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The resistive properties of various tissues surrounding the heart were investigated in a number of
living clogs. Alternating currents of a frequency varying between 10 and 10,000 e.p.s. have been
used for this purpose. Technical problems associated with such measurements are analyzed. The
results show that the resistive properties of most tissues are comparable and that the resistivity
decreases slowly as the frequency increases.
electric conductivity of living tissues as it per- caliber and consequently thin walls for meas-
tains to electrocardiograph}' was surveyed. It urements in tissues intolerant of direct punc-
was concluded that the early relatively quali- ture.
tative attempts to answer the question of Experience with electrodes of 2 other types,
homogeneity were of little value except to 1 larger ((5 mm. diameter) and 1 much smaller
indicate that the body is not absolutely ho- (0.8 mm. diameter) is reported to illustrate
mogeneous. Later, more sophisticated attempts some of the technical problems. Measurements
to measure conductivity of living tissue in situ for liver, muscle and blood with the small
were undertaken. 6 They are important as first electrode system showed that the resistances
attempts in pointing out that the conductivities for tissue are much lower than those measured
of various tissues surrounding the heart are with the systems using larger electrodes* and
comparable in order of magnitude. However, only slightly higher than those measured with
the statistical uncertainty of these results was the same system for blood. The low figures for
still sufficiently high so that it was considered tissue may be attributed to hemorrhage occur-
worthwhile to attempt more precise statements. ring when the electrode is introduced into the
Since our previous report, technics have been biological system. A minor amount of blood
developed to circumvent the difficulties in- around the electrodes will surround the latter
with a highly conducting material in an area
From the Department of Physical Medicine, Moore where the electric field is most concentrated
School of Electrical Engineering and Robinette
Foundation, University of Pennsylvania, Phila-
and, therefore, most likely to respond with a
delphia, Pa.
These studies were aided by U. S. Public Health * By editorial request, the tables pertaining to thin
Service Grunts H-339 and H-1253(c2). paper have been omitted. They may be obtained by
Received for publication June 25, 1956. request from the authors.
664 Circulation Retcarrh. Volume IV, Xorrmlxr 1056
SCHWAX AND KAY GG5
corresponding resistance decrease. The value this solution and the measured saline resist-
reported for blood is too high by about a factor ance, the cell constant of the electrode system
of three, due to excessive electrode polarization. was calculated. The measured resistance, after
The resistance values represent in reality, there- correction for electrode polarization, could lx!
fore, a combination of two effects, hemorrhage converted to specific resistance by application
and polarization. of the cell constant.
The thickness of the blood livyer, which forms The magnitude of the influence of electrode
due to hemorrhage around the electrodes, does polarization upon the crude data must be
not depend much on the electrode size itself, evaluated and suitable corrections made. The
while the diameter of the volume that deter- measured resistance R and the true resistance
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I Kc. and appreciably at lower frequencies. tissue repeatedly to keep the difference be-
This increase in measured resistance (ft,), due tween the saline measurements before and
to electrode polarization, may be represented after tissue measurement small.
by the equation quoted above which reads now: With the electrode shown in figure 1, meas-
ured resistance at 1 Kc. did not require correc-
ft, = Rp + R.(RuCy tion. At 100 c.p.s., 3-5 per cent, and at JO
since the capacity Co of saline solution is c.p.s., 10—J 5 per cent of the resistance was
negligibly small. Hence, Rp may be calculated caused by polarization. With the method for
for our electrode system in saline from meas- correction outlined above the results are in
ured values Rh R and C. However, electrode error as a result of polarization by not more
polarization resistance is affected by the than 3 per cent at 10 c.p.s., and less than 1 per
presence of cellular organization.73 In un- cent at higher frequencies.
published studies with excised muscle samples, Effects of Bronchial and Vascular Walls Upon
Rp was found to be 1.5 to 2 times greater than Tissue Measurements. The potential hazards of
in the saline system. However, a more reliable intravascular or intrabronchial use of the
determination of Rp in the living tissue system electrode system are illustrated in figure 2. The
was achieved from the capacity observed at fluids in the vessel shunt the electrodes and
low frequencies. The capacity at 10 c.p.s. is the vessel wall establishes a resistance in
almost completely due to electrode polarization series with the tissue resistance. The equiva-
as stated above. The polarization interface lent circuit depicted in figure 2 shows how
capacity (Cp) may then be calculated from ob- measurements intended to be those of tissue
served resistance (ft) and capacity (C) by use resistance (ft,) are increased by vessel wall
of the relationship7 resistance (ftv-) and lowered by vessel wall and
fluid shunting resistance (RH)- Vessel resistance
C = l/oWCp measurements have been carried out with
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This value is compared with the polarization pieces of vein, pulmonary artery and bronchus
capacity found when the electrode system is slipped over the electrode system and measured
immersed in electrolyte. The ratio of these two alternately in air and in saline solutions of vary-
Op-values is known to compare with the factor ing ionic strength. The resistance that the ves-
by which Rp is greater in the tissue insertion sel wall material puts in series with the tissue
case than Rp determined from the electrolyte resistance could be determined from such
experiment.8 Hence, from this factor and the measurements. Estimates of specific resistance
known Rp in the electrolyte case polarization so obtained varied from 250 to 700 ohm cm.
resistance in the tissue case is obtained. The Since this is not very different from the resis-
ftp-ratios which we obtained this way varied tivity of tissue, it does not seriously affect the
from case to case between 1.1 and -i. determination of tissue resistivity. Since re-
This technic for determining electrode sistance values (ftu) amount to only about 50
polarization influence upon measured resist- ohms, vessel wall impedance also does not seri-
ance assumes that the electrode surface does ously affect tissue resistance data (about 900
not change between tissue and electrolyte
measurements. Actually, changes do occur, as
already observed by Kaufman and Johnston6
because some of the soft platinum black applied
galvunically to the electrodes in order to
minimize polarization is rubbed from the
electrode when it is inserted into tissue. Meas-
urements of RT in saline were made both be-
fore and after tissue measurements to provide FIG. 2. How vessel fluid and wall material con-
an upper and a lower range figure for correc- stitute additional resistive elements RB and /?,, which
tion. The electrode was first "aged" before the may affect the determination of the tissue re.sistaiu-e
initial saline calibration by inserting it into RT.
SCHWAX AND KAV 067
one desires to obtain resistance data of interest the field yield values which are nearly identi-
in electrocardiography. The data reported in cal and quite different from the longitudinal
this article arc obtained at subthreshold levels, values. The character of the current field
i.e., they are characteristic for the "passive" around our electrodes is close to that of a
behavior of tissues exposed to such weak cur- spherical electrode, i.e., current density in
rents as generated by the heart. Figure 3 shows every direction from the electrodes may be as-
results obtained in muscle tissue with varying sumed not to vary excessively, at least near the
intensity of current for a frequency of 10 c.p.s. electrodes, where the major part of the total
It demonstrates the linear characteristics of the observed resistance exists. This means that our
resistivity of tissue for subthreshold current measurements refer to "random" orientation of
intensities and the rather sudden change which cell fibers in relation to the electrical field. Ex-
occurs when threshold level for stimulation is perimental support for this statement has been
reached. Since the tissue resistance was about provided in an attempt to orient the electrode
1.500 ohms in this experiment and since the system in line and perpendicular to the struc-
area for each electrode surface is 0.3 cm.2, it is ture of the investigated muscular tissue. Prac-
concluded that a current density of about 2 tically the same results are obtained. This does
ma/cm.2 is the threshold level for nonlinear be- not, of course, invalidate the concept of ani-
havior. Other experiments at higher frequencies sotropy of tissue. It merely demonstrates the
show that this level is not appreciably fre- ability of the electrode system to obtain "ran-
quency dependent. dom" values, which are of practical interest in
Anisotroyy of Tissue Resistivity. It is known electrocardiography.
that "transverse" and "longitudinal" muscle
resistance differ by as much as a factor of 2.10 TISSUE RESISTIVITY DATA
A theoretical understanding of this effect is
achieved with the help of equations advanced In addition to many measurements made to
originally by Maxwell and extended by develop technical proficiency or to evaluate the
60S SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF BODY TISSUKS
validity of our methods, results reported here tissue of the lung is neglected. In the intact
are derived from measurements in 7 dogs. The animal, hyperinflation immediately raised re-
heart muscle measurements were recorded im- sistivity by about 30 per cent, whereas defla-
mediately after cessation of the electric activity tion, by external chest compression, lowered
of the heart. All other measurements were it by about 10 per cent. When the exposed lung
taken during life. Most of the measurements was hyperinflated well beyond the physiologic
were taken by introducing the electrode cathe- range, resistivity could be raised to double the
ter, pictured in figure 1, directly into the tis- preinflation figure.
sues. An exception was lung, which could not A reduction of blood content by gravity
be punctured without seriously disturbing the drainage immediately after death was also the
normal state of the tissue. Lung measurements apparent cause of a coincident rise in liver re-
were made by inserting this catheter through sistivity of 30-50 per cent measured by elec-
the pulmonary artery or the bronchus. Some trodes in the hepatic vein or inserted directly
of the lung measurements via the bronchial into the tissues. This change occurred before
route were made with a catheter of larger cali- the temperature had changed significantly, and
ber, as noted. Also, liver measurements of dogs long before the period of about 24 hours re-
3 and 4 were made with the illustrated cathe- quired for cellular breakdown and resulting
ter inserted into the hepatic veins via the jugu- impedance changes previously observed in
lar vein and superior vena cava. measurements of excised tissue.1 A smaller rise
The results of all tissue measurements made of resistivity (average 5 per cent) followed ces-
in the dogs at a frequency of 1 Kc. show that sation of circulation in the lung, but cannot be
the averages for lung, muscle, liver and heart considered statistically significant.
muscle range from 1000 to 750 ohm cm. How- Heart muscle measurements during life are
ever, the standard deviations for each type of difficult. The electric activity of the heart dis-
tissue are comparable with the differences of turbs the recordings, and the process of de-
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the average values for the various tissues. polarization and repolarization results in large,
Hence, the resistivities of these 4 tissues do not rhythmic variations in the resistivity of the
differ beyond the limits of statistical signifi- tissue. Measurements of the resistivity of local
cance, although the resistivity of lung is prob- segments of heart muscle were performed,
ably a little higher than that of the other 3 tis- therefore, immediately after cessation of elec-
sues tabulated. tric activity. The resistivity of the total heart
The resistivity of fat was found to be clearly is difficult to define since the heart is not only
divergent from that of the other tissues meas- a highly inhomogeneous volume conductor, but
ured. It varied from 1500 to 5000 ohm cm. in a one in which the relative volumes of the major
series of 8 measurements at 1 Kc. The average inhomogeneities (blood filled chambers and
value in this restricted sample was about 3000 muscle tissue) are constantly changing.
ohm cm. The measurements tabulated and discussed
at this point were made at a frequency of 1 Kc.
DISCUSSION With a few exceptions, the ] Kc. measurement
It is not surprising that the resistivity of lung was but one of a sequence of measurements
tissue is not drastically higher than that of made also at 10 cps., 100 cps., 10 Kc. and, oc-
other tissues. The large, highly resistive, air casionally, at other frequencies up to 100 Kc.
content is counteracted by the high blood con- In all of these sequential measurements, regard-
tent of very low resistivity (about 100 ohm less of tissue, resistivity (not including elec-
cm.). Since the air content of lung is approxi- trode polarization effects) falls as frequency
mately four times that of blood" a computa- increases. Characteristically, it falls by about
tion using an equation of Maxwell •** " would 10-20 per cent in a frequency change from
indicate a specific resistivity near 700 ohm cm. 1 Kc. to 10 Kc, and by about 50 per cent in
The measured figure of 1000 ohm cm. is a rea- a change from 1 Kc. to 100 Kc. Similarly, as
sonable deviation from the roughly computed frequency is reduced from 1 Kc. to 100 c.p.s.,
figure, inasmuch as the resistivity of interstitial measured resistance rises by about 5 per cent,
SCHWAX AND KAV 069
The specific resistances reported here are and total tissue predicts that for a cell concen-
much higher than the 250 ohm cm. reported tration of 70 per cent, tissue resistivity should
by Burger and Van Milaan.16 These authors be about 400 ohm cm. and for 90 per cent,
applied a 4 electrode technic to body segments. about 1200 ohm cm.
It is suspected that their values are influenced
SUMMAHY
by surface conductance and polarization phe-
nomena. Burger and Van Milaan discuss the The specific resistances of lung, skeletal
difficulties due to surface conductance of skin muscle, liver and heart muscle were measured
and describe their attempts to minimize this at frequencies from 10 c.p.s. to ]0 Kc. in situ
hazard. However, they do not prove conclu- in anesthetized dogs. The specific resistance
sively the absence of any surface conduction. at a frequency of 1 Kc. is about S00 ohm cm.
Furthermore, their statement that in 4-elec- for muscle, liver and heart muscle tissue. Lung
trode systems electrode polarization can be tissue has a slightly higher resistivity of about
eliminated if the "pick-up" electrodes do not 1000 ohm cm. The specific resistivity of fat is
draw current, is incorrect, as discussed at considerably higher with values ranging from
another place.'2 As evidence of the inherent 1500 to 5000 ohm cm.
defect in their technics the resistivity of blood The resistivity increases with decreasing
is reported at 18 C. to be 230 ohm cm.15 frequency. Values at 10 c.p.s. are about 20 per
Accepted values by many other investiga- cent larger than those obtained at 1 Kc.
tors'6-19 range from 120 to 170 ohm cm. re- These experiments support indirect observa-
ferred to 18 C. The new figures are also higher tions that no gross error exists in the assump-
than those reported previously by Kaufman tion that the body tissues that conduct the
and Johnston.6 signals recorded in electrocardiography estab-
The figures reported here are in the general lish an essentially homogeneous volume con-
range that might be predicted from theory. ductor. It is not implied that the known
Tissue cells are practically nonconducting at inhoniogeneities within the heart may not
670 SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF BODY TISSUES
exert an important influence upon potential conducting materials at low frequencies. Tr.
differences Am. Inst. Elec. Engrs. 72: 114, 1953.
7
—: Electrode polarization and its influence on the
SlJMMARlO IN INTEKLTNGUA determination of electrical properties of solu-
tions and biological material. Ztschr. Naturfor-
Lc resistentias specific de pulmone, musculo schungGb: 121,1951.
8
skeletal, hepate, e musculo cardiac esseva —•, AND BOTHWELL, T. P.: A method for the exact
mesurate in canes anesthesiate, in sito, a fre- determination of volume concentration of non-
conducting particles in conducting solvent.
quentias de inter 10 cyclos e 10 kilocyclos per Presented at 6th Annual Conference on Elec-
secunda. A un frequentia de 1 kilocyclo le tronic Instrumentation and Nucleonics in
resistentia specific de musculo skeletal, hepate, Medicine, New York, Nov., 1953.
8
e musculo cardiac es circa 800 ohm/cm. Le COLE, K. S., AND CURTIS, H. J.: Electric imped-
pulmone ha un levemente plus alte resistentia; ance of the squid giant axon during activity.
illo amonta a circa 1000 ohm/cm. Le resistentia J. Gen. Physiol. 22: 649, 1939.
10
SAPEGNO, E.: Impedance and capacitance of
specific de grassia es considerabilemente plus muscle measured along and perpendicular to
alte. Su valores varia inter 1500 e 5000 fiber direction. Arch. ges. Physiol. 224:187,1930.
11
ohm/cm. FRICKE, H.: The electric conductivity and ca-
Le resistentia accresce con decrescente pacity of disperse systems. Physics. 1:106,1931.
11
SCHWAN, H. P.: Electrical properties of body
frequentias. A 10 cyclos per secunda le valores tissues and impedance plethysmography. Tr.
es circa 20 pro cento plus alte que a 1 kilocyclo. Institute of Radio Engineers (Med. Electronics),
late experimented supporta le observation #3,32, 1955.
13
indirecte que nulle grande error es causate per CONN, H. L., .In., AND HEIMAN, D. F.: Studies of
le supposition que le histos del corpore que mixing volumes in the central circulation of man
and dog. Clinical Research Proceedings 4: 99,
conduce le signales registrate in electrocardio-
1956.
graphia representa un essentialmente homo- "SCHWAN, H. P.: Electrical properties of muscle
genee conductor de voluminc. Isto non significa tissue at low frequencies. Ztschr. Naturforschung
que nos vole asserer que le cognoscite inhomo-
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