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1. Introduction
In this chapter, we shall consider the problem of numerical computation of real root of a given
All the methods for numerical solution of equations will consist of two stages. The first stage,
called location of root at which rough values of the root are obtained and the second stage which
consists in improvement of rough value of each root to any desired degree of accuracy.
In the second stage, a method of improvement of the rough value of a root will generate a
Let, {xn } be a sequence of successive approximations for a desired root α of the equation
f ( x) = 0 .
ε n = α − xn (2.1.1)
And we defined hn by
1
which may be considered as an approximation of ε n .
Definition: If an iterative method converges and two constants p ≥ 1 and C > 0 exists such that
ε n+1
lim =C (2.2.1)
n →∞ ε p
n
Then p is called the order of convergence of the method and C is called asymptotic error
constant.
p
ε n +1 ≤ k ε n , n ≥ 0 (2.2.2)
for some k > 0 . If p = 1 , then the sequence of iterates {x n n ≥ 0} is said to be linearly convergent. If
3. Initial approximation
In this method, we plot the graph of the curve y = f (x ) on the graph paper; the point at which the
curve crosses the x-axis, gives the root of the equation f ( x ) = 0 , any value in the neighbourhood
2
Fig 1 Graph of y = cos x − xe x
Sometimes the equation f ( x) = 0 can be written in the form g ( x) = h( x) where the graphs of
y = g (x) and y = h(x) may be conveniently drawn. In that case the abscissae of the point of
intersection of the two graphs gives the required root of the f ( x ) = 0 and therefore any value in
the neighbourhood of this point can be taken as initial approximation to the required root. Fig.1
cos x
shows the graph of y = cos x − xe x and Fig. 2 shows the graphs of y = x and y = . The abscissae
ex
of the point of intersection of these two graphs give the required root of the f ( x) = 0 .
cos x
Fig 2 Graphs of y = x and y =
ex
3
Another commonly used method is based upon the Intermediate mean value theorem, which
states that
Theorem 1: If f (x) be continuous function in the closed interval [ a, b] and c be any number such
that f (a) ≤ c ≤ f (b) , then there is at least one number α ∈ [a, b] such that f (α ) = c .
The incremental search method is a numerical method that is used when it is needed to find an
interval of two values of x where the root is supposed to be existed. The incremental search
method starts with an initial value x0 and a sufficiently small interval ∆x . It is supposed that we
are going to search the location of the root in the x-axis from left to right.
x1 = x0 + ∆x
xn = xn −1 + ∆x
If f ( xn −1 ) f ( xn ) < 0 , we can assure that there exists a root between the interval [ xn −1, xn ] .
We construct a table of values of f (x) for various values of x and choose a suitable initial
x 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
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f (x) 1 0.0532 -2.1780 -6.6518 -15.1942
From this table we find that the equation f ( x ) = 0 has at least one root in the interval (0.5,1).
Solution:
Let us tabulate the values of f(x) in [0, 1] with step size 0.1.
x f (x )
0 -3
0.1 -2.841
0.2 -2.615
0.3 -2.305
0.4 -1.888
0.5 -1.338
0.6 -0.6189
0.7 0.3119
0.8 1.510
0.9 3.043
1 5
So the root of the given equation lies in (0.6, 0.7). Since, there is only one change of sign
between 0.6 and 0.7, there is only one real root between 0.6 and 0.7.
5
We tabulate again between 0.6 and 0.7 with step length 0.01.
x f (x )
0.6 -0.6189
0.61 -0.5362
0.62 -0.4513
0.63 -0.3642
0.64 -0.2748
0.65 -0.1832
0.66 -0.0891
0.67 0.007351
0.68 0.1063
0.69 0.2078
0.7 0.3119
From the above table we can observe that the root lies between 0.66 and 0.67. Therefore, we may
conclude that the value of the required root is 0.67 correct to two significant figures.
4. Iterative methods
This is the simplest iterative method based on the repeated application of following Bolzano’s
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If f (x) be continuous in the closed interval [ a, b] and f (a ) , f (b) are of opposite signs, then there
exists a number α ∈ [a, b] such that f (α ) = 0 i.e. there exists a real root α of the equation f ( x ) = 0
. ■
a 0 + b0
We set x 0 = a 0 or b0 and x1 = and compute f ( x1 ) .
2
b0 − a 0
that in either case [a1 , b1 ] contains the root α and b1 − a1 = .
2
a1 + b1
We again set x2 = and repeat the above steps and so on.
2
In general, if the interval [ a n , bn ] containing α has been obtained so that f (a n ) f (bn ) < 0 , then we
a n + bn
set xn +1 =
2
7
bn − a n
Therefore, bn +1 − a n+1 =
2
bn −1 − a n −1
This implies, bn − a n =
2
bn−2 − an−2
=
22
b0 − a0
= (4.1.1)
2n
bn − a n
Since xn = a n or bn , approximation of ε n viz. hn = x n +1 − xn = .
2
Therefore, we have
b0 − a0
ε n ≤ bn − an = (4.1.2)
2n
Consequently, ε n → 0 as n → ∞
Therefore, the iteration of bisection method invariably converges i.e. bisection method converges
unconditionally.
We know
8
Therefore,
b0 − a0
ε n = α − xn ≤ bn − an ≤ (4.1.1.1)
2n
This implies
b0 − a0
ε n −1 ≤
2n −1
Therefore,
ε n +1 1
≅ (4.1.1.2)
εn 2
Example 3:
Find the real root of the equation x log10 x − 1.2 = 0 correct to five significant figures using method
of bisection.
Solution:
We first apply method of tabulation in order to find the location of rough value of the root.
x f (x )
1 -1.2
2 -0.6
3 0.23
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We note that f(2)<0 and f(3)>0. Thus the given equation changes its sign within the interval [2,
3]. Therefore, there exists at least one real root of the equation within [2, 3].
a n + bn
Now, for the bisection method, we compute xn+1 = .
2
If f (a n ) f ( xn+1 ) < 0 , then the root lies between [an , xn +1] i.e. we set an +1 = an and bn +1 = xn +1 .
Otherwise, if f ( xn+1 ) f (bn ) < 0 , then the root lies between [ xn+1 , bn ] i.e. we set an +1 = xn +1 and
10
n an bn f (an ) f (bn ) a n + bn f (x n +1 )
xn+1 =
2
At the 14th step, the root lies between 2.740662 and 2.740631. Hence, the required real root is
• Advantage
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The bisection method is very simple because the iteration in each stage does not depend on the
function values f ( xn ) but only on their signs. Also the convergence of the method is
• Disadvantage
The method is very slow since it converges linearly. Consequently, it requires a large number of
iteration to obtain moderate result upto certain degree of accuracy and thus this method is very
laborious.
a+b
Step 5: Calculate x = .
2
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