Construction, Repair and Modification

FEATI UNIVERSITY – PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS / AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NORIEL M.
PURIGAY
FEATI UNIVERSITY – PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS / AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NORIEL M. PURIGAY
As per PCAR Part 1 Appendix A, Definitions
• Aircraft. Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of
the air other than the reactions of the air against the earth's surface.
• Airman. Any individual who engages, as the person in command or as pilot, mechanic,
aeronautical engineer, flight radio operator or member of the crew, in the navigation of
aircraft while underway and any individual who is directly in charge of inspection,
maintenance, overhauling, or repair of aircraft, aircraft engine, propellers, or appliances;
and individual who serves in the capacity of aircraft dispatcher or air traffic control
operator. (21 March 2011).
• Air operator certificate (AOC). A certificate authorizing an operator to carry out specified
commercial air transport operations
• Airplane (aeroplane). A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight
chiefly from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given
conditions of flight.
• Airport (aerodrome). A defined area on land or water including any buildings,
installations and equipment intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival,
departure and surface movement of aircraft.
• Airship. A power-driven lighter-than-air aircraft.
• Approved. Means approved by or on behalf of the Civil Aviation Authority in accordance
with the pertinent requirements of national regulations
• Approved maintenance organization (AMO). An organization approved by the Philippine
authority, in accordance with the requirements of Annex 6, Part I, Chapter 8 - Aeroplane
Maintenance, to perform maintenance of aircraft or parts thereof and operating under
supervision approved by the Philippine Republic.
• Approved training organization (ATO). An organization approved by the Authority in
accordance with the requirements of CAR Part 3 to perform training (e.g.: flight crew
training) and operating under the supervision of the Authority (Civil Aviation Authority of
the Philippines).
• Balloon. A non-power-driven lighter-than-air aircraft.
• Configuration (as applied to the aeroplane). A particular combination of the positions of
the moveable elements, such as wing flaps and landing gear, etc., that affect the
aerodynamic characteristics of the aeroplane.
• Configuration deviation list (CDL). A list established by the organization responsible for
the type design with the approval of the State of Design which identifies any external
parts of an aircraft type which may be missing at the commencement of a flight, and
which contains, where necessary, any information on associated operating limitations and
performance correction.
• Engine. A unit used or intended to be used for aircraft propulsion. It consists of at least
those components and equipment necessary for the functioning and control, but
excludes the propeller (if applicable).
• Fireproof. The capability to withstand the application of heat by a flame for a period of 15
minutes.
• Fire resistant. The capability to withstand the application of heat by a flame for a period
of 5 minutes.
• Glider. A non-power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving, its lift in flight chiefly from
aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight.
• Gyroplane. A heavier-than-air aircraft supported in flight by the reactions of the air on
one or more rotors which rotate freely on substantially vertical axes
• Heaver-than-air. Any aircraft deriving its lift in flight chiefly from aerodynamic forces.
• Helicopter. A heavier-than-air aircraft supported in flight chiefly by the reactions of the air
on one or more power-driven rotors on substantially vertical axes.
• Lighter-than-air aircraft. Any aircraft supported chiefly by its buoyancy in the air
• Maintenance. The performance of tasks required to ensure the continuing airworthiness
of an aircraft, including any one or combination of overhaul, inspection, replacement,
defect rectification, and the embodiment of a modification or repair
• Maintenance organization's procedures manual (MOPM). A document endorsed by the
head of the maintenance organization which details the maintenance organization's
structure and management responsibilities, scope of work, description of facilities,
maintenance procedures and quality assurance or inspection systems.
• Maintenance release. A certification confirming that the maintenance work to which it
relates has been complied with in accordance with the applicable standards of
airworthiness, using approved data.
• Master minimum equipment list (MMEL). A list established for a particular aircraft type
by the organization responsible for the type design with the approval of the State of
Design containing items, one or more of which is permitted to be unserviceable at the
commencement of a flight. The MMEL may be associated with special operating condi-
tions, limitations or procedures.
• Minimum equipment list (MEL). A list which provides for the operation of aircraft,
subject to specified conditions, with particular equipment inoperative, prepared by an
operator in conformity with, or more restrictive than, the MMEL established for the
aircraft type.
• NOTAM. A notice distributed by means of telecommunication containing information
concerning the establishment, condition or change in any aeronautical facility, service,
procedure or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned
with flight operations.
• Operator’s maintenance control manual (OMCM). A document which describes the
operator’s procedures necessary to ensure that all scheduled and unscheduled
maintenance is performed on the operator’s aircraft on time and in a controlled and
satisfactory manner.
• Powered-lift. A heavier-than-air aircraft capable of vertical take-off, vertical landing, and
low-speed flight, which depends principally on engine-driven lift devices or engine thrust
for the lift during these flight regimes and on non-rotating aerofoil(s) for lift during
horizontal flight.
• Quality assurance. All the planned and systematic activities implemented within the
quality system, and demonstrated as needed, to provide adequate confidence that an
entity will fulfil requirements for quality.
• Quality control. The operational techniques and activities that are used to fulfil
requirements for quality.
• Quality management. All activities of the overall management function that determine
the quality policy, objectives and responsibilities, and implementing them by means such
as quality planning, quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement within the
quality system.
• Quality system. Documented organizational procedures and policies; internal audit of
those policies and procedures; management review and recommendation for quality
improvement.
• Rating. An authorization entered on or associated with a licence and forming part
thereof, stating special conditions, privileges or limitations pertaining to such licence.
• Repair. The restoration of an aeronautical product to an airworthy condition to ensure
that the aircraft continues to comply with the design aspects of the appropriate
airworthiness requirements used for the issuance of the type certificate for the respective
aircraft type, after it has been damaged or subjected to wear.
• Return to Service (RTS). A document signed by an authorized representative of an
approved maintenance organization (AMO) in respect of an inspection, repair or
modification on a complete aircraft, engine or propeller after it has received a
Maintenance Release for the maintenance performed at an AMO.
• Rotorcraft. A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft supported in flight by the reactions of
the air on one or more rotors.
• Safety management system (SMS). A systematic approach to managing safety, including
the necessary organizational structures, accountabilities, policies and procedures.
• State of Design. The State having jurisdiction over the organization responsible for the
type design.
• State of Manufacture. The State having jurisdiction over the organization responsible for
the final assembly of the aircraft.
• State of Registry. The State on whose register the aircraft is entered.
• State of the Operator. The State in which the operator's principal place of business is
located or, if there is no such place of business, the operator's permanent residence.
• Type Certificate. A document issued by a Contracting State to define the design of an
aircraft type and to certify that this design meets the appropriate airworthiness
requirements of that State.
• Weight-shift-control aircraft. means a powered aircraft with a framed pivoting wing and
a fuselage controllable only in pitch and roll by the pilot's ability to change the aircraft's
center of gravity with respect to the wing. Flight control of the aircraft depends on the
wing's ability to flexibly deform rather than the use of control surfaces.
INTRODUCTION
Aircraft assembly involves the joining of various components and structures

that form an entire aircraft, while rigging generally refers to the positioning
and alignment of an aircraft's major sub-assemblies to produce a synergistic
design. For example, airplanes are typically fabricated in a number of major
sub-assemblies, such as the fuselage or main body, an empennage or tail
section, wings, landing gear, and an engine or powerplant section. These
components provide stability and maneuverability when assembled and
rigged in accordance with the manufacturer's specifications.
MAJOR STRUCTURAL STRESSES
There are five major stresses to which all aircraft are subjected:
• Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull something apart
• Compression is the stress that resists a crushing force.
 Buckling occurs to thin sheet materials when they are subjected to
end loads and to ties if subjected to compressive forces.
 Crippling is a phenomenon that occurs in a member that is under
compression with sufficiently short length to prevent instability.
• Torsion is the stress that produces twisting.
• Shear is the stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer of
a material to slide over an adjacent layer.
• Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension.
Five major stresses
MAJOR AIRCRAFT CATEGORIES
An aircraft is a device that is used for, or is intended to be used for, flight in

the air. Major categories of aircraft are airplane, rotorcraft, glider, and lighter-
than-air vehicles.
from top left: lighter-than-air, glider, rotorcraft, and airplane
AIRFRAME PRINCIPAL UNITS
The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of five principal units: the fuselage,
wings, stabilizers (empennage/tail section), flight control surfaces, and landing gear.
Airframe Principal Units
Fuselage
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing aircraft. It provides
space for cargo, controls, accessories, passengers, and other equipment.
Truss Type
A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, such as beams, struts, and bars to
resist deformation by applied loads. The truss-framed fuselage is generally covered
with fabric.
A truss-type fuselage. A Warren truss uses mostly diagonal bracing

Monocoque Type
The monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the strength of the skin or
covering to carry the primary loads. The true monocoque construction uses formers,
frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage.
Skin. The outside covering of the

aircraft.
Frame/Former. A circumferential
member that opposes hoop stress
and provide shape and form to the
fuselage.
Bulkhead. A heavy frame to contain

pressures or fluids or to disperse
concentrated loads.
Semimonocoque Type
This construction is a modification to the monocoque type wherein the skin is stiffened
by longitudinal elements. (stiffeners, stringers, longeron)
Longeron. The principal longitudinal

member of the fuselage that helps
the skin support primary bending
load.
Stringer. Longitudinal member in

the fuselage (or spanwise member
in the wing) to transmit skin loads to
body frames or wing rib.
Stiffener. A metal part, other than

flat sheet, used in framing of a
structure to provide rigidity.
Cutouts
When cutouts are made to stressed skin structures, doublers or backing plates are
required around the cut-out.
Rounded corners
prevent stress
concentration.
Windows
Flight Deck Windows

The flight deck windows fitted to pressurized aircraft must withstand both the loads
of pressurization and impact loads from birdstrikes. They are constructed from
toughened glass panels attached to each side of a clear vinyl interlayer.
Passenger Cabin Windows

They are designed to be fail-safe and normally have two panes of acrylic plastic
mounted in an airtight rubber seal fitted into a metal window frame. If one pane
fails the other will prevent loss of cabin pressure.
Wings
Wings are airfoils that, when moved rapidly through the air, create lift.
Wing Structure
Externally braced wings, also called semicantilever wings, have wires or struts to
support the wing. Full cantilever wings have no external bracing and are supported
internally.
Biplane Braced Monoplane
Cantilever Monoplane
Spars are the principal structural members of the wing.

Stringers gives the wing rigidity by stiffening the skin in compression.
Ribs maintain the airfoil shape of the wing and transfer the load to the spar.
Skin carries part of the load imposed during flight and transfers it to the rib.
Struts are bracings that carry compressive load.
Wings may be of single spar, twin
spar, or multi spar construction. A
conventional structure would consists
of front spar and rear spars, the metal
skin attached to the spar booms to
form a torsion box.
Lightening hole in rib lightens and

stiffens the structure.
In an I–beam spar, the top and

bottom of the I–beam are called the
caps and the vertical section is called
the web.
Wing Torsion Box

Wing Spar
From top left clockwise: Truss type, plate
web, fail-safe, sine wave
Wood Wing Structure
• Nose ribs are ribs that are used to shape and strengthen the wing leading edge.
• False ribs are ribs that do not span the wing chord.
• Butt ribs may be found at the inboard edge of the wing where the wing attaches to the
fuselage .
• A butt rib may also be called a bulkhead rib or a compression rib if it is designed to
receive compression loads that tend to force the wing spars together.
• The wire designed to resist the back ward forces is called a drag wire
• The anti-drag wire resists the forward forces in the chord direction.
• Tension wires (drag wire and anti-drag wire) are also referred to as tie rods.
• Wing attach fitting provide a strong and secure method for attaching the wing to the
fuselage.
• The interface between the wing and fuselage is often covered with a fairing to achieve
smooth airflow in this area.
Nacelles
Nacelles (sometimes called “pods”) are streamlined enclosures used primarily

to house the engine and its components. They usually present a round or
elliptical profile to the wind thus reducing aerodynamic drag.
A firewall is incorporated to isolate the engine compartment from the rest of

the aircraft. This is basically a stainless steel or titanium bulkhead that contains a fire
in the confines of the nacelle rather than letting it spread throughout the airframe.
Engine mounts are also found in the nacelle. These are the structural
assemblies to which the engine is fastened.
Cowling refers to the detachable panels covering those areas into which access must
be gained regularly, such as the engine and its accessories. It is designed to provide
a smooth air.
Top: Wheel wells in a wing engine

nacelle
Bottom: Engine mount
Typical cowling for a horizontally

opposed reciprocating engine.
Engine nacelle firewall
Empennage
The empennage of an aircraft is also known as the tail section. Most

empennage designs consist of a tail cone, fixed aerodynamic surfaces or
stabilizers, and movable aerodynamic surfaces.
The tail cone serves to close and streamline the aft end of most fuselages.
The fixed surfaces are the horizontal stabilizer (tailplane) and vertical stabilizer (fin)
that help stabilize the aircraft.
The movable surfaces which help to direct the aircraft during flight are usually a
rudder located at the aft edge of the vertical stabilizer and an elevator located at the
aft edge of the horizontal stabilizer.
Components of a typical empennage.
Vertical stabilizer.
Flight Control Surfaces
The directional control of a fixed-wing aircraft takes place around the lateral,
longitudinal, and vertical axes by means of flight control surfaces designed to create
a movement about these axes. They are usually divided into two major groups: 1)
primary or main flight control surfaces and 2) secondary or auxiliary control
surfaces.
Primary Flight Control Surfaces
Ailerons are attached to the trailing edge of both wings, and when moved rotate the
aircraft around the longitudinal axis (roll).
The elevator is attached to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer, and when
moved rotate the aircraft around the lateral axis (pitch).
The rudder is attached to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, and when moved
rotate the aircraft around the vertical axis (yaw).
On some aircraft, rotation around two
of the axes may be achieved with one
control surface.
The elevon (elevator and aileron)

used on tail-less aircraft gives both
pitching and rolling.
The ruddervator (rudder and

elevator) for V-tail gives both pitching
and yawing.
The stabilator, a movable tailplane

combining the dual function of
horizontal stabilizer and elevator,
gives both longitudinal stability and
lateral control.
Flaperons are ailerons which can also

act as flaps.
Flight control surfaces move the aircraft around the three axes of flight.
Elevator
Movement of the control stick

forward deflects the elevator
downward (tail goes up) which causes
the nose to go down.
Rudder
Pressing the right rudder pedal

deflects the rudder to the right (tail
goes left) which yaws the aircraft to
the right.
Ailerons
Differential aileron control movement
Movement of the control stick or yoke
to the right causes the left aileron to
go down (right aileron goes up) which
rolls the aircraft to the right.
Secondary Flight Control Surfaces
Differential types of flaps
Air passing through the slot aft of the slat Spoilers deployed upon landing on a
promotes boundary layer airflow on the transport category aircraft.
upper surface at high angles of attack.
Balance tabs assist with forces needed to

position control surfaces.
Trim tab
Servo tabs can be used
to position flight control
surfaces in case of
hydraulic failure.
Many tab linkages have a spring tab that

kicks in as the forces needed to deflect a
control increase with speed and the angle of
desired deflection.
An antiservo tab moves in the same

direction as the control tab. Shown
here on a stabilator, it desensitizes
the pitch control.
Control Surface Flutter
Flutter is a rapid and uncontrolled oscillation of a flight control (or the surface to
which it is attached) which occurs as a result of unbalanced surface.
Flutter is caused by interaction of aerodynamic forces, inertia forces, and the elastic
properties of the surface or structure and can lead to the catastrophic failure of the
structure.
Flutter can be prevented by mass balancing control surfaces to alter the moment of
inertia of the surface and therefore the period of vibration (move the control surface
CG closer to the hinge) such as placing the engines on pylons forward of the wing
leading edge.
Other Wing Features
There are many other structures visible on the wing that contribute to performance.
Winglets, vortex generators, stall fences, and gap seals are all common wing
features.
A winglet is an obvious vertical upturn of the wing’s tip resembling a vertical

stabilizer. It is an aerodynamic device designed to reduce the drag created by wing
tip vortices in flight.
Vortex generators are small airfoil sections usually attached to the upper surface of
a wing. They are designed to promote laminar airflow over the wing and control
surfaces.
A chordwise barrier on the upper surface of the wing, called a stall fence, is used to
halt the spanwise flow of air. During low speed flight, this can maintain proper
chorwise airflow reducing the tendency for the wing to stall.
Gap seals promote smooth airflow in the gaps between the trailing edge and control
surface.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
A winglet reduces aerodynamic drag

caused by air spilling off of the wing
tip.
Vortex generators.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
Gap seals promote the smooth flow of air over

gaps between fixed and movable surfaces.
A stall fence aids in maintaining

chordwise airflow over the wing.
Landing Gear
The landing gear supports the aircraft during landing and while it is on the ground.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
Landing Gear Configuration
Conventional or Tail Wheel

Tail wheel gear dominated early aviation and therefore has become known as
conventional gear. When landing, tail wheel aircraft can easily ground loop. A
ground loop is when a tail of the aircraft swings around and comes forward of the
nose due to the two main wheels being forward of the aircraft’s CG.
Tricycle Gear
In addition to two main wheels, a shock absorbing nose wheel is at the forward end
of the fuselage. Ground looping is nearly eliminated since the CG follows the
directional nose wheel and remains between the mains.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
PHILOSOPHY
Fail Safe – relies upon a duplication of certain structural members to ensure that if
one member failed, the other would assume the load of the failed member.
Damage Tolerance – requires an evaluation of the structure to ensure that should

serious damage, that is cracking or partial failure, occur within the operational life of
the aircraft, the remaining structure can withstand reasonable loads without failure
until the damage is detected.
Safe Life – The period during which it is considered that failure of a component is
extremely unlikely. Life may be expressed in flying hours, elapsed time, number of
flights or number of applications of load.
Fatigue – This phenomenon of fracturing after a series of cyclic loads, maybe much
less than the ultimate load.
Structural Design Philosophy
S-N Curve
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE
PHILOSOPHY
Hard Time – defines that the component or

part has a limited time of operation without
failure. After this controlled time the
component/part must be removed from the
aircraft. After removal the component/part
must be repaired, overhauled or discard,
depending of the component.
Time since overhaul (TSO) and time since new

(TSN) are times that control the life of
components when they are followed by hard
time.
Example of a hard time components are

engines, propellers, landing gears,
extinguishers, survival kits, life boats, etc.
On Condition – periodic checks applied
to the components to evaluate the
health and predict with high
probability of success a possible
failure. The component is removed
from the aircraft if we suspect that a
probable failure can occur and
replaced by a new or overhauled
component.
The on condition philosophy is

commonly used in aircraft systems and
components to evaluate the risk and
probability of failure. Common
components that we use to define and
explain the on condition philosophy
are the aircraft tires.
Condition Monitoring – This philosophy
cannot be applied to equipment that affect
safety or that failure can have a significant
economic impact.
The components are followed by reliability

programs, that after analysis of reliability data
we can define or change maintenance tasks in
order to increase equipment reliability,
reducing costs and increasing aircraft
availability. This is the target of condition
monitoring or reliability programs: controlling
and analysing equipment time to failure and
failure types in order to define improvements
to the aircraft maintenance program,
increasing aircraft availability and reducing
maintenance and operational costs.
LOCATION NUMBERING SYSTEM
Various numbering systems are used to facilitate the location of specific wing frames,
fuselage bulkheads, or any other structural members on an aircraft. Most
manufacturers use some system of station marking.
Stations
• Fuselage stations (Fus. Sta. or FS) are numbered in inches from a reference point
or zero point known as the reference datum. The reference datum is an
imaginary vertical plane at or near the nose of the aircraft from which all of the
fore and aft distances are measured. The distance to a given point is measured in
inches (or cm) parallel to a center line extending from the nose through the
center of the tail cone. Some manufacturers may call the fuselage station a body
station, BS.
• Buttock line or butt line (BL) is a vertical reference plane down the center of the
aircraft from which measurements left or right can be made.
• Water line (WL) is a measurement of height in inches perpendicular from a
horizontal plane usually located at the ground, cabin floor, or some other easily
referenced location.
• Aileron station (AS) is measured outboard from, and parallel to, the inboard
edge of the aileron, perpendicular to the rear beam of the wing.
Location Numbering System
• Flap station (KS) is measured perpendicular to the rear beam of the wing and
parallel to, and outboard from, the inboard edge of the flap.
• Nacelle station (Nac. Sta. or NC) is measured either forward of or behind the
front spar of the wing and perpendicular to a designated water line.
• Wing stations (WS) are measured from the center line of the aircraft and are also
given in inches left or right of the center line.
• Horizontal stabilizer station (HSS)
• Vertical stabilizer station (VSS)
• Powerplant Station (PPS)
The various body stations relative to a single point of origin

illustrated in inches or some other measurement (if of foreign
development).
Butt line and water line diagram
Wing stations are often referenced off the butt line, which bisects the center of the fuselage
longitudinally. Horizontal stabilizer stations referenced to the butt line and engine nacelle
stations are also shown
Station reference given, apply to

the intersection of the rib with
the datum line of the front spar,
measured perpendicular to Rib 1.
Zones
HELICOPTER STRUCTURES
The major components of a helicopter are the fuselage, landing gear, powerplant/transmission, main rotor system,
and antitorque system.
Helicopter Structures
Main Rotor System
The rotor system is the rotating part of a helicopter which

generates lift. The rotor consists of a mast, hub, and rotor blades.
The mast is a cylindrical metal shaft that extends upwards from
and is driven, and sometimes supported, by the transmission. At
the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades
called the hub.
Main rotor systems are classified according to how the main rotor
blades are attached and move relative to the main rotor hub.
There are three basic classifications: rigid, semirigid, or fully
articulated.
• Rigid Rotor System

The simplest is the rigid rotor system. In this system, the rotor
blades are rigidly attached to the main rotor hub and are not free
to slide back and forth (drag) or move up and down (flap).
The teetering hinge allows

the main rotor hub to tilt,
and the feathering hinge
enables the pitch angle of the
blades to change.
• Semirigid Rotor System

The semirigid rotor system in makes use of a teetering hinge at the
blade attach point. While held in check from sliding back and
forth, the teetering hinge does allow the blades to flap up and
down. With this hinge, when one blade flaps up, the other flaps
down.
• Fully Articulated Rotor System

Fully articulated rotor blade systems provide hinges that allow the
rotors to move fore and aft, as well as up and down. This lead-lag,
drag, or hunting movement as it is called is in response to the
Coriolis effect during rotational speed changes. They are free to do
so in a fully articulating system due to being mounted on the
vertical drag hinge.
Dissymmetry of Lift
Flapping is caused by a phenomenon known as dissymmetry of lift. As the
plane of rotation of the rotor blades is tilted and the helicopter begins to move
forward, an advancing blade and a retreating blade become established (on
two-bladed systems). The relative windspeed is greater on an advancing blade
than it is on a retreating blade. This causes greater lift to be developed on the
advancing blade, causing it to rise up or flap.
The combined upward flapping (reduced lift) of the advancing blade and downward flapping (increased
lift) of the retreating blade equalizes lift across the main rotor disk counteracting dissymmetry of lift.
Ground Effect
When hovering near the ground, a phenomenon known as ground effect takes
place. This effect usually occurs at heights between the surface and
approximately one rotor diameter above the surface. As the induced airflow
through the rotor disk is reduced by the surface friction, the lift vector increase.
Ground effect is at its maximum in a no-wind condition over a firm, smooth

surface.
Translating Tendency or Drift

During hovering flight, a single main rotor helicopter tends to drift or move in
the direction of tail rotor thrust. This drifting tendency is called translating
tendency.
Translational Lift
Improved rotor effciency resulting from directional flight is called translational
lift.
Autorotation
Autorotation is the state of flight in which the main rotor system of a helicopter
is being turned by the action of air moving up through the rotor rather than
engine power driving the rotor.
Antitorque System
The large rotating mass of the main rotor blades of a helicopter produce torque. This
torque increases with engine power and tries to spin the fuselage in the opposite
direction. The tail boom and tail rotor, or antitorque rotor, counteract this torque
effect.
Controlled with foot pedals, the

countertorque of the tail rotor
must be modulated as engine
power levels are changed.
A Fenestron® or “fan-in-tail”
antitorque system. This design
provides an improved margin of
safety during ground operations.
A NOTAR® antitorque system has no visible

rotor mounted on the tail boom. Instead, an
engine-driven adjustable fan is located inside
the tail boom.
Controls
The collective, operated by the pilot with the left hand, is pulled
up or pushed down to increase or decrease the angle of attack on
all of the rotor blades simultaneously. This increases or decreases
lift and moves the aircraft up or down.
The engine throttle control is located on the hand grip at the end
of the collective.
The cyclic is the control “stick” located between the pilot’s legs. It
can be moved in any direction to tilt the plane of rotation of the
rotor blades. This causes the helicopter to move in the direction
that the cyclic is moved. As stated, the foot pedals control the
pitch of the tail rotor blades thereby balancing main rotor torque.
Controls and functions

The cyclic changes the angle of the swash The collective changes the pitch of all of the
plate which changes the plane of rotation of rotor blades simultaneously and by the same
the rotor blades. This moves the aircraft amount, thereby increasing or decreasing lift.
horizontally in any direction depending on
the positioning of the cyclic.
PROPELLER
Propeller or air screw is the device which changes the torque power of the
engine into forward thrust, thus impelling the airplane forward.
Types of Propellers
• Fixed Pitch = those in which the construction is

essentially one piece and in which the pitch cannot be
changed after the propeller is built.
• (Ground) Adjustable Pitch = those in which the blade

maybe loosened in the hub and adjusted to the desired
pitch on the ground, after which the blade are again
clamped securely to the hub.
• Controllable Pitch = those in which the blade pitch is

controlled manually or automatically during flight.
• Constant Speed = those in which the pitch changes

automatically to maintain constant propeller speed for a
given flight condition
Types of Propeller
Adjustable Pitch Propeller
Momentum Theory
• 1st fundamental theory developed by R.E. Froude.
• Deals with the changes in energy of the mass of the air affected
by the propeller.
• In this theory, the propeller is assumed to be a disk which

exerts a uniform pressure or thrust over the cross-section of
the air column passing through the disk.
Momentum Theory
Momentum Theory
Thrust
and
This means, that, of the total increase in velocity imparted to the air
column, one-half is added before the air passes through the propeller disk.
Efficiency
This is the total ideal efficiency of a perfect propeller having no losses due
to rotation of the slipstream, profile drag of the blades, or radial flow. The
only loss considered in the momentum theory is the kinetic energy loss in
pure translation
Blade Element Theory
Usually referred to as Drzewiecki Theory, this treatment involves considering

the blades as being composed of infinite number of small airfoils.
α = angle of attack R = radius or span of blade

β = blade angle (pitch) N = magnitude of revolution
φ = effective pitch angle
θ = induced angle
Fundamental Equations
V = forward velocity (advance velocity)

2πRN = linear or tangential velocity
W = resultant velocity
α is set at (L/D)max
For a constant α, β is less at the tip (warp/twist)
For strength, the hub is thickest at the root
dL = lift of blade element

b = chord or blade width
S = bdR S = blade area
L/D ration varies with cotθ
dFR = resultant force on element
dT = thrust on element
dQ = torque on element
dPa = power absorbed by element
for ηmax, φ = 45° - θ/2
Aerodynamic Coefficients
𝑇
Thrust Coefficient 𝐶𝑇 = ρ𝑛2𝐷4
𝑄
Torque Coefficient 𝐶𝑄 = ρ𝑛2𝐷5
𝑃
Power Coefficient 𝐶𝑃 = ρ𝑛3𝐷5
𝑉 2
Power Speed Coefficient 𝐶𝑆 = 𝑁𝐷 (𝐶 )1/5
𝑃
Aerodynamic Coefficients
Efficiency vs Cs for various blade angle

J Ratio (Pitch Ratio or Advance Ratio)
J Ratio (Pitch Ratio or Advance

Ratio)
𝑉
𝐽=
𝑁𝐷
= advance per revolution
→ determines the efficiency of a
propeller
𝑇𝑉 𝐶𝑇
η= =𝐽
𝑃 𝐶𝑃
• During take-off, J ratio is low. Typical efficiency curves.

• At cruise, J Ratio is higher.
Pitch, Loading and Ratios
• Geometric pitch, pg = distance a propeller moves in one revolution if there were no slips
pg = 2πRtanβ
• Effective pithc, pe = actual distance travelled in one revolution

pe = V / N
• Standard or nominal pitch = measured 42 in. from hub
• Slip = difference between geometric and effective pitch
• Pitch ratio = geometric pitch / diameter
• Experimental mean pitch (ideal or max pitch) = V / πND
• Solidity ratio, σ = total blade area / total area

𝐵𝑐𝑅 𝐵𝑐
σ= 2= where b = no. of blades
π𝑅 π𝑅
 Higher σ, higher power absorbed but lesser efficiency.
 Likewise, higher number of blades, higher thrust & power absorbed, but lesser efficiency.
• Blade loading, Pbl

𝑃 𝑃
𝑃𝑏𝑙 = π 2 = where A = disk area
𝐷 𝐵 𝐴𝐵
4
Pitch, Loading, and Ratios
Geometric pitch and effective pitch relationship
Propeller Performance with Altitudes
Brake horsepower varies directly with rpm.
LAYOUT AND FORMING
Metal fabrication is the building of metal structures by cutting, bending, and
assembling processes. Fabrication processes require an understanding of the
wrought physical characteristics of metals as well as the characteristics of metals
when they are shaped or bent.
Fabrication Terminology
• Sheet metal grain

Looking closely for small lines that run in one direction through the material
distinguishes the grain direction. When laying out a pattern, it is better to orient
bends to run across, or perpendicular, to the grain of the metal. If the bend is formed
parallel to the grain, the grain boundaries tend to separate and cause cracks.
Layout and Forming
• Bend radius
When working with hard aluminum alloy sheets for aircraft parts, sharp bends must
be avoided to prevent cracking. To prevent cracks, a minimum bend radius is
recommended for different types of alloys and metal thickness. A radius is measured
on the inside of a bend and is generally measured in fractions of an inch.
Layout and Forming
• Neutral axis
Within the metal, a portion neither shrinks nor stretches, but retains its original
dimension. The line along which this occurs is called the neutral axis of the metal.
This line is not located exactly in the center of the sheet, but is actually about
44.53% of the sheet thickness from the inside of the bend, but for most practical
purposes, you can assume the neutral axis is located in the center of the metal.
• Mold Line
Mold lines are used to designate the dimensions of a piece of metal on a drawing or
layout pattern. These are formed by extending a line from the external side of the
metal, out beyond the radius of a bend. Although the mold lines themselves do not
include dimensions, they are used as reference points from where dimensions can
be established.
• Mold Point
The point where two mold lines intersect in a bend is referred to as a mold point.
When a piece of sheet metal is laid out, all of the measurements are made from one
mold point to the next.
• Bend Tangent Line
Bend tangent lines are generally shown on blueprints and drawings to designate the
location where the sheet metal begins to form around the bend radius. To enable
more accurate positioning, a sight line is marked off from the bend tangent line.
When the metal is placed in the brake, the sight line is positioned directly under the
nose of the radius forming block.
Layout and Forming
• Setback
The distance between the mold line and the bend tangent line inside the bend area
is referred to as the setback dimension. When determining where a bend will begin,
it is necessary to subtract the setback amount from the desired dimension of the
flat.
The setback for a 90 degree bend is

equal to the dimension of the radius
plus the metal thickness (SB = BR +
MT). for bends greater or less than
90 degrees, it is necessary to
compensate the setback amount by
applying an additional multiplier to
the formula, which is commonly
referred to as a K-value.
K = tan (θ/2); where θ is the angle of

bend
Layout and Forming
A closed angle bend requires the metal to be

bent more than 90 degrees, whereas bending
the metal less than 90 degrees develops an open
angle.
• Flats
The distance between inside bend tangent lines
from one bend to another, or from the end of a
piece of metal to the first bend tangent line is
called a flat. This is the amount of metal that is
not bent. The length of the flats will always be
less than the desired developed width because
the bend is setback into the flat.
• Bend Allowance
Bend allowance is the amount of material that is
actually involved in the bend and is equal to the
length of the neutral axis. When determining the
total developed length of a layout pattern, the
bend allowance values are added to the lengths
of the flats.
Layout and Forming
BA = C x (θ/360)
Where:
BA = bend allowance
C = circumference (from center to neutral
axis)
θ = angle of bend
Layout and Forming
Another method of finding the bend allowance, which produces accurate results, is
found by using an empirical formula. This formula provides for the bend allowance
to be located in the actual position of the neutral axis. The formula for determining
the bend allowance for one degree of bend is:
Bend Allowance = (.0078T + .01743R) =
Sample Problem:
Find the setback and bend allowance for a 90-degree bend in .040 inch thick
material with a 1/8 inch radius.
SB = K(R + T)
SB = 1 (.125 + .040) = .165 inches
BA = (.0078T + .01743R) x θ
= [(.0078 x .040) + (.01743 x .125)] x 90
BA = .22428 inches
Layout and Forming
Sample Layout
Determine the length of flat A.
SB = R + T
= (3/16) + .0625 = .250 in
A = ML length – SB
= 4 - .250
A = 3.750 in
Layout and Forming
What is dimension F?
Setback at D = .095
Setback at E = .068
Bend allowance at D = .150
Bend allowance at E = .112
Solution:
A = 1 – D = 1 - .095
A = 0.905
B = 3 –D – E = 3 - .095 - .068
B = 2.837
C = 2 – E = 2 - .068
C = 1.932
F = total flats + total BA

= .905 + 2.837 + 1.932 +
.150 + .112
F = 5.936 inches
Layout and Forming
Bumping
It may sometimes be necessary to form a streamline cover for some component that
must protrude into the air stream. An example of a part that can be formed by
bumping is used to cover bellcrank parts that protrude through an aircraft structure
and into the airstream.
A female forming block

allows compound curved
parts to be made by
bumping.
Layout and Forming
Flanging Lightening Holes
Two benefits can be gained, when making pieces such as fuselage bulkheads and
wing ribs, by removing some of the metal to decrease weight and flanging the edge
of the cutout to increase the rigidity of the part. These flanged cutouts are called
lightening holes.
When a large number of lightening holes are to be cut, it is economical to make or

purchase a two-piece flanging die made of steel.
Using male and female flanging dies can

stiffen the edges of a lightening hole.
Layout and Forming
Joggling
In order for the sheet metal pieces to be flat against the skin and yet have one on
top of the other at the joining intersection, a process known as joggling is used. In
joggling, the end of one of the pieces is bent up just enough to clear the other, and
then it is bent back so it will be parallel to the original piece. Parts should be joggled
to fit, rather than attempting to pull them into position with rivets.
Joggles are used primarily to place parts on the same plane so there are no contours in the
metal where the parts overlap. One example is where a doubler must fit over a bulb angle.
Rather than attempting to pull the doubler against the skin with rivets, a joggle should be
formed to allow the two metal pieces to be on the same plane
WELDING
The two most prominent methods of welding aircraft structures and components are
fusion and non-fusion.
Fusion welding is the blending of compatible molten metals into one common part
or joint. Fusing of metals is accomplished by producing sufficient heat for the metals
to melt, flow together and mix. The heat is then removed to allow the fused joint to
solidify.
Non-fusion welding is the joining of metals by adhesion of one metal to another. The
most prominent non-fusion welding processes used on aircraft are brazing and
soldering.
Welding
Types of Welding
1. Gas Welding
Oxyacetelyne Welding
2. Electric Arc Welding

• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
3. Electric Resistance Welding

• Spot Welding
• Seam Welding
4. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Welding
General Evaluation of Weld
A good weld is uniform in width, with even ripples that taper off smoothly into the
base metal. It shows good penetration, or depth of fusion. In fact, penetration is the
most important characteristic of a good weld.
To obtain the proper amount of penetration and proper weld dimensions, a welder
must use the correct type and size of filler rod and appropriate welding technique
for the thickness and type of the material to be joined. A good weld also is well
reinforced. This means there is enough filler material across the joint to provide
sufficient strength. A good weld is also free of excessive oxidation.
Oxygen chemically reacts with the heated surface of the metal and forms metal
oxides such as iron oxide (rust) or aluminum oxide. When excessive oxide is present,
it often results in porous pockets, causing a weak joint. Limiting the effects of
oxidation is critical to maintaining strong weld joints.
Welding
Proper penetration is the single most important characteristic of a good weld.
Welding
Gas Welding
Oxyacetylene welding, often referred to as gas welding, gets its name from the two
gases, oxygen and acetylene, that are used to produce a flame. Acetylene is the fuel
for the flame and oxygen supports combustion and makes the flame hotter. The
combination of these two gases results in sufficient heat to produce molten metal.
The temperature of the oxyacetylene flame ranges from 5,600 to 6,300 °F.
The oxygen and acetylene hose couplings

have different threads to prevent
inadvertently switching the hoses.
Welding
A heavy gas, with a disagreeable odor, acetylene becomes unstable at pressures of

15 psi or higher. The normal operating pressure for most acetylene welding is 4 to 8
psi. Because acetylene is stored in acetone, it can be shipped in bottles without the
danger of exploding
The flame color and pattern from the welding torch changes as the volume of
oxygen relative to the acetylene is increased. As the oxygen valve is opened, the
flame color changes from a dull orange to a brilliant whitish purple.
• carbonizing flame - rich in acetylene; used for brazing and soldering.
• neutral flame - optimal mixture; used primarily when welding aircraft steel.
• oxidizing flame – rich in oxygen; used for cutting.
Welding
Electric Arc Welding
When electricity has sufficient voltage to arc across the space between an electrode
to an area of different electrical potential, heat is produced from the movement of
electrons. The amount of heat is predominantly determined by the amount of
current (amperage) flowing across the gap.
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), or stick welding, is the most common type of
arc welding. You may find stick welding useful for fabricating tools and shop
equipment, but it is not generally used for the fabrication or repair of aircraft.
Shielded metal arc welding normally is used

for welding heavy gauge steel. It seldom is
used for aircraft construction or repair.
Welding
• Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), formerly called Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding, is
used primarily in large volume production work. An advantage of GMAW over stick
welding is that no slag is deposited on the weld bead. An uncoated filler wire acts as
the electrode. It is connected to one terminal on the power supply, and fed into the
torch.
Welding
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) is the form of electric arc welding that is used most
in aircraft maintenance. It also is known as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and by
the trade names of Heliarc and Heliweld. These trade names were derived from the
fact that the inert gas originally used was helium.
Unlike SMAW and GMAW, which use consumable electrodes, TIG welding uses a
tungsten electrode that does not act as filler rod. The electrode is connected to an
AC or DC electrical power supply to form an arc with the metal being welded.
Welding
Electric Resistance Welding
Electric resistance welding, either spot welding or seam welding, is typically used
to join thin sheet metal components during the manufacturing process.
• Spot Welding
When spot welding, two copper electrodes are

held in the jaws of a vise-like machine and the
pieces of metal to be welded are clamped
between them. Pressure is applied to hold the
electrodes tightly together while electrical
current passes between the electrodes. The
current flow through the metal between the
electrodes generates enough heat to melt the
metal.
Welding
• Seam Welding
While it would be possible to create a seam with a series of closely spaced spot
welds, a better method is to use a seam welder. This equipment is commonly used to
manufacture fuel tanks and other components where a continuous weld is needed.
Instead of the electrodes of a spot

welder, the metal in a seam
welder is drawn between two
copper wheels. Pressure is
applied to the wheels and timed
pulses of current flow through the
metal between them. The pulses
create spots of molten metal that
overlap to form the continuous
seam.
Welding
Plasma Arc Welding
Plasma Arc Welding is the welding
process utilizing heat generated by a
constricted arc struck between a
tungsten non-consumable electrode
and either the work piece (transferred
arc process) or water cooled
constricting nozzle (non-transferred
arc process. PAW provides an
advanced level of control and accuracy
using automated equipment to
produce high quality welds in precision
applications.
Welding
Types of Welded Joints
• In aircraft applications, butt joints generally
are not used for joining tubing because they
are too weak for aircraft structures.
• Tee joints are quite common in aircraft work,
particularly in tubular structures. The plain tee
joint is suitable for most aircraft metal
thickness
• A lap joint is seldom used in aircraft structures
when welding with gas, but is commonly used
when spot welding. The single lap joint has
very little resistance to bending and will not
withstand shearing stresses. The double lap
joint is stronger, but requires twice the
welding of the simpler, more efficient, butt
weld.
• A corner joint results when two pieces of metal are brought together so that their edges
form a corner of a box or rectangle. This joint can only be used where load stresses are
not significant
• Again where load stresses are not significant, edge joints may be used to join two pieces
of sheet metal.
Welding
Rather than using a scarfed end repair, a fishmouth cut may

be used on the ends of the tube weld area. Rosette welds are
used on the sides of this repair to strengthen its bond to the
damaged tube.
Welding
Evaluating Welded Joints
In order to evaluate the quality of the welds on an aircraft, it is important to
understand the attributes of a properly welded joint. It is necessary to examine the
parts of a weld, proportions of the weld, and its formation.
Parts of the weld

Bead is the metal that is deposited as the
weld is made.
Face is the exposed surface of the weld.
Root is the depth that fusion penetrates into
the base metal.
Throat is the distance through the center
from the root to the face.
Toe is the edge formed where the face of the
weld meets the base metal.
Reinforcement is the quantity of weld metal
added above the surface of the base metal.
Welding
Proportions of the Weld

In order to evaluate the quality of the welds on an aircraft, it is important to
understand the attributes of a properly welded joint. It is necessary to examine the
parts of a weld, proportions of the weld, and its formation.
Formations of the Weld

A weld must be formed correctly to achieve the intended strength and to resist joint
fatigue. If a joint is not made properly, the strength can be reduced as much as 50
percent.
Welding
Brazing and Soldering
Non-fusion joining occurs when two or more pieces of metal are held together by a
softer metal such as brass, bronze or silver. The molten metal sticks to the surface by
adhesion rather than fusion. A brazing rod or solder used with the proper flux will
act like glue when holding a metal joint together. Brazing or soldering a joint is
achieved at a much lower temperature than fusion welding.
Brazing and soldering are used widely in electrical connectors, fuel and hydraulic line
fittings, and many other low stress applications.
• Torch Brazing
Brazing is a form of metal joining in which an iron-free metal is used as a cohesive
material. The non-ferrous material, usually brass or bronze, is melted with an
oxyacetylene torch at a temperature below that of the base metal, but above 800 °F.
Flux is used to clean the surfaces of the metal being joined. Brazing flux has a caustic
base which, when heated, turns to liquid. It washes away oxides and impurities that
may have formed on the surfaces of the metals.
Welding
Braze welding is similar to brazing, but

the filler rod is deposited on the surface
rather than depending only upon
capillary action to produce the joint.
Brazing uses capillary action to draw

molten metal into close fitting joints.
Welding
• Torch Soldering
Soldering is similar to brazing, using many of the same techniques and devices as
when making brazed joints. Brazing materials normally melt at temperatures above
800 F, while solders melt at temperatures considerably lower than this.
Soft Soldering
Soft solder is primarily a mixture of tin and lead. The melting point varies
considerably with the percentage of each.
Hard Soldering
Hard and silver soldering are actually forms of brazing in which the filler material
melts at a temperature more than 800 °F.
The oxyacetylene flame for silver soldering
should be neutral, but may have a slight excess
of acetylene. Stainless steel oxygen lines often
have their end fittings attached by silver
soldering.
CONTROL OPERATING
SYSTESMS
Cable System
Nonflexible cable may be of either the 1 x 7 or

1 x 19 type. Nonflexible cable may be used
only for straight runs where the cable does not
pass over any pulleys.
Flexible cable is made up of seven strands,

each of which has seven wires. Flexible cable
may be used only for straight runs or where
the pulleys are large.
When cables must change direction over

relatively small diameter pulleys, extra-flexible
cable must be used. This type of cable is made
up of seven strands, each having 19 separate
wires.
Control Operating System
Termination
• Woven Splice
Control cables were originally terminated with a hand-woven splice, using either the
Army-Navy five-tuck splice or the Roebling roll. Both of these systems were time
consuming and produced a termination that was certificated for only 75% of the
cable strength.
• Nicopress Process
Copper Nicopress sleeves may be compressed
onto the cable with a special tool. The cable is
put through the sleeve and around, the
thimble, and the end is passed back through
the sleeve and it is compressed.
• Swaged Terminal
The vast majority of aircraft control cables are terminated with swaged terminals.
When installing a swaged-on terminal, first

bend the cable to prevent it slipping out, and
then push it in, almost to the end of the hole
A "before and after" gauge for checking the

correctness of the swaging of a swaged-on
terminal.
Various types of swaged-on control cable terminals

enable the designer to use the termination method
most suitable for a specific application.
Proof Load Test

After the cable is completed with the terminals
properly installed, checked, and marked with paint,
it should be tested by loading it to 60% of its break-
ing strength, with the load applied gradually and
held for at least three minutes.
Installation
Pulley is used when a change in direction is required.

Fairlead is used at any point within a run of cable where there is the likelihood of the
cable contacting the structure.
A fairlead prevents contact between a control

cable and the aircraft structure to prevent wear on
the cable and damage to the structure.
Pulley wear patterns
A pressure seal is used whenever a moving In a typical control cable installation, guard
control cable must pass through the aircraft pins are used to prevent the cable from
structure between a pressurized and an jumping off the pulley and becoming jammed.
unpressurized area
Turnbuckles
Turnbuckles are fitted in the cable assembly for the purpose of making minor
adjustments in cable length and for adjusting cable tension.
Cable Tension
For the aircraft to operate as it was designed, the cable tension for the flight controls
must be correct. To determine the amount of tension on a cable, a tensiometer is
used.
Rigging Fixtures
Rigging fixtures and templates are special tools (gauges) designed by the
manufacturer to measure control surface travel. Markings on the fixture or template
indicate desired control surface travel.
Tension Regulator
Some large aircraft incorporate tension regulators in the control cable systems to
maintain a given cable tension automatically.
Spring-Back
The spring-back is the small extra push that is needed for the flight deck control to
hit its mechanical stop.
Push-Pull Rod System

Push rods are used as links in the flight control system to give push-pull motion. It
consists of a tube with threaded rod ends. The rod end, or clevis, permits
attachment of the tube to flight control system parts. The checknut, when tightened,
prevents the rod end or clevis from loosening.
To be sure that the rod ends are screwed far enough into fitting, each of the fittings
has a small hole drilled in it. If you can pass a piece of safety wire through the hole,
the rod end is not screwed in far enough.
The rod must be screwed into

the rod end bearing until it
covers the check hole.
Bell cranks are used extensively

in push-pull tubing systems to
change direction of travel and to
gain or decrease the mechanical
advantage of the control
movement.
Torque Tube System
Some flaps and ailerons are actuated from

the cockpit by means of torque tubes.
Tubes made of heat-treated aluminum
alloy are rotated by the cockpit control to
lower or raise the control surfaces. This
type of actuation is the most direct and
has the least amount of backlash, but it
can be used only on installations where
the air loads are not excessive.
Cable Drums System

Cable drums are used primarily in trim tab systems. As the trim tab control
wheel is moved clockwise or counterclockwise, the cable drum winds or unwinds
to actuate the trim tab cables.
Fly-by-Wire System
RIGGING CHECKS
Leveling
A spirit level and a straight edge
are rested across the pegs or
blocks to check the level of the
aircraft. However, the grid
method is sometimes used on
large aircraft. The grid plate is a
permanent fixture installed on
the aircraft floor or supporting
structure. The aircraft is level
when the plumb bob is
suspended over the center point
of the grid.
Rigging Checks
Checking Dihedral
The dihedral angle should be checked in the specified positions using the special
boards provided by the aircraft manufacturer. If no such boards are available, a
straight edge and a inclinometer can be used.
Rigging Checks
Checking Incidence
Incidence is usually checked in at least two specified positions on the surface of the
wing to ensure that the wing is free from twist. If the incidence angle is correct, a
inclinometer on top of the board reads zero, or within a specified tolerance of zero
Rigging Checks
Checking Fin Verticality
The measurements are taken from a given point on either side of the top of the fin
to a given point on the left and right horizontal stabilizers.
Rigging Checks
Checking Engine Alignment
Generally, the check entails a measurement from the center line of the mounting to
the longitudinal center line of the fuselage at the point specified in the applicable
manual.
Symmetry Check
The precise figures, tolerances, and checkpoints for a particular aircraft are found in
the applicable service or maintenance manual
Rigging Checks
Typical measurements used to check aircraft symmetry.
DAMAGE CATEGORIES
• Repairable Damage
 Allowable Damage
Allowable damage is defined as a damage which is slight or of little significance
and is unlikely to be of sufficient severity to propagate further damage in the
immediate vicinity.
 Non-allowable Damage
Damage which exceeds the “Allowable Damage” limits must be repaired by
cutting out the damaged area and inserting or attaching reinforcing piece.
• Non-repairable Damage
Non-repairable damage is defined as damage to structural components which
cannot be repaired and where replacement of the component is recommended as
repair is not practical or economical.
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL
DAMAGE
In order to facilitate the classification of different repair procedures, the various types of
damage are grouped as follows:
• Mark
A mark is to be understood as a damage of area of any size where accumulation of scratches,
nicks, chips, burrs, or gouges, etc. is present in such a way that the damage must be treated
as an area and not as a series of individual scratches, etc.
• Scratch
A scratch is a line of damage of any depth and length in the material and results in a cross-
sectional area change. It is usually caused by contact with an object.
• Gouge
A gouge is a dimensional area of any size which results in a cross-sectional area change. It is
usually caused by contact with a relatively sharp object which produces with a continuous,
sharp or smooth channel-like groove in the material.
• Crack
A crack is a partial fracture or complete break in the material with the most significant cross-
sectional area change.
• Dent
A dent is normally a damage area which is depressed with respect to its normal contour.
There is no cross-sectional area change in the material; area boundaries are smooth.
Types of Structural Damage
• Distortion
Any twisting, bending, or permanent strain which results in misalignment or change of shape. May be
caused by impact from a foreign object, but usually results from vibration or movement of adjacent
attached components. This group includes bending, buckling, deformation, imbalance, misalignment,
pinching, and twisting.
• Corrosion
The destruction of material by chemical or electrochemical action.
• Crease
A damage area which is depressed or folded back upon itself in such a manner that its boundaries are
sharp or well-defined lines or ridges.
• Abrasion
An abrasion is a damage area of any size which results in a cross-sectional area change due to scuffing,
rubbing, scraping or other surface erosion; it is usually rough or irregular.
• Nick
A small loss of material due to a knock etc. at the edge of a member or skin
• Crazing
A mesh of minute hairline surface cracks
• Delamination/Debonding
Delamination or debonding is the separation of a laminate into its constituent layers
• Hole
A hole constitutes a complete penetration of the surface. It is usually caused by impact of a sharp object.
• Burn Marks (Lightning Strikes)
Burn marks (lightning strikes) are usually spot formed welded damages with discoloration of the material.
• Brinelling
Occurrence of shallow, spherical depressions in a surface, usually produced by a part having a small
radius in contact with the surface under high load.
• Burnishing
Polishing of one surface by sliding contact with a smooth, harder surface. Usually there is no
displacement or removal of metal.
• Burr
A small, thin section of metal extending beyond a regular surface, usually located at a corner or on the
edge of a hole.
• Cut
Loss of metal, usually to an appreciable depth over a relatively long and narrow area, by mechanical
means, as would occur with the use of a saw blade, chisel, or sharp-edged stone striking a glancing blow.
• Erosion
Loss of metal from the surface by mechanical action of foreign objects, such as grit or
fine sand. The eroded area is rough and may be lined in the direction in which the foreign material moved
relative to the surface.
• Chattering
Breakdown or deterioration of metal surface by vibratory or chattering action. Although chattering may
give the general appearance of metal loss or surface cracking, usually, neither has occurred.
• Galling
Breakdown (or build-up) of metal surfaces due to excessive friction between two parts having relative
motion. Particles of the softer metal are torn loose and welded to the harder metal.
• Inclusion
Presence of foreign or extraneous material wholly within a portion of metal. Such material is introduced
during the manufacture of rod, bar or tubing by rolling or forging.
• Pitting
Sharp, localized breakdown (small, deep cavity) of metal surface, usually with defined edges.
• Scratch
Slight tear or break in metal surface from light, momentary contact by foreign material.
• Score
Deeper (than scratch) tear or break in metal surface from contact under pressure. May show
discoloration from temperature produced by friction.
• Stain
A change in color, locally causing a noticeably different appearance from the surrounding area.
• Upsetting
A displacement of material beyond the normal contour or surface (a local bulge or bump). Usually it
indicates no metal loss.
STRUCTURAL REPAIR MANUAL
(SRM)
The manual is divided into the following chapters:
Chapter 51 – Structures, General
Chapter 52 – Doors
Chapter 53 – Fuselage
Chapter 54 – Nacelles and Pylons
Chapter 55 – Stabilizers
Chapter 56 – Windows  Page Block (PB) 001 – IDENTIFICATION
Chapter 57 – Wings  Pages 1-99, Figures 1-99, Tables 1-99
 Page Block (PB) 101 – ALLOWABLE DAMAGE
 Pages 101-199, Figures 101-199, Tables
101-199
 Page Block (PB) 201 – REPAIRS
 Pages 201-299, Figures 201-299, Tables
201-299
MAINTENANCE FARS
The regulations most important to maintenance technicians are
• FAR Part 21 (Certification Procedures for Products and Parts)
When an aircraft is manufactured, an inspector determines if it conforms to that model's type

certificate. The type certificate lists all pertinent information on an aircraft or accessory
design. If the aircraft is in conformity, it is issued an airworthiness certificate, signifying that it
meets the standards for service.
To ensure that aircraft perform reliably the FAA requires that all installed parts and appliances
conform to technical standard orders (TSOs). TSOs are a set of specifications that call for parts
to meet certain quality standards.
Companies can obtain a parts manufacturing approval (PMA) from the FAA to produce
replacement parts. However, the manufacturer must prove to the FAA that their product
meets performance and quality standards.
Maintenance FARs
• FAR Part 23 (Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter

Category Airplanes)
• FAR Part 25 (Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Airplanes)
• FAR Part 39 (Airworthiness Directives)
• FAR Part 43 (Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration)

FAR 43 is one of the most critical sections for the aviation technician to study. It outlines the
fundamental standards for aircraft inspection, maintenance, and repair, as well as all record
keeping requirements.
A repair is an operation that restores an item to a condition of practical operation or to

original condition, whereas an alteration is any change in the configuration or design of an
aircraft.
AIRCRAFT CERTIFICATION FARS
The regulations that govern aircraft certification are:
• FAR Part 21 (Certification Procedures for Products and Parts)
• FAR Part 43 (Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration)
• FAR Part 45 (Identification and Registration Marking)
• FAR Part 47 (Aircraft Registration)
• FAR Part 91 (General Operating and Flight Rules)
RELATIONS OF DIFFERENT CARs
PCAR FAR EASA Regulations
Part 2 (Licensing) Chapter 65 (Airmen other Part 66 (Certifying Staff)
than Flight Crew)
Part 3 (ATO) Chapter 147 (AMTS) Part 147 (MTOA)
Part 5 (Airworthiness) Chapter 23,25,27,29,31,33 Part M (Continuing Airworthiness

Requirements)
Part 6 (AMO) Chapter 145 (Repair Station) Part 145 (MOA)
Part 8 (Operations) Chapter 91 (General Part ARO, ORO, CAT

Operating and Flight Rules)
Part 9 (AOCA) Chapter 119, 121, 125 Part ARO, ORO, CAT
Chapter 21 (Certification Part 21 (Airworthiness and

Procedures for Products Environmental Certification
and Parts
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Preventive Maintenance is defined as simple or minor preservation operations and the
replacement of small standard parts not involving complex assembly operations. Operations
classed as preventive maintenance are as follows:
• Removal, installation, and repair of landing gear tires.

• Replacing elastic shock-absorber cords on landing gear.
• Servicing landing-gear shock struts by adding oil, air, or both.
• Servicing landing gear wheel bearings, such as cleaning and greasing.
• Replacing defective safety wiring or cotter keys.
• Lubrication not requiring disassembly other than removal of non-structural items such as cover plates,
cowlings, and fairings.
• Making simple fabric patches not requiring rib stitching or the removal of structural parts or control
surfaces.
• Replenishing hydraulic fluid in the hydraulic reservoir.
• Refinishing decorative coating of fuselage, wings, tail group surfaces (excluding balanced control
surfaces), fairings, cowling, landing gear, cabin, or cockpit interior when removal or disassembly of any
primary structure or operating system is not required.
• Applying preservative or protective material to components where no disassembly of any primary
structure or operating system is involved and where such coating is not prohibited or is not contrary to
good practices.
Preventive Maintenance
• Repairing upholstery and decorative furnishings or the cabin or cockpit interior when the repairing
does not require disassembly of any primary structure or operating system or affect the primary
structure of the aircraft.
• Making small simple repairs to fairings, non-structural cover plates, cowlings, and small patches and
reinforcements not changing the contour so as to interfere with the proper airflow.
• Replacing side windows where that work does not interfere with the structure of any operating
system such as controls, electrical equipment, etc.
• Replacing safety belts.
• Replacing seats or seat parts with replacement parts approved for the aircraft, not involving
disassembly of any primary structure or operating system.
• Troubleshooting and repairing broken circuits in landing light wiring circuits.
• Replacing bulbs, reflectors, and lenses of position and landing lights.
• Replacing wheels and skis where no weight and balance computation is involved.
• Replacing any cowling not requiring removal of the propeller or disconnecting of flight controls.
• Replacing or cleaning spark plugs and setting of spark plug gap clearance.
• Replacing any nose connections except hydraulic connections.
• Replacing pre-fabricated fuel lines.
• Cleaning fuel and oil strainers.
• Replacing batteries and checking fluid level and specific gravity.
• Removing and installing glider wings and tail surfaces that are specifically designed for quick removal
and installation and when such removal and installation can be accomplished by the pilot.
• The holder of a pilot certificate issued under FAR Part 61, may perform preventive maintenance on
any aircraft owned or operated by him that is not used in air carrier service. Preventive maintenance
may also be performed by certificated mechanics, repair stations, repairmen, air carriers, and others
authorized by the FAA. A person who plans to perform preventive maintenance must ascertain that
the operation falls within this category and that he is authorized to perform the work.
MAJOR ALTERATION
Major Alteration is an alteration not listed in the aircraft, aircraft engine, or propeller
specifications (1) that might appreciably affect weight, balance, structural strength,
performance, power plant operation, flight characteristics and other factors of airworthiness
or (2) that is not done according to accepted practices or cannot be done by elementary
operations.
Alterations of the following parts and alterations of the following types, when not listed in the
aircraft specifications issued by the FAA, are airframe major alterations:
• Wings
• Tail Surfaces
• Fuselage
• Engine mounts
• Control system
• Landing gear
• Hull or floats
• Elements of an airframe, including spars, ribs, fittings, shock absorbers, bracing cowlings, fairings, and
balance weights
• Hydraulic and electrical actuating systems or components
• Rotor blades
Major Alteration
• Changes to the empty weight or empty balance which result in an increase in the maximum certificated
weight or center-of-gravity limits of the aircraft.
• Changes in the basic design of the fuel, oil, cooling, cabin pressurization, electrical, hydraulic, deicing, or
exhaust systems.
• Changes to the wing or to fixed or movable control surfaces which affect flutter and vibration
characteristics.
The following alterations of a power plant, when not listed in the engine specifications issued
by the FAA, are power plant major alterations.
• Conversion of an aircraft engine from one approved model to another, involving any changes in
compression ratio, propeller reduction gear, impeller gear ratios, or the substitution of major engine
parts which requires extensive rework and testing of the engine.
• Changes to the engine by replacing aircraft engine structural parts with parts not supplied by the
original manufacturer or parts not specifically approved by the FAA administrator.
• Installation of an accessory which is not approved for the engine.
• Removal of accessories that are listed as required equipment on the aircraft or engine specification.
• Installation of structural parts other than the type of parts approved for the installation.
• Removal of accessories that are listed as required equipment on the aircraft or engine specification.
• Installation of structural parts other than the type of parts approved for the installation.
• Conversions of any sort for the purpose of using fuel of a rating or grade other than that listed in the
engine specifications.
Minor Alterations – of either an airframe or a power plant are alterations other than major
alterations.
MAJOR REPAIR
A major repair is one which, if improperly done, might appreciably affect the weight, balance,
structural strength, performance, power plant operation, flight characteristics, or other
qualities affecting airworthiness; or one which is not done according to accepted practices or
cannot be done by elementary operations.
Repairs to the following parts of an airframe and repairs of the following types, involving the
strengthening, reinforcing, splicing, and manufacturing of primary structural members, or
their replacement (when replacement is by fabrication such as riveting or welding), are
airframe major repairs:
• Box beams
• Monocoque or semi-monocoque wings or control surfaces
• Fuselage longerons, wing stringers or chord members
• Spars
• Spar flanges
• Members of truss-type beams
• Thin sheet webs of beams
• Keel and chine members or boat hulls or floats
• Corrugated sheet compression members which act as flange material of wings or tail surfaces
Major Repair
• Wing main ribs and compression members
• Wing or tail surface and landing gear brace struts
• Engine mounts
• Members of the side truss, horizontal truss, or bulkheads
• Main seat support braces and brackets
• Axles
• Wheels
• Skis and ski pedestals
• Parts of the control system such as control columns, pedals, shafts, brackets, or horns
• Repairs involving the substitution of material
• The repair of damaged areas in metal or plywood stressed covering exceeding 6 in. in any direction
• The repair of portions of skin sheets by making additional seams
• The splicing of skin sheets
• The repair of three or more adjacent wing or control surface ribs or the leading edge of wings and
control surfaces between such adjacent ribs
• Repair of fabric covering involving an area greater than that required to repair two adjacent ribs
• Replacement of fabric on fabric covered parts such as wings, fuselages, stabilizers, and control
surfaces
• Repairing of removable or integral fuel tanks and oil tank, including re-bottoming the tanks
Major Repair
Repairs of the following parts of an engine and repairs of the following types are powerplant
major repairs:
• Separation or disassembly of a crankcase or crankshaft of a reciprocating engine equipped with an

integral superchargers.
• Separation or disassembly of a crankcase or crankshaft of a reciprocating engine equipped with other
than spur-type propeller reduction gearing
• Special repairs to structural engine parts by welding, plating, metalizing, or other methods.

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FEATI UNIVERSITY – PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS / AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER NORIEL M.

Aircraft assembly involves the joining of various components and structures

An aircraft is a device that is used for, or is intended to be used for, flight in

from top left: lighter-than-air, glider, rotorcraft, and airplane

Airframe Principal Units

A truss-type fuselage. A Warren truss uses mostly diagonal bracing

Skin. The outside covering of the

Bulkhead. A heavy frame to contain

Longeron. The principal longitudinal

Stringer. Longitudinal member in

Stiffener. A metal part, other than

Flight Deck Windows

Passenger Cabin Windows

Biplane Braced Monoplane

Spars are the principal structural members of the wing.

Lightening hole in rib lightens and

In an I–beam spar, the top and

Wing Torsion Box

Nacelles (sometimes called “pods”) are streamlined enclosures used primarily

A firewall is incorporated to isolate the engine compartment from the rest of

Top: Wheel wells in a wing engine

Bottom: Engine mount

Typical cowling for a horizontally

Engine nacelle firewall

The empennage of an aircraft is also known as the tail section. Most

Components of a typical empennage.

Primary Flight Control Surfaces

The elevon (elevator and aileron)

The ruddervator (rudder and

The stabilator, a movable tailplane

Flaperons are ailerons which can also

Movement of the control stick

Pressing the right rudder pedal

Differential types of flaps

Balance tabs assist with forces needed to

Many tab linkages have a spring tab that

An antiservo tab moves in the same

A winglet is an obvious vertical upturn of the wing’s tip resembling a vertical

A winglet reduces aerodynamic drag

Gap seals promote the smooth flow of air over

A stall fence aids in maintaining

Landing Gear Configuration

Conventional or Tail Wheel

Damage Tolerance – requires an evaluation of the structure to ensure that should

Hard Time – defines that the component or

Time since overhaul (TSO) and time since new

Example of a hard time components are

The on condition philosophy is

The components are followed by reliability

The various body stations relative to a single point of origin

Station reference given, apply to

Main Rotor System

The rotor system is the rotating part of a helicopter which

• Rigid Rotor System

The teetering hinge allows

• Semirigid Rotor System

• Fully Articulated Rotor System

Ground effect is at its maximum in a no-wind condition over a firm, smooth

Translating Tendency or Drift

Controlled with foot pedals, the

A NOTAR® antitorque system has no visible

Controls and functions

• Fixed Pitch = those in which the construction is

• (Ground) Adjustable Pitch = those in which the blade