
operating voltage and current.
 A small input signal, will cause the base current to vary above and below the DC bias point,
which will then cause the collector current, which is the output, to vary from the DC bias value.
 As the input signal is made larger, the output will vary further around the established DC bias
point until either the current or the voltage reaches a limiting condition.
 For the current, this limiting condition is either zero current at the low end or VCC over RC, at
the high end of its swing.
 For the collector-emitter voltage, the limit is either zero or the supply voltage, VCC.
 From the graph, we can sketch the input and output waveforms, and verify whether the output
waveform is distorted or not.
 Also, with the characteristic curve, we can determine graphically, the levels of the output
voltage and current waveform.
 This analysis is known as the graphical method, and is used for power amplifiers AC analysis.
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A22 Power Amplifiers
Dhana Garcia ECE102
A22 Power Amplifiers

Transformer Coupled Class A Amplifier

 The primary of the transformer is connected at the collector of the transistor, while the load
of the amplifier is at the secondary.
 A transformer can increase or decrease voltage or current levels according to the turns ratio.
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 Assuming an ideal condition, that is, no power losses are considered, we can write the
equations for voltage, current, and impedance transformation ratios.
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 When the input AC signal is applied to the amplifier, the output will vary from its DC bias
operating voltage and current.
 A small input signal, will cause the base current to vary above and below the DC bias point,
which will then cause the collector current, which is the output, to vary from the DC bias value.
 From the graph, we can sketch the input and output waveforms, and verify whether the output
waveform is distorted or not.
 Also, with the characteristic curve, we can determine graphically, the levels of the output
voltage and current waveform.
 This analysis is known as graphical method, and is used for power amplifiers AC analysis.
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A22 Power Amplifiers
Dhana Garcia ECE102
A22 Power Amplifiers

Class B Push-Pull Amplifier Circuit

 One way to establish a push-pull amplifier operation is the use of a two-stage amplifier circuit,
each circuit is operating in the opposite polarity of the input signal.
 The input signals to the amplifier could be a single signal, the circuit then providing two different
output stages, each operating for one-half the cycle.
 The figure shows a block diagram of this kind of push pull operation, using 2 voltage supplies.
 No more capacitor because we have a balanced Vcc

 Capacitor is needed to block the DC signal

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 The input is in the form of two opposite polarity signals, with two similar stages, each operating
on the alternate cycle because of the input signal.
 There are several means of obtaining polarity or phase inversion. These are transformer, an
operational amplifier having two opposite outputs, and using a few operational amplifier stages
to obtain two opposite polarity signals.
 An opposite polarity operation can also be achieved using a single input and complementary
transistors.

 It is composed of a phase splitting input transformer, two transistors for the push pull circuit
connection, a push pull output transformer, and a biasing network.
 The use of a center-tapped input transformer is to produce opposite polarity signals to the two
transistor inputs.
 The output transformer is to drive the load in a push-pull mode of operation.
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 During the first half-cycle of the input signal, transistor Q1 is forward bias, and therefore driven
into conduction, whereas transistor Q2 is reverse bias, and is driven off. The current I1 through
the transformer results in the first half-cycle of signal to the load.

 During the second half-cycle of the input signal, Q2 this time conducts, whereas Q1 is off. The
current I2 through the transformer resulting in the second half-cycle to the load. The overall
signal developed across the load then varies over the full cycle of the input signal.
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 Another circuit arrangement for obtaining class B operation is the complementary symmetry
push-pull circuit.
 This circuit uses complementary transistors, the NPN and PNP transistors.
 Using this circuit arrangement, it is possible to obtain a full-cycle output across a load using half-
cycles of operation from each transistor.
 While a single input signal is applied to the base of both transistors, the transistors, being of
opposite type, will conduct on opposite half-cycles of the input.

 During the positive of the input signal, the NPN transistor will be biased into conduction, with a
resulting half-cycle of signal across the load as shown in the figure.

 During the negative half-cycle of the input signal, the PNP transistor is biased into conduction, as
shown in the figure. During a complete cycle of the input, a complete cycle of output signal is
developed across the load.
 One disadvantage of this circuit is the need for two separate voltage supplies.
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 Another disadvantage with the complementary circuit is the resulting crossover distortion in the
output signal, as shown in the figure.
 Crossover distortion refers to the fact that during the signal crossover from positive to negative,
or vice versa, there is some nonlinearity in the output signal. This results from the fact that the
circuit does not provide exact switching of one transistor off and the other on at the zero-
voltage condition. Both transistors may be partially off so that the output voltage does not
follow the input around the zero-voltage condition. Biasing the transistors in class AB improves
this operation by biasing both transistors to be on for more than half a cycle.

 To eliminate the effect of crossover distortion, a class AB amplifier may be used.

 The figure shows an amplifier circuit that can be biased to operate in a class AB mode.
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A22 Power Amplifiers
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A22 Power Amplifiers

 A harmonic of a wave is a component frequency of the signal that is an integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency.
 Because of the harmonics, the resulting waveform may be distorted, and is called harmonic
distortion.

Class B Push Pull Amplifier Power Considerations

 The input power or DC power to the amplifier is the power from the power supplies.
 IDC is the average or DC current drawn from the power supplies. In class B operation, the
current drawn from a single power supply has the form of a full-wave rectified signal, while that
drawn from two power supplies has the form of a half-wave rectified signal from each supply. In
either case, the value of the average current drawn equals 2 over pi times Ipeak.
 Therefore, the input power to the amplifier equals VCC time parentheses 2 over pi, times Ipeak.
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 The power delivered to the load usually referred to as resistance, RL, can be calculated using any
one of the two equations shown.
 If one is using an RMS meter to measure the voltage across the load, the output power can be
calculated as VL (rms) squared, over RL.
 If one is using an oscilloscope, the peak, or peak-to-peak, output voltage measured can be used,
and the output power equals VL peak squared, over 2 times RL.
 The power dissipated, as heat, by the output power transistors, is the difference between the
input power delivered by the supplies, and the output power delivered to the
 load.
 P2Q is the power dissipated by the two output power transistors, which is equal to Pi(DC) minus
Po(AC).

 In class B, the Q point of the amplifier is set exactly at the cut-off point.
 Hence, only half of the entire cycle of the input signal is amplified.
 The output voltage and current waveforms only represent half of the input entire cycle.
 Thus, the need of two class B operation to cover the entire cycle of the input signal.

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 Theoretically, we can cover the entire active region of the transistor to set it to its maximum
operation.
 With maximum input current swing, the output voltage and current waveforms will be also
maximum.
 The maximum output voltage becomes V CC over 2, and the maximum output current becomes
VCC over 2 times RL.

 Focus only on the positive current swing

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 With the maximum input power Pi dc, and the maximum output power Po AC, the maximum
efficiency is therefore equal to 78.54%.
 This maximum efficiency for class B operation is considered as theoretical efficiency, since in
practice we don’t force the operation of amplifiers in its maximum limits.
 In reality, the efficiency of class B operation is less than that of the maximum efficiency.

Sample Problems
Dhana Garcia ECE102
A22 Power Amplifiers
Dhana Garcia ECE102
A22 Power Amplifiers
Dhana Garcia ECE102
A22 Power Amplifiers
Dhana Garcia ECE102
A22 Power Amplifiers