MODULE III

Signal conditioning circuits-Instrumentation amplifiers- Unbalanced Bridge. Bridge

linearization using op amp, Precision rectifiers, Log amplifiers, Charge amplifiers,
Isolation amplifier, Switched capacitor circuits, Phase sensitive detectors, Noise
problem in instrumentation and its minimisation
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1. Signal conditioning circuits: The basic measurement system consists mainly of the three
blocks: sensing element, signal conditioning element and signal processing element, as shown in
fig.1. The sensing element converts the non-electrical signal (e.g. temperature) into electrical signals
(e.g. voltage, current, resistance, capacitance etc.). The job of the signal conditioning element is to
convert the variation of electrical signal into a voltage level suitable for further processing. The
next stage is the signal processing element. It takes the output of the signal conditioning element
and converts into a form more suitable for presentation and other uses (display, recording, feedback
control etc.). Analog-to-digital converters, linearization circuits etc. fall under the category of signal
processing circuits.

The success of the design of any measurement system depends heavily on the design and
performance of the signal conditioning circuits. Even a costly and accurate transducer may fail to
deliver good performance if the signal conditioning circuit is not designed properly. The schematic
arrangement and the selection of the passive and active elements in the circuit heavily influence the
overall performance of the system. Often these are decided by the electrical output characteristics
of the sensing element. Nowadays, many commercial sensors often have in-built signal conditioning
circuit. This arrangement can overcome the problem of incompatibility between the sensing element
and the signal conditioning circuit.
2. Instrumentation Amplifier
In instrumentation applications, we need to amplify a small differential voltage few hundred
times. A single stage differential amplifier is not capable of performing this job efficiently,
because of several reasons. First of all, the input impedance is finite; moreover, the achievable
gain in this single stage amplifier is also limited due to gain bandwidth product limitation as
well as limitations due to offset current of the op-amp. A three op. amp. Instrumentation
amplifier, shown in fig.10 is an ideal choice for achieving the objective. The major properties
are (i) high differential gain (adjustable up to 1000) (ii) infinite input impedance, (iii) large
CMRR (80 dB or more), and (iv) moderate bandwidth.
The most commonly used Instrumentation amplifiers consist of three op-amps. In this circuit,
a non-inverting amplifier is connected to each input of the differential amplifier. This
instrumentation amplifier provides high input impedance for exact measurement of input
data from transducers. The op-amps 1 & 2 are non-inverting amplifiers and together form an
input stage of the instrumentation amplifier. The op-amp 3 is a difference amplifier that forms
the output stage of the instrumentation amplifier.
From figure below, it is apparent that, no current will be drown by the input stage of the op.
amps. (Since inputs are fed to the non-inverting input terminals). Thus the second property
mentioned above is achieved. Looking at the input stage, the same current I will flow through
the resistances R1 and R2. Using the properties of ideal op. amp, we can have:

from which, we obtain,

The second stage of the instrumentation amplifier is a simple differential amplifier, and
hence, the overall gain:

Note: For a simple differential amplifier, the output voltage becomes:

Thus by varying R2 very large gain can be achieved, but the relationship is inverse. Since three
op. amps. are responsible for achieving this gain, the bandwidth does not suffer. There are
many commercially available single chip instrumentation amplifiers in the market. Their
gains can be adjusted by connecting an external resistance, or by selecting the gains (50, 100
or 500) through jumper connections.
3. Precision rectifier
The precision rectifier, also known as a super diode, is a configuration obtained with
an operational amplifier in order to have a circuit behave like an ideal diode and rectifier. It is
useful for high-precision signal processing.

When the input is greater than zero, D1 is off, and D2 is on, so the output is zero because the
other end of R2 is connected to the virtual ground and there is no current through R2. When
the input is less than zero, D1 is on, and D2 is off, so the output is like the input with an
amplification of -R2/R1. Its input–output relationship is the following
This circuit has the benefit that the op-amp never goes into saturation, but its output must
change by two diode voltage drops (about 1.2 V) each time the input signal crosses zero.
Hence, the slew rate of the operational amplifier and its frequency response (gain–bandwidth
product) will limit high-frequency performance, especially for low signal levels, although an
error of less than 1% at 100 kHz is possible.

The circuit shown above performs full-wave rectification on the input signal, as shown. If
you wish the final output to be positive instead of negative, simply reverse the two diodes
in the half-wave rectifier section. The full-wave rectifier depends on the fact that both the
half-wave rectifier and the summing amplifier are precision circuits. It operates by
producing an inverted half-wave-rectified signal and then adding that signal at double
amplitude to the original signal in the summing amplifier. The result is a reversal of the
selected polarity of the input signal.
Log amplifier.
In this configuration a transistor is placed in the feedback path of an opamp wired in inverting
mode. Collector of the transistor is connected to the inverting input of the opamp, emitter to
output and base is grounded. The necessary condition for a log amp to work is that the input
voltage must be always positive. Circuit diagram of an Opamp-transistor log amplifier is
shown below.
From Figure, it is clear that base-emitter voltage of the transistor Vbe = -Vout ………(1)
We know that Ic = Iso (e(Vbe/Vt)-1) ………….(2)
Where Ic is the collector current of the transistor, Iso the saturation current, Vbe the base
emitter voltage and Vt the thermal voltage.
Equation (1) can be approximated as Ic = Iso e(Vbe/Vt) ………….(3)
Ie, Vbe = Vt In (Ic/Iso) …………….(4)
Since input pin of an ideal opamp has infinite input impedance, the only path for the input
current Ir is through the transistor and that means Ir = Ic.
Since the inverting input of the opamp is virtually grounded
Ir = Vin/R
That means Ic = Vin/R ……………(5)
From equations (5), (4) and (1) it is clear that
Vout = -Vt ln (Vin/IsoR1)………….(6)
Charge amplifier
A charge amplifier is an electronic current integrator that produces a voltage output
proportional to the integrated value of the input current. This is effectively a measurement of
the electrical input charge; hence the naming of the device.
The amplifier offsets the input charge using a feedback reference capacitor, and produces an
output voltage inversely proportional to the value of the reference capacitor but proportional
to the total input charge flowing during the specified time period; hence the circuit acts as a
charge-to-voltage converter. The gain of the circuit depends on the values of the feedback
capacitor and the feed-in resistor.
Charge amplifiers are usually constructed using an operational amplifier or other high gain
semiconductor circuit with a negative feedback capacitor. The input current is offset by a
negative feedback current flowing in the capacitor, which is generated by an increase in
output voltage of the amplifier. The output voltage is therefore dependent on the value of
input current it has to offset and the inverse of the value of the feedback capacitor. The greater
the capacitor value, the less output voltage has to be generated to produce a particular
feedback current flow.
The input impedance of the circuit is almost zero because of the Miller effect. Hence all the
stray capacitances (the cable capacitance, the amplifier input capacitance, etc.) are virtually
grounded and they have no influence on the output signal. An "ideal circuit" for analysing
charge amplifier operation is shown:
The circuit operates by passing a current that charges or discharges the capacitor Cf during
the time under consideration, which strives to retain the virtual ground condition at the input
by off-setting the effect of the input current. Referring to the above diagram, if the op-amp is
assumed to be ideal, nodes v1 and v2 are held equal, and so v2 is a virtual ground. The input
voltage passes a current Vin/R1 through the resistor producing a compensating current flow
through the series capacitor to maintain the virtual ground. This charges or discharges the
capacitor over time. Because the resistor and capacitor are connected to a virtual ground, the
input current does not vary with capacitor charge and a linear integration of output is
achieved.
The circuit can be analysed by applying Kirchhoff's current law at the node v2, keeping ideal
op-amp behaviour in mind.
Applications

Common applications include amplification of signals from devices such as piezoelectric

sensors and photodiodes, in which the charge output from the device is converted into a
voltage.
Charge amplifiers are also used extensively in instruments measuring ionizing radiation, such
as the proportional counter or the scintillation counter, where the energy of each pulse of
detected radiation due to an ionising event must be measured. Integrating the charge pulses
from the detector gives a translation of input pulse energy to a peak voltage output, which can
then be measured for each pulse. Normally this then goes to discrimination circuits or a multi-
channel analyser.
Charge amplifiers are also used in the readout circuitry of CCD imagers and flat-panel X-
ray detector arrays. The amplifier is able to convert the very small charge stored within an in-
pixel capacitor to a voltage level that can be easily processed.
Advantages of charge amplifiers include:
 Enables quasi-static measurements in certain situations, such as constant pressures on a
piezo lasting several minutes
 Piezo element transducer can be used in much hotter environments than those with
internal electronics
Phase Sensitive (Lock-in) Detector
A Phase Sensitive Detector (PSD) is used to measure the amplitude and phase of a periodic
signal with respect to another reference signal of the same frequency. Figure shows the
simplified block schematic of basic phase sensitive detector or PSD. The PSD is composed of
two basic circuits: a synchronous switch and an amplifier/filter.

Consider, first, the action of the switch. It is designed so that it spends an equal amount of time
in each position corresponding to the period of a reference signal Tm = 1/fm. In the upper
position, it passes the signal unchanged; in the lower position it passes the signal inverted. If
we apply a sine wave to the input which has the same frequency as the reference, V (t) = V 0
sin(2πfmt + φ), the signal at the output of the switch (at point A in the figure) will depend upon
the phase angle φ between the reference signal and the input signal.
If the phase angle φ = 0, the two signals are in phase, and the result at point A looks like the
lower trace of Fig. 2a: the sine wave has been rectified. If the result is then passed to the
amplifier/filter stage, with a time constant τ of the filter sufficiently long, the output signal
will be a constant (DC) signal whose value will be proportional to the amplitude V0. However,
if φ = 90◦ , as in Fig. 2b, the signal at point A will be symmetric about the zero-volt axis, and
the output from the amplifier/filter would be zero. Likewise, it is easy to see that if φ = 180◦,
the output would be proportional to −V0. This dependence on the phase between the input
and the reference signals is why this method is called “phase sensitive detection”.
If one were to apply a signal to the input at a different frequency f than the reference frequency
fm, the phase φ would be constantly changing, and the net effect would be to produce a signal
that would average to zero. The ability of the phase sensitive detector to reject signals such as
random noise which differs in frequency from that of the reference signal, depends on the
averaging time of the smoothing filter. The longer averaging time, the greater is its rejection
capability
Isolation Amplifier
An isolation amplifier (also called a unity-gain amplifier) is an op-amp circuit which
provides isolation of one part of a circuit from another, so that power is not used, drawn, or
wasted in a part of the circuit. The purpose of an isolation amplifier isn't to amplify the signal.
The same signal that is input into the op amp gets passed out exactly the same. This means
that output voltage is the same exact as the input voltage, meaning if 10V AC is input into a
circuit, 10V AC is output.

The purpose of an isolation amplifier is to isolate the circuit which appears before the
amplifier from the circuit that appears after it. An op amp is a device with a very high input
impedance. This high input impedance is how it causes isolation.

When a circuit has a very high input impedance, very little current is drawn from the circuit.
If you know ohm's law, you know that current, I=V/R. Thus, the greater the resistance, the less
current is drawn from a power source. Thus, an op amp, being of very high impedance, does
not cause any significant amount of current to be drawn from the power source. It draws very
little current; thus, practically no current is drawn and transferred from the first part of the
circuit to the second. The high-impedance load of the op amp ensures this. Thus, the op amp
serves as an isolation device from one part of a circuit to the next or of different circuits.

Isolation amplifiers serve as buffers. They do not amplify signals but serve to isolate parts of
circuits or different circuits from each other.
Isolation amplifiers are a form of differential amplifier that allow measurement of small
signals in the presence of a high common mode voltage by providing electrical isolation and
an electrical safety barrier. They protect data acquisition components from common
mode voltages, which are potential differences between instrument ground and signal
ground. Instruments that are applied in the presence of a common mode voltage without an
isolation barrier allow ground currents to circulate, leading in the best case to a noisy
representation of the signal under investigation. In the worst case, assuming that the
magnitude of common mode voltage or current is sufficient, instrument destruction is likely.
Isolation amplifiers are used in medical instruments to ensure isolation of a patient from
power supply leakage current.
Isolation amplifiers are commercially available as hybrid integrated circuits made by several
manufacturers. There are three methods of providing isolation.
A transformer-isolated amplifier relies on transformer coupling of a high-frequency carrier
signal between input and output. Some models also include a transformer-isolated power
supply that may also be used to power external signal processing devices on the isolated side
of the system. The bandwidth available depends on the model and may range from 2 to
20 kHz. The isolation amplifier contains a voltage-to-frequency converter connected through
a transformer to a frequency-to-voltage converter. The isolation between input and output is
provided by the insulation on the transformer windings.
An optically-isolated amplifier modulates current
through an LED opto-coupler. Input and outputs are
electrically isolated from each other. They are optically
coupled. LED emits light and it is detected by a
photodiode at output.
According to input signal, light emitted by LED changes
i.e. intensity of light is variable. This is detected by a
photodiode at output and generates a photocurrent at
output. Therefore light emitted is proportional to
photocurrent generated.
The signal from output is further amplified by amplifier. The signal from input is optically
transferred to output side providing electrical isolation and hence the name.
A third strategy is to use small capacitors to couple a modulated high-frequency carrier; the
capacitors can stand off large DC or power frequency AC voltages but provide coupling for the
much higher frequency carrier signal. Some models on this principle can stand off 3.5 kilovolts
and provide up to 70 kHz bandwidth.
Switched capacitor circuits
A switched capacitor is an electronic circuit element implementing a filter. It works by moving
charges into and out of capacitors when switches are opened and closed. Filters implemented
with these elements are termed "switched-capacitor filters", and depend only on the ratios
between capacitances. This makes them much more suitable for use within integrated circuits,
where accurately specified resistors and capacitors are not economical to construct.
A switched capacitor filter is a three terminal devices which consists of capacitor of MS
switches. The S1 and S2 are two MOS switches and C is the capacitor. The three terminals are
marked as 1, 2 and 3.The terminal 3 is common at input and output and are generally
grounded. The two switches operated alternately and Capacitor C together is used to simulate
high value of resistors. Single resistor is connected to ground. If voltage Vin is applied to the
resistor a current flows through the resistor. The switches S1 and S2 are actually MOS
transistors that are alternately opened and closed. When S1 is closed and S2 is open. Vin is
applied to the capacitor C. Therefore the total charge on the capacitor is Q= Vin C. When S1 is
open and S2 is closed the charge Q flows to ground If the switches re ideal, that is open and
close simultaneously and have zero resistance when closed, C will charge and discharge
instantly. If switches are opened and closed at faster rate, then frequency of occurrence of
current pulses will be high but their amplitudes will remains unchanged. But due to frequent
occurrence of current pulses, the average current flowing will be more for higher switching
rate. Average current is rate of change of flux with respect to the clock time.

Current into and out of the switched capacitor filter as a function of time

Advantages of Switched capacitor circuits

• High value of resistors can be easily simulated using small value capacitors, of order of 10pf
• High accuracy
• Excellent temperature stability
• Low system cost
• It doesn’t requires external reactive components like inductors and capacitors
Disadvantages of Switched capacitor circuits
• They generate more noise than standard active filter circuits
Noise problem in instrumentation and its minimization
Noise is any kind of unwanted signal that is not related to the input. Error sources that arise
during the measurement process of sensing the value of a physical variable and generating an
output signal. Errors are often created in measurement systems when electrical signals from
measurement sensors and transducers are corrupted by induced noise. The induced noise
arises both within the measurement circuit itself and also during the transmission of
measurement signals to remote points. When designing measurement systems is always to
reduce such induced noise voltage levels as far as possible. Noise can be generated from
sources both external and internal to the measurement system
Internal noise includes
• thermoelectric potentials
• Shot noise
• Potentials due to electrochemical action
Induced noise from external sources arises in measurement system for a number of reasons
that include their proximity to mains-powered equipment and cables,
• Proximity to fluorescent lighting circuits
• Proximity to equipment operating at audio and radio frequencies
• Switching of nearby DC and AC circuits
• Corona discharge
Inductive Coupling
The primary mechanism by which external devices such as mains cables and equipment
fluorescent lighting and circuits operating at audio or radio frequencies generate noise is
through inductive coupling. If signal carrying cables are close to such external cables or
equipment, a significant mutual inductance M can exist between them can generate a series
mode noise voltage of several millivolts

Capacitive Coupling
It is also known as electrostatic coupling, can also occur between the signal wires in a
measurement circuit and a near-by mains carrying conductor. The magnitude of the
capacitance between each signal wire and the main conductor is represented by C1 and C2. In
addition to these capacitances, a capacitance can also exist between the signal wires and earth,
represented by C3 and C4. It can be shown that the series mode noise voltage Vn is zero if
coupling capacitances are perfectly balanced i.e. if C1 = C2 and C3 = C4. However exact balance
is unlikely in practice, since the signal wires are not perfectly straight, causing the distances
and thus the capacitance to the mains cable and earth to vary. Thus, series mode noise voltage
induced by capacitive coupling.
Noise due to multiple earths
• Measurement signal circuits are isolated from earth
• Leakage paths often exist between measurement circuit signal wires and earth at both
the source(sensor) end of the circuit and also the load end
• Multiple earths can cause a series mode noise voltage in the measurement circuit
Noise in the form of Voltage Transients
When motors and other electrical equipment (both AC and DC) are switched on and off. Large
changes of power consumption suddenly occur in the electricity supply system. This can cause
voltage transients in measurement circuits connected to the same power supply. Such noise
voltages are of large magnitude but short time duration. Corona discharge can also cause
voltage transients on the mains power supply
Shot Noise: Shot noise occurs in transistors, Integrated circuits and other semiconductor
devices. It consists of random fluctuations in the rate of transfer of carriers across junctions
within such devices
Electrochemical Potentials: These are potentials that arise within measurement systems
due to electrochemical action. Poorly soldered joints are a common source.
Techniques for reducing measurement noise
1. Location and design of signal wires
• Both mutual inductance and capacitance between signal wires and other cables are
inversely proportional t the square of the distance between the wires and the cable. Thus
noise due to inductive and capacitive coupling can be minimized by ensuring that signal
wires are positioned as far ways possible from such noise sources. This design is known
as twisted pair.

Cancellation of induced noise

• In the first loop, wire A is closest to the noise source and has a voltage V1 induced in it,
while wire B has an induced noise voltage V2. For loop 2, wire B is closest to the noise
source and has an induced voltage V1 while wire A has an induced voltage V2. Thus the
total voltage induced in wire A is V1+V2 and wire B is V2+V1 over these two loops. This
 pattern continues for all the loops and hence the two wires have an identical voltage
induced in them
2. EARTHING
• Power Earth: Provides a path for fault currents due to power faults
• Logic Earth: Provides a common line for all logic circuit potentials
• Analog Earth(Ground): Provides a common reference for all analogue signals
• Safety Earth: Connected to all metal parts of equipment to protect personnel should
power lines come into contact with metal enclosures
3. SHIELDING
Shielding consists of enclosing the signal wires in an earthed, metal shield that is itself
isolated electrically from the signal wires. The shield should be earthed at only one point,
preferably the signal source end. A shield consisting of braided metal eliminates 85% of
noise due to capacitive coupling. The wires inside such a shield are normally formed as a
twisted pair so that protection is also provided against induced noise due to nearby
electromagnetic fields.
4. OTHER TECHNIQUES
The phase locked loop is often used as a signal processing element to clean up poor quality
signals. It is useful for noise removal because its output waveform is pure square wave at
the same frequency as the input signal, irrespective of the amount of noise, modulation
or distortion on the input signal