Inland Water Fisheries: The growth, key challenges and the way forward towards

Sustainability.

Abstract:

Marginal attention has been provided to inland waters in recent times while discussing the
crisis of global fisheries, despite the pertinent fact that inland fisheries accrue employment,
provides nourishment in the form of protein, generate income to the rural communities in the
gamut of a developing nation. This is quite undervalued in most nations. Inland fisheries have
been undermined both in developing and developed nations. It has never been accepted as a
part of any prominent worldwide fisheries assessment and is remarkably missing from the
Sustainable Development Goals. Their plight is overlooked so much that the overall
population and policymakers are to a great extent uninformed of the predicament of
freshwater environments and the inland fish they uphold generates the ecosystem. This
oblivion is especially striking given that the recent importance on the food-water-energy
nexus regularly neglects to incorporate the significant job that inland fisheries play a part in
food security in low-income food-deficit countries. Also, for the most part, the systemic
overfishing in the freshwater is concealed due to poor reporting, less awareness among the
local communities and other hosts of environmental pressures. To add further, the effects of
the changing ecosystem and its overlying impact on the changes in the species, size, skeletal
and trophic composition are not fully grasped by all.

The article aims to scoop through the growth patterns of inland water fisheries, discuss the
key challenges in the world, and provide key insights on sustainability.

Keywords: Inland Fisheries, ecosystem, sustainability, overfishing.

INTRODUCTION:
Inland waters are defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) as “lakes, rivers, streams, canals, reservoirs, and other land-locked waters.”1 Inland
waters have often been equated with freshwater though it also includes saline water bodies
found in a landlocked area. Statistically, inland water comprises 0.01% of the total volume of
water on earth.2 The fishes that reside in these waters are known as inland fishes.

Fishing has been an indispensable part of any country forasmuch it provides livelihood to
many people, garners employment, it nurtures the human body by providing essential
nutrients. The activities surrounding it- be it processing, cleaning, packing, transporting,
retailing at every juncture and scale need the bulk of human endeavour and skills. The
business of fishing is integrated from local to a global level. The current discourse on the
exploitation of fisheries has never explicitly mentioned the importance of inland fisheries,
neither any data nor assessment has been carried on a global or national level has taken to
understand the ramification and the current status of it.

The complexity of inland fisheries lies over the multispecies and various gears (traditional or
non-traditional) used to catch it. The variability of inland fishes also depends interannually or
seasonally which is again driven by various natural and man-made interference. It is quite
difficult to observe and interpret the species-rich, which are ecologically diverse and different
population dynamics occurring in a large tropical river of island fisheries. As it is like in any
other ecosystem, some species are exceedingly plentiful, many more are moderate in
availability and some extremely rare. Before we venture out into the dynamics of it not
mentioned on any global level, we have to first understand the value that they partake in our
lives and consequently in our nation.

1.1 The health and the well-being.

Inland fishes provide essential nutrients to the health of human beings and it simultaneously
has massively contributed to the well-being of the environment where human beings reside.
Many examples would precisely make it easier to the questions about how. “Larvivorous fish,
such as western mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) and Arabian killifish (Aphanius dispar), are
recurrently used to regulate the control of disease-carrying (e.g., malaria, Dengue fever,

1
Peter Manning, In: ‘FAO Fisheries Division [online], Rome’ Updated 2006 15 09, Fisheries and Aquaculture
topics, Inland aquatic ecosystems. Topics Fact Sheets. < http://www.fao.org/fishery/ecosystems/inland/en>
accessed on 19 December 2020.
2
M.L.J. Stiassny, ‘An Overview of Freshwater Biodiversity: With Some Lessons from African Fishes’ (1996)
Fisheries, 21(9): 7–13 <doi:10.1577/1548-8446(1996)021<0007: AOOFB>2.0.CO;2>.”
yellow fever) mosquitoes.”3 The usage of Larvivorous fish is extensive in areas, like the
fields of rice, where the use of chemical insecticides is perilous or futile or where mosquitos
are pesticide-resistant. However, caution has to be made regarding the use of Larvivorous
fish as they tend to attract unsolicited consequences such as the decline of other fish species,
aquatic animals, etc. Furthermore, they are used for biomedical research arguably much so as
they forestall the ethical and practical questions linked to the usage of higher vertebras. 4 Case
in example, Zebrafish, which has been used to research for cancer genetics, drug recreation,
etc. Also, for well-being and to connect back to nature, fishing has been introduced as one of
the lucrative alternatives to cure the attention deficit span, depression and some rehab
facilities also introduced to engage with fishing with attractive catchphrases as “hooked on
fishing, not on drugs”5 These things can’t be quantified in numbers but have helped people
across the world.

1.2 Empowerment.

The fishing community and networking are essential for a congregation of individuals who
live in coastal regions. It is by and large a burdened group of individuals who are at the most
reduced level, both financially, socially, and culturally. Mostly because the pay of fishermen/
fisherwomen is very much reliant on regular natural conditions, it is hard for them to
transform themselves to improve things. As traditional is their method, they are not just
managing income vulnerabilities and the burden of a long fish famine, they are also
confronted with financial management and advertising of their items. Fishing communities
are helpless against destitution, one of the components causing them to be delegated poorly is
the low degree of their pay. Different elements can influence the lives of fishing communities
today notwithstanding the use of fish resources, the restricted capacity of funding and fishing
innovation. However, in inland fisheries, many significant movements have taken place to
countenance the effect of poverty and vulnerability. Inland fisheries have been far more
generous in providing occasions to empower individuals so that they can meet their personal
needs and provide for their families. This has included several benefactors in poverty
eradication and introduced inclusiveness to many marginal populations such as ethnic, tribal
3
L.A. Lacey and C.M. Lacey, ‘The medical importance of Riceland mosquitoes and their control using
alternatives to chemical insecticide’ (J. Am. Mosquito Control Assoc. Supplement 2: 1–93. PMID:1973949).
4
B. Fraysse, R. Mons, and J. Garric, (2006) “‘Development of a zebrafish 4-day embryo-larval bioassay to
assess toxicity of chemicals’ Ecotoxicology Environment Saf (63(2): 253–267 doi:
10.1016/j.ecoenv.2004.10.015.
PMID:16677909).”
5
R. Louv, ‘Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder’ (Algonquin Books,
2006).
communities, women, etc. It has empowered them with a low venture opportunity for
meeting both the means and end. In the context of this, here’s a case study of empowered
women in India. The father of the Indian green revolution Dr. M.S Swaminathan built a
prototype in Poompuhar along with the Fish for All Research and Training Centre for the
fisherwomen to empower and double their income. Thirty women were selected from various
self-help groups based on their management skills of fish culture, technicalities, willingness
and interest mainly. A four-day skill management training was imparted to them and they
were named Vankakadal. They all worked together and were given initially two ponds to
culture inland fishes such as Catla, Rohu, Mirgal and Botala. The fish seedlings were 500 for
each variety as mentioned before. They were also trained to check the quality of water and
the various parameters attached to it for example pH balance, salinity, ammonia and were to
maintain the ambient levels. They faced numerous challenges ranging from the death of the
fishes, infection of fishes, algal bloom in the pond but they overcame it all due to the training
and precious knowledge, skills that were provided to them by the concluded four-day session
that was previously mentioned from the research centre. In the end, during the time of
harvest, a yield of 277kg was fetched with earnings generated of about Rs 33,500
(approximately Rs.120/kg). This resourcefulness has fetched a ray of hope in the lives of
marginalised rural women, by making them self-reliant, self-supporting, independent and
truly empowered in this varying environment and economy.6

1.3 Food and economic security

The subsistence on island fishes is huge in number. Globally, over 90% of the inland fishes
are mainly used for human consumption where most developing countries depend on it.
Inland fishes primarily contribute to food security and economic security by giving essential
nutrients, proteins and generate income but it has been grossly underestimated in comparison
to the other fisheries culture. As it is being used for consumption mostly by the traditional
fishermen, yielding small-scale artisanal fishing to survive on it. This representation is never
taken into account for they never enter into a market economy and thus remain excluded. It is
also to be noted that inland fishes have provided the necessary nutrients and proteins to the
poor thus fending off a little bit of global food security. It has been particularly helpful in
eradicating the hidden hunger that persists in the low-income food-deficit countries. Inland
fishes contain omega-3 fatty acid, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin D, calcium, zinc, iron,
6
HMRC, ‘Fish culturing is empowering women in this coastal community’, M.S Swaminathan Research
Foundation <https://www.mssrf.org/content/fish-culturing-empowering-women-coastal-community> accessed
on 13 December 2020.
protein, lysine, etc which is otherwise difficult to procure due to unavailability or too costly.
So, in a way, inland fishing boosts cost-effective nutrients to the lower strata of the society.
In a study conducted in Bangladesh, it has been found that the effects of some micronutrient
deficiency-related illnesses, such as rickets have been mitigated in children of Bangladesh
due to the inland fishes.7 Additionally, since these often-small inland fishes can be easily
dried or preserved with spices or herbs using traditional techniques, they also offer year-long
nutrient sources and can also be sourced to different places.8

The statistics show that eighty percent of inland fishes are captured which is reportedly done
and operated in the developing countries.9 The main cause is because most of these fishing
are done by the rural poor, as they depend often on it for subsistence and small-scale
economic security. “While inland capture fisheries account for less than 14% of the global
harvest total, these fisheries support at least 21 million fishers (36% of all capture fishers
worldwide) and over 36 million more are employed in post-harvest activities, indicating that
inland fisheries have a proportionally higher influence on livelihoods than marine fisheries,
particularly in Asia and Africa.”10 In many precarious situations such as war, economic shifts,
natural disasters, etc inland fishing provides a safety net for the people who have nothing to
start over with. It can be apprehended as the last resort along with farming since it is quick in
providing supplemental/ alternative sources to generate income, employment and mostly
food. It further creates secondary job options for example maintenance of tools, fishing gears,
procurement of fishes, cleaning and distribution.

1.4 Cultural and recreational services

The linkage of inland fishes and the cultural identity associated with them is very much
inherent. In many of the cultures in the world be it Asian, African, Scandinavian, etc the
inland fishes have been referenced and placed in importance during the festivals. During the
festive times of Durga Puja which is also the time for harvesting (kharif season), on the tenth
day, it is customary to offer fish as a bhog to Goddess Durga. It has also been seen in some
Shakti sects dwelling in Assam, Odisha, West Bengal and also in the country of Bangladesh.
Socio-anthropological evidence as old as the ones from the various pre-Dravidian era,
7
T. Craviari, J.M. Pettifor, T.D. Thacher, C. Meisner, J. Arnaud, and P.R. Fischer, ‘Rickets: an overview and
future directions, “with special reference to Bangladesh. A summary of the Rickets Convergence Group
meeting”, Dhaka’ (2008) January 2006. J. Health Popul. Nutr. (26(1): 112–121. PMID:18637536).
8
Supra note 7.
9
J.M. Kapetsky, (2003) ‘Review of the State of World Fishery Resources: Inland Fisheries, Rome’.
10
FAO. 2014b. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture - 2014 (SOFIA). Rome, Italy.
FAO and World Fish Centre (2008) “Small-scale capture fisheries: a global overview with emphasis on
developing countries. Penang, Malaysia”.
indigenous tribes suggest that fish is an important part of the diet forming a significant totem
in the indigenous culture. Inland fishes also found its reference in Hindu religious texts where
Lord Vishnu takes incarnation of rohu fish to save the world from a great flood. 11 Matsya
avatar is the first avatar of Lord Vishnu in the Dashavataras (ten avatars).12

“The role of fish as cultural icons has also been proposed as a means to promote conservation
as flagship or umbrella species where conservation efforts for iconic fish (e.g., Mekong giant
catfish) could result in broader ecosystem-level improvements.”13

Inland fisheries are directly linked with recreational activities to boost the tourism aspect as
well as to generate income by engaging people with nature. Many adventure sports such as
snorkeling, angling, sports fishing have been introduced to engage with the tourists. In
various malls and resorts, the fish spa has emerged where nature-therapy is used to remove
the stress, anxiety that is incurred in the daily lives and it connects right back to nature.
Likewise, “recreational users of inland systems often volunteer to participate in a wide
variety of citizen science and conservation ventures, ranging from organized activities, such
as shoreline clean-ups, to citizen enforcement, including voluntary enforcement of
conservation practices in the Mongolian taimen (Hucho taimen) recreational fishery.”14

2. Challenges faced by the inland fisheries

The inland fishes/fisheries have a distinctive set of challenges unlike their other counterparts
with multifarious reasons and needs, they are often impacted by the topography, fluctuation
in the human consumption, culture of the fishes and effluent disposal. The biodiversity of
inland fishes is of such importance that it might be thwarted by the water pollution,
degradation of the habitat, invasion of predatory species, exploitation, modification to the
flow of water, thus making inland fishes most prone to being listed as an endangered group of
species in the world.15 This, by and large, affects the services, employment opportunities that
the inland fishes/fisheries sustain. The valuation of the inland fishes is so undervalued that it
has lost in assessment to other fish counterparts. So, the very first to address the problem

11
Matsya Purana.
12
Supra note 11.
13
D. Simberloff, (1998) ‘Flagships, umbrellas, and keystones: “Is single-species management passé in the
landscape era?”’ (Biol. Conserv. 83(3): 247–257. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(97)00081-5).”
14
O.P. Jensen, D.J. Gilroy, Z. Hogan, B.C. Allen, T.R. Hrabik, B.C. Weidel,
S. Chandra, and M.J.V. Zanden, (2009) ‘Evaluating recreational fisheries for an endangered species: a case
study of taimen, Hucho taimen, in Mongolia’ Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 66(10): 1707–1718. doi:10.1139/F09-109.
15
D. Dudgeon, A.H. Arthington, M.O. Gessner, Z. Kawabata, D.J. Knowler, C. Léveque, R.J. Naiman, et al.
“(2006) ‘Freshwater biodiversity: importance, threats, status and conservation challenges’ Biol. Rev. 81(2):
163– 182. doi:10.1017/S1464793105006950. PMID:16336747.”
would be acknowledging the value inland fishes generate and further develop a valuation
model consequently which would help to maintain sustainability.

2.1 Overfishing and inland biodiversity

Fish are one of, if not the most important, aspect of inland water sources in terms of balance
and sustenance. Rampant overfishing and inhibiting the potential of population re-growth
have long-term and drastic negative impacts on any inland water source. The destruction and
overfishing of oceanic fish and the subsequent biological imbalance are widely known but the
effects of the same on inland water sources have taken a side-line. Inland fishing is a major
source of food and sustenance for most underdeveloped and developing nations. 16 The
destruction of which will not only affect the biodiversity and destruction of ecological
sustenance but also affect the livelihood and food sources of millions of people worldwide.
With inland fishing and global demand for fish as a food source increasing every day, inland
overfishing is a very real threat and should not be taken lightly.

The effect overfishing has on freshwater biodiversity should be a major concern but has
received scant attention. If anything, the threat to overfishing is much greater for freshwater
fish and the subsequent negative effect on biological imbalance is much greater. If we
compare it is quite evident that the ecosystems of freshwater and the species that thrive in it
are on average, more endangered species than found in the marine ecosystems. 17 Inland fish
species, apart from overfishing, are exposed to a myriad of man-made threats like
infrastructure projects, dams, pollution, habitat degradation, the introduction of non-native
fish, etc. The artificial changes done by the humans caused the downfall of coastal
ecosystems which should not be ignored or passively dismissed.18

The ecosystem consequences of overfishing are far-reaching and multi-faceted. The loss of
apex predator fish affects the population balance of multiple fish species and subsequently
affects the aquatic fauna balance. In the experimental researches it has been found that while
removing the predator it has substantial disrupting effects on herbivore biomass. Overfishing
also negatively affects the dynamics of nutrient in the ecosystem of freshwater by both
through direct excretions and indirectly through grazing. The death and decay of fish and the

16
J. David Allan, Robin Abell, Zeb Hogan, Carmen Revenga, Brad W. Taylor, Robin L. Welcomme, Kirk
Winemiller, ‘Overfishing of Inland Waters, BioScience’, (2005) (Volume 55, Issue 12, Pages 1041–1051),
<https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055 [1041: OOIW]2.0.CO;2> accessed on 23 December 2020."
17
American Institute of Biological Sciences,‘Overfishing in Inland Waters Reduces Biodiversity and Threatens
Health.’ (ScienceDaily, 1 December 2005) <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/12/051201081512.htm>.
18
Supra Note 17.
subsequent addition of nutrients to freshwater biological balance are most well documented.
Overfishing will not only affect non aquatic animals that depend on said fish for sustenance
but also aquatic ecosystems as a whole. The lessening in the cyclical/seasonal fluctuation of
anadromous fishes into the freshwaters has grave consequences for a very varied collection of
terrestrial and semiaquatic animals, and terrestrial plant accumulations. The developing
countries have bore the brunt with regards to overfishing in inland waters as it has the
potential to cause severe and startling effects on the health of human populations. Not just
from a food source point of view but also in terms of eliminating and reducing the possibility
of toxic nutrients and fauna affecting human populations near freshwater sources.

2.2 Ornamental fishing and loss of Biodiversity

There are several reasons for the depletion of inland biodiversity at an alarming rate. Some of
them are due to pollution, overfishing, tourism, destruction of the habitat, introducing
invasive species which again brings along a host of parasites and pathogens. 19 Among all the
above-mentioned reasons, invasive exotic species have appeared as the biggest peril for those
already prevailing inland fishes in the current scenario. Due to the advent of globalisation and
liberalization, legislation regarding the exotic fishes has been rather limited in nature which
has in the past two decades proliferated into developing countries like India by the
entrepreneurs, aqua-culturists, industrialists for an instant economic boom. This nature of the
activity which is unauthorized and grossly ignored, largely is causing indiscriminate growth
of alien/predatory species, destroying the natural habitat which has earlier accustomed to the
suitability of inland fishes and thus it is hampering the ecological services by and large for
the long run.20 The exotic/ornamental fishes have carved a path as an entry point of novel
pathogens, thus resulting in an outburst of new ailments.21

“In Indian major carps in various riverine systems have been critically depleted due to the
introduction of commercially important exotic species such as Nile/red tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus), African catfish (Clarias gariepinus), Thai pangus (Pangasiandon hypophthalmus)
and common carp (Cyprinus carpio).22 For instance, studies from the Yamuna and Ganga
rivers have shown that there is a constant increase in the yield of alien varieties. In Yamuna,
19
A. Tripathi, ‘The invasive potential of parasitic monogenoids (Platyhelminthes) via the aquarium fish trade:
an appraisal with special reference to India’, Rev. Aquaculture, (2013) 5, 1-15; doi:10.111 l/raq.12035.
20
A. K. Singh, and W. S. Lakra, ‘Alien fish species in India: impact and emerging scenario’ J. Ecophysiol.
Occup. Health, (2006) 6(34), 165-174.
21
W. S. Lakra, A. K. Singh, and S. Ayyappan, (eds) ‘Fish Introduction in India: Status, Potential and
Challenges’, (Narendra Publishers, New Delhi, 2008).
22
A. K. Singh, D. Kumar, S. C. Srivastava, and A. Ansari, ‘Invasion and impacts of alien fish species in the
Ganga River, India’ (2013), (Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Management 16(4), 408-414).
the occurrence of tilapia, African catfish, silver carp and Gambusia is higher and the yield is
spiralling every year.”23

India has identified “31 aquaculture species, 600 ornamental varieties and 2 species of
larvicidal fish which has been termed as exotic.”24 Another crucial aspect that the aqua
hobbyists indulge in is when they grow tired of the ornamental fishes or it no longer serves
their purpose, they discard it into the wilds or the rivers. 25 Also, when the ornamental fishes
grow in size and can no longer be accommodated in the aquariums, they are disposed into the
rivers or during the breeding season i.e., the monsoon.26 Since the little ponds mostly seen in
nativity provides for breeding ground, or in the form of granite quarries, cement cisterns, and
as they are not properly checked or maintained, these ornamental species make their way to
the natural ecosystem adjoining the ponds, quarries during the monsoon season. 27 It has also
been found that ornamental fishes enter into the natural ecosystem by certain man-made
projects like the river-linking projects. One such instance has been documented where the
species like “Badis badis, Pethia gelius, Osteobrama cotio and Lepidocephalus guntea28 have
occupied the lakes of Chennai specially after the river-linking projects.” 29 “One-third of the
world's worst aquatic invasive species include exotic ornamental fishes,30 and the introduced
alien aquarium fishes represent a major source of ecological destruction.”31

2.3 The influences on aquatic system due to of ornamental fishes

In many researches that has been carried out it has been found that the ornamental fishes very
frequently change the ecology of water by changing its quality (by increasing the
concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus), they also act as a predator to the native fishes
23
A. K. Singh, A.Ansari, S.C. Srivastava, P. Verma, and A.K. Pathak, ‘Impacts of invasive fishes on fishery
dynamics of the Yamuna River, India’, (Agricul. Sei., 2014(5), 813-821).
24
A. K. Singh, and W. S. Lakra, ‘Risk and benefit assessment of alien fish species of the aquaculture and
aquarium trade into India’ (Rev. Aquacult., 2011, 3, 3-18), A. K. Singh, ‘Emerging alien species in Indian
aquaculture: prospects and threats’ (J. Aquat. Biol. Fish., 2014).
25
K. Krishnakumar, R. Raghavan, G.Prasad, A. Bijukumar, M. Sekharan, B. Pereira, and A. Ali, ‘ When pets
become pests -exotic aquarium fishes and biological invasions in Kerala, India’ (Curr. Sei., 2009, 97, 474^76).
26
A.K. Singh, ‘Emerging alien species in Indian aquaculture: prospects and threats’ (J. Aquat. Biol. Fish.,
2014).
27
A. K. Singh, and W. S. Lakra, ‘Risk and benefit assessment of alien fish species of the aquaculture and
aquarium trade into India’ (Rev. Aquacult., 2011, 3, 3-18).
28
R. J. R. Daniels, and B. Rajagopal, ‘Fishes of Chembarampakkam Lake - a wetland in the outskirts of
Chennai Zoos' (Print J., 2004, 19(5), 1481-1483).
29
J. D. M. Knight, and S. Balasubramanian, ‘On a record of two alien fish species (Teleostei: Osphronemidae)
from the natural waters of Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India’ (J. Threat. Taxa, 2015, 7(3), 7044-7046)
<http://dx.doi.Org/10.l 1609/JoTT>.
30
D. K. Padilla, and S. L. Williams, ‘Beyond ballast water: aquarium and ornamental traders as source of
invasive species in aquatic ecosystems’ (Front. Ecol Environ., 2004, 2, 131-138).
31
S. H. Liang, L. C. Chuang, and M.H. Chang, ‘The pet trade as a source of invasive fish in Taiwan’ (Taiwania,
2006 51(2), 93-98).
inhabiting (for example destroying the larvae, laid eggs, adults, etc),32 damages the vegetation
and brings about the uneven distribution of food resources. The most poignant thing that we
slip out often is that the ornamental fish often hybridize with the native species thus watering
down the “genetic stock leading to long-term introgression of gene pools.” 33 In India, the
decline of the local fish would further result in loss in means of living, strength and the
general welfare of the community.

3. Sustainability and the way forward

Sustainable fisheries management is the path forward and plays an important role to support
healthy inland ecosystems. As the livelihood of millions of people depends on it, an emphasis
on the need to change the management of fisheries is to be given and further carried out.
Inland fisheries respond to many factors coupled with both human and natural systems. A
highly adaptive, connected and interesting socio-ecological system is to be introduced.

3.1 Fishing and Rotating strategy

One of the key steps towards sustainability would be having a fishing strategy. The fishermen
should be able to switch between the species other than the targeted ones to create diverse
income sources and such diversion helps the targeted species to grow in number while they
were depleting before.34 This fishing effort or metier concept has been conceptualized and
further converted into reality to sustain the harvesting behaviour.35 Various fishing strategies
are developed to allow fishermen to switch and adapt to changes in the environment (such as
fish price/ migration) by changing their targeted species, fishing gears, etc.36 By doing so, it
has been seen that participate and shifting the composition of the exploited species has
numerously safeguarded against unexpected ecosystem regimes and the facets of
everchanging markets.37
32
A. Husen, ‘Impact of invasive alien fish, Nile Tilapia (Oreo chromis niloticus) on native fish catches of sub-
tropical lakes (Phewa, Begnas and Rupa) of Pokhara Valley, Nepal’;
Thapa, G.J. et al (eds) “In Proceedings of the International Conference on Invasive Alien Species Management”
(National Trust for Nature Conservation Nepal, 2014, pp. 112-12).
33
D. Pimentel, (ed.), ‘Biological Invasions: “Economic and Environmental Costs of Alien Plant, Animal, and
Microbe Species”’, (CRC Press, London, 2002, p. 384).
34
R. Hilborn, J.-J. Maguire, A. M. Parma, and A. A. Rosenberg (2001) ‘The Precautionary Approach and risk
management: can they increase the probability of successes in fishery management?’ (Canadian Journal of
Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58(1):99-107) <http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/f00-225> accessed 27 December 2020.
35
S. Kasperski, and D. S. Holland (2013) ‘Income diversification and risk for fishermen’ (Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110(6):2076-2081) <http://
dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1212278110> accessed 27 December 2020.
36
A.-S. Christensen and J. Raakjær (2006) ‘Fishermen’s tactical and strategic decisions’ (Fisheries Research
81(2-3):258-267) <http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2006.06.018> accessed 27 December 2020.
37
T. J. Cline, D. E. Schindler, and R. Hilborn (2017) ‘Fisheries portfolio diversification and turnover buffer
Alaskan fishing communities from abrupt resource and market changes’ (Nature Communications 8:14042)
Over multifaceted social-ecological associations, it is in the hands and capability of
fishermen to change the dynamics with regard to fishing tactics which will thus mark the
well-being of fish stocks that again, “in turn, can affect the fishermen’s choice of harvesting
strategy”.38 Thus in simpler mechanisms such as creation and maintenance in the flexible
approach shown towards fishing opportunities showed the value of resilience and adaptive
nature of fishing communities.39 Such management of techniques not only prevented the
overexploitation of fishes but also showed fisherman’s power to adapt to ecosystem
changes.40

3.2 Promotion of Indigenous fish species

There must be an establishment of sanctuaries to propagate the indigenous fishes as they

deserve instant attention from the public. A sensitization mechanism also needs to be
propelled off the benefits that have been derived from these indigenous fish species and how
much they are needed to be protected in order to create a harmonic ecosystem and balance.

 The main step in this would be to bifurcate the fisheries into two departments at the
national and state level. This necessary decentralisation is to distinguish marine
Fisheries from inland fisheries. Furthermore, it should be furnished with an
administrative charge of one/many directors at the division level. This division of two
departments must be equally looked out as it should be followed by providing a
separate well-resourced laboratory under competent scientific staff. “For this very
purpose of synchronizing the results and the initiation of new problems in
pisciculture, the creation of a new Central Bureau of Fishery Research under the
control of the Member of the Department of Education, Land and Public Health,
becomes a matter of imperative necessity.”41

 Proper communication should be initiated at the grassroots level with fishers as well
as consumers requirements is to be taken care of through “fisheries co-operatives,

<http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms14042>.
38
C. Folke, S. R. Carpenter, B. Walker, M. Scheffer, T. Chapin, and J. Rockström (2010) ‘ Resilience thinking:
integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability’ (Ecology and Society 15(4):20)
<http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-03610-150420>.
39
S. Kasperski and D. S. Holland (2013) ‘Income diversification and risk for fishermen’ (Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110(6):2076-2081)
<http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1212278110>.
40
J. Hentati-Sundberg, J. Hjelm, W. J. Boonstra, and H. Österblom, (2015) ‘Management forcing increased
specialization in a fishery system’, Ecosystems 18(1):45-61 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s10021-014-9811-3>.
41
Current Science, ‘Association Stable Inland Fisheries in India’, Current Science, 3(6) (DECEMBER 1934),
pp. 227-231 <https://www.jstor.org/stable/24205667> accessed 28 December 2020.
 regional fisheries management agencies (ideally through an eco-management
framework), and local media and outreach activities (e.g., targeting youth and elders
or women) that have been effective in dealing with other conservation crisis.”42

3.3 Development of Inland Fisheries

If we talk about the actual development of the inland fisheries, we can safely say that not
many programs have been conducted efficiently or at all to begin with, for the very reason
that profound knowledge of the prevalent situation, topographical conditions all of which
determines the current scenario and standard of the fisheries is yet to be taken into
consideration. To make it diligent exploratory surveys are one of the routes to follow along
with the technical and practical utility of the fisheries and it should also combine relevant
factors such as ethnographical, educational, economic, social, religious, etc from which we
can arrive at a conclusion.43 Further, the good and the bad influences can be drawn out of it.
So, another step should be towards thorough surveys that would show the right way to
proceed towards sustainability. Also, “a well-planned policy means that the work to be done
should be well considered and written down in both long- and short-term programmes.”44

Conclusion

Sustainability is a way of life, the general idea is to create a balance in the inland fisheries so
it is harvested at a sustainable rate, it doesn’t decline over time due to the fishing practices
adopted around the nation. Sustainability is also one of the growing concerns in the 21 st
century. The United Nations has however given little importance to include the sustainability
of the fishes individually as one of the SDG goals, rather it is clubbed with environmental
protection. Several approaches which are holistic should be taken where ecosystem-based,
various interest group come together for decision making, taking the sensitive issues at hand
and finding resolutions with a combination of both traditional and scientific way among
them. The advantage of a cohesive decision would be much healthier to foster and boost the
relationship between government and user group, they would be a part of the decision-
making process and trust each other more.45 Furthermore, it would educate each of the people

42
Bennett EL, et al. (2007) ‘Hunting for consensus: Reconciling bushmeat harvest, conservation, and
development policy in West and Central Africa’ (Conservation Biology 21: 884–887).
43
A. E. Hofstede, ‘THE CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF INLAND FISHERIES’
(Sudan Notes and Records, 1956, University of Khartoum Stable, Vol. 37 (1956), pp. 113-119)
<https://www.jstor.org/stable/4171675> accessed 28 December 2020.
44
Supra note 43.
45
Juha Karjalainen and Timo Marjomäki, (2005) ‘Sustainability in fisheries management’ (University of
Helsinki Department of Forest Ecology Publications 2(34) p-249-267).
involved in it and collectively share the information pool. The confluence of scientific, local
and administrative information must be jointly processed and intercalibrated. 46 Also, the
assessment and appropriate valuations are much needed to accrue the gains of the assistance
which was provided by making use of water use sustainably. Due to limitations placed on the
valuation of inland fisheries, they lose in comparison with other variants. It is high time to
acknowledge inland fisheries at the global level, the importance they hold in providing
employments, supporting livelihoods and the food security they give to a large section of
people. Sustainability and sustenance should go hand in hand, any imbalance between the
two, the whole system collapses. Therefore, a balance is necessary for the long run.

46
Supra Note 45.