TOUCH AND JOIN FOR OTHER BOOKS

TOUCH AND JOIN FOR OTHER BOOKS

TOUCH AND JOIN FOR OTHER BOOKS
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* 199
196. Rainbow is produced when sunlight falls II. Moon being visible at dawn
on drops of rain. Which of the following IV. Twinkle of stars in the sky
physical phenomena are responsible for V. Polestar being visible in the sky
this? [UPSC (Pre) 2013] Which of the above are optical illusions?
I. Dispersion (a) I. II andI (b) III, IV and V
(c) I,1I
and d) II, II and V
IV
II. Refraction
III. Internal reflection 203. Why does a tower appear larger and larger
Select the corect answer using the codes to a person approaching it?
given below I. The angle subtended by the tower at
(aand III (b) Il and I1 the eye increases
(c)I and (a All of these I. The focal length of eye lens increases
197. Myopia is a disease connected with I. The size of the image of the retina of
ISSC Multitasking 2014] eye increases.
(a) lungs (b) brain Select the correct answer using the code
(c) ears (a) eyes given abOve
(a)I only (b) IlI only
198. The position, relative size and nature of
(c) I and II (d) IlI and
the image formed by a concave lens for an
object placed at infinity are respectively 204. Consider the following statements
CDS 2014] I. In a charged capacitor, the energy is
(a) at focus, diminished and virtual stored in the electric field between the
(b) at focus, diminished and real plates.
(c) between focus and optical centre, II. The dielectric constant of metals is
diminished and virtual infinite.
(d) between focus and optical centre, II. The field intensity on the surface of a
magnificd and real charged conductoI is directed
No matter how far you stand from a normaly to the surface.
199.
mirror, your image appears erect. The Which of the above statements are comect?
mirror is ikely to be ICDS 2014 (a) I and II (b)II and III
(a) either plane or convex (c) only IIl (d) 1,I and l
(b) plane only 205. Capacity of a parallel plate condenser can
(c)concave be increased by
(d) convex only (a) decreasing the thickness of the plate
200. In optical instruments, the lenses are b) increasing the thickness of the plate
used to form image by the phenomenon of (c) decreasing the distance between the
INDA/NA 2014] plate
(a) reflection (b) refraction a)increasing the distance between the plate
(c) scattering (d) diffusion
206. A device which is used in our TV set,
201. While looking at an image formed by a compute, radio set for storing the
convex lens (one-half of the lens is electric charge is [CDS 2012]
covered with a black paper), which one of (a) resistor (b) inductor
the folowing will happen to the image? (c) capacitor (d) conductor
INDANA 2014 Consider following
(a) Half of the image will be visible
207. the statements
I. A comb moving through dry hair get
(b) Intensity of the image will be diminíshed
electrically charged.
(C) Image will be inverted now.
I. Electric lines of force are not closed
(a) One can see an image of smaller size.
but magnetic lines of force are closed.
202. Consider the following phenomena Which of the statement(s) given above
[AS 2013] is/are correct?
the sun at dusk
I. Size of
(a)OnlyII (b) Only II
II. Colour of the sun at dawn (c) Both and II (d) Neither I nor II

184. (0) 185. (a) 186. (b) 187. (c) 188. (b) 189. (d) 190. (6) 191. (6) 192. (c) 193. (d)
194, (c) 195. (a) 196. (d) 197. (c) 198. (a) 199. (a) 200. (6) 201. (b) 202. (c) 203. (C)
204. () 205. (c) 206. (c) 207. (c)
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
200
208. Increasing the charge on the plates of a (b) When the lamp is switched on, the
capacitor means mercury in the lamp causes the
(a) increasing the capacitance emission of ultra-violet radiations
(b) increasing the potential difference (c) When the lanp is switched on, it is the
between the plates mercury which Converts the
c) Both (a) and (b) ultra-violet energy into visible light
(a) None of the above (d) None of the statement given above is
correct about the use of mercury in
209. When a soap bubble is charged,
the manufacture of fluorescent lamps
(a) its radius increases
(b) its radius decreases 215. Consider the following statements
(c) its radius remains unchanged I. The resistance of ideal voltmeter is
(d) it collapses infinite.
210. Assertion (A) The coulomb force is the
dominating force in the universe. .I. The resistance of ideal ammeter is zero.
Tangent galvanometer is used to
measure steady currents.
Reason (R) The coulomb force is weaker
than the gravitational force. IV. Law of electrolysis is given by Faraday.
Codes Which of the statements given above are
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true correct:
and Reason is the correct explanation (a) I. II and II (b) I. II and IV
of Assertion. (c)I, III and IV (d) II, III and IV
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are true
but Reason is not the correct2l6. ASsertion (A) In our houses, the current
explanation of Assertion. in AC electricity line changes direction
c)If Assertion is true but Reason is false. 60 time/s.
(d) Both Assertion and Reason are false. Reason (R) The frequency of voltage
211. At apoint inside a charged conductor, the supplied is 50 Hz.
(a potential is constant (a) Both A and R are individually true
(b) electric field is zero and R is the correct explanation of A
(c)Both (a) and (b) (b) Both A and R are individually true
(a) electric field is constant and R is not the correct explanation
of A
212. Farad' is the unit of [SSC CGL 2013]
(c) A is true but R is false
a) resistance (b) conductance
(c) capacitance (d) inductance (d) A is false but R is true
217. If the resistance of a home appliance is
213. If two conducting spheres are separately
charged and then brought in contact incieased, then
ICDS 2013]1 I. its power will be decreased
(a) the total energy of the two spheres ís I. it can do a work fastly
conserved II. voltage will be increased
b) the total charge on the two spheres is Which of the statement(s) is/are true?
conserved Only
I

(b)Only
(c) both the total energy and the total (c) II and II (d) 1, II and II
charge are conserved
(d) the final potential is always the mean 218. The material used for electric fuse is an
of the original potential of the two alloy of tin and lead. This alloy should
spheres nave INDA/NA 2011]
214. Indiscriminate disposal used (a) high specific resistance and low
melting point
fluorescent electric lamps causes mercury
(6) low specific resistance and high
pollution in the environment. Why is
melting point
mercury used in the manufacture of these
[IAS 2010
(c) low specific resistance and low
lamps: melting point
(a) A mercury coating on the inside of the
(d) high specific resistance and high
lamp makes, the light bright white
melting point
ASSESSMENT
201
219. Two conducting wires A and B are made of Which of the statements given above
same material. If the length of B is twice is/are correct? ICSAT 2011]
that of A and the radius of circular (a) Only I (b) II and IlI
cross-section of A is twice that of B, then (c)I and III (d) I, II and II
their resistances Ra and Rg are in the 224. Consider the following satements
ratio INDA/NA 2014] I. In ordinary bulbs only 5% to 10%
(a) 2:1 (b) 1 :2 electrical energy is converted into
(c)1:8 a)1:4 light energy.
220. Consider the following statements. L. Tungsten has very high melting point
as 3422°C, the filament of bulb is
Household electrical appliances are not made of it.
usually connected in series, because
I. The mica has good electrical
I. switching off an appliancewould Tesistance.
Swtch off the rest.
Iv. The electric bulb was first invented by
II. a fuse would blow as soon as one of Thomas Alva Edison.
appliance is used. Which of the above statements are
II. power consumption would be very Corect:
much greater. (a) I and III (b) Il and IV
IV. the appliances would get damage due (c) All of these (a) None of these
to high current.
225. Consider the following statements
Which of the above statements are I. Ohm's law is not applicable at very low
correct? and very high temperature.
(a) Only I (b) I1 and II
(c) Ill and IV d)1, II andV II Ohm's law is applicable to
semiconductor.
221. Which of the following is not correctly II. Ohm's law is not applicable to electron
matched? tubes, discharge tubes and electrolytes.
(a) Voltametre -
Potential difference Iv. Conductance is the reciprocal of
(b) Ammeter Electric current resistance and is measured in Siermens.
(c)Potentiormeter Emf Which of the statements given above are
(a) Meter bridge Electrical resistance
-
Correct?
(a) I. II and
IIl (b)I, II and IV
222. Consider the following statements. A
(c)1, III and IV (d) I, II, IIl and IV
copper voltameter measures the
.quantity of current passing through226. The one that is a good conductor of
the circuit. electricity in the following ist of solids is
. amount of copper deposited.
(a) graphite
ISSCMultitasking 2013]
(b) diamond
II. resistance of the circuit. (c) sodium fluoride (d) sodium chloride
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, II and III (b)I and II 227. A good conductor while carrying current
(c) II and II (a)I and Il is ISSC CGL 2013]
(a) negatively charged
223. What is the difference between a CFL and (b) positively charged
a LED lamp? (c) electrically neutral
I. To produce light, a CFL uses mercury (a) alternately charged positive and
vapour and phosphor while a LED lamp negative
uses semiconductor materñal. 228. Ohm's law defines [NDA/NA 2013]
II. The average life span of a CFL is much (a) a resistance
longer than that of a LED lamp. (b)current only
III. A CFL is less energy-efficient as (c) voltage only
compared to a LED lamp. (a) Both current and voltage

208. (b) 209. (a) 210. (c)211. (c) 212. (c) 213. (b) 214. (d) 215. (b) 216. (d) 217. (a)
218. (a) 219. (c) 220. (a) 221. (a) 222. (b) 223. (c) 224. (c) 225. (c) 226. (a) 227. (c)
228. (d)
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
.
202
229. A current I flows through a potential 235. Consider the following statements
difference V in an electrical circuit I. Magnetic lines of force are closed
containing a resistance R. The product of Curves while electric lines are not.
V and I i.e., VI may be understood as II. Electric lines of force are closed curves
(a) resistance R INDA/NA 2013] while magnetic lines are not.
(b) heat generated by the circuit
II. Both electric and magnetic lines of
(c) thermal power radiated by the circuit force are closed curves.
(i) rate of change of resistance Which of statement(s) given above is/are
230. Metal used to make wires for safety fuses correct?
must have INDA/NA 2013] (a) Only II (b) Both I and II
(a) very low resistivity and high melting (c) Only I d) I, II and II
point
236. A straight horizontal conductor carries a
(b) high resistivity and low melting point
steady electric current from south to
(C low resistivity and low melting point north.
a) high resistivity and high melting point Which one of the following events would
231. During short-circuiting, the curent happen it a small: netic compass is
flowing in the electrical circuit placed just above the wire?
(a) reduces substantially [NDA/NA 2014] (a) The necdle remains perpcndicular too
(b) does not change the conductor
(c) increases instantaneously (b) The needle remains parallel to the
(d) varies continuously conductor
232. The current (), voltage c) The north pole of the needle is
() plot of a certain deflected towards cast
electronic device is given (a) The north pole of the needle is
alongside. The device is deflected towards west
[NDA/NA 2014] 237. Consider the following statements. A
(a) a semiconductor magnetic field
(b) a conductor which obeys Ohm's law
(C) a superconductor
I. never exerts a force on a charged
particle.
(d) an
insulator
L. always exerts a force on a charged
233. Three similar bulbs A, B, C are connected particle.
to a voltage source as shown in the figure. II. exertsa force on a charged particle if it
If Cis removed, how will the illumination is moving across the magnetic ines of
of A and B be affected? force.
A- IV. exerts a force on a charged particle if it
is moving along the magnetic lines of
sOurce force.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) Both A and B will become dimmer (a) Only III b) Only 1V
(b) Both A and B will become brighter (c) I and II (d) 1, 1, Il and IV
(c) A will become dimmer and B will
238. By inserting a soft iron piece to solenoid,
become brighter the strength of the magnetic field
(a) A will become brighter and B will (a) decrease
become dimmer. (b) increase
234. Two bulbs are fitted in
a room in the (C first increase then decrease
domestic electric installation. One of (d) remains unchanged
them glows brighter than the other. Then 239. All the magnetic materials lose their
(a) the brighter bulb has smaller magnetic properties when
resistance (a) dipped in oil
(b) the brighter bulb has larger resistance
(b) dipped in water
c)both the bulbs have the same resistance (c) strongly heated
(d) None of the above (d) brought near a peace of iron
ASSES SMENT
203
240. A magnetic needle is kept in non-uniform C)there will be no effect on the motion
magnetic field. It experiences of the electron
(al a force but not a torque (dy None of the above
(b) a force and a torque 247. A charged particle is moving with velocity
Ca torque but not a force v in magnetic field of induction B. The
(0) None of the above force on the particle will be maximum when
241. A conductor carrying current when placed (a vand B are in opposite directions
in an extemal magnetic field, experience (b) v and Bare perpendicular
a mechanical force. The device whose (c)v and Bare in same phase
(d) None of the above
working is based on this principalis
(a) electric motor (b} dynamo 248. A moving charge is subjected to an
(c) electric bell (a) None of these external magnetic field. The change in
242. Which of the following statements are not the kinetic energy of the particle
correct? (a) depends upon whcther the field is
I. Magnetic monopoles do not exist. unitorm or non-uniform
(b} is always zero
II. Two iron bars which are magnetised (c) increases with the increase in the field
always attract. strength
I. A wire freely suspended in a magnetised (d) Both (a) and (c)
field orients itself parallel to the field.
IV. Copper is diamagnetic and auminiumn
249. When an AC source is connected across a
resistor
is paramagnetic.
(a) the current lags behind the voltage in
Codes
(a)III and IV
I. (b) ll and IV phase
(b) the current and the valtage are in
c)II and II aII, IlI and 1V
same phase
243. In process of magnetisation of a bar current leads the voltage in phase
(a) only the outer layers of the bar get
cthe
(d) None of the above
magnetised
250. Fluorescent tubes are fitted with a choke.
(b) only the surface of the bar get The choke coil
magnetised (a) steps up the line voltage
(c) only the ends of the bar get magnetised (6) steps-down the line voltage
(d) the entire bulk of the bar get (c) chokes high frequency current
magnetised (d) chokes low frequency current
244. When a bar magnet is cut into two equal 251. In step-down transformer, the AC output
halves, the pole strength of each piece gives the [CDS 2012]
SSC CPO 2011] (a) current more than the input current
(a) becomes double (6} becomes half (b) current less than the input current
(C)becomes zero (a) remains the same (c) current equal to the input current
245. The temperature at which a ferromagnetic (d) voltage more than the input voltage
Tmaterial becomes paramagnetic is called 252. The angle between the magnetic meridian
(a) curie temperature and the geographical meridian at a place
(b) neutral temperature IS ISSC CGL 2013]
(c)inversion temperature (a) dip (b) declination
(d) critical temperature (c) latitude (d) azimuth
246. An electron is projected in the magnetic 253. In terms of magnetic properties, 0xygen
field along the line of force belongs to ICDS 2013]
(a) the electron speed will decrease but (a) magnetic materials
the direction will not change (b) ferromagnetic materials
(b) the electron speed will increase but (cparamagnetic materials
the dircction will not change (a) diamagnetic materials

229. (c) 230. (b) 231. (a) 232. (b) 233. (c) 234. (a) 235. (c) 236. (c) 237. (a) 238. (b)
239. (c) 240. (c) 241. (a) 242. (a) 243. (c) 244. (d) 245. (a) 246. (c) 247. (b) 248. (b)
249. (b) 250. (c) 251. (a) 252. (b) 253. (c)
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
204
254. The motion of an electron in presence of a 260. The phenomenon of electromagnetic
magnetic field is depicted in the figure induction implies a production of
given below. The force acting on the induced INDA/NA 2014]
electron will be directed INDA/NA 2013] (a resistance in a coil when the magnetic
Electron motion field changes with time
(b) current in a coil when an electric field
changes with time
Magnetic field (c) current in a coil when a magnetic field
changes with time
(a) into the page (d) voltage in a coil when an clectric ficld
(b) out of the page changes with time
(c) opposite to the motion of the electron 261. If the rotational velocity of a dynamo
a) along the motion of the electron armature is doubled, then the induced
255. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is emf will
used in medical diagnosis to obtain (a) become half
images of our internal body organs. This (b) become double
is primarily possible, because c) remain unchanged
INDA/NA 2013] (d) None of the above
(a) our body possesses a permanent 262. Consider the following statements
magnet I. Alpha rays emitted from a radioactive
(b) MRI uses an external magnet to substance are helium nucleus.
generate a magnetic field in our body I. Beta rays emitted by radioactive
(c) MRI uses an external electric field to substance are charged particles
generate magnetic field in our body emitted by the nucleus.
(d)ions motion along our nerve cells I. Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves.
8enerates magnetic ficlds IV. The nuclear force is a short range force.
256. Imagine a current carrying wire with the Which of the statements given above are
direction of current downward or into the correct?
page. The direction of magnetic field lines (a) I, Il and II (b) II, III and IV
Is INDA/NA 2013] (c), II and IV (d) I, 11, Il and IV
(a) clockwise
(b) anti-clockwise 263. Consider the following statements
c) into the page Nuclear forces are spin dependent.
(d) out of the page II. The fourth state of matter is known as
257. A positively charged particle projected
plasma.
III. Nuclear forces are attractive or
towards west is deflected towards north
repulsive depending upon separation
by a magnetic field. The direction of the
between nucleons.
magnetic field is INDA/NA 2013]
IV. The main source of solar energy is
(a) towards south
(b) towards east nuclear fusion.
(c)in downward direction Which of the statements given above are
() in upward direction Correct?
(a) I. Il and II
258. A current carrying conductor is (b) 1, IIl and IV
associated with SSC Multitasking 2014 (c)1, I and IV
a) a magnetic field
(b) an electric field Il
(d) I, II, and IV

Can electromagnetic field 264. In an atomic explosion, release of large

(d) an electrostatic field amount of energy is due to conversion of
259. A mobile phone charger is [CDS 2014] ICDS 2012]
(a) an inverter a chcmical energy into nuclear energy
(b) a UPS (b nuclear energy into heat
(c) a step-down transformer (Cmass into energy
(a) a step-up transformer (d) chernical energy into heat
ASSESSMENT
205
265. Fusion reaction takes place at high (a) and II
1, II (b)I1, 1II, and IV
temperature, because (c) and IV
1, II (d)I, I1, II, and IV
(a nuclei break up at high temperature 269. Consider the following statements
(b) atoms are ionised at high temperature I. An atom bomb is based upon the
c) molecules break up at high principle of nuclear fission.
temperature II. Hydrogen bomb is based upon the
(d) kinetic energy is high enough too
principle of nuclear fusion.
overcomne repuision nigh
te mpDeratu II. Nuclear reactor is based upon the
principle of controlled nuclear fission.
266. Consider the following statements Which of the statement(s) given above
I. A nuclear reactor is a device in which is/are correct?
fission occurs at a controlled rate. (a) Only I II (b) Only
II. A nuclear reactor produces more (c) 1 and II d)I, II and IlI
fissionable material, then it burns. 270. Consider the following statements
II. Nuclear fuel, generally uranium that I. Plutonium-239 can be made
has been some what enriched in artificially.
ranium-235 isotopes. IL. Boron is used in a nuclear reactor to
IV. Generally graphite or heavy water is absorbs unwanted neutrons.
used as moderator.
L. In nature, the availability 0of
Which of the following statement(s) uranium-238 is much more than that
is/are corect? of uranium-235.
(a) Only IV (b) I, II and III Which of these statement (s) is/axe
(c)I1, IIl and IV (a)1, Ill and IV
correct
(a) Only II
(b) I and II
267. Which of the following statements are true?
I. All
(c)I, II and III (d) Only I1
radioactive elements decay
xponentially with timne. 271. The half-life period of a radioactive
II. Half-ife time of radioactive element is Substance is 70 days. One gram of the
the time required for one-half of the same substance will remain 0.25 g after
radioactive atoms to disintegrate. ISSCMultitasking 2013]
II. Age of the earth can be determined by (a) 140 days (b)70 days
radioactive dating. (c) 210 days (d) 280 days
IV. Half-life time of a radioactive element 272. Alpha particle is the nucleus of an atom of
is 50% of its average life period. SSC CGL 2013]
Select the correct answer using the codes (a) hydrogen (b) helium
given below. (c) oxygen (d) Ithium

(aland I (b)1, 1l1 and IV 273. The unit of radioactivity is

(c) I, II and IIl (a) Il and II SSC CGL 2013]
(a) angstrom (b) candela
268. Consider the following statements (C) fermi (d) curie
I. The strongest force in the nature is
nuclear force. 274. In the nuclear reactors, moderatorS are
used to ISSC CPO 2013]
I. Atomic power plant works on the
(a) slow down the neutrons
principle of fission.
(b) generate neutrons
III. Cadmium is not a radioactive
c)accelerate neutrons
element. (d) absorb neutrons
IV. Einstein's mass-energy Telanon 15
275. Which of the following elements is not
given by the expression E = mc
radioactive? SSC CPO 2013]
Which of the statements given above are (a) Zirconium (b) Uranium
corTect? (c) Radium (d) Plutonium

254. (b) 255. (d) 256. (a) 257. (d) 258. (c) 259. (c) 260. (c) 261. (b) 262. (d) 263. (d)
264. (c) 265. (d) 266. (d) 267. (c) 268. (d) 269. (d) 270. (a) 271. (a) 272. (b) 273. (d)
274. (a) 275. (a)
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
206
276. The penetrating powers of a, ß and I. With increase of temperature, the
Y-radiations, in decreasing order are Tesistivity of a semiconductor decreases.
SSC CHSL (10+2) 2013] IV. Addition of a small amount of
(a) a B.Y (5)Y.B,a impurity of a III or V group elements
, LY (Y.o to a pure, semiconductor increases its
resistivity.
277. The phenomenon of radioactivity was
Choose the correct statements.
discovered by [NDA/NA 2013]
(a) I and II (b) II and III
(a) Marie Curie (b) Pierre Curie
(c) 1l and IV (d)I and IV
(C) Henri Becqucrel (d) JJThomson
Doping of semiconductor
278. The efforts to detect the existence of 282.
I. increases its conductivity
Higgs Boson particle have become
II. decreases its conductivity
frequent news in the recent past. What
is/are the importance/importances of L. increases its resistivity
IV. decreases its resistivity
discovering this particle?
I. It will enable us to understand as to why Which option (s) is \are correct?
elementary particles have mass. a Only 1
(c) 1I and 1I
(b) Only II
(d) I and IVV
II. It will enable us in the near future to
develop the technology of transferring283. In a p-type semiconductor
(a) electrons are the only carriers
matter from one point to another without (b) holes are the only carriers
traversing the physical space between
(c) holes are the majority carriers and
them.
electrons are the minority carriers
IL. It will enable us to create better fuels for (d) None of the above
nuclear fission.
284. When arsenic is added as an impurity to
Select the corect answer using the codes silicon, the resulting material is
given below [UPPCS (Pre) 2013] (a) p-type semiconductor
(a) OnlyI (b) II and II (b) n-type semiconductor
(c)land Ill (d) All of these
(Cn-type conductor
279. An atomic pile is used for (d) None of the above
(a) producing X-rays
285. The width of depletion layer of a p-n
(b conducting nuclear fission junction [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2010]
(C) conducting thermonuclear fission (a) decreases with light doping
(d) temperature (b) increases with heavy doping
280. Match the following lists. Cis independent of applied voltage
increased under reverse bias
(d) is
List List I
A. Germanium at OK|1. n-type 286. A pure semiconductor has
semiconductor (a) a finite resistance which decreases
B. Germanium at p-type With increase in temperature
room temperature semiconductor (b) a finite resistance which increases
C. Germanium doped
3. Insulator with increase in temperature
with indium (c) a finite resistance which does not
D. Germanium doped 4. Intrinsic depend upon temperature
with arsenic semiconductor (d) infinite resistance at 0°C

Codes 287. Superconductors are those elements

ABCD ABCD (a) whose conductivity ís intermediate
a) 2 3 4
1 (b) 4 3 2 1 between metals and însulators
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d 4 3 1 2 (b) whose resistance falls almost to zero
281. Consider the following statements at very low temperatures
I. In a semiconductor, the uppermost (c)which turn into insulators at very low
band is the valence band. temperatures
II. All semiconductors are electrically (d) which conduct electricity only at
super high temperatures
neutral.
ASSESSMENT
207
288. In a laser (say neon laser), all the atoms (a) Only I (b) Only I
(c) Both I and II or II
(d) Neither I
emit the ight waves of
(a) same frequency (b) same amplitude 295. Consider the following statements
(c) same phase ( All of these I. Thousands of minor planets lies
between the orbits of mars and jupiter
289. The conductivity of a semiconductor are known as asteroides.
increases with increase in temperature,
I. Asteroids is an irregular, rocky hunk
because small both in size and in mass compared
(a) number density of free current to a planet.
carriers increases
II. Ceres, is the largest known asteroid.
(b) relaxation time increases
N. Asteroids are debris left over from the
(c) both number density of carricrs and
accumulation process.
relaxation time inerease Which one of the statements are true?
(d) number density of current carriers (a) I and I (b) ll and II
increases, relaxation time decreases (c)1, II andIV (a) All of these
but effect of decrease in relaxation
time is much lesS than increase in 296. A basic communication system consists of
(A) transmitter
number density
290. The technique of collecting information
(B) information source
(C) user of information
about an object from a distance without
(D) channel
making physical contact with it is
(E) receiver
SSC CGL 20111
(a) space shuttle (b) remote control Choose the correct sequence in which these
are arranged in a basic communication system.
(remote accessing (d)remote sensing
(a) ABCDE (b) BADEC
291. The sharpness of a television image is (c) BDACE d) BEADC
termed as its
(a) clarity (b) colour 297. A male voice after modulation-
c) resolution (a)graphics transmission sounds like that of a female to
292. The audio signals of TV are the receiver. The problem is due to
(a) amplitude modulated (a) poor selection of modulation index
(b) frequency modulated (selected 0< m<1)
(C)unmodulated (b) poor bandwidth selection of amplifiers
(d) velocity madulated c poor selection of carrier frequency
(a) loss of energy in transmission
293. Through which mode of propagation,
the radiowaves can be sent from one s8. ldentiry the odd term amongst the
place to another? following groups. [SSC CGL 2013]
(a) Space wave propagation (a) Microwaves (b) Coaxial cable
(D Sky wave propagation (cOptical fibre (d) Twisted pair wire
(C) Ground wave propagation 299. Fibre optics cable used in communication,
(d) All of the above works on the principle of [SSC CGL 2013]
294. Consider the following statements regular reflcct 1of light
(b) diffuse reflection of light
I. A geostationary satellite is at an
(c)refraction of light
approximate height of 10,000 km.
(a)total internal reflection of light
II. FM transmission of music 1s a very
good quality, because the 300. Comnunication satellites are used to
atmosphenic or mass made noises ISSC CGL 2013]
which are generally frequency (a) provide information of natural
variations can do little harm. resources only
(b) transmit communication signal only
Which of the statement(s) given above
(c) receive communication signal only
is/are correct: (d) receive redirect communication signal
276. (b) 277. (a) 278. (a) 279. (b) 280. (c) 281. (b) 282. (d) 283. (c) 284. (b) 285. (d)
286. (a) 287. (6) 288. (d) 289. (d) 290. (d) 291. (c) 292. (b) 293. (d) 294. (b) 295. (d)
296. (b) 297. (c) 298. (a) 299. (d) 300. (d)
 Appendix 1
Glossary

Aberration Adefect in the image formed by a lens or curved mirror.

Absolute zero The lowest imaginable temperature, at which all the particles in a body would
be completely at rest. It is 273°C (-459° F).
Absolute error The magnitude of the difference between the true value of a quantity and its
individual measurement value. This is denoted by|Aa|
Absolute expansion Absolute expansion of liquid is equal to sum of apparent expansion of liquid
Or liquid and expansion of volume of vessel containing liquid.
Absolute humidity The mass of water vapour per unit volume of air.
Absolute permittivity Permittivity of free space is called absolute permittivity.
Absorptance The ratio of the radient or luminous flux absorbed by a body to the flux falling
on it. It is also known as absorptivity.
Absorption The taking up of light, heat, or other radiant energy by molecules.
Absorption spectrum Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation absorbed by matter when radiation of
all frequencies is passed through it.
bsorptivity Ameasure of the ability of a substance to absorb radiation.
ACcelerator Machine for accelerating charged particles (protons, electrons, nuclei, etc.) to
very high speeds. Types of accelerators: linear accelerator, cyclotron,
synchrotron, synchro-cyclotron, betatron, bevatron, tevatron, etc.
Accelerometer An instrument for measuring acceleration, especially of an aircraft or a rocket.
Accommodation It is the process by which the focal length of eye lens is changed so as to obtain
a clear image of object on retina. This process is accomplished by ciliary
muscles.
ACCumulator A device which act as a source of electric current and can be recharged again
after a long use. The chemical reaction in such devices are reversible.
storage battery, secondary cell
AchromatiC lens Lens for which all light colours have the same focal length.
Adiabatic process Any thermodynamic process that ocurs at constant heat. In an adiabatic
process, heat absorbed or released is zero.
Admittance It is the reciprocal ot impedance. It is measured in Siemens(S).
ADSL Itstands for asymmetric digital subscriber line. It is a mechanism in which
broadband communication is available using telephone line with simultaneous
use of line for normal phone calls.
Aerial lantenna) Itis a part of communication system which transmits or receives radio waves.
Aerometer Instrument for measuring the weight or density of air and gases.
Alternating source Sources of potential difference whose polarity changes with time are called
alternating sources.
Ampere Unit of electric current.
Amplitrer Electronic device which increases the strength of an input signal
Ampere hour A practical unit of electric charge. It is equal to the charge flowing in one hour
through a conductor passing one ampere. It is equal to 3600 coulombs.
Amplification The process of increasing the amplitude (and consequently the strength) of a
signal using an electronic circuit called the amplification.
APPEN DIX
209
Amplitude Themaximum value (or maximum height of the waves) of anything that goes
back and forth in a cycle.
Amplitude modulation In this type of modulation, the amplitude of carrier wave is modified in
accordance with the slgnal to be transmitted (modulating signal).
Analyser A device used to observe plane polarised light.
Angular magnitication The ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by an image to that subtended by
the object. It is denoted by M
Aperture A part of a lens or a mirror through which light is allowed to pass. The aperture
is also the diameter of such an area.
Apogee The largest distance of a satellite from the earth during its motion around the
earth.
Armature It is the coil of a dynamo or an electric motor.
Astigmatism It is a defect of lens in which the horizontal and vertical object at same distance
from the lens are not focused simultaneously.
Astronomical unit The mean distance of earth from sun is taken as a unit for expressing distances
within the solar system. It is called astronomical unit.
Astronomy The study cof the universe beyond the earth's atmosphere, Astrophysics is one of
the main branch of Astronomy.
Atmosphere The envelope of gases that surrounds the earth or any other planet, star or
moon.
Atmometer Instrument for measuring the rate of evaporation of water, also called
evaporometer.
Axial chromatic Formation of images of different colours in different positions.
aberration
Axial vector Avector that does not reverse its sign when coordinate system is changed to a
new system by a reflection in the origin.
Back emf A potential difference that opposses the current that induces it.
Blistic pendulum A device for measuring the velocity of a projectile (e.g, a bullet).
Ballistics The study of the motion of projectiles.
Band gap A range of forbidden energies between two allowed bands of energy. It is also
known as energy gaP
Bandwidth The frequency range over which an equipment operates or the portion ot the
spectrum ocCupied by the signal.
Bar Unit of pressure in the CGS system; 1 bar= 10° dynes per sq. cm=10" newton
per sq. metre.
Barn
unit of area defined as 10
A square metre.
Barometric height The height of liquid column in a barometer.

Barograph Instrument used by meteorologists for recording on paper the variations in

atmospheric pressure with time.
Beam balance An instrument to determine the mass of an object. It consists of two pans
Suspended from a centrally pivoted beam.
Beam of light A light wave can be considered to travel from one point to another, along a
straight line joining them. The path is called a ray of light, and a bundle of such
rays constitutes a beam ot light.
Beckmann thermameter Sensitive thermometer for measuring small changes in temperature
BiasIt refers to the steady voltage inserted in series with an element of an electronic
device.
Biconcave (biconvex) lens A lens with two concave (convex) surfaces
210 . *
Encyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE

Binary star A pair of stars turning around each other. They may take a few hours if they are
very close, or thousands of years if they are far apart.
Bipalar transistor A transistor that uses two types of charge carriers, electrons and holes, for its
operation.
Biprism Aglass prism with an obtuse angle that functions as two acute angle prism
placed base to base. By this prisma double image of a single object is formed.
Black hole An object with such strong gravity that light waves cannot escape from it.
Anything pulled inside a black hole is lost forever.
spot Asmall arC on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye and which is
Blind
insensitive to light
Blue shitt An apparent decrease in wavelength, when waves are received from a source
moving towards the observer.
Breakdown The sudden passage of current through an insulator is called breakdown.
Breakdown voltage It is the reverse voltage at which the p-njunction breaks down with sudden rise
in reverse current.
Bridge rectitrer A full wave rectifier consisting of a bridge made by diodes.
Brownian movement It is the random motion of particles in fluid or gas.
Bulk modulus The ratio of normal stress to the volume strain of the material of the body.

Bypass It denote a shunt path around some circuit element

Bypass capacitor A capacitor that provides a low impedence path over a range of frequencies and
allow AC to pass through it.
Caesium clock An atomic clock that depends on the energy, difference between two state of
the caesium-133 nucleus when it is in magnetic tield.
apillary wave These waves are ripples of fairly short wavelength-no more thana few
centimetres-and the restoring force that produces them is the surtace tension
of water.
Carnot cyle A reversible cycle in which four processes are involved. The four processes are
(1) isothermal expansion (2) adiabatic expansion (3) isothermal compression
(4) adiabatic compression. The process occurs in perfect heat engine.

Carnot effclency ldeal efficiency of heat engine or refrigerator working between two constant
temperatures.
Carrier It refers to the electrons or holes whose movements are responsible for current
in any substance.
Carrier wave An electromagnetic wave of specified high frequency and amplitude emitted by
a radio transmitter in order to carry information. The intormation are
superimposed by modulation.
Cataract Sometimes, the crystalline lens of people at old age becomes milky and cloudy.
This condition is called cataract. This causes partial or complete loss of vision. It
is possible to restore vision through a cataract surgery.
Cathetometer Instrument consisting of a telescope which can slide along a graduated vertical
pillar, used tor measuring lengths at a distancee of a few teet.
Cathode-ray tube Evacuated tube with a luminescent screen when cathode rays (electrons
produced Inside the tube strike the screen they produce bright spots due to
luminescence-the point where the rays strike the screen can be controlled by
electric and magnetic field. Cathode ray tubes are used as picture tube in TV
sets.
Caustic The curve or surface formed by the reflection of parallel ray of light in a
large-aperture concave mirror.
Centre of buoyancy It is the point through which the resultant of the buoyancy force on a
submerged body act, it coincide with the centre of gravity of the displaced iluid.
APPENDIX . 211
Charge carrier Any particle that transport electric charge in an electric current. The type of
carrier depends upon the nature ot conductor.
Charge density The electric charge per unit volume of a body or medium is called volume
charge density.
Choke A low resistance coil used for controlling current in an ac circuit without wasting
much energy.
Chromatic aberration Variation in focal length of lens with wavelength of light.
Chromatron Type of cathode-ray tube having four screens, used in colour TV sets
Circular polarisationIn this type of polarisation of wave the plane of polarisation rotates uniformly
around an axis as the light progresses. Circularly polarised light is equivalent to
the combination of two plane polarised wave having phase difterence of 90
and moving together.
Ciosed circuit A circuit in which electric current can flow without any interruption.
Coaxial cable A cable consisting of a central conductor surrounded by an insulator which is
also contained in an earthed sheath of another conductor. In this case central
conductor and the outer conductor are coaxial.
Coelostat Device used with an astronomical telescope to follow the path of celestial
bodies.
Coercive force The magnetic field intensity needed to reduce the magnetic flux density in a
magnetic material to zero. The maximum value of this force is known as
Coercivity.
Communication satellite communication satellite is essentially a microwave link repeater. It receives
A
beamed up microwaves at it from earth station, amplifies them and returns it
to earth at a frequency of about 2 gigahertz. This prevents interterence between
the uplink and the downlink.
Commutator A part of the dynamo or generator through connection are made to external
circuits
Compression When a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and compresses the air in
front of it creating a region of high pressure. Ihis region is called a compression
(C).

Constellation Our ancestors imagined some known shapes formed by many groups of stars
and gave them specific names. Such a group of stars is known as a constellation.
Some easily identifiable constellations are Ursa Major or rihat Saptarshi, Ursa
Minor or Laghu Saptarshi and Orion or Mriga.
Corpuscular theory AcCcording to this theory light travels as a particle or corpuscle. This theory
successfully explained the phenomenon of reflection, refraction, dispersion etc.
but can not explain the results of interference, diffraction etc.
Cosnic dust Extremely small partices of matter distributed throughout space.
Cosmic rays Highly energetic radiation from outer space falling upon the earth, cosmic rays
Consist mostly of protons but heavier nuclei (even iron) have also been detected
among them.
Coulomb barrier The atomic nucleus is surrounded by a strong electrostatic potential barrier
that is called coulomb barrier.
Coupling constant Aphysical constant that is the measure of the strength of interaction between
two parts of a systemor two or more systems.
Lrest Apoint of maximum positive displacement in a wave.
Cryometer Thermometer for measuring low temperatures.
Cryophorus Apparatus used for demonstrating the cooling effect of evaporation.
Cryostat Apparatus in which a low temperature can be maintained.
 Encyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
212 * ** *** ** *** *** *** ** **

Cryotron A switch based on superconductivity.

Cybernetics Study of communication and control mechanism in machines and living beings.
Crystal lattice Structure of solid consisting of regular arrangement of atoms.
DampingAdecrease in the amplitude of an oscillation as a result of energy loss from the
oscillating system to overcome frictional or other resistive force.
Dilatometer Apparatus for measuring changes in volume of substances.
Depolarisation The prevention of polarisation in a primary cell.
Depolariser Any substance that is used to avoid polarisation in a voltaic cell. i.e., MnO,.
Dielectric polarisation The phenomernon that is explained by the formation of dipoles of elements of
dielectric under stress.
Difusion The movement of charge carrier from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration across the junction.
Dip circle Itis an instrument that is used to measure the angle of dip at a place. It consist
of a magnetic needle mounted in such a way, that it can rotate in vertical plane.
Disintegration The break up of a nucleus into fragments due to spontaneous or due to any
collision.
Dopant Small quantities of material added to semiconductor to increase electrical
conduction.
Drag The frictional force exerted by fuids.
Dritt current A steady state condition is reached, where the electrons gain an average
directed value of drift velocity, which is proportional to the applied electric field.
This transport of electrons constitutes drift current.
Ductility Property of substance due to which it can be drawn into wires.
Ecolocation Location of an object using an echo.
Elastomer In which stress and strain are not proportional to each other. Substances like
tissue of aorta, rubber etc. which can be stretched to cause large strains are
called elastomers.
Electriied Ifan object possesses an electric charge, it is said to be electrified or charged.
When it has no charge it is said to be neutral.
Electret Dielectric having a permanent electric moment.
Electron difraction Since, electrons are associated with a wave. Using this theory a beam of electrons
Suffer diftraction on passing through crystalline material similar to X-rays.
Electrodynamometer Instrument for measuring current, voltage, or power, in both dc and ac circuits
Empirical Which is only based upon the result of experiment and observation is called
empirical.
Epicentre The point on the surface of the earth which lies directly above focus of
earthquake.
tprdlascope Device for projecting images of opaque or transparent objects.
Epitaxy The processof growinga thin layer of material upon a single crystal substrate
so that the lattice structure is identical to that of the substrate.
Far infrared The part of the spectrum towards the end of the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum which is near the radiowave region.
Fatigue of metals Deterioration of metals due to repeated application of stresses above the
critical value.
erritesAgroup of compounds which have weak but permanent magnetism.
Hurd resistance The force exerted by a fluid opposing the motion of a body moving through it.
Huoroscope Fluorescent screen on which X-ray images can be obseved directly.
APPENDIX
213
Fnumber Term used for a lens to denote the ratio of focal length to diameter.
Frequency converter The device, which converts frequency of the received signals to gigahertz, is
called frequency converter or transponder.
Fresnel's biprism A glass prism with a large angle (= 178) which produces two coherent vertual
sOurces and interterence patterns when monochromatic light is passed through
t.
Gas giants Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are known as the gas giants because of
their gaseous composition and relatively large size. These are also called Jovian
planets, atter the planet Jupiter, which was the first one whose gaseous nature
was recognised.
Gyration The motion of a body around a fixed centre or axis.
Soniometer Instrument for measuring angles, especially between crystal faces
Governor Instrument for regulating the speed of an engine.
Gyroscope Apparatus consisting of a heavy spinning wheel mounted in such a way that it is
free to rotate about any axis.
Helmholtz coils A pair of similar coils designed to produce nearly uniform field in the region
between them when a current is passed through them. Separation between
them is equal to their radius.
Hologram The intermediate photographic record which contain the information for
reproducing a three dimensional image.
Incondescence The emission of light by a surface heated to a high temperature.
Inclinometer Device for measuring the angle of inclination of an aircraft with the horizontal.
Inextensible Which cannot be extend.
Infrared astronamy The study of radiation from space in the infrared region of the spectrum.
Klystron Electron tube used to generate or amplify microwaves.
Laevorotatory Acompound capable of rotating the plane of polarised light in an anticlockwise
direction as viewed against the direction of motion of light.
Lag The angle, time or phase by which one periodic quantity lags by another.
Lateral inversion In an image formed by a mirror the left of the object appears on the right and
the right appears on the left. Ihis is known as lateral inversion.
Linear charge distribution When charge is uniformby distributed on a wire or rod, then it is called linear
charge distribution.
Lodestone Naturally occuring magnetic rock.
Locomotive Any self propelled vehicle.
Mach number The ratio of speed of body to the local speed of sound. The speed of body is
therefore called supersonic if its mach number is greater than unity.
Machmeter Instrument for determing the speed of an aircraft in terms of the speed of
Sound.
Magnetic bottle This term is used in plasma physics and refer to the magnetic field applied to
contain a plasma in controlled fusion experiments.
Magnetic focussing Focussing of charged particle (beam) making use of magnetic field.
Magneton A term used for atomic, molecular or nuclear magnets to represent their
respective magnetic moment.
Magnetic storm Sudden disturbance in the earth's magnetic field due to sunspot activity.
Magnetometer Instrunent for comparing strengths of magnetic fields.
Magnetosphere Space surrounding the earth or any celestial body, in which its magnetic field
can be experienced.
Malleability Property of being hammered out into thin sheets
214 . Encyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE

Meteorology Study of the weather and climate.

Metrology Scientific study of weights and measures.
Mobility The average drift velocity of a charge carrier per unit electric field is known as
mobility.
Multimeter An instrument which can be used to measure various electrical quantities like
resistance, voltage, AC as well as DC etc.
Nephelometer Instrument for measuring the scattering of light by particles suspended in a
liquid.
Nephoscope Instrument for determining the speed of celestial bodies (even clouds).
Nicol prism Adevice made from crystals of spar used which produces plane polarised light.

Non-relativistlc Related to any dynamic system in which relative velocity is much smaller than
velocity of light so, that relativistic effects are negligible.
Uctave The interval between two musical notes whose frequencies are in the ratio 2:1.
Occulation Interception of the light or radio emission from a celestial body when another
celestial b0dy comes between it and the observer.
Upaque Material that does not transmit light.
ltis a device that depicts on a screen periodic changes in an electric quantity, as
Uscilloscope
voltage, current, using a cathode ray tube or any other similar instrument
Panchromatic flm Photographic film sensitive to light of all colours.
Pentode A thermionic valve with five electrodes cathode, anode and three grids between
them.
Perigee The shortest distance between of a satellite from the earth.
Perihelion The point in a solar orbit which is nearest to the sun.
Phases of the moon The various shapes of the bright part of the moon as seern during a month are
called phases of the moon.
Phasor A quantity that varies sinusoidally with time may be represented as the
projection of a rotating vector called phasor.
Phonetics Itis the science of speech sound and their production transmission reception
and their analysis.
Phonon quantum of elastic vibration in crystals. It is given by hvwhere h is the
It is
planck constant and vis the frequency of vibration.
Piezo-electric effect The production of a small emf across certain substance when they are
subjected to external pressure. Such substances are called Piezo-Electric
Substances.
Plumline A cord having a metal bob attached to one end. It is used for determining the
depth of water.
Planimeter Instrument for measuring areas.
Pleochroic Certain crystals that exhibit different colours when observed from different
directions.
Palarity of charge The property which differentiates the two kinds of charges.
Precession a body is rotating about an axis, it is said to precess whern the axis of rotation
If

moves around another axis at an angle to it.

Pyroelectricity Property of certain crystals of acquiring electric charges on opposite faces when
heated.
Quadrupole It is one of the multipolar of system of charge and current which exhibit effect of
electric and magnetic field outside the system.
Radial field A field in which the field lines are radii that radiate from a centre. Point charges
and masses and spheres have radial fields.
APPENDIX
215
Hadial velocity Component of velocity which is along the radius of circle when an object is
moving in circular path.
Hadio telescope It is a concave reflector is used and is used to gather radio waves given out by
celestial bodies. It helps to bring all such rays to a receiver placed at its focus.
Raman eftect When monochromatic light (light of one wavelength) passes througha
transparent medium, Some photons of the original light lose or gain energy due
to interactions with the vibrating molecules of the medium, thus, in the
emerging light, apart from original wavelength, other wavelengths ditrering by
Constant amounts are also present.
Hefractometer Apparatus for measuring the refractive index of a substance.
Refrigerant Fluid (e.g, freon or ammonia) used in a refrigerator.
Hesolving power The ability of the eye, telescope, microscope, etc. to produce separate images
of objects situated close together.
Recoil electron An electron that has been set into motion by a collision.
Hed giant Agiant star thought to be in the later stages of stellar evaluation. It has a surtace
temperature in the range 2000-3000 K and diameter 10-100 times of the sun.
Reterence level Location at which potential energy is chosen to be zero.
Regular refilection Relection froma smooth surface like that of a mirror is called regular reflection.
Images are formed by regular reflection.
Hejector It is a parallel resonant circuit comprising an inductance and a capacitor in
parallel. The dynamic impedence of such a circuit is maximum at some specified
frequency.
Hesilience the power to return to the original form or position after being bent or
It is
COmpressed.
Retentivity The property measured by the residual magnetic induction corresponding to
the saturation induction for the material.
Seismology Scientific study of earthquakes and related phenomena.
Selenology Study of the nature, origin and movements of the moon.
Sensitometer Instrument used for measuring the sensitivity of a photographic film.
Siphon Bent tube for transterring a liquid trom a higher to a lower level via a third level
higher than either of the two levels.
Spectrometer An instrument which is used for analysing the spectrum of source of a light.
Stratosphere The region of the atmosphere above tropospheres. In this region, the
temperature remains nearly constant and the atmosphere is calm and
undisturbed.
Telephoto lens Lens system used for photographing distant objects
Ihreshold audibility The threshold audibility at any frequency is the minimum intensity of sound at
that frequency which can be detected.
Ihyristor It is a silicon controlled rectifier. Its anode-cathode current is controlled by a
signal applied to a third electrode the gate.
okamak lt is an axially symmetric system in which the plasma suppresses the instability.
lomography Technique for using X-rays for photographing a desired plane of the body.
onometer Instrument for measuring the pitch of a sound.
ransient It reters to the non-periodic portion of a wave or signal.
Iransponder Electronic equipment designed to receive a signal and transmit a reply
automatically.
lurbogenerator Electric generator with a steam turbine.
Iropopause The layer of atmosphere which separates troposphere and stratosphere.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
216 .
* ** *** *** *** ******** **

Iweeter Loudspeaker for higher audio frequency sounds in the range 5-15 kHz.
Wave train It refers to a series of successive waves which are spaced at regular intervals.
Wavemeter Instrument for measuring the wavelength of a radiowave.
Yield point When a rod wire of a certain material is subjected to slowly increasing tension,
the point at which a small increase in tension produces a sudden and large
increase in length.
Lodiacal light Faint light seen in the sky before sunrise and after sunset.

Appendix 2
Branches of Physics
Astrophysics It isthe branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe
including the physical properties of astronomical objects such as stars,
Galaxies, and the interstellar medium as well as their interactions.
Atomic and molecular The study of the structure and characteristics of atoms and molecules.
physies
Acouslies It studies the production and properties of the sound.
Biophysies The science of the application of the laws of the physics to life processes.
CryogeniCs It is study of the extremely low temperatures
Condensed matter It is a branch of physics that deals with the physical properties of
physics Condensed phases of matter,
Cosmology The study of the universe as a whole of the contents structure and
evolution of the universe from the beginning of time to the future.
Electromagnetism It is the branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between
electrically charged particles.
Electrodynamics It analyses the relationship between electrical and magnetic forces.
Fluid dynamics It deals with the behaviour and movements of liquids and gases.
Geophysies It is the study of the physical characteristics and properties of the earth.
Hcalth physics It involves the protection of people work with are radiation.
Low temperalure It is a science concerned with the production and maintenance of
physies temperatures much below normal, down to almost absolute zero and with
various phenomena that occur only at such temperature.
Mathematical physies It is the study of mathematical systems that stands for physical
phenomena.
Mechanics The branch of physics concerned with the motion of the bodies in a frame
of reference.
Molecular physics it examines the structure properties and behaviour of molecules.
Nuclear physics It is concerned with the structure and properties of the atomic nucleus
and with nuclear reactions and their applications.
Opties It is study of the nature and behaviour of light.
Particle physies It is also called energy physics, analysis the behaviour and properties of
elementry particles.
Plasma physics It isconcerned with the study of highly ionised gases that is, gases that
have been separated into positively and negatively charged particles.
Quantum physies It includes various areas of study based on quantum theory, which deals
With matter and electromagnetic radiation and the interactions between
them.
APPENDIX
217
Relativistie physics Itis the physical theory of space and time developed by Albert Einstein,
based on the postulates that all the lawS of the physics are equaly valid
in all frames of reference moving at a uniform velocity and that the speed
of light from a uniformly moving source is always the same, regardless of
how fast or slow the source or its observer is moving
Solid-state physies It is also called condensed matter physics, examines the physical
properties of solid materials.
Statistical mechanics The discipline that attempts to relate the properties of macroscopic
Systems to their atomic and molecular constituents.
Theoretical physies Theoretical physics attempts to understand the world by making a model
of reality, used tor rationalising explaining and predicting physical
phenomena, through a physical theory.
Thermodynamics It is the study of heat and other forms of energy, and of the conversion of
energy from one form to another.

Appendix 3
Important Scientific Instruments & Their Use
Altimeter It measures altitudes and is used in aircrafts.
Ammeter It measures strength of electric current (in ampere).
Audiometer It measures intensity of sound.

Barometer It measures atmospheric pressure.

Binocular Itis used to view distant objects.

Burette It is used to deliver any required volume of a liquid upto its maximum capacity

Calorimeter lt measures quantity of heat.

Cardiogram It traces movements of the heart, recorded on a cardiograph.

Cinematography Itis an instrument used in Cinema making to throw on screen and enlarged
image of photograpn.
Dynamo converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
It

Dynamometer It measures electrical power.

Electrometer It measures electricity.
Electroscope It detects presence of an electric charge.
Endoscope lt examines internal parts of the body.
Fatnometer It measures the depth of the ocean.

balvanometer It measures the electric current of low magnitude.

Hydrometer It measures the specific gravity of liquids.

Hygrometer It measures humidity in air.

Hydrophone lt measures sound under water.

Lactometer It determines the purity of milk.

Manometer It measures the pressures of gases.

Mariner's Compass It is an instrument used by the sailors to determine the direction.

Microphone It converts the sound waves into electrical vibration and to magnihy the sound.

MIcroscope Itis used to obtain magnified view ot small objects.

Odometer An instrument by which the distance covered by wheeled vehicles is measured.
 Encyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
218 ***** ** *** ************* *** ** ***

Phonograph Itis used for producing sound.

Photometer It compares the luminous intensity of the source of light.
Periscope Itis used to view objects above sea level (Used in sub-marines)
Radar It is used for detecting the direction and range of an approaching plane by
means or radio microwaves.
Radiometer it measures the emission of radiant energy.
Screw gauge It is used to measure thickness of a thin glass plate and diameter of a thinwire
or a small sphere.
Seismograph It measures the intensity of earthquake shocks.
Salinometer It determines salinity of solution.
Sonometer Tomeasure frequency of a tunning fork.
Spectrometer It is an instrument for measuring the energy distribution of a particular type of
radiation.
Speedometer Itis an instrument placed in a vehicle to record its speed.
Sphygmomanometer It measures blood pressure.
Spherometer It measures the curvatures of surfaces
Stereoscope It is used to view two dimensional pictures.
Stethoscope An instrument which is used by the doctors to hear and analyse the heart and
lung sounds.
Straboscope It is
used to view rapidly moving objects.
achometer Aninstrument used in measuring speeds of aeroplanes and motor boats.
lelescope It views distant objects in space.
Ihermometer This instrument is used for the measurement of temperatures.
hermostat regulates the temperature at a particular point.
It

Voltmeter measures the electric potential difference between two points.

It

Vernier callipers Tomeasure lengths accurately.

Appendix 4
Some Physicists with their Great Contributions to
Physics
Name Major Contribution/Discovery
Archimedes (Greece) Principle of buoyancy, principle of the lever
Galileo Galilei (halhy) Law of inertia

Christiaen Huygens (Holland) Wave theory of light

Isaac Newton (UK) Universal law of gravitation, laws of motion, reflecting telescope
Michael Faraday (UK) Laws of electromagnetic induction

James Clerk Maxwell (UK) Electromagnetic theory, light as an electromagnetic wave

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (Germany) Generation of electromagnetic waves
WK Roentgen (Germany) Xrays
APPENDIX
219

Name Major Contribution/Discovery

Albert Einstein (Germany)
RA Millkan (USA)
Ernest Rutherford (New Zealand)
Niels Bohr (Denmark)
CV Raman (tndia)
Louis Victor de-Broglie (France)
SN Bose (india)
Wolfgang Pauli (Austria)
Enrico Fermi (ltaly)
Explanation of photoelectric effect, theory of relativity
Measurement of electronic charge
Nuclear model of atom
Quantum model of hydrogen atom
Inelastic scattering of light by molecules
Wave nature of matter
Quantum statistics
Exclusion principle
Controlled nuclear fission

Werner Heisenberg (Germany) Quantum mechanics, uncertainty principle

Paul Dirac (UK) Relativistic theory of electron, quantum statistics
Ernest Orlando Lawrence (USA) Cyclotron

James Chadwick (UK) Neutron

Hideki Yukawa (Japan)
Homi Jehangir Bhabha (ndia)
Lev Davidovich Landau (Russia)
S Chandrasekhar (india)
John Bardeen (USA)
CH Townes (USA)
Theory of nuclear forces
Cascade process of cosmic radiation
Theory of condensed matter, liquid helium
Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution of stars
Transistors, theory of superconductivity
MASER, LASER

Appendix5
Inventions and Discoveries
Invention Inventor
Adding machine (Francel Pascal I1642
Aeroplane lUSAJ Orville and Wilbur Wright 119031
Air conditioning lUSAI Carrier 119021
Airplane Jet engine) 1Gemanyl Ohain 119391
Airship (Non-rigid) lFrancel Henri Ciffard I18521
Atomic bomb IUSAI
Robert Oppenheimer 19451
Ball-point pen [USAI
John Loud [18881
Barometer [ltalyl Evangelista Toricelli [16441
Battery (Electric) lltalyl Alessandro Volta I1800
Bicycle [Britainl Kirkpatrick Macmillan I1839-401

220
Invention
Bicycle tyres (Pneumatic) IBritainl
Bifocal lens IUSAI
Bleaching powder [Britainl
Busnen burner [Germanyl
Burglar alarm lUSAI
Camera (Kodak) [USAI
Car (Steam) IFrancel
Car (Petrol) lGermany]
Carburetor lGermanyl
Cassette (Videotape) lJapanl
Cement (Portland) (Britainl
Cinema lFrancel
Clock (Mechanical) [Chinal
Clock (Pendulum) INetherlandsl
Compact disc (USA]
Compact disc player lJapan, Nethertlandsl
Computer (Laptop) lBritainl
Computer (Mini) [USAI
Diesel engine [Germany
Dynamo IFrancel
Electric flat iron lUSAI
Electric lamp (USAI
Electric motor (DC) [Belgiuml
Electric motor (AC) USAl
Electric washing machine
Electro-magnet [Britain)
Electroplating lIitalyl
Electronic computer IBritain!
Facsimile machine [Britainl
Fibre optics [Britainl
Film (Moving outlines) IFrancel
Film (Tallking) Germany
Galvanometer lFrancel
Gramophone lUSAI
Helicopter IFrancel
Hydrogen Bomb IUSAI
Encyolopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
* ** ********* *** ** * ****
Inventor
Johan Boyd Dunlop I18881
Benjamin Franklin 117801
Tennant (17981
RWillhelm von Bunsen 18551
Edwin T Holmes I18581
Walker Eastnman 18881
Nicolas Cugno I17691
Karl Benz I19881
Gottlieb Daimler I18761
Sony I1969
Joseph Aspdin (18241
Nicolas and Jean Lumiere (1895)
Hsing and Liang Ling-Tsan 17251
Christian Huygens I16561
RCA I19721
Sony, Philips 119791
Sinclair I19871
Digital Corp 19601
Rudolf Diesel I1895
Hypolite Pixii 118321
HWSeeley I18821
Thomas Alva Edison I18791
Zenobe Gramme 118731
Nikola Tesla I18881
IUSAI
Alva ) Fisher 119061
William Sturgeon I18241
Luigi Brugnatelli 118051
Dr Alan M Turing 118241
Alexander Bain I18431
Kepany I1955
Louis Prince (18851
Engl.) Mussolle and H Voge I19221
Andre-Marie Ampere I1834
Thomos Alva Edison I18781
Etienne Oehmichen l19241
Edward Teller 19541
APPENDIX
221
Invention Inventor
Intelligence testing lFrancel Simon Binet I19051
Jet engine [Britainl Sir Frank Whitle 119371

Laser IUSAI Theodore Maiman 19601

[USAI Cantrell 19341
Launderette JF
Lift (Mechanical) lUSAI Elisha G Otis I1852]

LIghting conductor [USAI Benjamin Franklin [17521

Loudspeaker lBritainl Horace Short 119001
Machine gun [Britainl Richard Gatling I19181
Magnetic recording tape [Germanyl Fritz Pfleumer [19281
Microphone lUSAI Alexander Graham Bell I18761
Microscope (Comp.) INetherlandsl Z Jansseen [15901

Microscope (Elect.) [Germany Ruska Knol |19311

Microwave oven IUSAl Percy Le Baron Spencer I19471

Motor cycle lGermanyl G Daimler [18851

Movie projector [USAI Thomas Edison (18931

Neon lamp lFrancel Georges Claude 119101
Neutron bomb IUSAI Samuel Cohen [1958]
Optical fibre lGermanyl Narinder Kapany [19551
Pacemaker [USAI Zoll 119521

Photoelectric cell lGermany Julius Elster, Hans F Geitel I18931

Photography (On metal) IFrancel JN Niepce [18261
Photography (On paper) IBritainl WH Fox Talbor I18351
Photography (On film) lUSAI John Carbutt I18881
Piano lltalyl Cristofori I17091
Pistol, revolver lUSAl Colt I18361
Radar IUSA
AH Laylor and Leo C Young 19221
Radiocarbon dating [USA Libby I19471

Radio telegraphy lUSAI Dr Mohlorn Lommis I18641

Radio telegraphy (Trans Atlantic) ltalyl G Marconi (19011

Rayon [Britainl Sir Joseph Swan I18831

Razor (Electric) (USA] Col Jacob Scick I1931
Razor (Safety) [USAI King C Gillatte I18951
Refrigerator [USA] James Harrison, Alexander catlin (18501
Rubber (Latex foam) [Britainl Dunlop Rubber Co. 19281
Rubber (Vulcanised) IUSAI Charles Goodyear I18411
Rubber (Waterproof) IBritaind Charles Macintosh I18231
Safety pin lUSAI Walter Hunt [18491
Ship (Steam) [Francel IC Perier I17751
 Encyolopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
222 ** ** *** ** ******* ****

Invention Inventor
Ship (Turbine) IBritain) Hon Sir C Parsons I18941
Steam engine (Britainl Thomas Savery 17981
Steam engine (Piston) IBritain Thomas Newcomen 11712
Steam engine [Condenser) lBritainl James Watt (17651

Steel (Stainless) IBritain) Harry Brearley I19131

Stethoscope lFrancel Laennec [18191

Submarine lUSAI David Bushnell I17761
(USAl
Super computer H Van Tassel 19761
Tank [Britainl Sir Emest D Swington 1914)
Tape recorder (Denmarkl Fessenden Poulsen 1899
Telegraph IFrancel M Lammond I17871
Telephone (Cellular) IUSAl Bell Labs 119471

Telephone (Imperfect) litalyl At tonio Meucci 18491

Telephone (Perfected) lUSA Alexander Graham Bell 18761
Telescope INetherlands) Hans Lippershey I1608
Television (Mechanical) IBritain) John Logic Baird [19261
Television (Electronic) lUSA PT Farnsworth I1927
Television (Colour) IBritainl John Logie Baird 19281
Transistor [USAI Bardeen, Shockley and Brattain I19481
Transistor radio lJapanl Sony 11948
Uranium Fission (Atomic reactor) [USAI Szilard Fermi (19421

Vacuum cleaner (Elec.) [USAI Spangler I19071

Vidoe tape (USAI Charles Ginsberg [1956
Watch lItalyl Bartholomew Mantredi I14621
Wireless (Telegraphy) lItalyl G Marconi 118961

Appendix 6
Nobel Laureates in PHYSICSS
Laureate Contribution
*** ********* ********

Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano For the invention of eficient blue light-emitting diodes which has
and Shuji Nakamura (2014)
enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources
Francois Englert and Peter W. For the theoretical discovery of a mechansim that contributes to
Higgs (2013) our understanding of the origin of mass of subatomic particles,
and whichrecently was confirmed through the discovery of the
predicted fundamental particle, by the ATLAS and CMS
experiments at CERN's Large Hadron Collider
APPEN DTX
**** ****
2643
Laureate Contribution
Serge Haroche and David For ground-breaking experimental methods that enable
J.Wineland (2012) measuring and manipulation of individual quantum systems
****

**********
Saul Perimutter, Brain For the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe
P. Schmidt and Adam
G. Riess (2011)
through observations of distant supernovae
. --- ---- ---------------- ******************-***----

Andre Geim and Konstantin For groundbreaking Experiments regarding the two-dimensional
Novoselov (2010) material graphene
***
*******

Charles Kuen Kao (2009) For groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission
of light in tfibers for optical communication
----
*******

Willard S. Boyle and George E. For the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit -the CCD
Smith (2009) Sensor *

Yoichiro Nambu (2008) or the discOvery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken

symmetry in subatomic physics
Makoto Kobavashi and For the discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which
Toshihide Maskawa (2008) predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature
Albert Fert and Peter Grunberg For the discovery of Giant Magnetoresistance
(2007)
John C. Mather and George F. For their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the
Smoot (2006) cosmic microwave background radiation
Rov J. Glauber (2005) For his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence
John L. Hall and Theodor W. For their contributions to the development of laser-based precision
Hansch (2005) spetroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique
Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen In recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the
(First Noble Laureate) (1901) discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him

Nobel 2014 for inventing blue LEDs

Shuji Nakamura, 60, at the University of California, Santa Barbara, with Isamu
Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano of Japan has won the 2014 Nobel Pize in Physics
for the invention of efficient blue lighi-emitting diodes which has enabled
bright and energy-saving white light sources.
The invention of the blue LED transformed lighting. The devices can be
with a phosphor or combined with red and green LEDs to generate white light
for illuminating homes and offices, fraffic signals and huge advertising screens.
They are so efficient that the nation could save 10% of its electricity bill and
save lots of energy. Conventional lightbulbs are inefficient becaUse they work
by heating up a wire flament. Fluorescent lamps are better, but do not come
close to the efficiency of white LEDs. Because blue light has such a shot
wavelength, it can store far more information than other colours or infrared
light. The increásed storage capacity dllowed by blue LEDS quickly led to the
development of blu-ray discs.
1 CHEMISTRY

MatteI
and Its States
Matter
As we look at our surroundings, we see a large variety of things with different shapes,
sizes and textures. Everything in this universe is made up of material which scientists
have named 'matter. Al the things such as stones, clouds, food, stars, plants, evena small
drop of water occupy space and have mass. In other words, matter is something which
has mas, occupy volume, can have physical resistance, inertia and can be realised by the
sense organs.
Early Indian philosophers classified matter in the form of five basic elements-the
Pancha Tatva' air, earth, fire, sky and water. According to them, everything. living or
-

non-living was made up of these five basic elements.

Characteristics of Matter
(1)
Matter is made up of very small particles that are beyond our imagination.
(i) The particles have space in between them, called the intermolecular space.
(ii) They are continuously moving, ie., they possess kinetic ernergy.
As the temperature rises, speed of the particles increases. Due to which the kinetic
energy or the particles increases.
(iv) They attract each other. The force of attraction responsible for keeping them
together is called intermolecular force.
(v) The strength of this force of attraction varies from one kind of matter to another

Particles of Matter
Matter has mainly two particles
Atoms
The word atom has been derived from Greek word atomos meaning indivisible. An atom is
the smallest particle of an element that may or may not exist independently and retain all
its chemical properties ie., takes part in chemical reactions. Atoms of different elements
have different masses and chemical properties.
Molecules
Amolecule is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together. It can be
defined as the smallest particle of an element or a compound that is capable of
independent existence and shows all the properties of that substance. However, it does
not take part in a chemical reaction.
 Encyolopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
226 *******°***** ******

Types of Molecules
These are of two types
(i) Homomolecules or Molecules of the Element These are the molecules of an
element constituted by the same type of atoms. e.g., O2, H2. N2 etc.
The number of atoms constituting a molecule is called its atomicity. e.g., atomicity of
phosphorus (Pa) is four and of sulphur (Sg) is eight.
(i) Heteromolecules or Molecules of the Compounds In these molecules, atoms of
different elements join together in definite proportions.
Examples of Heteromolecules
Compound Combining ElementsRatio by Mass
Water (H,0) Hydrogen, oxygen 8
Ammonia (NHa) Nitrogen, hydrogen 14 3
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon, oxygen 3:8

States of Matter
Matter exists in three different states- solid, liquid and gas These states of matter arise
due to the variation in the extent of intermolecular forces and intermolecular space.

1. The Solid State

In this state of matter, the substances have definite mass, volume and shape, e.g., wood,
table, pen, book, etc. The intermolecular space in between the constituent particles of
solid state is small, but the intermolecular forces are strong. Thus, the constituernt
particles such as atoms, molecules or ions
can not move but can only oscillate about Everyday Science
their mean position. This is the reason why The shape of a rubber band changes
solids are incompressible and rigid ie., have when some external force is applied
definite shape and size. Because of the but it regains shape when the force is
presence of strong intermolecular forces, removed. Further, if excessive force is
applied, it breaks i.e., it is rigid and have
these are highly den.sed and generally have definite shape. That's why it is consider
high melting point. as a solid.
A Sponge is compressible but
Classification of Solids considered as a solid because of the
These can be classified into two groups presence of air filled holes. When force
is applied, the air expels out and it gets
i) Crystaline Solids They consist of a Compressed.
large number of crystals. In a crystal, we can easily move our hand in ar or
the arrangement of particles is regular water (less easily than air) but for
e.g., sodium chloride, diamond, quartz doing the same in a solid block of
(crystalline), graphite, etc. wood, a karate expert is required. This
is because of higher extent of
(ii) Amorphous Solids They consist of intermolecular forces in between the
particles of irregular shape. The particles of solids.
arrangement of particles in amorphous Although ice is a solid but it floats over
solid is disordered. eg, glass, rubber water due to its less density than
and plastics. Amorphous solids are also water. This is because of the pressure
called pseudo solids or supercooled of air filled spaces due to weaker
liquids. H-bonding
MATTER AND ITS STATES
227
2. The Liquid State
In this state, the substances have no fixed shape but have a fixed volume. They take up
the shape of the container in which they are kept. e.g., water, oil, milk, etc. The upper
Surface of the liquids is always planar whatever be the shape of the container. Liquids
flow and change their shape, so they are not rigid and are called fluids (substance which
can flow).
In liquids, intermolecular forces are no longer strong enough to hold the particles
together, that's why they are less densely compressed. However, the forces are still
sufficient so that particles cannot escape each other's environment, so they havve
sufficient mobility and fixed volume.
3. The Gaseous State
In this state, matter have no fixed shape and volume. They only Gaseous Pressure in
occupy the shape and size of the container in which they are the gaseous state, the
kept. eg. air, H2. O2, N2 etc. In gaseous state, the particies move about
intermolecular forces are very weak, so the intermolecular randomly at high
spaces between the molecules are very large. This is the reason speed. Due to this
that gases are highly compressible as compared to solids and they hit each other
liquids. Gases also flow in the container in which they are kept, and also the walls of
so they are also called fluids. the container. That's
wny gases exert
Further, gases expand more as compared to liquids and solids pressure on the walls
when heated due to the weaker intermolecular forces as of the container.
compared to liquids and solids.

Two More States of Matter

Now-a-days, there is a discussion on two more states of matter, but these states
occur only in extreme conditions of temperature and pressure. These are
Plasma
consists of super energetic and super excited particles. These particles are in the
It
form of ionised gases. The fluorescent tube (filled with helium or any other gas)
and neon sign bulbs (filled with neon) consist of plasma. The sun and the starsS
glow because of the presence of plasma in them. The plasma is created in stars
because of very high temperature.
Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)
This state is named after the name of scientists Satyendra Nath Bose (India) and
Albert Einstein. The BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density, about
one-hundred-thousandth the density of normal air, to super low temperatures.
In 2001, Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman of USA received the
Nobel Prize in Physics for achieving 'Bose-Einstein Condensate.

Diffusion
The process of intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own is
called diffusion e.g., on adding a drop of ink into water, it spreads evenly throughout the
Water. On heating, the speed of particles increases which results in more intermolecular
space or less intermolecular forces, thus diffusion becomes faster. That's why the smell of
hot sizzling food reaches you several metres away. But to get the smell from cold food you
have to go close
 Encyolopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
228 ** *** ******
** ******

Solids. liquids and gases can diffuse into liquids. The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher
than that of solids. Because in liquid state, particles move freely and have greater
intermolecular space as compared to that in the solid state.
Due to high speed of particles and large space between them, gases show the property of
diffusing very fast into other gases.

Interconversion of States of Matter

The states of matter are interconvertible. They can be interchanged by changing
temperature or pressure as
Liquid

Sublimation
Solid Gas
Condensation
Interconversion of the Three States of Matter

Various terms related to interconversion of states of matter are

) Fusion The process of melting, i.e., change of solid state into liquid state is also
known as fusion.
(i) Melting Point The temperature at which a solid starts to melt to become a liquid at
the atmospheric pressure is called its melting point. The melting point of a solid is an
indication of strength of the force of attraction between its particles ie., higher the
melting point of solid, higher will be the force of attraction between the particles of
solid. Melting point of ice is 0°
Gii) Sublimation It is the process used for those solids which convert directly into
vapours on heating without converting into liquid phase and the vapours upon
cooling give back the solid. Such solids are called sublimates.
(iv) Vaprisation The process in which a liquid substance changes into a gas rapidly on
heating is called vaporisation. The same phenomenon is called evaporation when
heating is categorised to be done below the boiling point of the liquid.
(v) Boiling Point The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric
pressure is known as its boiling point. Boiling is a bulk phenomenon and varies from
place to place. Boiling point of water at normal presSure is 100C.
(vi) Condensation lt is the process in which gas changes into the liquid state or liquid
changes to solid state ie., solidification.
(vii) Latent Heat The word latent means hidden. Thus, latent heat is the amount of heat
absorbed or released by a substance undergoing a change of state such as ice
changing to water or water to steam at constant temperature.
Latent heat of fusion is defined as the arnount of heat energy that is required to
change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point.
Particles in water at O°C have more energy as compared to particles in ice at the same
temperature, because of the presence of latent heat of fusion.
Latent heat of vaporisation is the heat energy required to change 1 kg of a liquid to
gas at the atmospheric pressure at its boiling point. Temperature remains constant
during boiling due to latent heat of vaporisation.
MATTER ANDITS STATES
229
Effect of Change of Temperature
On heating the solid, kinetic energy of the particles increases. Due to which they start
vibrating with greater speed (at their fixed position). The energy supplied by the heat
overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles. Due to reduction in force of
attraction, the particles leave their fixed position and start moving freely. Due to this, a
stage is reached when solid melts and starts to convert into liquid.

Effect of Change of Pressure

By increasing pressure and reducing temperature, we can change a gas into Iiquid anda
liquid into solid and reverse is achieved by decreasing pressure and increasing
temperature.
Due to latent heat of vaporisation, particles in steam, i.e, water vapour at 373 K (100°C) have
more energy than that of water at the same temperature. ihats why steam causes severe
burns than that of water at 100° C.
At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure erefore, the vapour pressure of a liquid
becomes equal to atmospheric pressure at iow temperature, 1e, water boils at a temperature
less than 100C and hence, food requires more time to cook.
inside the pressure cooker, pressure is high and hence, water boils ata temperature higher
than 100C. Ihus, less time is required to cook the food.
in the presence of impurity, boiling point increases and freezing point decreases.
Solid carbon dioxide is stored under high pressure. It gets converted directly to gaseous state
on decreasing pressure to atm without coming into liquid state. That's why it is also called
1

dry ice' or dry kold.

Chemical Classification of Matter

On the basis of chemical composition, matter can be classified as
Matter

Pure Substance Mixture

Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Elements Compounds
Metals Organic
Non-metals InorganiC
Metalloids

Element
Robert Boyle was the first scientist to use the term element in 1661. Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier (1743-94), a French chemist defined an element as a basíc form of matter that
cannot be broken down into simpler substances by any physical chemical process. Infact,
an element is that fiundamental matter which is composed of only one kind of atoms.
Elements can be solids like Aluminium (Al), Iron (Fe), Gold (Au), Silver (Ag) etc, liquids like
Mercury (Hg), Bromine (Br), etc and gases like Argon (Ar), Helium (He), Oxygen (O),
Hydrogen (H), etc.
Presently, there are 118 elements out of which 98 are naturally occurring and rest are
artificialy made.
 Encyolopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
230
Symbols for Some Elements
Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol
Aluminiumm A Copper Cu Nitrogen N
Argon Fluorine Oxygen
Barium Gold Au Potassium
Boron B Hydrogen Silicon
Bromine lodine Silver
Calcium Iron Sodium Na
Carbon Lead Pb Sulphur S
Chlorine CI Magnesium Mg Uranium
Cobalt Neon Ne Zinc Zn

Symbols have been taken from the names of elements in Latin, German or Greek. The
first letter of a symbol ís always written as a capital letter and the second letter as a small
letter.
Elements can be normally divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids. We will
describe their properties later.

Compound
A compound is a pure substance composed of two or more elements, chemically
combined with one another in a fixed proportion. The composition of a compound is
always fixed (same throughout) and it has totally different properties from its constituent
particles, e.g., water (H20), methane (CH), sugar (C12H22011). salt (NaCl), baking soda
(NaHCO3), etc.
A compound can be broken down into its elements by chemical or electrochemical
reaction, but not by any physical process. It is considered as a homogeneous mixture.
The physical and chemical properties of the compound are different than those of its
constituent elements. Compounds can be broadly categorised to organic (those with C as
main constituent) and inorganic (those in which C is not the main constituent).

Mixture
Most of the matter present around us exist in the form of mixtures of two or more pure
components. Thus, mixtures are impure substances and do not have constituents in fixed
proportion. e.g., air (a mixture of various gases like O2, N2, CO2, etc), sea water, minerals,
soil, etc are all mixtures.
The mixtures can be separated into their constituents by simple physical or mechanical
processes

Types of Mixtures
Depending upon the nature of the components that form a mixture, we have two different
types of mixtures
() Homogeneous Mixtures These mixtures have auniform composition throughout.
Examples of such mixtures are salt in water, sugar in water, methanol and water,
vinegar, toothpaste, soap (toilet), soft drinks, etc.
These are also known as true solutions. In these solutions, diameter of solute particles
is less than1 nm.

i) Heterogeneous Mixtures These mixtures contain physically distinct parts and

have non-uniform compositions. Mixiures of sodium chloride and iron fillings; dust
particles in air; salt and sulphur; oil and water; colloids (milk); and suspensions are the
examples of heterogeneous mixtures.
MATTER AND ITS STATES
231
Separating the Components of a Mixture
Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their respective constituents by simple
physical met hods like hand picking, sieving. filtration that we use in our day-to-day life.
Sometimes special techniques have to be used for the separation of the components of a
homogeneous mixture.
() Evaporation We can separate the Everyday Science
volatile components (solvent) from
its non-volatile components Water kept in earthern pot (pitcher)
becomes cool during summer. This is
(solute) by the method of Decause tuny pores are present at the
evaporation. e.g., recovery of salt surface of the earthern pot, from which
from sea water. The rate of water is evaporated. The energy required for
evaporation increases with rise in evaporation is provided by the remaining
water. Hence, its temperature goes down,
temperature, surface area, wind ie, it becomes cool.
speed and decrease in humidity. We should wear cotton clothes in summer.
(ii) Centrifugation It is a process This is because cotton being a good
that involves use of centrifugal absorber provides more surtace area for the
evaporation of water. Since, the energy
force for sedimentation of required for evaporation is taken up trom
heterogeneous mixture. The Our body. That's why we feel reliet and
comfort in such clothes.
principle is that the denser
particles are forced to the bottom We see water droplets on the outer surface
of a glass containing ice cold water. This is
and the lighter particles stay at because the water vapours present in air,
the top when spun rapidly. when comes in contact of glass of ice cold
water, lose their energy and get converted
It is also used
into liquid water which appears in the form
in diagnostic laboratories for of water droplets.
blood and urine tests. We feel cool, when some nail polish
impurities particles are remover or spirit is kept on our palm. It is
separated by the process of due to the evaporation of remover or spirit
which takes heat from our hand.
centrifugation,
in diaries and home to separate After a hot sunny day, people sprinkle water
on the roof because the high latent heat of
butter from cream, water helps to cool the hot surtace.
in washing machines to
squeeze out water from wet clothes
(ii) By the Use of Separating Funnel We can separate a mixture of two immiscible
liquids by the use of separating funnel. The principle is that immiscible liquids
separate out in layers depending upon their densities.
It is used
to separate mixture of oil and water.
in the extraction of iron, the lighter slag is removed from the top by this method
to leave the molten iron at the bottom in the furnace.
(iv) Sublimation By the process of sublimation, the mixture of those two solids is
separated in which one solid is sublimate. In this process, the mixture is heated due
to which the sublimate substance is vaporised and the vapours are collected and
cooled down to get the pure solid.
Sublimates like naphthalene, anthracene, camphor, benzoic acid, NH,C, HgCl2, dry
ice, salicylic acid, iodine etc., can be separated (from non-sublimates) or purified by
this technique.
232 . Encyolopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE

(v) Chromatography This name is based on Greek word 'Kroma' meaning colour. It is
the modern technique for separation and purification of organic compounds and is
applicable for those mixtures, components of which have different adsorption
capacities. This method was invented by Tswett. It is used for those solutes that
dissolve in the same solvent. It is used to separate colours in dye; pigments from
natural colours, drugs from the blood and coloured components of black ink.
(vi) Distillation It is based on the difference in the boiling points of the liquids in the
given mixture. On boiling, liquid having lower boiling point vaporises first and
collected separately. Chloroform and aniline; acetone and water are separated by
this process. The two opposite process, .e., vaporisation and condensation are
involved in this process. Because first the liquid vaporises and then the vapours are
Cooled down to condense again into liquid form.
Fractional Distillation To separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for
which the difference in boiling points is less than 25 K, ie., for the liquids which
have nearly same boiling point, fractional distillation is used. e-g., separation of
different gases from air, different fractions from petroleum products etc. The
apparatus is similar to that of simple distillation except that a fractionating columnn
is fitted in between distillation flask and condensor.
It is used to separate a mixture of methanol and acetone; companents of composite
ol like petrol, diesel, etc and components of aqueous air.
Distillation Under Reduced Pressure It can be used for those liquids which have
very high boiling points and those, which decompose at or below their boiling
points. Glycerol decomposes much before its boiling point, so it is separated from
spent-lye in soap industry or purified by distillation under reduced pressure.
Steam Distillation This technique is applied to separate substances which are steam
volatile and are immiscible with water. n this process, steam is passed through the
mixture. The pure organic compound (which is steam volatile) comes out with
steam and condensed and collected separately.
Separating funnel is used to separate these organic compounds from water. It is used
to separate the mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols (non-volatile). Aniline, sandal
Wood oil, terpentine oil, eucalyptus oil etc., are extracted or purified by this process.
(vii) Crystallisation This method is used to purify solicds. It is a process that separates a
pure solid in the form of its crystals from a solution. In it, the substance to be
purified is dissolved in a suitable solvent and the solution is concentrated (by
heating) upto the saturation point, Now, the solution is cooled slowly. Crystals of
pure solid separate out, impurities remain in the solution, called the mother liqour.
The crystals are filtered, dried and separated.
This technique is used in the purification of salt that we get from sea water and in
separation of crystals of alum from impure samples.

Mass Terms Related to Matter

Atomic Mass
Atomic mass of an element is the relative mass as compared with an atom of carbon-12
and is expressed in amu (atomic mass unit). Atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as a mass
exactly equal to one twelth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. According to the latest
TUPAC recommendations, amu is written as u (unified mass).
1 amu = 1.66056x 10 g
MATTER AND ITS STATES
233
Average Atomic Mass
Many naturally occurring elements exist as more than one isotope. Usually, the atomic
mass used for an element is the average atomic mass obtained by taking into account the
natural abundance of different isotopes of that element.

Molecular Mass
It is the sum of atomic masses of all the elements present in a molecule. It is therefore the
relative nass of a molecule expressed in atomic mass unit (u). It is obtained by nultiplying
the atomic mass of each element by the number of its atoms and adding them together.
e.g., molecular mass of methane,
CH 1x12.011 +4x 1.008 = 16.043 u
Formula Unit Mass
The formula unit mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a
formula unit of a compound. Formula unit mass of NaCl can be calculated as
NaCl=1x 23+ 1x 35.5= 58.5 u

Equivalent Mass or Equivalent Weight

The equivalent mass of a substance is obtained by dividing its molecular mass (or formula
unit mass) by its valency.
mass
uivalent Weight = 0Iecular
Valency

Physical and Chemical Changes

In a physical change, a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties such as
shape, size, colour and state. It is generally reversible, ie., the original substance is further
obtained by reversing the reaction conditions. In such a change no new substance is
formed. Conversion of matter from one state to another like evaporation of water,
melting of ice, freezing of water, boiling of water, formation of clouds, stretching of
spring, etc are the examples of physical change.
A change in which one or more new substances are formed, ie., the internal molecular
composition of original substance is deformed, is called a chemical change. Burning of
magnesium ribbon, coal, wood or leaves is a chemical change. A chemical change is also
called a chemical reaction. Ripening of fruits, process of photosynthesis occurring in
plants (CO2 and H2O converted to glucose), light of sun, rusting of iron, curdling of milk,
etc are some other examples of chemical change.
During burning of a candle, both physical and chemical changes take place
Firefly have a specific organ for emiting light. This process of generation of light is called
bioluminescence

Laws of Chemical Combimations

The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the following basic laws

Law of Conservation of Mass

This law was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789. It states that matter can neither be
created nor destroyed.
In a chemical reaction, Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products
234 . Encyolopedia OF GENERAL
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SCIENCE
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Law of Definite Proportions

This law was given by a French chemist, Joseph Proust. He stated that a given compound
always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight. eg, CO2 always
Contains carbon and oxygen elements combined in the ratio of 3:8 by weight irrespective
of the source. That's why it is also called law of constant proportions.

Law of Multiple Proportions

This law was proposed by Dalton in 1803. According to this law, if two elements combine
to form more than one compound, the masses of one elerment that combine with a fixed
mass of the other element, are in the ratio of small whole numbers. e.g., hydrogen
combines with oxygen to form two compounds, namely, water and hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen + Oxygen Water
18 8
168
Hydrogen + Oxygen Hydrogen peroxide
2g 32 8 34 g
Here, the masses of oxygen (l6 g and 32 8) which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen
(2g) bear a simple ratio, ie., 16:32 or 1:2.
Gay-Lussac's Law of Combining Volumes
This law was given by Gay Lussac in 1808. He observed that when gases combine or
produced in a chemical reaction, they do so in a simple ratio by volume provided all the
gases are at same temperature and pressure. e.g9,
Hydrogen + Oxygen Water
100 mL )mL 100 T

Thus, the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen (100 mL and 50 mL) which combine together
bear a simple ratio of 2:1.
Mole Concept
The mole is the SIbase unit for an amount of a chemical species. The word mole was
introduced around 1896 by Wilhelm Ostwald who derived it from Latin word 'moles'
means a heap or 'a pile. In 1967, this word was accepted as a unit of chemical substances
under SI system. It is represented by the symbol 'mol.
1 mole of any substance is defined as
the amount which weighs exactly same as its formula weight in gram.
the amount which has same number of entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 8
of C-12 isotope ie., 6.022 x 104 entities. The number 6.022 x 104 is called
Avogadro's number and represented by No or NA Thus,
1g atom= 6.022x 10" atoms
1 mole = 6.022 x 10 atoms

A mole is the chemist's counting unit.

the mass of 1 mole of a substance is equal to its relative atomic or molecular mass
in gram.
the amnount which occupies 22.4 at STP (if it is taken for a gas).
L

Number of moles= Amount of substance in gram

Molecular weight/Atomic weight in gram
Number of particles at STP Volume of gas at STP (in litre)
Avogadro's number 22.4
2 AtomiC
Structure
Atom was considered as the smallest particle upto the 19th century. A series of
experiments were performed to reveal the structure of the atom as well as to explain its
important properties. These experiments indicated the divisibility of atom into
sub-atomic particles and showed that atoms possess a definite internal configuration and
composition.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

In 1808, John Dalton published 'A new system of chemical philosophy' in which he
proposed the following theory
() Matter consists of indivisible atoms.
(i) All the atoms of a given elerment have identical properties including identical mass.
Atoms of different elements differ in mass.
(ii) Compounds are formed when atoms of different elernents combine in a fixed ratio.
(iv) Chemical reactions only involve reorganisation of atoms. The atoms are neither
created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction
(v) Dalton's atomic theory could explain the law of chemical combination.

Sub-atomic Particles and their Properties

The theory of Dalton did not hold long and it was proved through the experiments of
research workers like JJ Thonson (1897), Rutherford (1911), Neils Bohr (1912), Vector,
Chadwick, Moseley etc., that atom is made up of smaller particles, called the sub-atomic
particles like electron, proton, neutron, positron, neutrino, meson etc. However, former
three are considered as the fundamental particles and later are appeared only for a short
instance during the microparticles exchange mechanism. Thus, these are not the
fundamental particles.

Fundamental Particles
Electrons, protons and neutrons are the fundamental particles of atom, discovery and
properties of which are as follows.
(a) Discovery of Electrons (-1e) Electron was discove in cathode rays experim
by JJ Thomson in 1897. In this experiment, when the pressure of a discharge tube
maintained at high potential is reduced to 10 atm, a stream of negatively charged
particles, called the electrons, is originated from cathode. These rays were called
cathode rays.
 Encyolopedia OF GEN ERAL SCIENCE
236 * ** * ** ***
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Characteristics of these rays and their particles are

() These rays themselves are not visible but their behaviour can be observed with the
help of fluorescent or phosphorescent materials.
(Note that television picture tubes are cathode ray tubes).
(11) In the presence of electrical or magnetic field, the behaviour of cathode rays are
Similar to that expected from negatively charged particles, called electrons.
ii) The charge on an electron, ie., -1.602x10" Cwas determined by Mullikan through
oil drop experiment.
iv) Actual mass of an electron, i.e., 9.11 x 10" kg was calculated by JJ Thomson. Of the
three fundamental particles of an atom, electron is the lightest.
(v) e/m ratio (specific charge) of electrons was determined by Thomson as 1.76 x 10° C/g.
(vi) e/m ratio of electron was found to be independent of the nature of gas and electrode
used. Therefore, electrons are fundamental particles of all kinds of matter.
(b) Discovery of Protons ({H) Even before the
mass electron is considered
The of
electron was identified, E Goldstein in 1886 to be negligible and its charge is
discovered the presence of new radiations in a minus one
gas discharge and called them canal rays. These The mass of proton is taken as
rays were positively charged radiations which one unit and its charge as plus
ultimately led to the discovery of another one.
sub-atomic particle. This sub-atomic particle had Hydrogen or protium is the only
a charge, equal in magnitude but opposite in sign atom that does not pOssess
to that of the electron. It was given the name neutrons.
proton by Rutherford in 1919. Mass of proton is John Dalkon is considered as the
1.67 x 10kg while its charge is+1.6 x 10C. originator of modern atomic
(c) Discovery of Neutrons (on) The positive theory.
Atoms can only be observed using
charge of a nucleus is due to the positively
SCanning tunneling microscope.
charged particles called protons. But mass of the
All atoms are reactive except
nucleus is not due to protons alone. There
atoms of noble gases.
another sub-atomic particle called neuiron,
Helium is the smaliest atom and
identified by Chadwick (1932) by bombarding a
has radius of 32x 10m, while
thin sheet of beryllium by o-particles. Neutrons
cesium (Cs) i5 the largest atom
are electrically neutral particles (i.e., have no with a radius of 225 x 10m.
charge) having a mass slightly greater than that
The existence of atoms had been
of the protons. Mass of neutron is 1.67 x 10 kg proposed by Indian and Greek
(i.e., nearly equal to that of proton).
Philosophers (400 BC)

Non-Fundamental Particles
Particles other than electrons, protons and neutrons are called non-fundamental
particles.
(a) Positron It was discovered by Anderson in 1932. It is the antiparticle of electron (i.e., its
charge is positive and its mass is equal to that of the mass of electron). Its symbol is e".
(b) Antiproton It is the antiparticle of proton. It was discovered in 1955. Its charge is
-e and its mass is equal to that of the mass of proton. Its symbol isp.
For every fundamenta particle, there exists an identical fundamental partice just opposite in
some property. It is called antiparticle of that fundamental particle.
eg, electron and positron are identical in al respects, except that charges on them are
opposite. So, positron is an antiparticle of electron.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
237
(c) Neutrino and ntineutrino The existence of these particles was predicted in 1930
by Pauli while explaining the emission of B-particles from radioactive nuclei, but
these particles were actually observed experimentally in 1956. Their rest mass and
charge both are zero, but they have energy and momentum. These are mutually
antiparticles of each other. Both these have the symbol v and v.
d) Pi-mesons The existence of n-mesons was predicted by Yukawa in 1935, but they
were actually discovered in 1947 in cosmic rays. Nuclear forces are explained by the
exchange of T-mesons between the nucleons. T-mesons are of three types: positive
T-meson (7"), negative n-meson (T) and neutral T-meson (t°). The mass of t" is
274 times the mass of electron and r" has mass nearly 264 times the electronic mass.
(e) Quarks and Bosons The elementary particles from which other heavy sub-atomic
particles like proton, neutron, etc are formed, are called quarks. These particles carry
fractional charge. Bosons are the particles for which number of rotations are whole
number.
Boson Meson+ Photon
Tt-mesons, bosons and quarks are not the antiparticles of any fundamental particle.
Their categorisation in an atom is done on the basis of their masses.
in particular, both protons and neutrons are made up of 3 quarks each.

Earlier Atomic Models

Different atomic models were proposed to explain the distributions of charged particles
electron, proton, neutron in an atom.
1.e.,

Thomson Model of an Atom

Thomson proposed the model of an atom to be similar to that of a Christmus pudding.
Thomson proposed that
() an atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded
into it.
i) the negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom asa whole is
electrically neutral.
Drawback Although Thonson model explained that atoms are electrically neutral but
the results of experiment carried out by other scientists like C-particle scattering
experiment could not be explained by this model.

Rutherford Model of an Atom

Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden) in 1911 performed
a-particle scattering experiment in which they bombarded very thin gold foil with
-particles. On the basis of the observations and conclusions, Rutherford propOsed the
nuclear model of atom. According to this model,
() There is a positively charged spherical centre in an atom, called the nucleus. Nearly
all the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus. i.e., protons and neutrons are packed
into t.
(i1) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well defined orbits. Thus, most of the

part of an atom is empty.

(iii) The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.

Drawbacks According to classical theory of electrodynamics, any charged particle in a

circular orbit would undergo acceleration. During centripetal acceleration, the charged
particles would radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and come
 Eneyelopedia OF GEN ERAL SCIENCE
238
closer and closer to the nucleus and finally fall into the nucleus. If this were so, the atom
should be highly unstable. But we know that atoms are quite stable, so this model was
discarded.

Bohr's Model of an Atom

According to Bohr, the old classical laws can not hold good in case of sub-atomic particles.
In order to overcome the objections raised against Rutherford's model of an atom, Neils
Bohr (1913) utilized the concept of quantisation (Max Planck) and put forward the
following postulates on the basis of Planck's quantum theory about the model of an atom.
(i) The electrons continue revolving in their respective orbits without losing energy.

Thus, each orbit (shell) is associated with a definite energy hence, it is also called
energy level.
Energy levels in an atom are shown in the given figure
N shell (n = 4)
M
shell (n = 3)
Lshell n = 2)
K shell (n =1)

Nucleus

A Few Energy Levels in an Atom

These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K, L, M, N, ... or the numbers,
n =1, 2, 3, 4..
ii) The electrostatical coulombic force of attraction between the nucleus and the
electron counter balanced the centripetal force required for revolving the electron.
(ii) The electrons can move in only those circular orbits where, the angular momentum
(mvr) is a whole number multiple ofie., it is quantised.

mvr : n=1,? **|

(iv) Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when an electron moves from one
level to another.

AE E2-E =

where, E2 is energy of n 2 level and Ej is energy of n =1 level.

=

Higher the radius of an orbital, higher is its energy.

Drawbacks
i) This model is unable to explain the spectrum of atoms other than hydrogen.
e.g., helium atom which possesses only two electrons.
(i) This theory was also unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of
magnetic field (Zeeman effect) or an electric field (Stark effect).
(ii) It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
239

Characteristics of an Atom
An atom is characterised by its atomic numberand mass number which are described below.

Atomic Number ()
It is the basic characteristic of an element and is defined as the number of protons present
in the nucleus of an atom. It is denoted by Z. The number of electrons is equal to the
number of protons in an atom, to maintain electrical neutrality of the atom.
eg, oxygen has 8 clectrons and 8 protons thus its atomic number is 8.
It is concluded that
Atomic number (Z)=Number of protons in the nucleus=Number of electrons in an atom

Moseley's Law
Moseley showed that properties of elements show more dependency on their
atomic numbers as compared to their atomic mass. He compared elemental
properties with atomic mass and atomic number separately through simple graphs
and concluded more precise and accurate result in favour of atomic number.

Mass Number (A)

The total number of protons and neutrons or total number of nucleons present in the
nucleus of an atom is termed as mass number. It is denoted by A.
e.g., oxygen has 8 protons and 8 neutrons. Therefore, its mass number (A) is 16.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
= Atomic number + Number of neutrons
Number of neutrons=A-Z
where, A=msss number, Z=atomnic number
An atom (X) can be represented as 2X.
Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons.
When number of electrons are greater than number of protons, the atom carries negative
charge and is called the anion. Similarly, if number of protons are greater than number of
electrons, the atom carries positive charge and is called the cation.

Different Atomic Species

Atoms can exist in several forms which are shown below

Isotopes
The word isotopes comes from Greek words "isos (means 'equal) and 'topos' (means
place), meaning equal or same place. Isotopes of an element is defined as the atoms of an
element having same number of protons or electrons (i.e., atomic number) but differ in
number of neutrons (mass number).
Hydrogen is the only
eg, H (protium), H (deuterium), qH (tritium, radioactive) are element, isotopes of
isotopes of hydrogen and C,C.C are isotopes of carbon. which have different
names.
Isotopes of an element have same number of electrons and
FolonHum has the
OCcupy the same position in the periodic table. Isotopes of an
maximum number of
element have same chemical properties but different physical
isotopes.
properties.
 Eneyelopedia OF GEN ERAL SCIENCE
240 * *** ** ** ** *** *** ** ** **

Isobars
It is derived from the Greek words isos' (means 'equal) and 'baros Artificial
(means weight). meaning equal or same weight. Atoms of different isobars are
elements having same mass number (A) but different atomic number obtained by the
emission of
(Z), are termed as isobars.
B-particles from
radioactive
e.g, S, 17
CI,
8 Ar, 19K, 20 Ca have same nucleons or mass number
elements.
but differ in atomic number. The physical properties depend on mass
number which is similar in isobars.
Since, the long form of periodic table is based on atomic number, so isobars are placed
separately in this table.

Isotones
These are the atoms of chernically different elements having same number of neutrons
but different mass number as well as atomic number. eg Na and 12 Mg because they
have (24-12 = 12) and (23-11 = 12) neutrons; 15P and 14 Si as each have 16 neutrons.

Isodiaphers
These refer to the atoms of chemically different elements which have similar difference
between their number of protons and neutrons. e.g., 54 Pu and 2U.

Structural Features of an Atom

In the present perspective, the structural features of an atom are as follows

Shell and Subshell

The orbitals or paths of different and defirnite energies in which the electrons revolve, are
called shells. The energy of innermost shell is lowest and of outermost shell is largest.
Symbols K, L, M, Nare used to represent various shells from lower to upper energy.
Each orbit or shell consists of one or more subshells depending upon the three
dimensional graphic plot of electronic wave function and the internal atomic compostion.
Each subshell is associated with one or more orbitals that are represented by the small
letters s, p, d and frespectively.

Shell
Total Number of
Subshell Orbital Electrons
K-shell (n =1) 1 (only s) 2
L-shell tn= 2) |2 (s and p) 1+3 4
18
M-shell (n =3)
3 (s,p and d) |1+3+5 9
=
N-shell (n = 4) |4 (s,p,d and ) 1+3+5+7 16 32
0-shell (n= 5)
5 (sp,df and g) 1+3+5+7+9 25 50
P-shell (n=6) |6 (s,p,d.fg and h) |1+3+5+7+9+1l= 36 72
Q-shell n= 7 (s,p,d,f.g.h and ) 1+3+5+7+9+11 +13 = 49 98
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
241

Orbitals
The three-dimensional space, present around the nucleus of an atom, where probability
of finding an electron is maximum, is called orbital. Each orbital is associated with a fixed
number of electrons. e.g, the maximum number of electrons present in s, p, d and f
subshells are 2, 6, 10 and 14 respectively.
Shapes of Orbitals
The s-orbitals are spherical in shape and have symmetrical orientation. For all
s-orbitals, there are (n-1) number of spherical nodes where probability of finding
an electron is zero.
The p-orbitals are three in number and dumb-bell shaped with two lobes of same
size on each side of nucleus. The two lobes are separated by a plane in which the
probability of finding an electron is zero.
The d-orbitals are five in number. Four of these have a double dumb-bell shape
whereas fifth is dumb-bell in shape with collar of high electron density.

Electronic Configuration:
Distribution of Electrons in Different Orbits (Shells)
It is an arrangement of electrons in various shells, subshells and orbitals of an atom.

Bohr Burry Scheme

The distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom was suggested by Bohr and
Burry in 1921. According to them, the electrons enter in the orbit in accordance with the
following rules
(i) Maximum number of electrons in a shell is given by the formula 2n.
(n = 1, 2, 3,... for K, L, M,... shells)
(ii) The outermost shell can have a maximum of 8 electrons.
ii) The penultimate orbit can not have more than 8 electrons until there are 2 electrons
in the outermost orbit.
(iv) To have more than 2 electrons in the outermost orbit, there must be 18 electrons in
the penultimate orbit and 2 electrons in the outermost orbit.
(v) To have 18 electrons in an orbit, the inner orbital must be complete and the outermost
and the penultimate orbit must have 2 and 8 electrons respectively.
(vi) Electrons are filled in shells in stepwise manner i.e., from inner to outer.

Electrons Distribution in Various Shells for Some Elements

Name of Symbol Atomic Number of Distribution of Electrons
Element Number Electrons M
Hydrogen
Helium 1e 2
Beryllium Be
Neon Ne 10
Sodium Na 11
Argon Ar 18 8
Potassium 19 9 2 8 8
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n Type Scheme
It is written as 2, 8, 8,18, 32, or as nl* (where, n indicates the principal quantum number, l|

indicates the azimuthal quantum number., or subshell and x is the number of electrons).
eg., 2s means that two electrons are present in the s-subshell of second energy level.

Rules for Filling Electrons in the Orbitals

Filling of electrons in different orbitals is governed by the following three rules

Aufbau Principle
Aufbau, a German word, means 'building up' or 'constructiorn. The building up of orbitals
means the filling up of orbitals with electrons.
The principle states that in the ground state of the atoms,
the orbitals are filled in the order of their increasing
energies ie., orbitals of lower energy are filled first and
when it is filled up completely, the remaining electrons 2
enter in the orbitalof next higher energy.
The electrons are filled in the following order
1s <2s< 2p< 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p <5s < 4d <5p < ós
4f<5d <óp < 7s<5f< 6d <..
Thus, the orbital of highest energy is filled up in last.
The order can also be learned in the form of the given flow
diagram.

Although 5g, 6g. 6h, 6f. 7s. 7h, 7d, 7f orbitals are also
possible but electrons do not enter in these orbitals under
normal conditions.
es. Na = 1s2, 25,2p,3s; N =1s2,2s,2p; 0=1s,2s,2p
Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
According to this law, "Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell
(p, d or f does not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one
electron each ie., it is singly occupied. This is because in such a condition, spin
multiplicity or stability is maximum but energy is minimum.

Valence and Core Electrons

Electron present in the outermost orbit of the atom is called valence electron and the
electron present in the innermost orbit of the atom is called core electron.
eg Mg (12)- (2, 8) (2)
Core electron Valence electron

The chemical properties of elements depend upon valency of element, which is calculated
from the number of valence electrons.
If number of valence electrons = 1, 2 or 3
Valency = Number of valence electrons
If number of valence electrons24
Valency = 8- Number of valence electrons
The energy of valence electrons is higher than that of the core electrons.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
243

Quantum Numbers
The quantum numbers are the set of four numbers that give conmplete information about
(i) the position or energy (i.e., orbit number or shell),
(ii) subshell,
ii) orientation (i.e., orbitals of the subshell) and
(iv) spinning (i.e., direction of rotation in the orbital) of an electron.

Principal Quantum Number (n)

It is a positive integer with value of n = 1, 2,3,... It identifies the shell or orbit number of
an electron. It also determines the size and energy of the orbital. As the value of 'n'
increases, energy of orbital increases. n =1showsthat electron is present in normal state.

Azimuthal Quantum Number or Angular Momentum Quantum

Number ()
It is used to describe subshell or angular momentum of the revolving electron. In other
words, it defines the three dimensional shape of the orbital.
If I = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
Subshell =s, p, d, 8,.. ,
For principal quantum number n, I has the values from O to (n - 1).
eg., if n =1, then l = 0 and if n =3 then l =0, 1, 2

Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

It determines the orientation of orbitals in space or direction of an orbital in the space of
magnetic field. Its value depends upon the value of lI. Its values vary from -I,..., O,.., +L
Total values of m = (21+1) = number of orbitals in a subshell (1)
IF l= 0, then m = 0 (ie., there is only 1 s-orbital)

Ifl=1, then m=-1, 0, +1 (i.e., there are three p-orbitals)

If l= 2, then m = -2,-1, 0, + 1, +2 (ie., there are five d-orbitals)

Spin Quantum Number (s)

It represents the spin of an electron in an orbital. Quantum mechanically, two types of
spins are possible for an electron, these are clockwise or anti-clockwise. The value of s
+
may be or-The spinning electron possesses spin angular momentum which is
quantized. Thus, an orbital cannot hold more than two electrons and these two electrons
should have opposite spins.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

It was given after the introduction of concept of quantum number. The number of
electrons to be filed in various orbitals is restricted by the exclusion principle, given by
the Austrian scientist Wolfgang Pauli (1926), according to which "No two electrons in arn
atom can have the same set of all the four quantum numbers. If two electrons have same
values of n,land m (three quantum numbers), then they must differ in the value of s (ie.,
if it is+for
2
one, it must be-for other). The maximum number of electrons in the shell
2
with principal quantum number n is equal to 2n-
3 Bonding and
Chemical Reactions
Chemical Bond
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions, etc) together in
different chemical species to maintain a mutual atomic order and a definite but specific
geometrical shape, is called a chemical bond. During the formation of a chemical bond,
energy is released, i.e., it is an exothermic process and occurs with the decrease in free
energy of the system.

Valency
The combining power (or capacity of mutual combination) of an element is called its
valency. Valency of noble gases, previously called inert gases i.e., Helium (He), Neon Ne),
Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn)] is zero. They generally do not take
part in chemical bonding because they have completely filled or very stable outermost
shell, i.e., 8 electrons (octet) in their outermost shell (except He atom, which has
2 electrons in its outermost shel).
In other words, noble gases have no tendency to lose, gain or The word valence
share the electrons and hence, they exist in free or monoatomic Came from Latin word
form. Valency of an element is equal to the number of valentia' meaning
electrons lost or gained during the formation of a compound. It strength, capacity.
generally depends upon the number of valence electrons.
The electrons present
If an atom has 1, 2, 3 or 4 valence electrons, then its valency = in the outermost shell
number of valence electrons. of an atom are called
If an atom has 5, 6, 7 or 8 valence electrons, then its valency the valence electrons
and the outermost
=8 number of valence electrons. shell is caled the
e.g, in Na (2, 8, 1), there is one valence electron, so it loses the Valence shell.
valence electron to achieve octet in valence shell and forms
Na (2, 8).

Electronic Theory of Chemical Bonding (Octet Rule)

Kossel and Lewis in 1916 developed a theory of chemical combination between atoms
known as electronic theory of chemical bonding which was based on inertness of
noble gases.
BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
245
According to this theory "atoms can combine either by transfer of valence electrons from
one atom to another (gaining or losing) or by sharing of valence electrons in order to have
an octet or stable configuration just like noble gases in their valence shells. This is known
as octet rule.

lons
The electrically charged species atoms or group of atoms are known as ions.
The positively charged ion is called cation and is obtained by the lose of one or
more electrons from an atom. The negatively charged ion is called an anion and is
oDtained by the gain of one or more electrons
e.g, sodium chloride (NaCl). Its constituent particles are positively charged sodium
ion Na"(cation) and negatively charged chloride ion Cl (anion).
All metallic elements form cations (eg, Na", Mg", Ca, Al°*), so also called
electropositive elements while all non-metallic elements form anions (eg, F.C,
O,cO), so also called electronegative elements.
NH cations are made from non-metals.
Hand
Types of Bonding
Bonding is broadly divided into two classes
) Chemical bonding (ionic, covalent and coordinate bond)
(ii) Physical bonding (hydrogen and van der waals' bonding)

Ionic or Electrovalent Bond

The bond formed, as a result of the electrostatic attraction between the positive and
negative ions, is termed as electrovalent bond. The transfer of electrons takes place in
such a way so that each combining element achieves complete octet (or duplet in case of
H and He).
The compound formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal toa non-metal atom is
known as ionic or electrovalent compound.
e.g., formation of sodium chloride from sodium and chlorine.

Na
x
Na +:C]: |:CI:
2,8,1 2,8.7 2,8 2.8,8
(i) Sodium atom has one electron in its valence shell so it loses its one electron to attain
octet in its outer shell and forms Na" ion.
(ii) Similarly, Cl atom has 7 electrons in its valence shell so it gains one electrorn from
sodium to attain octet in its outer shell and forms CI ion.
(i) The Na" and C ions bind together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
Other examples of ionic compounds are MgCl2, CaO, NH,CI, NaOH, etc.
The electrovalency is equal to the number of unit charge (s) present on the ion(s). Thus, in the
above example electrovalency of Na and Clis 1.

Characteristics of Ionic or Electrovalent Compounds

i) lonic compounds are generally crystalline solids i.e., have definite shape and are
somewhat hard and brittle because of the long distance orders of their constituent
particles.
i) They have high melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces of
attraction.
ii) These are non-volatile and have high density.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
246
iv) These are soluble in polar solvent like water because of high dielectric constant of
water and insoluble in non-polar solvents like benzene, acetone, kerosene, petrol, etc
because these are covalent in nature.
(v) They can conduct electricity in their aqueous state and in molten state due to the
presence of mobile ions ie., in these states they behave like an electrolyte. However,
these are unable to conduct electricity in solid state because ions are held together by
strong electrostatic forces of attraction i.e., ions are not free.
(vi) lonic compounds undergo very fast reactions in solution.

Covalent Bond
The bond formed due to sharing of electrons between two similar atoms or different
atoms having almost similar electronegativity, is called covalent bond. The sharing occurs
in such a way that the formed molecules achieve a permanent electronic structure just
like noble gases.
The compounds that are the result of sharing of electrons are called covalent compounds
For example, formation of Cl2 molecule. Each Cl atom has one electron short for the octet
configuration. Both Cl atoms attain the Outer shell octet by sharing of a pair of electrons.
Each Cl atom contributes one electron to the shared pair.

Single, Double and Triple Covalent Bonds

When two atoms share one electron pair, the covalent bond between them is called a
single covalent bond.
e.g H-H or

Single Bond in Ha Molecules

When two atoms share two pairs of electrons, the covalent bond between them is called a
double covalent bond.

e-g O-C-O or
se e 8e
Double Band in CO2 Molecules

When combining atoms share three pairs of electrons, the covalent bond between them
is called a triple covalent bond.

e.g, N=N or NNE)

Triple Band in Ng Molecules

Covalency
In a covalent compound, covalency of an atom is the number of electrons which
are supplied by that atom for sharing. e.g, in Ha molecules, covalency of each
hydrogen is 1, in N2 molecules, covalency of each nitrogen atom is 3 and in CH4
covalency of C is 4 and of H is 1.

Characteristics of Covalent Compounds

() n general, covalent compounds are gases or Iiquids. Some of the compounds are soft
solids with a few exceptions like diamond, silica (SiO2), carborundum (Sic), etc.
1i) They have relatively low melting and boiling points because of weaker
intermolecular forces of attraction.
BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
247
ii) These are insoluble in water but soluble irn non-polar HCI although is a
solvents like benzene, carbon tetrachloride, etc. However, COvalent compound
some of them like sugar, alcohol are miscible with water due but dissolves in water
to hydrogen bonding. due to separation of
iv) Covalent compounds are bad conductors of electricity in ons in aqueous
molten as well as in solid state. However, graphite can medium and hence,
it can conduct
conduct electricity as it possesses free electrons.
electricity in aqueous
(v The covalent bond is rigid and directional, therefore. Solution.
covalent molecules have specific shapes.
(vi) The reactions of covalent compounds are slow and complex.

Types of Covalent Bond

On the basis of polarity, the covalent bond can be of two types
) Non-polar Covalent Bond When covalent bond is formed between two similar
atoms, eg, H2, O2. Cl2. N2 or F2. the shared pair of electrons is equally attracted by
two atoms and situated exactly between two identical nuclei. The bond so formed is
called non-polar covalent bond.
i) Polar Covalent Bond In case of heteronuclear molecule like HF, the shared pair of
electrons between two atoms gets displaced more towards fluorine, since
electronegativity of F is greater than H. The resultant bond is polar covalent bond.

H-F, H-Ci F-Be-F

Shapes and Bond Angle of Some Covalent Molecules
Molecule Shape Bond Angle Examples
Linear 180° Berylium chloride (BeCl2), ethyne (C2H2), cartbon dioxide (CO2),
Zinc chloride (Zntl;) and hydrogen (H)
Trigonal planar 120° Boron trifluoride (BF), boron trichloride (BCI), boron hydride
(BH, aluminium chloride (AIClg), ethene (CgH)
Tetrahedral 109.5 Methane (CHa), ammonium ion (NH ), carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4), silicon tetrachloride (SiClg)
Irigonal bipyramidal 90°, 120° Phosphorus pentachloride (PCI), phosphorus pentafluoride

Octahedral 90 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF)

Bent Less than 120° Sulphur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O)
Pyramidal Less than 109°28' Ammonia (NH3), phosphine (PH), phosphorus trifluoride (PCl3)
V-shape/angular Less than 109° 28 Water (H,0), hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
See-saw Less than 109 28' Sulphur tetrafluoride (SFA), sulphur tetrachloride (SCl4)
T-shape 90 Chlorine trifluoride (CIF)
Square pyramidal Less than 90° lodine pentachloride (ICl)
Square planar 90 Xenon tetrafluoride (XeFa), Cupraammonium ion [Cu(NH3)4*

Coordinate Bond or Coordinate Covalent Bond or

Dative Bond
It is a special type of covalent bond in which both the shared electrons are donated by
only one of the atoms. The atom supplying the electrons pair is called donar atom and
that receiving the electrons pair is called acceptor atom.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
248
This bond is represented by placing an arrow pointing towards the accepto
eg., formation of hydronium ion (H,O*)

HT
H-O:+
LH-H(H,0)
Hydronium ion
or LH-0-HJ

Characteristics of Compounds
having Coordinate Bonds
() These compounds exist in all the three states
ie., solid, liquid and gas under ordinary
conditions.
i) The melting and boiling points of these
compounds are higher than that of covalent
compounds but lower than that of ionic
compounds.
ii) Like covalent compounds, these are poor
conductors of electricity.
(iv They are sparingly soluble în water but
readily soluble in organic solvents.
(V) Like covalent compounds the reactions of
these compounds are slow.
Some compounds have both types
of bonding ie, ionic as well as
cOvalent bonding. e.g, sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), potassium
hydroxide (KOH), sulphuric acid
(H,SO4) and sodium carbonate
(Na,cO3, etc.
The electrons of an atom that do
not involve in bonding are called
lone pair of electrons. eg,
H-N-H Lone pair of electrons

Hydrogen Bond
The attractive forces between a hydrogen atom (which is already covalently to a strong
electronegative atom i.e., N, O or F) and an electronegative atom is known as hydrogen
bond. Thus, it is formed between hydrogen atom of one molecule and an electronegative
atom of another molecule.

-
e.g.,
Hydrogen bond

Covalent bond
These bonds are present in inorganic molecules like water as well as in organic molecules
like DNA.

van der Waals' Forces

These are the sum of attractive or repulsive
interactions between molecules other than those
Everyday Science.
due to covalent bonds or to the electrostatic The ability of geckos, which
interaction of ions with one another or with can hang on a glass Surface
using only one toe, to climb
neutral mnolecules. These are relatively weak as on sheer surfaces has been
compared to normal chemical bonds and can be of attributed to the van der
the following three types Waals' forces between
(i) Forces between two permanent dipoles these surtaces and spatulae
(Keesom forces). or microscopic projections,
which cover the hair-like
i1) Forces between a permnanent dipole and a setae found on their footpads,
corresponding induced dipole (Debye forces).
(ii) Forces between two instantaneously induced dipoles (London or dispersion forces).
London forces dominate the interaction of non-polar molecules.
. BONDTNG AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
247
(ii) These are insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar HCI although is a
solvents like benzene, carbon tetrachloride, etc. However, COvalent compound
some of them like sugar, alcohol are miscible with water due but dissoves in water
to hydrogen bonding due to separation of
iv) Covalent compounds are bad conductors of electricity in tons in aqueous
molten as well as in solid state. However, graphite can medium and hence,
it can conduct
conduct electricity as it possesses free electrons.
electricity in aqueousS
(v) The covalent bond is rigid and directional, therefore,
solution.
cOvalent molecules have specific shapes.
(vi) The reactions of covalent compounds are slow and complex.

Types of Covalent Bond

On the basis of polarity, the covalent bond can be of two types
) Non-polar Covalent Bond When covalent bond is formed between two similar
atoms, eg, H2, O2. Cl2. N2 or F2. the shared pair of electrons is equally attracted by
two atoms and situated exactly between two identical nuclei. The bond so formed is
called non-polar covalent bond.
ii) Polar Covalent Bond Incase of heteronuclear molecule like HF, the shared pair of
electrons between two atoms gets displaced more towards fluorine, since
electronegativity of F is greater than H. The resultant bond is polar covalent bond.
H-F. H-Ci F-Be--F
Shapes and Bond Angle of Some Covalent Molecules
Molecule Shape Bond Angle Examples
Linear 180° Beryllium chloride (BeCl2), ethyne (CH%), carbon dioxide (CO2),
Zinc chloride {ZnCi%) and hydrogen (H;)
Trigonal planar 120° Boron trifluoride (BF), boron trichloride (BCI), boron hydride
(EHa), aluminium chloride (AICla), ethene (CaH4
Tetrahedral 109.5 Methane (CH), ammonium ion (NH), carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4), Silicon tetrachloride (SiCla)
Trigonal bipyramidal90°, 120° Phosphorus pentachloride (PCIg). phosphorus pentafluoride

Octahedral 90 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF)

Bent Less than 120° Sulphur dioxide (S02), ozone (O)
Pyramidal Less than 109° 28 Ammonia (NH), phosphine (PH), phosphorus trifluoride (PCI)
V-shape/angular Less than 109° 28 Water (H,0), hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
See-saw Less than 109 28' Sulphur tetrafluoride (SFa), sulphur tetrachloride (SCl4)
T-shape 90 Chlorine trifluoride (CIF)
Square pyramidal Less than 90 lodine pentachloride (1Ci5)
Square planar 90° Xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4), Cupraammonium ion [Cu{NH)41*

Coordinate Bond or Coordinate Covalent Bond or

Dative Bond
It is a special type of covalent bond in which both the shared electrons are donated by
only one of the atoms. The atom supplying the electrons pair is called donar atom and
that receiving the electrons pair is called acceptor atom.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
248
This bond is represented by placing an arrow pointing towards the accepto
eg., formation of hydronium ion (H,O*)

HT
H-O:+
LH-H(H,0)
Hydronium ion
or LH-0-HJ

Characteristics of Compounds
having Coordinate Bonds
() These compounds exist in all the three states
ie., solid, liquid and gas under ordinary
conditions.
i) The melting and boiling points of these
compounds are higher than that of covalent
compounds but lower than that of ionic
compounds.
ii) Like covalent compounds, these are poor
conductors of electricity.
(iv They are sparingly soluble în water but
readily soluble in organic solvents.
(V) Like covalent compounds the reactions of
these compounds are slow.
Some compounds have both types
of bonding ie, ionic as well as
cOvalent bonding. e.g, sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), potassium
hydroxide (KOH), sulphuric acid
(H,SO4) and sodium carbonate
(Na,cO3, etc.
The electrons of an atom that do
not involve in bonding are called
lone pair of electrons. eg,
H-N-H Lone pair of electrons

Hydrogen Bond
The attractive forces between a hydrogen atom (which is already covalently to a strong
electronegative atom i.e., N, O or F) and an electronegative atom is known as hydrogen
bond. Thus, it is formed between hydrogen atom of one molecule and an electronegative
atom of another molecule.

-
e.g.,
Hydrogen bond

Covalent bond
These bonds are present in inorganic molecules like water as well as in organic molecules
like DNA.

van der Waals' Forces

These are the sum of attractive or repulsive
interactions between molecules other than those
Everyday Science.
due to covalent bonds or to the electrostatic The ability of geckos, which
interaction of ions with one another or with can hang on a glass Surface
using only one toe, to climb
neutral mnolecules. These are relatively weak as on sheer surfaces has been
compared to normal chemical bonds and can be of attributed to the van der
the following three types Waals' forces between
(i) Forces between two permanent dipoles these surtaces and spatulae
(Keesom forces). or microscopic projections,
which cover the hair-like
i1) Forces between a permnanent dipole and a setae found on their footpads,
corresponding induced dipole (Debye forces).
(ii) Forces between two instantaneously induced dipoles (London or dispersion forces).
London forces dominate the interaction of non-polar molecules.
BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
249
Chemical Formulaa
The chemical formula of a compound is symbolic representation of its composition. To
write a chemical formula of a compound, we need to learn symbols and combining
capacity of the elements ie., valency.
While writing the chemical formulae for compounds, we write the constituent elements
and their valencies as shown in the examples given below.
Examples
1. Hydrogen chloridee
Symbol

Valency 1
Formula of the compound would be HCl.
2. Ammonium sulphate
Formula NH4 S04
Charge 14
X
Formula of the compound would be (NH4)2 SO4.
In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the ion is enclosed in a bracket before
writing the number which indicates the ratio. In case the number of polyatomic ion is
one, the bracket is not required, e.g, NaOH.

Types of Chemical Formula

Chemical formula is classified into three groups
i) Empirical Formula It represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms
present in a compound. eg, the empirical formula of ethane (C2H,) is CHg.
(i) Molecular Formula It shows the exact number of different types of atoms present
in a molecule of a compound.
If the mass per cent of various elements present in a compound is known, its
empirical formula can be determined. Molecular formula can further be obtained, if
the molar mass is known.
Mass of that element in the compouna
Mass % of an element= 100
Molar mass of the compound
Molecular formula = (Empirical formula),

where,
Molar mass
Empirical formula massS

(i) Structural Formula The structural arrangement of the atoms in a compound is

termed as structural formula.

e.g., structural formula of ethane (C2H,) is H-C-C-H.

 Eneyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
250

Chemical Reaction
The process in which substances (reactants) react to form new compounds (products), is
known as chemical reaction. This process involves the breaking of old bonds and
formation of new bonds. If bond energies of reactants are greater than the bond energies
of products, the reaction occurs with the evolution of energy in the form of heat.
However, in an opposite condition, absorption of energy takes place.

Characteristics of a Chemical Reaction

A chernical reaction can be observed with the help of any of the following observations
ti) Change in state (i) Change in colour
(ii) Evolution of a gas (iv) Change in temperature
v) Formation of precipitate

Chemical Equation
The short representation of a chemical reaction with the help of symbols of elements or
formula of compounds is called chemical equation.
() The substances or compounds which take part in a reaction are called reactants.
These are written on the left hand side (LHS) with a plus sign(+) in between them.
(ii) The substances or compounds formed in the course of reaction are called products.
These are written on the right hand side (RHS) witha plus sign (+) in between them.
ii) The arrow head ()points towards the products which shows the direction of reaction.
e.g, zinc reacts with sulphuric acid to form zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas.
Zn
(Zinc)
+
H,SO4 ZnSO4 + H2(g)
(Sulphuric (Zinc (Hydrogen)
acid) sulphate)

Rules for Writing a Balanced Chemical Equation

i) The number of atoms of reactants should be equal to the number of atoms of
products. (According to the law of conservation of mass)
e.g Fe+ H20 Feg0+ H2
As per rule, the above equation is incorrect and can be correctly written as
3Fe+ 4H,0 Fe04 + 4H2
(ii) The physical states of reactants and products should be mentioned along with their
chemical formula in parenthesis.
The above equation can be written in accordance to rule (i1) as
3Fels)+ 4H,Olg) Fe,Oa (s)+ 4Hale)
Thermochemical Equation
The equation in which enthalpy change (heat energy) is written along with the
reaction, is called thermochemical equation.
e.g N 29)+ 3 H,(9) 2 NH3t 22.5 kcal
lonic Equation
The equation in which atoms or ions (cations/anions) are used to represent the
reactants and products, is called ionic equation.
e.g, Zn+ Cu" Zn+ Cu
Cat+2e" Ca(s)
BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
251

Types of Chemical Reactions

Different types of chemical reactions are as follows
1. Combination Reaction Everyday Science
A reaction in whicha single new product is
A solution of slaked lime is usedfor
formed from two or more reactants, is called white washing the walls.
a combination reaction. Such reactions may
Calcium hydroxide reacts slowly with
Occur in between the element or carbon diOxide in air to form a thin
compounds. layer of calcium carbonate on the
For example, formation of slaked lime by the walls. It gives a shiny finish to the
walls.
reaction of calcium oxide with water.
A bright light was observed when a
CaOls)+ HO(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)
magnesium wire was ignited inside a
Quick me Slaked lime
block of dry ice.
Other examples of combination reactions are
i) Burning of coal C(s)+ O2(g) CO2(g)
(ii) Formation of water from H2({g) and O,(g)

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H20 (1)

2. Decomposition Reaction
A chemical reaction in which a single reactant (compound) breaks down to give simpler
products, is called a decomposition reaction. The decomposition reactions require energy
in the form of heat, light or electricity. Therefore, decomposition reactions are of three
types
(1)
Thermal Decomposition When a decomposition is carried out by heating, it is
called thermal decomposition.
For example, decomposition of calcium carbonate to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
upon heating.
CaCO(s) Heating CaO (s) + CO2(g)
Lime stone Quick ime
Another example of thermal decomposition is the decomposition of lead nitrate to
lead oxide, nitrogen dioxide (brown fumes) and oxygen.
2Pb{NO3)2 Heat 2PbOls) + 4NO2(8). + O2
Lead nitrate Lead oxide Nitrogen dioxide Oxygen
i) Photolysis When a decomposition reaction is brought about by sunlight, it is called
photolysis.
Sunlight 2Ag(s)+ Cl2\E)
For example,
The above reaction is used in black & white photogrophy since silver chloride or silver
bromide turns grey in sunlight.
When metal salts are heated, their ions emit variouS colours of light.
Decomposition reaction is the reverse of the combination reaction.
Decomposition reaction of calciurm carbonate is used in various industries, eg, in the
manutacturing of cement.
ii) Electrolysis When a decomposition reaction is brought about by electricity, it is
called electrolysis.
Electric current
For example, 2H,O(1) 2H2 + O2
Water Cathode Anode
252 . Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE

3. Displacement Reaction
A reaction in which more reactive element displaces less reactive element from its
compound present in dissolved state, is called a displacement reaction.
For example, when an iron nail is suspended in aqueous solution of copper sulphate for
20 minutes, it becomes brownish and the blue colour of the solution is slightly faded. This
indicates that iron has displaced copper from copper sulphate solution.
For example, Fels) + CusO4 (aq)
Iron Copper sulphate
(aq) FeSO4 (s)
Iron sulphate
+Cu
(reddish brown)
[blue colOur)

Zinc and lead are more reactive elements than copper, so they displace Cu from the
aqueous solutions of its compounds.
4. Double Displacement Reaction
A chemical reaction in which there is an exchange of ions between the reactants to give
new substances, is called a double displacement reaction.
For example, Na2S04 (aq) +BaCl2 laq) BaSO4 (s) +2NaClaq)
Sodiunm Barum
Dloridee Barium sulphate Sodium chloride
Sulpnate Cnio (wnite ppt.
In the above reaction, precipitates are formed. So, this reaction is also known as
precipitation reaction.

5. Neutralisation Reaction
Acids and bases neutralise each other to form corresponding salts and water. This
reaction is called neutralisation reaction. If acid and base both are strong, 57.1 kJ heat is
released during the process.
For example, HCl+NaOH NaCl + H20
Acid Base Salt

6. Isomerisation or Rearrangement Reaction

A chemical reaction in which the atoms of the molecule of a compound undergo
rearrangement, is called an isomerisation or rearrangement reaction. It is generally seen
in case of organic compounds.
For example, isomerisation of ammonium cyanate into urea.
NH CNO NH,CONH2
Ammonum cyanate Urea

7. Reversible and Irreversible Reaction

A chemical reaction which proceeds in both the directions, is called a reversible reaction.
For example, formation of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen by Haber's process.
Fe. Mo
N2+ H2 2NH
Ammoniaa

Achemical reaction which proceeds only in one direction, is called irreversible reaction.
For example, 2NaOH+ H2SO4 NaS04 + 2H,O
8. Hydrolysis Reaction
It is the reaction between salts of weak acid or weak base with water. Due to high
dielectric constant, water has a very strong hydrating tendency. It dissolves many ionic
compounds. However, certain covalent and some ionic compounds are hydrolysed in water.
For example, CHCOONa + H,O- CH COOH + NaOH
Sodium acetate Acetic acid Sodium hydroxide
BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
253
9. Photochemical Reaction
These chemical reactions take place in the presence of sunlight.
Sunlight +
For example, 6CO2 12H,0- CHi2O +6H20 602
Photosynthesis

The rate of a photochemical reaction is affected by the intensity of light.

Photosensitizer is a substance which brings about a reaction without undergoing any
chemical change itset. In the process of photosynthesis, chiorophyll acts as a photosensitizer.
10. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Reactions occurring with the evolution of energy are called exotherrmic reactions, e.g.,
respiration, decomposition, burning of natural gas, etc whereas reactions for the
ocCurrence of which energy is absorbed, are called endothermic reactions. e.g., digestion.
A+B C+AE (exothermic)
A+B C-AE (endothermic)
11. Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation It is defined as a chenical reaction in which a substance gains oxygen or any
other electronegative element or loses hydrogen or electrons and shows increase in
Oxidation number
Heat
For example, 2Cu+O2- 2CuO (Copper is oxidised to Cuo)
CuO+ H2 Cu+ H,0 (Hydrogen is oxidised to H20)
Reduction It is defined as a chemical reaction in which a substance gains hydrogen or
electropositive element or electrons or loses oxygen or electronegative element and
shows decrease in oxidation number.
For example, Oxidation (gain of oxygen)

Heat
CuO+H2 Cu+H20
Reduction (loss of oxygen)

Oxidising Agent and Reducing Agent Acceptor of electrons is oxidising agent

(oxidant). Donor of electrons is reducing agent (reductant). In short, a substance which is
oxidised or oxidation number of which is increased acts as a reducing agent while a
Substance which is reduced or oxidation number of which is decreased acts as an
oxidising agent.
+1- Some substances Such as
For example, Znís)+2HCl(aq)- ZnClfag)+ Hz(s) nitrous acid (HNO2), sulphur
Oxidation number of Zn is increased from 0 to +2 dioxide (SO2) and sulphurous
therefore, zinc is oxidised, while oxidation number of H acid (H,SO3) act as both
is reduced from +1 to 0 therefore, His reduced. Further, reducing as well as oxIdising
agent because in them, N and
zinc helps hydrogen in HCl to decrease its oxidation
Satoms are present in their
number, so Zn is reductant (reducing agent) and intermediate oxidation state
hydrogen in HCl is Oxidant (oxidising agent). (oxidation state of N in HNO, is
Some examples of reducing agents are hydrogen, +3 and of S in SO, and H,SO
Sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, are respectively +4 and +4)
carbon, etc and some examples of oxidising agents are in CO2, the oxidation state of C
is +4 which is its maximum
Oxygen, ozone, hydrogen peroxide, potassium
oxidation state, so its further
permanganate, potassium dichromate, etc.
Oxidation is not possible.
 Eneyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
254
Oxidation State or Oxidation Number The valence is the most characteristic
property of the elements. NoW-a-days, the term oxidation state or oxidation number is
frequently used for valence. The real or imaginary charge which an atom appears to have
in its combined state, is called oxidation state or oxidation number of that atom.
Rules for the caleulation of oxidation number are fhe oxidation number of
() The oxidation number of an atom in its elemental state an element varies from its
is zero.e.g., Oxidation number of H in H2, Sin Sg and P in group number or number
P4 is zero. of valance-8 to + number
(ii) The oxidation number of F is always 1 in all of its ofvalencee". eg, N (2, 5)
compounds. Contains 5 electrons in its
valence shel, so its
(ii) The oxidation number of O is always-2 except
Oxidation state varies frorn
peroxides (-1), superoxides and oxygen fuorides -3(5 8) to +5. Thus, the
Oxidation number of an
(+2 or +1. element can never be more
(iv) The oxidation number of H in metallie hydrides is -1 than the number of valence
while in rest of the compounds it has +1 oxidation electrons present in it.
number.
(v) The oxidation number of an ion is equal to the charge present on it.
(vi) For complex ions, the sum of oxidation number of all the atoms is equal to the net
charge on the ion.
vi) The sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms present in a molecule is zero.
For example, oxidation state of O in OF> is calculated as
X+(-1)2=0 x=+2
Similarly, in H20
2x1+x=0 > x =-2

Effects of Chemical Reactions in Our Daily Life

Fermentation of fruits, digestion of food inside the stomach of human body, respiration,
burning of fuel, corrosion and rancidity are some examples of reaction in our daily life.

Corrosion
It is the process of oxidative deterioration of a metal surface by the action of substances
present in environment to form unwanted corrosion products. In other words, it is the
process of formation of oxide or other salts on the surface of a metal when it is exposed to
the atmosphere.
In this process, the metal surface which is in direct contact of air and moisture gets
Oxidised and forms a mixture of oxide and hydroxides. The process is continued until the
metal is not destroyed completely.
eg, conversion of iron into rust [FegOg xH2O], tarnishing of silver (due to the formation
of Ag29), development of green coating of Cu{OH)2 CuCOg (basic copper carbonate) on
copper and bronze. It is basically an electrochemical process.
2Fels)+0,(g) + xH,O(I) FeOa xH,Ojs)
Iron Hydrated ferric
From moist air Oxide (rust)

2Cu(s)+ CO2(g) +O2(g)+ H,O(l) CucO3 CulOH)2

Copper Basic copper
From moist air carbonate (green)
. BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS .. . . 255
2Agls) + H2S(g) A82S[5).+H2{8)
Silver Silver sulphide
Hydrogen (black)
sulphide (from air)
Corrosion of iron is called rusting. It is accelerated by the presence of impurities, H",
electrolytes such as NaCl, gases such as CO2, S02, NO, NO2, etc.
It is prevented by the following methods
By electroplating
By surface coating (coating of surface with oil, grease, paint and varnish)
By alloyirng
By galvarnisation of iron (process of deposition of a thin layer of zincover iron surface)
By anodising (generally done by using aluminium metal as anode because it becomes
passive due to the formation of its oxide layer over its surface)
Food cans are coated with tin, not with Zn because Zn is more reactive than iron and hence
readily converts into toxic substances.
Formation of a layer of aluminium oxide over aluminium surtace protects the metal from
further corrosion.
Platinum, gold, siiver are the metals that do not undergo corrosion and hence, are called
noble metals.

Fermentation
Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation in 1857. In this process, complex organic
compounds are decomposed by micro-organisms Such as yeast and bacteria into simpler
organic compounds. It is an exothermic process. CO2 gas (Ha and CH4 in small amount) is
evolved in this process and the appearance of gas seems like boiling the fermentive
solution of the substance.
Examples of fermentation are
i) Conversion of milk into curd through lactobacili.
(ii) Preparation of wine and vinegar from sugarcane juice or preparation of ethyl alcohol from
glucose by using yeast.
ii) In baking industry for making breads, pastries and cakes.

Rancidity
When oils and fats or foods containing oils and fats are exposed to air or oxygen, they get
Oxidised due to which the food becomes stale and its colour and smell changes. This
process is called rancidity.
t is prevernted by the following methods
Antioxidants like BHT (Butylated hydroxytoluene), N2 (dinitrogen) are added to foods
containing fats and oils.
The food is kept in airtight containers in the refrigerator or deep freezers.

Everyday Science
A sliced apple turns brown if kept open for sometimes due to the oxidation of iron present
in the apple.
Corrosion causes damage to car bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships and to all objects
made of metals, specially those of iron.
Corrosion of iron is a serious problem. Every year an enormous amount of money is spent
to replace damaged iron.
Chips manufacturers usually flush bags of chips with nitrogen gas to prevent the chipss
from getting oxidised.
4 Acids, Bases
and Salts
All the compounds on the basis of their chemical properties can be classified as acids,
bases and salts. They have certain definite properties which distinguish one compound
from other. The sour and bitter tastes of food are due to acids and bases respectively,
present in them.

Acids
The word 'acid' has been derived froma Latin word 'acidus' meaning sour. Thus, acids are
the substances that have sour taste, have one or more replaceable hydrogen atoms and
turn blue litmus and methyl orange to red.
e.g., hydrochloric acid (HCI), nitric acid (HNO,), sulphuric acid (H,S04), etc.

Types of Acids
Acids are classified into following groups
(i) Inorganic or Mineral Acids These are generally prepared from the minerals
present in the earth's crust. e.g, HCI, H2SO4, HNOg, etc.
i) Organic or Edible Acids These are produced by plants or animals.e.g., lactic acid.
(ii) Hydra Acids The acids which contain hydrogen but oxygen is absent, are called
hydra acids. e.g., HCl ({hydrogen chloride), HBr (hydrogen bromide), HCN (hydrogen
cyanide), etc.
(iv) Oxy Acids The acids which contain both hydrogen and oxygen, are called oxy acids.
e.g., H2SO4. HgPO4, HNO, etc.
(v Strong Acids The acids which dissociate completely when dissolved in water, are
called strong acids. e.g, mineral acids like H2SO, (sulphuric acid), HCI (hydrochloric
acid), HNO3 (nitric acid), HgPO (phosphoric acid), etc.
(vi) Weak Acids The acids which dissociate partially when dissolved in water, are called
weak acids. e.g., organic acids like CH3COOH (acetic acid), Oxalic acid and a mineral
acid HaCO, (carbonic acid).
(vi) Dilute Acids If in an aqueous solution, concentration (amount) of acid is low, it is
called dilute acid.
vii) Concentrated Acids If in an aqueous solution, concentration (amount) of acid is
high, it is called concentrated acid.
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
257

Properties of Acids
(i) Acid reacts with metal to liberate hydrogen gas.
Acid + Metal Salt +Hydrogen gas
(1i)Acid reacts with all metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates to formn
corresponding salt, water and evolve carbon dioxide (CO2).
Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogen carbonate-+ Acid-> Salt+Carbon dioxide + Water
(ii) Acid reacts with base to give salt and water.
Acid + Base Salt+WaterT
HCI(aq)+ NaOH(aq)- NaClaq)+ H,O (1)
The reaction between an acid and a base to give a salt and water is known as a
neutralisation reaction.
(iv) Acid reacts with metallic oxides to give salt and water
Metal oxide + Acid Salt+Water
Since this reaction is similar to the reaction
between a base and an acid, we can conclude that Everyday Science
metallic oxides are basic in nature. Sour or sharper flavour of
(v) Acid releases brown fumes of NO2 from nitrite, Coca Cola' or any other soft
H2S from sulphide and SO2 from sulphite. drink is because or the
presence of phosphoric acid
(vi) Acids give hydrogen ions (H) or hydronium ions (HPO4). This acid also
(H0") in water. The separation of H" ions from slows the growth of moulds
acid molecules is not possible in the absence of and bacteria.
water i.e., hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but When lemon juice is added
they exist after combining with water molecules. to baking soda, brisk
effervescence occurs due to
For example, HCl+ H20 H,0* + CI the evolution of CO2 gas.
H+HO H,O
vii) Acids like HCl, HNO3, H2SO4. etc are good conductors of electricity in their aqueous
solutions.
Carboxytic acid reacts with alcoho to form a sweet smelling compound known as ester
This reaction is called esterification.

Carboxylic acid + Alcohol Ester+ Water

Some Naturaly Occurring Acids

Natural Source Acid
Vinegar Acetic acid
Amla, citrus fruits (orange, lemon) Citric acid, vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
Tamarind, grapes, unripe mangoes Tartaric acid
Tomato, sarel tree, spinach Oxalic acid
Sour milk (curd) Lactic acid
Ant sting, nettle sting Methanoic acid (formic acid)
Grass, leaves, urine Benzoic acid
Wheat Glutamic acid
Tea Malic acid

Uses of Acids
() Nitric acid (HNO,) is used for making fertilizers, dyes, plastics, medicines, explosives
(TNT), aqua regia, etc. It is alsO used in photography and as a laboratory reagent.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
258
(i) Sulphuric acid (H2S04) is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, plastics, paints,
explosives, dyes, detergents, accumulated batteries, etc. It is also used in petroleurm
exploration.
(ii) Hydrochloric acid (HCI)is used for making plastics (PVC), medicines, cosmetics, dyes,
textile, aqua regia, etc. It is also used in leather industry and as a laboratory reagent.
(iv) Benzoic acid (CH;COOH) and formic acid (HCOOH) are used as preservatives for
food stuff. Formic acid is also used in making insecticides, in the processing of
rubber and in leather industries.
(v) Citric acid (CHgO,) is used in
the procesSing Everyday Science
and preserving of food stuff, for washing
metals and in cloth industries. Nettle's leaves have stinging
hairs which cause painful
vi) Oxalic acid (HOOC-COH) is used in
stings when touched
photography, in colouration and printing of accidentally. This is due to the
clothes. It is used for bleaching leather and for methanoIC acid secreted by
removing ink or rust spots from the cloth. them. It is neutralised by
(vii) Acetic acid (CHaCOOH) is used as vinegar, in rubbing the area with the leaf
of dock plant which often
the preparation of acetone and in the grows beside the nettle in the
processing of food stuffs.

Bases
Bases turn red litmus to blue, methyl orange to yellow and have bitter taste. Their
solutions are soapy to touch. e.g, potassium hydroxide (KOH), magnesium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2] and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), etc.
In terms of chemistry, bases are those metallic compounds or radicals which react with
acid and neutralise them. În general, metal oxides and hydroxides behave like bases.

Types of Bases
Bases can be classified into two groups on the basis of dissociation in water
() Strong Bases Bases which completely dissociate in waterare called strong bases.
e.g, calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2l. sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide
(KOH), etc.
In general, the oxides and hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals are
strong bases.
i) Weak Bases Bases which partially dissociate in water are called weak bases.
eg., iron hydroxide |PFe(OH)2 ]. ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), magnesium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2l. etc.

Properties of Bases
(1)
Base reacts with metal to form salt and liberates hydrogen gas. However, such
reactions are not possible with all metals. e.g.,
Sodium hydroxide + Zinc Sodium zincate + Hydrogen gas
(ii) Base reacts with acid to form salt and water (neutralisation reaction).

(i) Base reacts with non-metallic oxide to form salt and water. Since this reaction is
similar to the reaction between a base and an acid, we can conclude that non-metallic
Oxides are acidic in nature.
Base + Non-metal oxide Salt + Water
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
259
iv) When a base is dissolved in water, it generates hydroxide ion (OH ion) in water.
KOHs) K'
(aq) +OH (aq)
Mg(OH)s)2Mg2* (aq) + 20H"(aq)
Bases which are soluble în water are called alkalies, e.g., NaOH, KOH, Caf{OH)2,
NH4OH, etc.
Thus, all alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies.
(v The oil and sulphur dissolve in bases. Bases like oxides and hydroxides of Zn, Al, Sn,
etc dissolve in acids as well as in hot concentrated NaOH and KOH solutions, are
termed as amphoteric substances.
(vi) Strong bases like NaOH, KOH, etc are good conductors of electricity in their aqueous
solutions and in molten state as they readily provide ions in these states.

Uses of Bases
i) Calcium hydroxide [Ca{OH},] is used in
manutacturing bleaching powder,
concrete and plaster, in white washing. in
softening water and in the treatment of
acidic soil, etc. Hairs from the outer
Surface of leather can also be removed
with the help of it.
(ii) Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]is used as
an tacid' and in sugar industries.
ii) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used in
manufacturing drugs and hard soaps. It is
also used in paper and textile industry, in
petroleum refining and degreasing
and for cleaning houses.
(iv) Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used as a
laboratory reagent, in the manufacture of
soft soaps, shampoos and shaving creams.
It has a capability of absorbing CO2 and
SO2 gases.
(v) Calcium oxide (CaO) is used as drying
agent, in bleaching powder production and
as a constituent of mortar.
(Vi) Magnesium oxide (MgO) is used as refractory
manufacture of drugs. It is also used as a supplement of rubber
Everyday Science
is very powerful acid
Aqua-regia
and Latin means of itS name is
royal water. 3 part conc. HCl+1
part conc. HNO, IS Known as aqua
regia. It is used to separate silver
and gold.
The atmosphere of venus is made
up of thick white arnd yellowish
Clouds oT SulpnuriC acid. Suphuric
acid (HS04) is used in almost all
car batteries and is known as oil of
vitriol. Though HS04 is known as
king of acids but silver does not
metals
react with dil. H2S04.
Lactic acid is formed when milk is
fermented to form curd.
Fizz sound in soft drinks is
produced due to the decomposition
of carbonic acid (H2C03) into CO2
bubbles.
Pickles are always kept in glass jar
because acid present in them reacts
with the metal of metallic pot.
material in furnaces and in the

Modern Concepts of Acids and Bases

These are as follows
1) Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases According to Arrhenius theory, acids are the
substances that dissociate in water to give hydrogen ions H (aq) and bases are the
substances that are produce hydroxyl ions OH (aq).
For example, HClaq) H*(aq)+ CI (aq)
Acid
NaOH(aq) Na* (aq)+ OH(aq)
Base
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
260
(ii) Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases According to this theory, acids are the substances
that are capable of donating a hydrogen ion H" (proton) and bases are the substances
that are capable of accepting a hydrogen ion H.
In short, acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors.
For example, NH3(ag)+ H,O(1) NHG (aq)+ OH(aq)
Base Acid
(i) Lewis Acids and Bases GN Lewis defined an acid as a species which accepts an
electron pair and base which donates an electron pair (lone pair).
For example, BF3+NH3 BF3:NH3
All electron deficient species and cations are Levwis acids. Similarly, all electron rich
species and anions are Lewis bases.

Dissolution of an Acid or a Base in Water

The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is highly exothermic. Thus, for
dilution the acid must always be added slowly to water with constant stiring. If water is
added toa concentrated acid, the heat generated may cause the mixture to splash out and
cause burns.
Mixing an acid or base with water results in decrease in the concentration of ions
(H2O"/OH) per unit volume. Such a process is called dilution and the acid or base is said
to be diluted.

Salts
Salts are the compounds obtained by the reaction of acid and base, such reactions are
called neutralisation reaction. In other words, these are obtained by the replacement of
replaceable hydrogen of the acid by a base. Cation of the salt comes from a base while its
anion comes from an aciad.
NaOH+ HCI NaCl+ H,o
Salt
Types of Salts
Different types of salts are as follows
(i) Simple or Normal Salts These are formed Dy the fa normal salt is obtained from
complete replacement of hydrogen atom from acid a weak acid and a strong base,
by a metal. e.g, KCI, NaCl, FeSO4, K2SO4, Caga(PO4)2
the salt is called alkaline salt as
NagB03. etc. its aqueous solution turns red
The salts so obtained have no replaceable hydrogen litmus blue.
atom. eg, Na,CO3, CH, COONa,
(11)
Acidic Salts These are formed by the incomplete Na,B,0, 1OH,0, etc.
neutralisation of acids ie, by the partial
if the reaction of a strong acid with
the normat salt is obtained by
replacement atoms by base or metal.
of hydrogen
These salts still contain one or more replaceable a strong base, the sait is called
hydrogen atoms in their molecules. neutral salt as its aqueous
e.g., NaHsO4. NaHCO3, NaH2PO4, etc. sofution has no effect on litmus
ii) Basic Salts These are formed by the incomplete paper.
neutralisation of bases. These salts still contain eg, NaC), KCI, K2SO4, NaNO3,
one or more hydroxyl groups in their molecules. KCIO3, etc.
e.g., MglOH}CI, Zn(OHCI, E
if the normal salt is obtained by
(iv) Double Salt It is the mixture of two salts and exists the neutralisation of a strong acid
only in solid state. e.g., Potash alum and a weak base, the salt is called
[K,SO4 Al2 (SO4)3 24H,O] and Mohr salt acidic salt as its aqueous solution
Feso4 (NH4 }2 SO4*
6H,O}, etc. Such salts give test turns blue Htmus red. eg,
FeCl3, ZnCla HgSO, etc
of all the constituents present in their formula.
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
261
(v) Complex Salts These salts contain complex ion and also exist in solutions. A complete
ion contains a central metal ion surrounded by a number of neutral or negative ions,
called the ligands. e.g, potassium ferrocyarnide K, [Fe{CN),] contains a complex ion
FeCN),1*and tetraamino cupric sulphate [Cu{NH3)4 1SO4 contains a conplex ion
Cu{NH3)
F.
(vi) Mixed Salts These salts give more than one cation or anion on dissolving in water.
e.g., bleaching powder, sodium potassium sulphate and Rochelle's salt.

Uses of Some Common Salts

(1)
Sodium chloride (NaC) is known as common or ordinary salt or rock salt. Its crystals
appear brown because of the presence of impurities. Ii is an important raw material
for various materials of daily use, such as sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing
soda, bleaching powder and many more. It is used in various food stuffs as
preservatives. It was an important symbol in our struggle for freedom (Mahatma
Gandhi's Dandi March).
ii) Sodium bicarbonate (NaHcO3) is used in baking powder and antacid. It is also used in
fire extinguisher devices (soda acid fire extinguishers).
(ii) Epsom salts (MgSO4 7H,0) and calomel (H82Cl2) have medicinal uses.
(iv) Gypsum (CasO4 2H20) loses water molecules of crystallisation to form Plaster of

Paris CasOH,0 i
(POP) which is used as a plaster for supporting the fractured

bones. POP is also used in making toys, materials for decoration and for making
surfaces smooth.
(v) Washing soda (NazCO3 10FH,O) is a basic salt and used for removing the permanent
hardness of water. It is also used in glass, soap and paper industry, in dry cleaning of
clothes and in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
(vi) Potassium nitrate (KNO3) is used in the production of gun powder, firecrackers, in
glass industry, in production of fertilizers, etc.
(vii) Copper sulphate (CuSO4 5H%O) is used as an insecticide, in electroplating, in
colouration and printing and in the purification of copper.
(vii) Potash alum (K2S04 Al2(SO 4)3 24H,O) is used in the purification of water, in
manufacturing drugs and as a colour bonding in colouration.

pH Scale
pH value is the measure of acidity or basicity of a substance. A scale which is used for
measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, is called pH scale. The p in pH stands
for potenz in German meaning power. On the pH scale, we can measure pH generally
from O (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline). Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower
is the pH value.
The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the concentration
(in moles per litre) of hydrogen ions which it contains.
1
pH=- logH"J= log or 10
[H'T H,0
because H' generally exists as H,O* (hydronium ion)]
Note that an acidic solution has pH <7,basic solution has pH>7and neutral solution has
pH = 7.
 Encyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
262
Generally. paper impregnated with the universal indicator (a substance having different
colour under different conditions) is used for measuring pH.
The strength of acids and bases depends on the number of H" ions and OH ions
produced, respectively. Acids that give rise to more H' ions are said to be strong acids and
acids that give less H ions are said to be weak acids.
pH of Some Common Substances Shown on a pH Paper
pH 0-1 Battery acid
pH 1.2-2 Stomach acid
pH 2.2-3.4 Lemon julce, vinegar
Acidic pH 3.2-3.9 Orange juice, soda, some dental rinses, wine
pH 4.0-4.4 lomato juice, bear
pH 4.5-5.5 Black coffee
pH 6.4-6.6 Saliva, cow's milk
Neutral pH7 Fure water
pH 7.3-7.5 Human urine, human blood
pH 8 Sea water, pH neutralizing dental rinses
pH 9.2 Baking soda, drinking soda
Basic orpH 10 Antacids
AlkalinepH 11 Antacids, dental treatment rinses
pH 12.5 Soapy water
pH 14 Sodium hydroxide

Neutral
Acidic nature increasing Basic nature increasing

01? 345 67 8
9 10 11 12 13 14
Increase in H" concentration Decrease in Ht concentration
Variation of pH with the Change in the Concentration ofH"laq) lons

pH of fresh ground water slightly reduces when it comes in contact of air. 1his is because of the
presence of carbon dioxide (CO,) in air which dissolves in water to give a weak acid H,CO
(carbonic acid). This acid provides H ions and thus, increases the acidity of water, due to
which pH reduces.
pHof acidic solution increases when a base is added to it and pH of basic solution decreases
when an acid is added to it.
fa strong acid like HC, H,SO4, etc is added with the same equivalent of a strong base like
NaOH (sodium hydroxide), KOH (potassium hydroxide), etc, complete neutralisation takes
place and a neutra solution with pH 7 is obtained.
When an acid solution is diluted by adding water, its pH decreases. eg, ifa solution of pH 6 is
diluted, its pH reduces and it remains acidic. This is because in water generally ionisation
increases.

Importance of pH in Everyday Life

1. Plants and animals are pH sensitive. Our body works within the range of 7.0 to 7.8. Living
organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH change. When pH of river water
becomes less than 5.6 due to acid rain, the survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes
difficult. Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth.
2. Excessive use of fertilizers makes the soil acidic which is not good for the growth of the
plants. So, to make the soil suitable for growing plants, some bases like quick lime (calcium
oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) are added to the soil which neutralise the excess
acid. If the soil becomes more basic, organic matter (which releases acid) is added to it.
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
263
3. Factories run off contains several acids which, if fall in the water bodies, pollute them. So,
some basic substances are added to neutralise the acid.
4. Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It helps in the digestion of food without harming
the stomach. During indigestion, the stomach produces too much acid and this causes pain
and irritation. To get rid of this pain, people use bases called antacids such as magnesium
hydroxide (milk of magnesia). These antacids neutralise the excess acid.
5. Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5. Bacteria present in the
mouth produce acids by degradation of sugar and food particles remaining in the mouth
after eating. Tooth pastes are generally basic, when we clean our teeth they can neutralise
this excess acid and prevent tooth decay.
6. Bee sting or ant bite leaves an acid (generally formic acic) into the skin which causes pain
and irritation. Use of mild base like baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) or calamine
(Zinc carbonate) on the stung area gives relief.
7. The nature of banana leaves is basic, so it avoids yeast formation. That's why milkman
generally kept a banana leaf în the milk jar.

Indicators
Indicators show colour change in solution as the pH of the solution changes. So, these are
used to identify whether a solution is acidic, basic or neutral. The pH of a solution can be
determined by using pH paper or a universal indicator or a pH meter. e.g., litmuis,
turmeric, China rose petals (gudhal), petals of Hydrangea, Petunia and Geranium.

Acid Base Indicators

These are either weak organic acids or weak organic bases. e.g., phenolphthalein can be
considered to be a weak organic acid and methyl orange can be considered to be a weak
organic base. Phenolphthalein is not suitable, if base is weak and methyl orange is not
Suitable, if acid is weak.
Colour of Indicators in Different Media
Colour
Indicators pH Range In Basic Medium In Acidic Medium
Methyl orange 3.1-4.5 Yellow Red
Methyl red 4.2-6.3 Yellow Red
Phenolphthalein 8.0-9.3 Pink Colourless
Litmus 5.5-7.5 Blue Red

Buffer Solution
The solutions which resist the change in pH (or acidity or alkalinity) on dilution or with
the addition of small amount of acid or alkali, are called buffer solutions.

Types of Buffer Solutions

These are of two types
i) Acidic Buffer It is obtained by mixing a weak acid and its salt with strong base in
equal amount. e.g., a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate acts as acidic buffer
solution around pH 4.75. A mixture of boric acid and borax is an another example of
acidic buffer.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
264
(ii) Basic Buffer It is obtained by mixing a weak base and its salt with strong acid in equal
amount. e.g., a mixture of ammonium chloride (NH4 CI) and ammonium hydroxide
(NH,OH) acts as basic buffer solution around pH 9.25.
Blood pH is maintained with the help of H2CO/HCO buffer inspite of many acidic
foods we take.

Hydrolysis of Salts
Salts are formed by the reactions between acids and bases in definite proportions. When
a salt of strong acid and strong base is dissolved in water, it completely ionises in thhe
solution but does not react with water.
On the other hand, when a salt of strong base and weak acid or weak base and strong acid
is dissolved in water, it reacts with water to give back the original acid and base írom
which the salt was formed. This process is known as salt hydrolysis.
In this process, ions of the salt and ions or molecules of water mutually combine to each
other and forms acidic or alkaline solution.
eg., sodium carbonate (NagC03) is a salt of NaOH (sodium hydroxide) and H2CO
(carbonic acid). So, when it is treated with water, it gives the same acid and base.
Na,CO + 2H20 2NaOH+ H,CO
Strong base Weak acid
or 2Na COg
+ 2H,0 2NatOH + H*HCO
Because of the presence of strong base, its solution is basic.

Types of Salts on the basis of Hydrolysis

Depending upon the nature of species hydrolysed, the salts are classified into following
categories
(i) Salts of Weak Acids and Strong Bases Sodium acetate is a salt of acetic acid (weak acid)
and sodium hydroxide (strong base).
CH,COONa + H20 CH,cOOH+ NaOH
Sodium acetate Weak acid Strong base
Its aqueous solution is basic in nature. Therefore, pH is greater than 7.
(ii)Salts of Strong Acids and Weak Bases Ammonium chloride is a salt of ammonium
hydroxide (weak base) and hydrochloric acid (strong acid). Therefore, upon
hydrolysis it gives acidic solution. Its pH is smaller than 7.
ii) Salts of Weak Acids and Weak Bases Ammonium acetate is a salt of ammonium
hydroxide (weak base) and acetic acid (weak acid). Aqueous solution of this type of
salt may be neutral or acidic or basic.
(iv) Salts of Strong Acids and Strong Bases Halides, sulphates and nitrates of sodium or
potassium are the examples of this category of salts
Acid as well as base both are strong. therefore no hydrolysis takes place and the
solution remains neutral. pH of aqueous solution of such salts is equal to7.
5 Solutions
and Colloids
In our daily life, we rarely come across pure substances. Most of these are mixtures
containing two or more pure substances. These mixtures are also called solutions.
Depending upon their composition (particle size of component), these are divided into
true solutions, suspension and colloids. Their utility or importance in life depends on
their composition.

Solution or True Solution

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which at a constant
temperature the relative amounts of conponents can change upto a definite limit.
Lemonade, soda water, etc are the examples of solutions in our daily life.
Components of a Solution
A binary solution (a mixture of two substances) has two components; solvent and solute.
(i) Solvent The component of the solution that is present in the largest quantity, is
known as solvent. The solvent which has greater dielectric constant is a better
solvent. Diclectric constant of water is large (80), so it is called universal solvent.
Solvents are used in making perfumes, drugs, in the processing of various food stuffs
and in beverages. These are also used in dry cleaning
(1) Solute One or more components present in the solutiorn other than solvent, are called
solutes. In general, in a binary solution amount of solute is Smaller than solvent.
e.g., a solution of iodine in alcohol (solvent) known as 'tincture of iodine, has iodine (solid
as a solute. Aerated drinks like soda water contains CO2 as solute and water as a solvent
Properties of a Solution
() A solution is a homogeneous mixture (a mixture of uniform composition).
(1) The particles of a solution are smaller than 1 nm (10 m) in diameter. So, they can not be
seen by naked eye.
(ii) Because of very small particle size, they do not scatter a beam of light passing through the
solution. So, the path of light is not visible in a solution. In other words, they do not exhibit
Tyndall effect.
(iv) The components of a solution (i.e, solute and solvent) diffuse into each other in such a way
that they can not be distinguished.
(v) The solute particles can not be separated from the mixture by the process of filteration
because the size of solute particles is very tiny. The solute particles do not settle down when
left undisturbed, ie., a true solution is stable, permanent and transparent.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
266 ******° ** *
*** ** *** ** ****

Types of Solutions
Depending upon the amount of solute in a given solvent, the soution can be classified into
I.
following types
() Unsaturated Solution A solution in which more solute can be dissolved without
increasing temperature, is called unsaturated solution.
(1i) Saturated Solution A solution in which no solute can be dissolved further at a

given temperature, is called saturated solution.

(ii) Supersaturated Solution When a saturated soluton is heated, its capacity to hold
more solute increases and it is called supersaturated solution. Supersaturated
solution contains excess amount of dissolved solute in it which is beyond the
capacity of the solution at a given temperature. If a small crystal of solute is added
to it, the excess solute immediately crystallizes out.
L On the basis of states of soute and solvent, the solution may be of the following types
Types of Solution Solute Solvent Common Examples
Gaseous Solutions Gas Gas Mixture of gases, air
| Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas, solution of gas in
water
Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas, iodine in air
Liquid Solutions Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolved in water, CO2 dissolved in water
Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water, bromine dissolved in carbon
disulphide, Hs04 in water
Solid |
Liquid Glucose (sugar) dissolved in water,
mercury
l in CCl4, lead in

Solid Solutions Gas Solid Solution of hydrogen in palladium

|
Liquid Solid Amalgam of mercury with sodium
Solid Solid Copper dissolved in gold

Aqueous and Non-aqueous Solutions

When solute is dissolved in water, it is known as aqueous solution. e.g, ethanol in
water. When solute is dissolved in solvent other than water, it is known as non-aqueous
solution. eg, iodine in alcohol (tincture of iodine).
Acidic and Basic Solutions
Acidic solutions have more H ions than that of OH ions while basic solutions have
more OH ions than that of H" ions.
Neutral Solutions
They have equal concentrations of H* ions (hydrogen ions) and OH" ions (hydroxyl ions).

Concentration of a Solution
It is defined as the amount of solute present in a given amount (mass or volume) of
solution or solvent.
Solutions with relatively low concentration are called dilute solutions, while those with
relatively high concentration are called concentratsed solution.

Various Ways of Expressing the Concentration of a Solution

Mass of the component
) Mass percentage of a component = 100
Total mass of solution
of the compone
(11) Volume percentage of a component =Volume
Total volume of solution
100
SOLUTIONS AND COLLOTDS
267
Number of moles of the component
(ii) Mole fraction of a component=
Total number of moles of all the components
Number of parts of the component
iv) Parts per million (ppm) F X10°
Total number of parts of all components of solution
(v) Molarity (M) = :
Moles of solute
Volume of solution in litre
(vi) Molality (m)=Mas
Moles of solute
Mass of solvent in kg

Solubility
Maximurm amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent
(generaly 100 g) at a given temperature and pressure, is known as its solubility at that
temperature.
If at a given temperature wg of solute is dissolved in Wg of solvent (water), then

Wx100
Solubility of the solute in solvent =
W

Factors Affecting Solubility of a Solute in a Solvent

) Nature of Solute and Solvent (like dissolves like) Polar solute like sodium chloride
dissolves in a polar solvent like water. Similarly, non-polar solute like
cholestrol, bromine, etc dissolves in non-polar solvent like benzene, carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4), etc.
(ii) Effect of Temperature Usualy solubility of a
solute increases with increase in temperature of Everyday Science
solution i.e., their dissolution process is To increase solubility of CO,
endothermic (proceeds with the absorption of in soft drinks and soda
energy). But solubility of some substances such water, the bottle is sealed
as calcium nitrate, calcium oxide, sodium under high pressure.
sulphate, calcium hydroxide and calcium citrate To minimise painful effects
decreases with increase in temperature 1.e., (bends) accompanying the
their dissolution process is exothermic (involves decompression of deep sea
evolution of energy or heat). Solubility of gas in divers, oxygen diluted with
a liquid decreases with increase in temperature. less soluble helium gas is
used as breathing gas.
(ii) Effect of Pressure Pressure has no effect on
the solubility of a solids in liquid. But solubility
of gases in liquids increases with increase in pressure.
(iv) Size of Substance Solubility decreases as the molecular mass of a substance
increases.

Colloidal Solution
A colloidal solution is a hetergeneous system which is made up of two phases; dispersed
phase (as solute) and dispersion medium (as solvent).
The substance distributed as the colloidal particles is called the dispersed phase and the
second phase in which the coloidal particles are scattered is called the dispersion
medium. Size ot colloidal particles is in between 1 nm to 1000 nm.
Milk, face creams, sponge, rubber, pumice, blood, gems, etc are the examples of colloids.
When one constituent particle of a solution is scattered around the another, then it is
called dispersion.
 Eneyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
268
Classification of Colloids
I. On the basis of physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium, colloids are
classified into following types

Dispersed Dispersion Examples

Type
Phase Medium
Solid Solid Solid sol Coloured gemstone, milky glass
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud, paints, cell fluids

Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust

Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream, hair cream

Liquia Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist, insecticide sprays

Gas Solid Solid sol Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice stone

Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream, froth, whipped cream

II. On the basis of nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium,
colloidal sols are divided into two categories

Lyophilic Colloids Lyophobic Colloids

These are solvent-loving colloids.
These are directly formed by mixing
substances like gum, gelatin, starch,
rubber, etc with a suitable solvent.
These are quite stable sols.
These are also called reversible sol.
eg, sol of starch.
These are solvent-hating colloids.
These sols can be prepared only by special methods.
These are not stable.
These sols are also called irreversible sols.
e.8, gold sol.

if the dispersion medium in these colloids is water then they are known as hydrophilic and
hydrophobic colloids.
Gold number is a term used in colloidal chemistry for the protection of lyophobic colloids. It is
the minimum amount of lyophilic colloid in milligrams which prevents the coagulation of
10 mL gold sol by the addition of mL of 10% NaCl solution.
1

III. On the basis of type of particles of dispersed phase, colloids are classified into three
Categories.
(i) Multimolecular Colloids In this type of colloids, colloidal particles are aggregates
of large number of atoms or smaller molecules. e.g., gold sol, sulphur sol, etc.
(11)
Macromolecular Colloids Macromolecules in suitable solvents forrm solutions in
which the size of macromolecules may be in colloidal range. These colloids are
quite stable and resemble true solutions in many respects. e.g, naturaly occuring
macromolecules starch, cellulose, proteins and enzymes; and those of man-made
macromolecules polythene, nylon, polystyrene, synthetic rubber, etc.
SOLUTIONS AND COLLOTDS
****
269
ii) Associated Colloids (Micelles) The formation of micelles takes place only above a
particular temperature called Kraft temperature (T) and above a particular
concentration called Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC).
These substances behave as normal strong electrolytes at low concentrations.e-g.,
Soap solution in water at particular temperature and at particular concentration.
Cleansing action of soap and detergents is due to the emulsification and micelle formation.

Properties of Colloidal Solutions

() It is a heterogeneous permanent system and can not be filtered by ordinary filter
papers. lhe dispersed particles can not be seen through naked eye but can be
distinctly seen through ultra microscope.
(ii) When light passes through a sol, its path becomes visible due to scattering of light by
colloidal particles. It is called Tyndall effect.
Tyndall Effect
It can be observed when a fine beam of light enters a dark room through a hole
and also observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest.
It is responsible for blue appearance of sky and sea water, visibility of tails of
comets, twinkling of stars, blue tinge of smoke in source of light, red colour of
setting sun.

(ii) Continuous zig-zag motion of colloidal particles is called Brownian movement (first
observed by British botanist, Robert Brown). This motion is independent of the
nature of the colloid but depends on the size of the particles and viscosity of the
Solution. Smaller the size, lesser is the viscosity and faster is the motion. Brownian
movement is a stirring effect, so it is responsible for the stability of sol. Suspension
and true solutions do not show Brownian movement.
(iv) Colloidal particles always carry an electric charge. eg., haemoglobin (blood) is
positively charged sol while sols of starch, gum, gelatin, clay, charcoal are negatively
charged sols.
(v) Colloidal solutions impart colour due to scattering of light. The colour of colloidal
solution depends on the wavelength of light scattered by the dispersed particles.
(vi) The process of precipitation of a colloid on adding a small quantity of electrolyte is
called coagulation. During this process, the particles of the electrolyte carrying
charge opposite to that present on the colloidal particles, neutralise them, so they get
precipitated. Alum or ferric chloride is applied on minor acts, they stop bleeding by
coagulating the blood.

Emulsions
These are liquid-liquid colloidal systems. If a mixture of two immiscible or partially miscible
liquids is shaken, an emulsion is obtained. These are generally stabilised by adding certain
substances like protein, gum, soap, alcohol, etc called the emulsifying agents or emulsifiers.
Types of Emulsions
Emulsions are of two types; oil dispersed in water (o/w type) and water dispersed in oil
(w/o type). Milk and vanishing cream are the examples of o/w type emulsions. In the milk,
liquid fat is dispersed in water. Butter and cream are the examples of w/o type emulsions.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
270
Properties of Emulsions
(1)It is a dispersion of finely divided droplets into another liquid.
(i) Emulsions also show Brownian movement and Tyndall effect.
ii) These can be broken down into constituent liquids by heating, freezing,
centrifuging, etc,

Everyday Science
Electrical Precipitation of Smoke Smoke is a colloidal solution of solid particles such as
carbon, arseniccompounds, dust, etc in air, when smoke is passed through cottrell
smoke precipitator, the charged particles lose their charge and get precipitated. These
particles then, settle down on the floor of the chamber.
Purification of Drinking Water When alum is added to water containing suspended
impurities, it coagulates the suspended impurities and makes water fit for drinking
purposes.
Colloidal Nature of Medicines Most of the medicines are colloidal in nature. e.g, silver
Sol is used as an eye lotion, colloidal antimony is used in curing Kala-azar, colloidal gold
is used for intramuscular injection. Milk of magnesia is used for stomach disorders.
Colloidal medicines are more effective because they have large surtace area and easily
assimilated.
In Industries In rubber industry, rubber is obtained by coagulation of latex. In tanning
(hardening of leather), animal hide (positively charged colloid) 1S Soaked in tannin
(negatively charged colloid). This results in hardening of leather. Paints, inks, synthetic
plastics, rubber, graphite lubricants, cement, etc are all colloidal solutions.
In Photography Photographic plates or films are prepared by coating an emulsion of the
ight sensitive silver bromide in gelatin over glass plates or celluloid films.
For Artificial Rain Silver iodide is sprinkled on clouds for seeding them or for generating
artificial rain.
In Making Ice-cream Gelatin is generaly added while making ice-creams. This is
because, It stabilises the colloiId and prevents crystallisation.

Suspension
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but
remain suspended throughout the bulk of the medium. Chalk water, polluted water of
river, smoke in atmospheric air, muddy water, etc are the examples of suspension.

Properties of a Suspension
(i)It is a heterogeneous mixture.
(1) The particles of a suspension can be seen by naked eye. Their size is of the order of

10 cm or more.
(11) The particies of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its
path visible.
(Iv The solute particles settle down when a suspension 1s left undisturbed, i.e., a
suspension is unstable. They can be separated from the mixture by the process of
filteration. When the particles settle down, the suspension breaks and it does not
scatter light any more.
6 Gaseous State
We have read that matter is found in three states (i.e, solid, liquid and gas). Gases have
some special properties different from solids and liquids. e.g,
Gases can be compressed easily.
Gases have neither a definite volume nor a definite shape, a gas occupies the entire
volume of containing vessel.

Gas Laws
Mass (m), volume (V). pressure (p), and temperature (T) of a gas are the measurable
properties. The lawS which inter-relate these properties, are called gas laws. Let's discuss
the various gas laws vwhich give the relationship between measurable properties of gases.
i) Boyle's Law (Pressure-Volume relationship) According to this law, at constant
temperature, pressure of a fixed amount of gas varies inversely with its volume, ie.,
p at constant T) or pV =k (constant) or PiV, = P2V2

At constant temperature, pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the density of a

fixed mass of the gas.
1.e., p od
-Mass (m)
Volume (V) =
Density (d)
(i) Charles' Law (Temperature-Volume relationship) According to this law, at constant
pressure, the volue of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature ie., decreases with decrease in temperature,
VT (at constant p) or
T Ta

The lowest hypothetical or imaginary temperature at which gases are supposed to

oCcupyzero volume, is called absolute zero.
(ii) Gay Lussac's Law (Pressure-Temperature relationship) According to this law, at
constant volume, pressure of a fixed amount of a gas varies directly with the temperature,
1e.,

pT or=constant
T
or =

(iv) Avogadro's Law (Volunme-Amount relationship) According to this law, equal

volumes of all the gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure
contain the equal number of molecules, i.e.,
V n (at constant T and p)
where, n = number of molecules
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
272
At STP, gram molecular mass or 1 mole of gas occupies volume of 22.4 L.
Number of molecules in one mole of a gas has been determined to be 6.022x10.
This number is known as Avogadro's constant.
(v) Combined Gas Law This is the relationship for the simultaneous variation of the
variables. If temperature, volume and pressure of a fixed amount of gas vary from T1
V and pi to T2. V2 and P2 then we can write

P=nR or P1V_P22
T1 T2

(vi) Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures It states that the total pressure exerted by
gaseous mixture of two or more non-reacting gases is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of each individual component in a gas mixture, ie.,
P total
P + P2 + Pa. P, fat constant T, V)
where, pi Paare
P2. the partial pressures of individual gases.
(vii) Graham's Law of Ditfusion According to this law, at constant temperature and
pressure, the rate of diffusion (r) of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root
of its density (d), ie.,
d2 Everyday Science
For transportation, gases are
We know that, M (molar mass) =2xd compressed at high pressure.
Carbon dioxide and oxygen gas,
or
d- VM present in air are diffused into water
which are used for respiration by
(Diffusion is the process of spontane0us aquatic organisms. In general, lighter

mixing of different gases and the volume
of a gas diffused per unit time, is called
rate of diffusion.)
This law is applicable
(a) in the production of marsh gas.
(b)in the separation of gaseous mixtures.
(c)in the determination of vapour densities
of the gases.
(d) in the separation of isotopes.
gases are diffused more quickly than
the heavier gases.
Bursting of hydrogen balloon and
making of chappati are applications
or Charles law.
The smell of food being cooked,
reaches us even from a considerable
distance by the process of diffusion.
The leakage of LPG is detected due
to the diffusion of ethyl mercaptan,
an additive.

Perfect Gas or Ideal Gas

The gas whose molecules are point masses (mass without volume) and do not attract each
other, is called ideal or perfect gas. It is a hypothetical concept which can not exist in
reality. The gases such as hydrogen, oxygen or helium which can not be liquefied, are
called permanent gases.
Properties of perfect gas are as follows
1) It strictly obeys Boyle's law, Charles' law and the law of pressure under all conditions
of temperature and pressure.
(11)
Its pressure coefficient and the volume coefficient are exactly equal to each other.
(ii) A perfect gas can not be converted into liquid or solid state, because a force of
attraction is necessary between the molecules in case of liquid or solid state.
GASEOUS STATE
273

Ideal Gas Equation

The three laws (Boyle's law, Charles' law and Avogadro's law) can be combined together
in a single equation which is known as ideal gas equation.
At constant T and n; VBoyle's law
At constant p and n; VT(Charles' law)
At constant p and T; Vo« n(Avogadro's law)
V or V=R
Where, R is proportionality constant. On rearranging the above equation, we obtain
pV= nRT(ideal gas equation)
R pV
T
R is called universal gas constant and has value 8.314 J mol'K*or
O.0821 L atm mol K.
Ideal gas equation is a relation between four variables and it describes the state of any gas,
therefore, it is also called equation of state.

Real Gases
Real gases follow gas laws i.e., behave ideally only at high temperature and low pressure.
These gases have definite volume and intermolecular forces of attraction. No real gas is
truely ideal.

Kinetic Theory of Gases

JBernoulli was the first who, in 1738, explained the behaviour of gases. Later, Rudolph
Clausius and James Clark Maxwell developed the kinetic theory of gases in order to
explain gas laws, nature, character and behaviour of gases in terms of the motion of gas
molecules.
The molecular details regarding gases can be visualised with the help of kinetic molecular
theory of gases which is based on following assumptions.
(1)
A gas consists of extremely small discrete identical particles, called the molecules,
dispersed throughout the container,
(ii) Molecules are so small and so far apart that the actual volume of the molecules is
negligible as compared to the total volume of gas.
(ii) Gas molecules are in constant random motion with high velocities. They move in
straight lines with uniform speed and change directions on collision with other
molecules or with the walls of container.
(iv) The intermolecular forces are negligible. Thus, the gas molecules can move freely,
independent of each other.
(v) All collisions are perfectly elastic, hence there is no loss of kinetic energy during the
collision. However, there may be redistribution of energy during such a collision.
(vi) The effect of gravity on the motion of the molecules is negligible in comparison to the
effect of collision.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
274
(vi The pressure of a gas is caused by the hits recorded by molecules on the walls of the
container,As a molecule collides, it suffers a change in momentum. The rate of change of
momentum is equal to the force exerted on the walls (Newton's second law of motion).
Since, a large number of molecules collide frequently, they exerta steady force given by
the average rate of change of momentum. This force per unit area of the wall is called the
pressure of gas.
: Pressure « Number of collisions per unit time per unit area by the molecules on the
wall of the container
(viii) At a particular instance, different molecules in a sample have different speeds and
hence, different kinetic energies. However, the average kinetic energy of the molecules
is assumed to be directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Kinetic energy« Absolute temperature

Pressure of an Ideal Gas

On the basis of assumptions of kinetic theory, we can do mathematical calculation to find
expression for pressure exerted by a gas. The pressure due to an ideal gas is given by

PV mN|
where, m = mass of 1 gas molecule
N =total number of gas molecules
and V=root mean square velocity of gases

Different Speeds of Gaseous Molecules

(i) Average speed of the gas molecules is defined as the average of speeds of all the
molecules present in the gas. It is denoted by v.
ii) Most probable speed of the gas molecules defined as the speed at a given
temperature which is possessed by maximum fraction of the total number of
molecules of the gas. It is denoted by alpha (o).
(ii) Root Mean Square (RMS) speed is defined as the square root of mean of the squares of
speed of a large number of molecules of same gas. It is denoted by u
RMS speed of the gas molecules increases with rise in temperature while decreases
with increase in molecular weight as
RMS (u)o T

RMS(u)M

Relation between three types of speed is

a: V:u=1414:1.595:1.732

Degree of Freedom
Degree of freedom for a dynanic system is the number of directions in which it can move
freely or the number of coordinates required to describe completely the position and the
configuration of the system. It is denoted by N.
Degree of freedom of a system is given by
N=3A -R
where, A =number of particles in the system
and R=number of independent relations
GASEOUS STATE
..
Degree of Freedom of Gas Molecules
A gas molecule can have following types of energies
.275

) Translational kinetic energy

(ii) Rotational kinetic energy

ii) Vibrational energy (potential + kinetic)

On the basis of these three types of energies, degree of freedom of gas molecules can be
translational and rotational/vibrational.
. Number of degree of freedom
For monoatomic gas (He) = 3
For diatomic gas (O2, CO2 and Ha) =5
For triatomic gas (NH3) = 6
Consider the following figures

(a) In the figure the block has one degree of freedom, because it is confined to move in a
I,
straight line and has only one translational degree of freedom.
(6) In the figure II, the projectile has two degrees of freedom, because it is confined to move
in a plane and has two translational degrees of freedom.
(c) In the figure Il, the sphere has two degrees of freedom; one rotational and another
translational.
7
Chemical Kinetics
and Equilibrium
Chemical Kinetics
The word kinetics is derived from the Greek word "kinesis' meaning 'movement
Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of reaction rates,
factors affecting the rate of reactions and the mechanism by which the reactions proceed.
In other words,
Chemical kinetics is the study of chemical reactions with respect to reaction rates, effect
of various variables, rearrangement of atoms and formation of intermediates.

Slow and Fast Reactions

Some reactions such as ionic reactions occur instantaneously and thus, are called fast
reactions. e.g, precipitation of silver chloride occurs instantaneously by mixing aqueous
solutions of silver nitrate (AgNO,) and sodium chloride (NaCl).
AgNOg+ NaCl AgCl L+ NaNO
On the other hand, some reactions take few days, months or years for their completion.
Such reactions are called slow reactions. e.g., rusting f iron in the presence of air and
moisture.
Also, there are some reactions like inversion of cane sugar, hydrolysis of starch, etc which
proceed with a moderate speed. Generally under the chemical kinetics, chemical
reactions with a moderate speed are studied.

Some Important Terms Related to Reactions

Some terms which are related to reactions are
Bond Energy
The amount of energy required to break one mole of bond of a particular type between
two atoms in the gaseous state, is called bond energy. It is expressed in kJ mol
Larger the bond dissociation energy, stronger will be the bond in molecule. Energ8y is
required to break a bond ie., bond breaking is an endothermic process and energy is
released when a bond is formed ie., bond formation is an exothermic procesSs.

Heat of Reaction
Heat of reaction is the quantity of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction.
e.g H2(g)+ Br(1) 2HBr(g)+72.8 kJ moll
CHEMICAL KINETICS AND EQUILIBRIUM
277

Heat of Formation
The energy released or absorbed for the formation of one mole of a compound from its
constituent elements, is called heat of formation.
e.g., Cls)+2H2ls) CH, (g)+74.81 kJ moll

Heat of Combustion
The heat energy evolved during the combustion of one mole of a substance in the
presence of excess of oxygen, is called heat of combustion.
e.g CH20,(e)+60,(g) 6CO,(g)+6H,O(1) +2802.0 kJ mol

Rate of a Reaction
The speed of a reaction or rate of a reaction can be defirned as the change in concentratiorn
of a reactant or product in unit time. To be more specific, it can be expressed in terms of
i) rate of decrease in concentration of any one of the reactants or
(ii) rate of increase in concentration of any one of the products.

_= Decrease in concentration of reactant

Rate of reaction ..0)
Time taken
Rate of reaction=Increase in concentration of product ..(i)
Time taken

Unit of Rate of a Reaction

Unit of rate is concentration time. e.g., if the concentration is in mol L" and time is in
second then the unit will be mol L s, However, in gaseous reactions, when the
concentration of gases is expressed in terms of their partial pressures, the unit of rate of a
reaction will be atm s

Factors Influencing Rate of Reaction

Rate of reaction depends upon several experimental conditions which are described below
(i) Effect of Concentration of Reactants Rate of a chemical reaction at a given
temperature may depend on the concentration of one or more reactants and
products. In general, the rate of reaction irncreases with increase in concentration of
the reactants, because number of cllisions between the molecules increases with
increase in concentration.
(11)
Temperature Generally, rate of reaction increases with încrease in temperature
and vice-versa. This is because at high temperature, molecules possess high kinetic
energy and hence, high velocity which increases the chance of combination of
molecules.
(ii) Nature of Reactants Rate of a reaction is also affected by the nature of reactants.
e.g., sodium and potassium react vigorously with water at ordinary temperature but
iron reacts only with steam.
(iv) Surface Area of Reactants Larger the surface area of reactants, greater is the rate
of reaction because more sites are available for the reaction. The surface area of a
solid can be increased by converting it into its powdered form. e.g, reaction of zinc
dust with sulphuric acid takes place rapidly than the reaction of zinc piece with
sulphuric acid.
 Eneyclopedia OF G ENERAL SCIENCE
278
(v) Presence of Light Rate of some chemical reactions increases in the presence of
light (radiations). e.g., oxidation of chloroform takes place in the presence of light.
2CHCl3 +O2 Light 2CoCl,+2HCI
Phosgene
So, it is kept in dark coloured bottles.
(vi) Effect of Presence of a Catalyst Rate of reaction increases in the presence of a
catalyst. A catalyst is specific in nature and it increases the rate of a reaction by
providing alternative path of lower activation energy to the reactants.

Activation Energy
Before involving ina chemical reaction, the reactant molecules absorb some extra energY
and come together to form an activated complex. This activated complex is unstable
because its potential energy is very high. Thus, it decomposes into products. Therefore,
activation energy is the additional energy which the reacting molecules must acquire to
form activated complex. Lower the value of activation energy, faster will be the reaction.

Catalysis
Substances which alter the rate of a chemical reaction and themselves remain chemically
and quantitatively unchanged after the reaction, are known as catalysts and the
phenomenon is known as catalysis.
Berzelius in 1835 was first to observe the process of catalysis.
Actually, a catalyst provides a new reaction path with a different activation energy so
that more and more reactant molecules can form the praduct.
Reaction "*
patn witn Heaction path
catalyst without cataiysEnergy or
Energ of activation
activation without
with catalyst catalyst

**********.-** ******.-**-..-o.
uReactants
Products

Reaction Progress
Effect of Catalyst on Activation Energy

A catalyst catalyses the spontaneous reactions but does not catalyse non-spontaneouus
reactions.
Catalyst does not change the equilibrium constant of a reaction, rather it helps in
attaining the equilibrium faster. It catalyses the forward as well as backward reactions to
the same extent so that the equilibrium state remains same but is reached earlier.

Promoters and Poisons

Promoters are those substances that enhance the activity of a catalyst while poisons
decrease the activity of a catalyst. eg, in Haber's process for the manufacture of
ammonia, molybdenum acts as a promoter for iron which is used as a catalyst and
carbon acts as a poison for silica-alumina catalyst in the cracking of petroleum.
 Encyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
280
NH4 NO2 N2 + 2H20 (Unimolecular reaction; one reacting species)

2HI H2+ l2 (Bimolecular reaction; two reacting species)

2NO+O2 2NO2 (Trimolecular reaction; three reacting species)

2+1-3

lfa reaction takes place in several steps, the overal rate of the reaction is controled by the
slowest step of a reaction. The slowest step is called rate determining step.
Order ofa reaction can be zero and even a fraction but molecularity can not be zero or a
non-integer.
Molecularity of the slowest step is same as the order of overall reaction.
Inversion of cane sugar and hydrolysis of an ester are examples of pseudo first order reaction.
i.e., in these reactions, reactants are more than one but rate of reaction depends upon the
Concentration of one reactant.

Chemical Equilibrium
Let us consider a general case of a reversible reaction
CorD
A+ B C+ D
With passage of time, rate of forward reaction decreases
and rate of backward reaction increases. After some time, A
or B
stage is reached at which the rates of forward and reverse
reactions become equal and the concentrations of
reactants and products become constant. This is the state Time Equlibrium
of chemical equilibrium. This equilibrium is dynamic in Attainment of Chemical
nature i.e., none of the reactions stops but both proceed Equilibrium
with equal rate.

Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant

CM Guldberg and Peter Waage proposed in 1864 the law of mass action. They proposed
that the rate of chemical reaction of any substance is directly proportional to the active
mass of the substance or the rate of chemical reaction of the reactants is directly
proportional to the product of active masses of reactants.
For a chemical reaction,
aA+bB cC+ dD
Rate of forward reaction,
=k,[A[B]
Rate of backward reaction,
Tk IC][D
At equilibrium,
kp[C[D]" =kf[AJ"B]"
[D
IC
ICF[D
AP [B
CHEMICAL KINETICS AND EQUILTBRIUM
281
This equation is the mathematical form of law of chermical equilibrium.
where, Ke = equilibrium constant
Thus, the ratio of rate of backward reaction to the rate of forward reaction is called
equilibrium constant. Its value is constant at a fixed temperature and alters with change
in temperature.

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibria

In homogeneous equilibrium, all the reactants and products are in same phase (i.e., solid,
liquid or gas).
e.g CHCOOC2Hs (aq)+ H2O() = CH3COOH{aq) + C2H,OH(aq)
Na(g)+ H2lg) 2NH3 (g)
While equilibriumn in a system having more than one phase is called heterogeneous
equilibrium.
e-g, HO(l) H,Olg)
CaCO,s) caols)+ CO,(e)

Le-Chatelier's Principle
According to this principle, change in any of the factors that determine the equilibrium
conditions of a system will cause the system to change in such a manner to reduce or
counteract the effect of change.
When the concentration of any of the reactant is increased or product is removed at
equilibrium, then the reaction will take place in forward direction and if there is addition
of product or removal of reactant occurs at equilibrium, then the reaction will take place
in backward direction.
Increase in temperature shifts equilibrium in the forward direction of those reactions
which proceed with absorption of heat and in the backward direction of those reactions
which proceed with the evolution of heat.
If the pressure is increased, reaction will take place în a direction which will bring about
lowering of pressure.
8
Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry 1s the study of production of electricity from energy released during
spontaneous chemical reactions and the use of electrical energy to carry out
non-spontaneous chemical transformations. A large number of metals, sodium hydroxide,
chlorine, fuorine and many other chemicals are produced by electrochemical methods.

Electrolysis
The word electrolysis' is derived from two words electro' meaning electrical energy and
lysis' meaning dissociation (breakdown). The process of deconmposition of a molten
Substance or its aqueous solution by passing an electric current, is called electrolysis.
In other words, electrolysis is a process in which electrical energy is used to bring about a
non-spontaneous chemical reaction.
William Nicholson showed the electrolysis of water.

Components Required for Electrolysis

The three components required for the process of electrolysis are
1. Electrolyte 2. Electric current 3. Electrode

1. Electrolyte
The compound which can conduct electricity in liquified state or in aqueous state, is
termed as electrolyte. e.g., acid, base, salt, etc.
On the basis of dissociation, electrolytes are of two types; strong electrolyte and weak
electrolyte. Strong electrolytes dissociaite completely while weak electrolytes dissociate
only partially. NaCl, KCI, CaCil2, MgS04 are the examples of strong electrolytes while
CHCOOH is an example of weak electrolyte.
Non-electrolytes are bad conductors of heat because they do not dissociate into their ions
when dissolved in water. e.g., urea, gucose, sugar, etc.
2. Electric Current
The flow of electrons in a conductor, is termed as electric current. This results in the
transter of ions to the respective terminal.
3. Electrode
A solid electric conductor through which an electric current enters or leaves an electrolyte, is
termed as electrode. It is used to make electrical contact with some part of circuit.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
283

Arrhenius Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation or

Decomposition
This theory was proposed by Sweden chemist Arrhenius in 1894 in order to explain the
behaviour of electrolytes in aqueous solutions.
Main postulates of this theory are as follows
(1) When an electrolyte is
dissolved in water, it dissociates into its ions i.e., cations (positive
ions) and anions (negative ions) and this phenomenon is called ionisation.
(1i) In ordinary conditions, weak electrolytes dissociate in solution to a small extent and the
solution of these electrolytes contains ions which are in equilibrium with unionised
molecules. e-g.,
CH,COOH CH,CO0 +H*
Such an equilibrium is called ionic equilibrium.
(iii) The fraction of the total number of molecules undergoing dissociation, is called the degree
of dissociation or degree of ionisation.
or 10nised molecules
Degree of dissociation = utoer
Number of molecules
(iv) Electrolysis takes place only at electrodes.
(iv) The conductivity of the solution depends upon thenumber of ions present in the solution.

Faraday's Laws of Electrolysis

Michael Faraday performed various experiments on the phenomenon of electrolysis and
their results were published in 1833-34. On the basis of these experiments, Faraday gave the
following two laws called the Faraday's laws of electrolysis
1. First Law
The amount of chemical reaction which occurs at any electrode during electrolysis by
Current is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte
solution or melt).
m= ZQ= Zit
where, Z =electrochemical equivalent, m = substance deposited in gram
i =current in ampere, t = time in second, Q =charge in coulomb
When i=1A and t=1s then m =Z
ie., Electrochemical equivalent is defined as the mass of substance deposited when
1 ampere electricity is passed for 1 second (or 1 coulomb charge is passed) througha
solution.
2. Second Law
The amounts of different substances liberated at the electrodes by the same quantity of
electricity passing through the electrolytic solution are proportional to their chemical
equivalent weights (Atomic mass of mnetal+ Number of electrons required to reduce the
cation).
If W, W2, W3 are the deposited amounts of the substances and E, E2, E are their
respective chemical equivalent weights then

WE
W2 E2
and 2 EE2 or ZE
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
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Thus, the electrochemical equivalent of a substance is directly proportional to the
chemical equivalent of the substance.
Faraday If an electric current due to 96487 coulomb charge is passed for second through
1

an electrolyte, it will deposit one equivaent weight of the stubstance. This amount of electric
current is called Faraday
1

Faraday =96500 Cmol

It is basicaly the charge on moe of electrons. Its exact value is 96487.
1

Products of Electrolysis
Products of electrolysis depend upon the nature of material being electrolysed and the
type of electrodes being used. e.g., if we use molten NaCI, the products of electrolysis are
sodium metal and chlorine gas. During the electrolysis of an aqueous sodium chloride
solution, the products are NaOH, Cl2 and H2. Electrolysis of an aque0us solution of copper
Sulphate using copper electrodes produces copper at cathode.
Products of electrolysis also depend on the different oxidising and reducing species
present in the electrolytic cell and their standard electrode poterntials.
A potential difference develops between the electrode and the electrolyte, this is caied
electrode potential.
When the concentration of ail the species involved in a half-cell is unity, then the electrode
potential is known as standard electrode potential.

Applications of Electrolysis
(i) In Electrorefining of Metals Pure form of copper, silver, gold are obtained by
electrorefining process in which anode is made up of impure metal anda thin strip of
pure metal acts as cathode. A salt solution of the metal is generaly used as
electrolyte. The copper obtained by this process is 99.9% pure.
(ii) In Electroplating Objects Electroplating is the process of electrolysis in which the
desired metal is deposited on the another material to provide shiny appearance and
prevent it from corrosion and scratch.
e.g, chromium plating is done on many objects such as car parts, etc. Jewellery
makers electroplate gold on silver or copper or nickel ornaments by placing these
metals ina solution having a salt of gold and by passing an electric current. Tin cans
used for storing food are made by electroplating tin on to iron.
(iii) In Electrotyping It is used in printing industries for making blocks, graphics, etc.
e.g, in large printing press, a thin layer of copper is coated on the printing paper by
using copper voltmeter and replacing cathode by printing paper because on copper
coated papers, excellent prints appear.
iv) In Electrometallurgy Electrometallurgy is the process of extraction of certain
metals like calcium, aluminium, magnesium, etc from their respective compounds.
(v) In Manufacturing of Compounds Chemical compounds like chloro rm, ethane,
acetylene, drugs are manufactured by the process of electrolysis.
(vi) In the Evaluation of Equivalent Weight of Metals Equivalent weight of the
metals is calculated by using the formula w E.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
285
(vii) In Electrolytic Capacitor (Condensor) Here, aluminium metal is used for making
both the electrodes. The mixture of boric acid, glycerine and aqueous ammonia is
used as electrolyte. On passing electric current, a layer of aluminium hydroxide
deposits on the anode which acts as a dielectric for the electrodes.

Electrolytic Cell Battery

Electrolysis is carried out in a container, called electrolytic cell. An
electrolytic cell consists of two metallic rods called the electrodes.
The electrode which is attached with positive terminal of the A
battery is called cathode and which is attached with negative
terminal of the battery is called anode. Both the electrodes are
dipped in electrolytic solution. On passing electric current în
electrolyte, oxidation, ie., release of electron(s) takes place at anode
while reduction, ie., gain of electron(s) takes place at cathode.
Eeroiye

Galvanic Cell or a Voltaic Cell1 Electrolytic Cell

A galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a
spontaneous redox reaction into elecirical energy. A Daniell cell is a practical and
prototype example of a galvanic cell.
In Daniell cell, the anode is made up of zinc rod and dipped in solution of zinc sulphate
(electrolyte). Similarly, the cathode is made up of copper rod and dipped in the solution of
copper sulphate. When the zinc and copper electrodes are joined by a wire, an electric
current flows. Zinc rod loses its mass while copper rod gains its mass.

Electrochemical Series
The arrangement of elements in a proper way (i.e., in încreasing or decreasing order) of
their electrode potentials, is called electrochemical series. The electrode potential of
hydrogen is taken as zero.
In this series, hydrogen is kept in the middle. Elemernts which are better reducing agents
than hydrogen get their place above hydrogen and the elements which are better
oxidising agent than hydrogen get their place below the hydrogen.
Electrochemical series of elenents is Li, K, Ba, Ca, Na, Mg. Al, Zn, Cr, Fe, Co, Cd, Ni, Srn, H2
Cu, I2, Hg, Ag. Pd, Br2, Cl2, Au, F2

Characteristics of Electrochemical Series

) Lower is the value of reduction potential, greater would be its reducing power.
(i) Metal with lower (negative) reduction potential can have the ability to displace metal with
higher (positive) reduction potential from their salt solutions. ie., metals higher in series
are more active than metals lying lower in the series.
(ii) Metals which are placed above hydrogen in the series have the ability to displace
hydrogen from any solution containing H.
(iv) Higher the negative electrode potential, higher is the tendency to form ion.
(v) By the help of this series, we can compare the oxidising and reducing behaviour of
elements.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
286

Batteries
Any battery (which actually have one or more than one cell connected in series) or cell
that we use as a source of electrical energy is basically a galvanic cell, where the chemical
energy o redox reaction is converted into electrical energy. Infact in batteries, the
energy is stored in the form of chemical energy., when these are connected through any
Circuit, the stored chemical energy is transtormed slowly and steadily into electric
energy.
There are mainly two types of batteries
1. Primary Batteries
In primary batteries, the reaction occurs only once and after use Over a period of timne
battery becomes dead and can not be reused. The most familiar examples of this type are
i) Dry Cell It is known as Leclanche cell after its discoverer. It is commonly used in our
transistors and clocks. The cell consists of a zinc container that also acts as anode and
the cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by the powdered manganese
dioxide and carbon. The space between the electrodes is filled by a moist paste of
ammonium chloride (NH, CI) and zinc chloride (ZnCl2).
Anode Znís) Zn" + 2e
Cathode MnO2+ NHG + e MnO(OH)+ NH3
Ammonia produced in the reaction forms a complex with Zn"". MnO2 acts as
depolariser. The cell has a patential of nearly 1.5 V.
(ii) Mercury Cell It is suitable for low current devices like hearing aids, watches, etc.
It consists of zinc-mercury amalgam as anode and a paste of HgO and carbon as
cathode. The electrolyte is the paste of KOH and ZnO. The electrode reactions for cell
are
Anode Zn(Hg)+ 2OH ZnOts)+ H,0+ 2e
Cathode HgO+ HaO+ 2e. Hg(l)+ 2 OH
The cell potential is 1.35 V and remains constant during its life.

2. Secondary Batteries
A secondary cell after use can be recharged by passing current through it in opposite
direction so that it can be used again. The most important secondary cells are the lead
storage battery and Ni-Cd cell.
) Lead Storage Battery It is commonly used in automobiles and invertors. It consists
of a lead anode and a grid of lead packed with lead dioxide (PbO2) as cathode. A 38%
solution of sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte.
Discharge
(act as electrochemical cell)
Pb (s)+ PbO2(s)+ 2H2SO4 (aq) 2PbSO (s)+ 2H20 (1)
Recharge
(act as electrolytic cell)

On charging the battery ie., when it acts as electrolytic cell, the reaction is reversed
and PbSO4 (S) gives lead on anode and PbO2 on athode.
In it, there are six cells with a potential of 2Veach, ie., its total voltage is usually 12 V.
Its capacity is expressed in ampere-hour. Because of the formation of water, the
specific gravity (dernsity) of the cell decreases and hence, the cell gets discharged. The
emf of a fully charged battery is 2.2 V and of discharged cell is 1.8 V. The position of
discharged cell is called sulphating.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
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i) Ni-Cd Cell It has longer life than the lead storage cell but more expensive to
manufacture. It is commonly used in devices such as torchlights, electric shavers, etc.
Now-a-days, Ni-MH (nicket-metal hydride) batteries are widely used. These batteries have
25% more rechargeable ife and is iess hazardous as compared to Ni-Cd (Nickel-Cadmium)
battery.
Hepeated charging is required at the time of surmmer. ihis is because at higher
temperature the rate of selt discharge of battery increases

Lithium-ion Battery (LIB) In it, lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive
electrode during discharge and back when charging. In these batteries, an intercalated lithiumn
compound like Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO), Lithium cobalt oxide, etc is used as the
electrode material
Because of their fight weight and high energy devices, lithiurn batteries are used in
Portable Devices These include mobile phones and smartphones, laptops and tablets
digital cameras and camcorders, electronic cigarettes, handheld game consoles and
torches (flashlights).
Power Tools Li-10n batteries are used in tools such as cordless drlls, sanders, saws and
a variety of garden equipment including whipper-snippers and hedge trimmers.
Electric Vehicles Because of their light weight Li-ion batteries are used for energy storage
for many electric vehicles for everything from electrIC cars to pedelecs, from hybrid
vehicles to advanced electriC wheelchairs, from radio-controlled models and model
aircraft to the Mars Curiosity rover.
Li-ion batteries are used in telecommunication applications. Secondary non-aqueous
lithium batteries provide reliable backup power to load equipment located in a network
environment of a typical telecommunicatiorns service provider.
Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell It runs continuously as long as the reactants, i.e, fuels are
supplied. It produces electricity with an efficiency of about 70% as compared to thermal plants
whose efficiency is 40%. This cell is pollution-free. This cell was used in Apollo space
programmne.

Cell Efficiency
It is the ratio of total beneficial work and total work done. If E is the emf of a cell and V is
the potential difference of the terminals of the cell in a closed cell, then

Cell efficiency n
9
Classification of
Elements
Elements are classified on the basis of similarities in their properties. At present,
118 elements are known to us, out of which 98 are naturally occurring while remaining
are synthesised artificially by man. Main objective of classification of elements is to make
the study of 118 elements more convenient, systematic and organised.

Periodic Classification
The arrangement of elements in such a way so that elements having similar properties
reappear at a regular interval, is called periodic classification or periodic arrangement of
elements.
Döbereiner grouped the elements into triads and said that the atomic weight and properties
of the middle element is the average of atomic weights or properties of other two elements.
Newlands gave the law of octaves and told that when elements are arranged in
increasing order of their atomic weights, every eighth element resembles in properties
with the first one just like musical notes.
But all these were unable to arrange all the known elements. The first impressive attempt
in this direction was given by Mendeléev.

Mendeléev's Periodic Table

Mendeléev studied the formula and properties of hydrides arnd oxides of different
elements and on the basis of their comparative study, he gave a law called the
Mendeléev's periodic law.
It states that the properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses
or atomic weights Le., if elements are arranged in increasing order of atomic weights,
after a regular interval the elements having similar properties reappear.
Mendeléev's periodic table is the tabular representation of Mendeléev's periodic law.
It contains vertical columns called groups and horizontal rows called periods. In this
table, there were 8 groups and 7 periods.
Mendeléev placed elements with similar nature in the same group with respect to atomic
weight.

Characteristics of Mendeléev's Periodic Table

i) To place certain elements into correct group from the point of view of their chemical
properties, Mendeléev reversed the order of some pairs of elements. e.g., cobalt (atomic
mass 58.9) appeared before ickel (atomic mass 58.7).
CLASSIEICATION OF ELEMENTS AND METALLURGY
289
(ii) Mendeléev left some gaps in his periodic table for new elements that had not been
discovered at that time. e.g, Eka-boron, Eka-aluminium and Eka-silicon, the properties of
which had been found similar to the scandium, gallium and germanium discovered later.

Advantages of Mendeléev's Periodic Table

This table was found helpful
(1) for the study of
elernents conveniently.
(ii) for the prediction of properties of new elements.
(iil) for predicting the valency of the elements.
(iv) for calculating actual atomic weight.

Limitations of Mendeléev's Classification

i) He could not assign a correct position to hydrogen in his table.
(i) Isotopes of all the elements posed a challenge to Mendeléev's periodic law.
(ii) Atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going from one element to the next.
So, it was not possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between twop
elements.
(iv) Some elements having similar properties had been placed in Only 63 elements were
different groups like Cu and Hg: Ag and Tl; Au and Pt were discoveredat the time of
placed separately. Similarly, some elements having different Mendeléev when he was
properties had been placed together. e.g., in group 8, block of Composing the periodic
three elements had been placed together but they differ în table.
properties. Similarly, copper, silver and gold are placed
wi Inert gases were not
chemically dissimilar alkali metals in group 1. discovered at that time.
(v) Metals and non-metals were not placed separately in this
periodic table.

Modern Periodic Table

It was given by British chemist Moseley in 1913 on the basis of his discovery that atomic
number is the most fundamental property. It is a tabular form of modern periodic law,
according to which, "the physical and chemical properties of the elements are the
periodic function of their atomic numbers". This table removed almost all the drawbackks
of Mendeléev's periodic table.
Numerous forms of periodic table have been devised from time to time. A modern
version, so called long form of the periodic table of elements, which is based on the
electronic configuration of elements, is the most convenient and widely used.

Characteristics of Long Form of Periodic Table

(1) The horizontal rows are called periods and the vertical columns are called groups
(ii) The groups are numbered from 1 to 18 and there are altogether 7 periods.
(i1) Elements having similar outer electronic configurations in their atoms are arranged in the
vertical columns, i.e., groups or families. That's why elements of a group possess similar
chemical properties.
(iv The period number corresponds to the highest principal quantum number (n) of the
elements in the period and each period marks a new electronic shell getting filled.
(v) The first period contains 2 elements and the subsequent periods consist of 8, 8, 18, 18 and
32 elements respectively and seventh period is incomplete.
(vi) In this form of the periodic table, 14 elements of both six and seventh periods
(lanthanoids and actinoids respectively) are placed in separate panels at the bottom.
 Eneyclopedia OF G ENERAL SCIENCE
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oHF8FF EN

gjaeaF8H

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CLASSTFTCATTON OF ELEMENTS AND METALLURGY
.. 291

Characteristics of Periods
( The number of valence electrons in elements increases from 1 to 8 on moving from lett to
right in a period.
(1) The elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers.
(ii) The valency of element increases from 1 to 4 and then decrease to0 (zero) on moving from
left to right in a period, with respect to hydrogen.
(iv) Atomic size, electropositive nature, metallic nature, reducing nature of elements and basic
nature of oxides all decrease from left to right in a period.
(v) Electronegative nature, non-metallic nature, acidic nature of oxides, ionisatiorn potential
all increase from left to right in a period. In a period, electron affinity also increases from
left to right.

Characteristics of Groups
() All the elements of a group of the periodic table have the same number of valence
electrons and hence, have almost similar chemical properties.
) Atomic size, electropositive nature, metallic nature, reducing nature of elements and basic
nature of oxides all increase from top to bottom in a group.
ii) Electronegative nature, ionisation potential, electron affinity, non-metallic nature and
acidic nature of oxides all decrease down a group with increasing atomic number
(iv) Reactivity of metals increases down the group but that of norn-metals decreases down the
group.

Prediction of number of group and period of an element

Number of shells in an atom determines period in the periodic table.
Number of valence electrons determines group in the periodic table.
For s-block elements; group number = electrons in the valence shell.
For p-block elements; group number =10+ electrons in the valence shell.
For d-block elements; group number = electrons in ns-shell+ electrons in (n-1)
d shell.

Types of Elements
The electronic configuration of atoms provides a theoretical foundation for the periodic
classification. Elements of a group exhibit similar chemical properties because they have
same electronic configuration of their outermost shel.
Depending upon the type of orbital receiving the valence electron, the elements can be
classified into following four blocks

s-Block Elements
1) In these elements, valence electronfs) enters in s-orbital.
(ii) Group-1 and 2 (IA and IIA) of the periodic table belong to this block.
(iii) Group-1 (IA) of the periodic table is collectively called as alkali metals.
(iv) Group-2 (lIA) of the periodic table is collectively called as alkaline earth metals.
(v) The general electronic configuration ofs-block elements is (noble gas) ns' for alkali metals
and (noble gas) ns* for alkaline earth metals.
(vi) These elements are soft metals, electropositive and form basic oxides.

p-Block Elements
) In p-block elements, valence electron(s) enters in p-orbital.
(ii)Valence shell electronic configuration is ns np*.
(ii) Group-13 to 18 (1IA to VllIA) are p-block elements in the periodic table.
(iv) It is the only block which contains metals, non-metals and metalloids.
 Eneyclopedia OF G ENERAL SCIENCE
.
292
(v) Heavier members of this bloc) show inert pair effect, i.e., their lower valency becomes
more stable. e.g., +2 valency is more stable for Pb as compared to its +4 valency. Similarly,
+1 valency is more stable for Tl as compared to its +3 valency.
Ununseptium, recently discovered, a superheavy chemical element with atomic number 117,
is a member of group-17 in the periodic table below the five halogens (fluorine, chlorine
bromine, iodine and astatine). Its synthesis Was claimed in Dubna, Russia by a joint
Russian-American colaboration.
in 2014, the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy lon Research in Germany also claimed to have
Successtully repeated original experiment. Ununseptium is a termporary systematic name that is
intended to be used before a permarnent one is established. It is commonly caled 'element-117
instead of ununseptium.

d-Block Elements
(1) These elements are called transition elements (except zinc, cadmium and mercury).
(i) In d-block elements, valence electron(s) enters in d-orbital.
(ii) Valence shell electronic configuration is (n 1}d- ns-

(v) This block contains the elements of group-3 to 12 of the periodic table.
(v) The three series of transition metals are known 3d series (Scto Zn), 4d series (Y to Cd) and
Sd series (La to Hg, excluding Ce to Lu).

f-Block Elements
(i) The f-block consists of two series lanthanoids (fourteen elements following lanthanum)
and actinoids (fourteen elements following actinium) of the periodic table.
(i1) Electronic configuration of lanthanoids is
6s5d-4f1-. S-and p-bock eements
(ii) Electronic configuration of actinoids are irregular. are collectively called
(iv) Elements of this block are also called inner-transition representative elements.
elements. Hg, Zn, Cd are d-block
(v) Elements beyond uranium (at. no. 92) are man-made elements but not the
elements ie., synthesised by man artificially. So, these are transition elements
called transuranic or synthetic elements. Al these All elements ofs, d andf
elements are radioactive in nature. e.g., neptunium (Np), block are metals except
plutonium (Pu), americium (Am), curiurn (Cm), berkelium hydrogen.
(BK), californium (Cf), einstenium (Es), mendelevium (Md), etc.

Highest and Lowest Properties of Some Elements

Highest/Lowest
Elements Highest/Lowest Properties Elements
Properties
Lightest element Hydrogen Element having highest ionisation Helium
(non-metal) potential
Heaviest element Osmium Element having least ionisation potential Caesium
Lightest metal Lithium Metal having highest melting point rungsten
Liquid metal Mercury Element having highest electron affinity Chlorine
Liquid non-metal Bromine .e., electron accepting tendency)
Best conductor (metal) Silver Most electronegative element Fluorine
Second best conductor Copper Strongest oxidant Fluorine
Best non-metallic Graphite (an Strongest eductant Lithium
Conductor allotrope of carbon) Monoatomic gases Inert or noble gases
Most ductile and Gold Group of gaseous elements Zero groupP
malleable metal Element stored in kerosene oil Sodium
Most reactive metal | Caesium |Element present in bones and teeth Calcium
Most reactive non-metal Fluorine Most poisonous metal Plutoniumn
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND METALLURGY
2933

Trends in Modern Periodic Table (Periodic Properties)

The properties which are repeated at regular íntervals are known as periodic properties.
These properties show a regular order along a group and period.
1) Valency It generally increases from 1 to 7 in a period with respect to hydrogen but
with respect to oxygen, it first increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases to O.
For alkali metals (ie., sodium,. potassium, etc) it is 1, for alkaline earth metals
i.e., magnesium, calcium, etc) it is 2, for aluminium it is 3 and for nitrogen it varies
from -3 to +5.
(11)
Atomic Size It refers to the radius of an atom. It generally increases on moving
down the group because new shells are being added as we go down the group.
It decreases along a period from left to right. This is due to an increase in nuclear
charge which tends to pull the electrons closer to nucleus and reduces the size of the
atom, Thus, size of alkali metals is largest and that of halogens is smallest in a period.
Size of noble gases is larger as compared to corresponding halogens
ii) lonisation Energy Itis the energy required to remove an electron from an isolated
gaseous atom in its ground state. It generally increases along a period from left to
right due to increase in effective nuclear charge but ionisation energy of group-2
elements (Be, Mg. Ca, Sr) is larger than the ionisation energy of group-3 (B, Al, Ga, In)
elements.
Similarly, ionisation energy of group-15 elements (N, P, As) is larger than ionisation
energy of group-16 (0, S, Se) elements
,
cause of the stable configuration of group-2
elements (ns) and group-15 elements (ns np°) than that of group-3 elements
(ns, np") and group-16 elements (ns*, np") respectively.
It generally decreases along a group on moving downwards due to increase in atomic
size.
(iv) Electron Gain Enthalpy (.H) It is defined as the enthalpy change
accompanying

the process when an extra electron is added to neutral gaseous atomto convert it intoo
an anion. The energy released during the process is called electron affinity (EA).
EA increases across a period from left to right but EA of group-2, group-15 and
group-0 is zero or positive.
It decreases on moving down the group. It is highest for chlorine.
v) Electronegativity It is the tendency of an atom ina molecule to attract the shared
pair of electrons towards itself. It increases regularly along a period from left to right
and decreases on moving down a group. It is highest for fluorine.
(vi) Metallic Character It is the tendency of an element to form cation by the loss of
electrons. It decreases along a period from left to right and increases in a group on
moving downwards. Thus, metallic elements occupy the left hand columns of the
periodic table.
(vii) Non-Metallic Character It is the tendency of an element to form anion by the gain
of electrons. It increases along a period from left to right and decreases in a group on
moving downwards.
(vii) Density It is defined as mass per unit volume and increases on moving down a
group as well as along a period from left to right but density of gold is higher than that
of mercury. The order of density of steel, mercury and gold is steel < mercury < gold.
10
Hydrogen and
Its Comnpounds
Hydrogen
Hydrogen (symbol H) has atomic number 1 and mass number 1. It was discovered by Henry
Cavendish in 1766 but named by Antoine Lavoisier. It has the simplest atomic structure amonng
all the elements around us in nature. In atomic form, it consists of only one proton and one
electron but no neutron. However, in elemental form it exists as a diatomic (H2)molecule and
is generally called dihydrogen. It forms more compounds than any other element.

Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table

Ttis the first element in the periodic table. Its electronic configuration is 1s*. It resembles with
alkali metals as well as with halogens in some properties. So, it is best placed separately in the
periodic table.

Occurrence
Dihydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe (70% of the total mass of universe).
It is the principal element in the solar atmosphere. The giant planets Jupiter, Saturn and Stars
Consist mostly of hydrogen. However, due to its light nature, it is much less abundant in the
earth's atmosphere. It is the ninth most abundant element in the earth's crust.

Isotopes of Hydrogen
Hydrogen has three isotopes; protium GH) deuterium (H or D) and tritium (H or T).
(The subscript shows the atomic number and the superscript shows the mass number).
These isotopes differ from one another in respect of the presence of neutrons. Ordinary
hydrogen (protium) has no neutrons, deuterium (also known as heavy hydrogen) has one and
tritium has two neutrons in the nucleus. The predominant form is protium. Tritium is a
It
radioactive isotope (half-life period is 12.4 years). is a beta emitter.
Deuterium was prepared by Urey, Brickwedde and Murphy in 1931 and is used for studying
the mechanism of organic reaction and as a bombarding particle in nuclear reactions.

Special Forms of Hydrogen

) Nascent HydrOgen It is the hydrogen at the mornent of its generation i.e., it is
present only in-situ. This is more reactive and powerful reducing agent.
(i) Atomic Hydrogen It is produced at elevated temperature by the decomposition of
molecular hydrogen. Its reducing power is more than that of nascent hydrogen.
HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
295
(ii) Ordinary Hydrogen It is a mixture of two forms; ortho and para. In ortho hydrogen
spins of both the nuclei are in same direction while in para hydrogen, spins of both the
nuclei are in opposite directions.
(iv) Adsorbed Hydrogen H2 on bubbling at the surface of Pt, Pd, Ni, etc is adsorbed. These
metals adsorbed large amount of H2 at normal and released it at higher temperature.
The process of adsorption of H2 over these metals, is called occlusion of hydrogen.

Preparation
Following methods are used for the preparation o - Pure H, is obtained
by the
dihydrogen. reaction of Mg with dil. H,SO4 or
i) In laboratory, it is prepared by the reaction of granulated NaH with water.
zinc with dilute hydrochloric acid.
At present, for the production of
(i) Commercially, it is prepared by electrolysis of acidified
dihydrogen, the contribution of
water using platinum electrodes and by the reaction of
petro-chemicals is about 77%, of
steam on hydrocarbons or coke at high temperature in
presence of catalyst.
the
coal is about 18%, of electrolytic
processes is 4% and of other
(ii) It is also preparcd by passing water vapours over red
SOurces is only 1%.
hot iron or by trcating hydrolith or sodium with water.

Properties of Dihydrogen
The physical and chemical properties of dihydrogen are as follows

Physical Properties
(i) It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and combustible gas.
(ii) It is lighter than air and insoluble in water.
(ii) Its melting point is 13.96 K and boiling point is 20.39 K.
(iv) Its density is 0.09 gL"
Chemical Properties
() It is relatively inert at room temperature due to the high H-H bond energy. t reacts with
halogens, X2 to give hydrogen halides, HX.
(At high temp.) H2g)+X2(g) 2HX(g) (X=F, C1, Br, I)
ii) It reacts with Oxygen (or air) at high temperature to form water. The reaction is highly
exothermic.
Catalyst o
2H2 (g)+ O, (g) 2H,O 0)+ Heat
heating
(ii) It reacts with dinitrogen to form ammonia (Haber's process).
673 K, 200 atm
3H (g)+ N2(g) 2NH, (g)+ Heat
Fe, Mo
(iv) Itreacts with metals to form hydrides at high temperature.
H2(g)+ 2Mg) 2MH(s) (M=alkali metal)
(v It reacts with many organic compounds in the presence of catalysts to give useful
hydrogenated products.
(vi When water itself combines chemically with some element or mineral, the reaction is called
hydration.

Commercial Importance of Hydrogenation

v Hydrogenation (reaction with hydrogen) of vegetable oils (unsaturated fats)
using nickel catalyst gives edible fats (vanaspati ghee or saturated fats).
Hydroformylation of olefines yields aldehydes which further undergo reduction
to give alcohols.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
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Uses of Dihydrogen
(i) The largest single use of dihydrogern is
in the Use of hydrogen for filling baioons is
synthesis of ammonia by Haber's process, which
prohibited now-a-days because of
is used in the manufacture of nitric acid and
its volatile and inflammable nature.
nitrogenous fertilizers.
hellium and lithium are
(1) It is used in the manufacturing of vanaspati fat"yarogen, three elements which are
the
by the hydrogenation of poly unsaturated
believed to be prouced in the Big
vegetable oils like soyabean, Cotton seeds, etc.
Bang.
(ii) It is used in the manufacturing of bulk organic
chemicals particularly methanol. The solar energy of the sun is due to
(iv) It is widely used for the manufacturing of metal
the conversion of hydrogen into
helium.
hydrides, hydrogen chloride, etc.
(V) In metallurgical processes, it is used to reduce Ant-hydrogen is the anti-matter
heavy metal oxides to metals. element which reacts explosively
with the elements-oxygen, chlorine
vi) Atomic hydrogen and oxyhydrogen torches are
and fluorine
used for cutting and welding purposes.
(vii) It is used as a rocket fuel in space research. Hydrogen is very light gas and is not
(vii) It is used in fuel cells for generating electricity held by the earths gravity. Thus, no
free hydrogen is present on earth.
and is also called fuel of future.
(ix) A mixture of helium and hydrogen (He= 85% and Hiydrogen is the only element which
H=15%) is used in filling the balloons. exists without neutrons.

Water (H,0)
A major part of all living organisms is made up of water. Human body has 65% (about} and
some plants have as much as 95% water. 97% part of the entire water is assumed to be confined
in oceans while rest is present in pure form. Rain water is the purest form of water.

Properties of Water
(i) It is colourless and tasteless liquid. In pure form, it is neutral. Its pH is 7.
(i1) Pure water is a bad conductor of electricity, however its conductivity can be increased by
adding some strong electrolyte.
(i1) At 4C. water has maximum density and minimum volume.
iv) At 0°C, water solidifies and converts into its solid form, called ice.
(v) Due to the presence of extensive H-bonding between water molecules, it has high freezing
point, high boiling point, high heat of vaporisation, high heat of fusion in comparison to H2S
and H2Se and exists in liquid state.
(vi) In comparison to other liquids, water has a higher specific heat, thermal conductivity, surface
tension, dipole moment and dielectric constant, etc. Due to its high specific heat, it is a good
coolant and is used to cool the engines of cars, buses, trucks, etc.
(vi) Because of its high dielectric constant, it is an excellent solvent for the transportation of ions
and molecules required for plant and animal metabolism.
(vii) Due to H-bonding with polar molecules, even covalent compounds like alcohols and
carbohydrates (glucose, sugar) dissolve in water.

Structure of Water Molecule

In the gas phase, water is a bent molecule with bond angle of 104.5° and O-H bond length of
95.7 pm. In ice, each oxygen atom is surrounded tetrahedrally by four other oxygen atoms.
H-bonding gives ice, a rather open type structure with wide holes. That's why density of ice is
lesser than that of liquid water although ice is a solid and water is a liquid.
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407
Avogadro's number Number of molecules present in one mole of a substance is constant and
equal to 6.023 x 10 at STP/NTP,
Base Acompound release hydroxyl ions (OH) in aqueous solution, having pH
greater than f.
Base metal Non-precious metal, the main metal constituent of an alloy.
Bath salts Salts used to soften hard water.
Beet sugar Sucrose sugar) obtained from sugar beet.
Benzene Aclear, inflammable liquid obtained by the fractional distillation of coal tar. It
is used as a solvent and has carcinogenic properties.
Beta (8I rays A stream of high-speed electrons (or positrons) emitted by certain

radioactive materials.
Biomolecules Molecules of a very complex nature that are found in living systems, e.g,
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, etc
Borax Awhite crystaline salt with an alkaline nature used in the manufacture of
glass, soldering of metals, enamels, gems, soaps, etc.
Boric acid Awhite crystalline solid which behaves as a weak acid. It is used as a mild
antiseptic and in the manutacture of cement, enamels, etc.
Brass An alloy of tin and copper.
Brine saturated solution of NaCl in water.
It is a

Carbanlon Such a carbon species carrying a negative charge on carbon atorm.

Carbocation A positive species having a carbon atom possessing sextet of electrons.

Carbolic acid Phenol, CgH, OH is also called as carbolic acid.

Carbon dating Amethod of estimating the age of archaeological specimens of biological
origin by using C-14 isotope.
Carbonyl group Aldehyde and ketone groups jointly known as carbonyl group.
Carboxylic acid Organic compounds containing-COOH group are carboxylic acids.
Catalysis The process by which the rate of a chemical reaction may be altered.
atalyst Any substance that changes the rate of a reaction without undergoing any
chemical change
Catenation Property of atoms binding themselves to atoms of the same element. This
property is exhibited by carbon.
Chemical bond Itrefers to the attractive forces that keeps ions, atoms or group of atorms
bound together,
Chemical energy The energy stored by atoms and molecules and released during chemical
reactions.
Chemical reaction A process in which one or more chemical elements or compounds (the
reactants) Torm new Compounds (the products).
Coal tar Thick, black, sticky substance which is produced, when coal gas is made by
the destructive distillation of coal.
Coke Light type of coal obtained when coal is heated in the presence of air. It is
used as a fuel in stoves.
Colloid Achemical substance with large molecules which disperse in liquid to form a
Solution that has ditfterent properties froma true solution. Gelatin, starch and
glue are examples of colloids.
Combustion (burning) Achemical reaction that occurs when a substance combines with oxygen and
produces light, heat and flames.
Compound Achemical substance that contains two or more elements combined
together, e.g, salt (NaC) consists of sodium and chlorine,
 Eneyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
408
Crystal A solidsubstance that has a definite, symmetrical shape that is formed by the
arrangement of its atoms and molecules.
DDI Dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane, a white powder used as an insecticide.
Decarboxylation Elimination of CO
Decomposition Breakdown of a compound into two or more components.
Dehalogenation Elimination of halogen.
Dehydration Elimination of water.
Deliquescent Substances which have the property of absorbing water molecules from the
atmosphere, e.g, calcium chloride.
Denatured Asubstance that has been converted into a form that is not its natural form,
tor purposes ot making them untit for eating or dnnking, eg, making ethyl
alcohol denatured by adding methanol or naphtha.
Desalinisation Removal of salt from sea water or saline water.
Detergent Acleaning agent made of the sodium salt of aliphatic or aromatic sulphonic
acids.
Diagonal relationship The behaviour of lithium and beryllium is more similar with the second
elements to next group, i.e., magnesium and aluminium in periodic table.
This sort of similarity is called diagonal relationship.
Diffusion General transport of matter whereby molecu les or ions mix through normal
thermal agitation.
Dilute solution Any solution with small ratio of the quantities of solute to solvent or solution
has low concentration of solute.
Distillation Aprocess involving both evaporation and condensation simultaneously, used
forpurifyingliquids.
Dauble salt Acompound of two salts formed by the crystallisation of a solution
Containing them.
ElectrolysiS The phenomenon of decomposition of an electrolyte by passing electric
current through its solution.
Electralyte lonic compounds, which on dissolving in water dissociate into ions.
Electron afinity The energy released or absorbed for one mole of neutral atoms in a gaseous
state, when electron is accepted by each atom.
Electronegativity Ameasure of the ability of an atom to attract the electron pair in a covalent
bond to itself.
Electroplating The process of coating a solid surface with a layer of metal by the electrolysis
process.
Electrovalent bond The bond formed, as a result of the electrostatic attraction between opposite
charged ions.
Element A substance made only of one kind of atom.
Efflorescence Phenomenon in which some crystalline salts loose water of crystallisation on
exposure to air and become powdery on the surtace.
Emulsion A colloidal dispersion of one liquid in another.

Enthalpy The energy stored within the substance or the system that is available for
conversion into heat.
Entropy A measure of disorder or randomness in a system.

Ester An organic compound obtained by the reaction of an acid with alcohol and
has a fruity smell. In nature, esters give flowers their smell and fruits their
flavour.
Ether A class or organic compound made from alcohol. It is volatile, heavier than
air, inflammable and is only slightly soluble in water.
APPENDIX
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409
Exothermic action Reactions in which heat i erated.
Fatty acids Monobasic organic aliphatic acids occurning in living things in the form of
glycerides in oils and fats.
Fermentation The process of breaking down large molecules into simpler ones due to
action ot enzymes.
Filtration Aprocess of separation of insoluble particles from a liquid by passing the
tluid through porous material.
FISSIOn A process in which a large nuclei breaks up to give smaller nuclei.

reezing point The temperature, at which the solid and the liquid forms have the same
vapour pressure.
Galvanisation The process in which iron or steel articles are coated with zinc by dipping
them in a bath of molten zinc or by electrodes to protect them from
Corrosion.

GasolineThe same as petrol, obtained by the distillation of petroleum.

Greenhouse eftect The increase in CO, in the atmosphere due to which the temperature of the
atmosphere is raising, (i.e, global warming.)
Grignard reagent An organic compound of alkyl halide and magnesium used to synthesis
organic chemicals.
Halides The halogen element compounds like fluorides, chlorides, bromides and
iodides.
Halogen group Non-metallic elements belonging to group Vill A of the periodic table,
comprising fluorine (F), chlorine (CI), bromine (Br), iodine () and astatine (At).

Hard water Water that contains salts of calcium and magnesium and does not lather
easily with soaps.
Heavy water Itis a liquid, like water, but it contains deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen) in
place ot hydrogen (D, 0).
Hydrates Compounds containing water of crystallisation.
Hydrocarbon Any compound made of hydrogen and carbon, e.g, methane, ethane,
acetylene, ethylene, benzene, butane, toluene.
Hydrogenation A process in which an unsaturated compound (generally hydrocarbon) is
treated with hydrogen to produce less unsaturated or saturated compound.
Hydrolysis Aprocess of decomposing a compound by the reaction of water. e.g., digestion
starch and sugars are broken down by hydrolysis into more digestible sugars,
Such as glucose.
ldeal gas lpertect gas) The gas conforming accurately to the gas laws (Boyle's, Charles' and
Gay Lussac's laws).
gnition The heating of a compound or mixture to the point of complete combustion.
Immiscible Substances which are incapable of forming a homogeneous substance when
mixed.
Indicator A substance that changes colour in the presence of an acid or base
Inert gas These are inactive gases of group 0 in the periodic table. They are now called
noble gases.
Insoluble Any compound that is insoluble in a particular solvent or all solvents.
Insulator These are the solids with very low conductivities ranging between 10 to
10 ohm m
Internal energy t is the sum of all the atoms, molecules or ions contained in the system.
Invert sugar Amixture of glucose and fructose, combined or mixed in equal proportions,
e.g, sucrose.
lon An atom that has an electrical charge because it has lost or gained electrons.
 Eneyclopedia OF G ENERAL SCIENCE
410
lonic bond Atype of chemical bond characterised by the transfer of electrons from one
atom to another.
lonisation A process in which a neutral molecule splits into charged ions in the solution.

lonisation enthalpy The energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an
ISolated atom in the gaseous state for one mole of the substance.
Isobars Atoms of diferent elements with the same mass number.
soelectronic species Species which contain the same number of electrons.
Isomers Different chemical compounds with same molecular formula but having
ditferent structural formulae. This phenomenon is called isomerism.
IsOstructural Substances have the same lattice type and crystal structure.
sotope An atom of an element having the same number of protons but different
mass number.
UPAC IUPAC stands for International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. It
developed a systematic chemical nomenclature method.
Joule-Ihomson effect The change in temperature produced, when a gas expands by flowing
through some kind ot obstruction (like a porous plug) trom a region ot higher
pressure to one of lower pressure
Kossel-Lewis theary According to this theory, elements have a high tendency to attain stable
(inert) electronic contiguration.
Lamp black A soft black carbon pigment prepared by incomplete combustion of natural
gas or petroleum.
Lanthanide contraction The filling of 4f before 5d-orbital results in a regular decrease in atomic radi,
called lanthanide contraction which essentially compernsates for the
expected ncrease in atomic size with increasing atomiC number.
Lassaigne's test Atest for the detection of nitrogen, halogen and sulphur in organic
Compound.
Lauryl alcohol Awhite crystalline solid used in the manufacture of detergents.
Leaching Washing out a soluble constituent.
LeWIS acid Substances which can accept the electron pair.
Lewis base Substances which can give a pair of electron.
Lumiting reagent In a reaction, the reagent which gets consumed first, limits the amount of
product formed.
Liquetaction of gases The conversion of a gas into its liquid form under pressure and at lower
temperatures.
Liquid A phase of matter which has definite volume but indefinite shape.
Liquid air Air brought to the liquid state. Itis used as a refrigerant and in the production
of inert gases.
Lithophone Awhite pigment made from zinc sulphide and barium sulphate. It is used in
paints.
Litmus paper Adye paper used as an acid-base neutral indicator. With acids, blue litmus
paper turns red whereas, with bases, red litmus paper turns blue.
Mass number The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Matter Anything which has mass and occupies space.
Metal An element which has a tendency to donate electron.
Metalloid An element having both metalic and non-metallic properties.
Metallurgy The process of extracting a metal from its ore (or as it occurs in the earth).
Minerals All compounds that are obtained from the earth's crust.
APPENDIX
411
MIxture Amaterial contains two or more non-reacting substances (in any ratio) or
Components.
Modern periodic law The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions
of their atomic numbers.
Mole Amount ot a compound equal to its molecular or atomic weight in grams.
Molecule The smallest portion of a substance capable of existing indeperndently and
retaining the properties of the original substances.
Mordants Substances used for fixing colours and dyes on textiles during the process of
dyeing
Mother liquor The solution or liquid left after the formation of crystal.
Natural gas Acombustible gas found in oil wells, on the surface of crude oil for petroleum).
It is used as a fuel and contains mainly butane and propane. It is compressed
under pressure to give Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
Neutralisation The process in which an acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water.
Neutron Aneutral fundamental particle which has a mass nearly equal to that of
hydrogen atom.
Noble metals Metals having low reactivity, show little affinity for air, moisture, carbon
dioxide or other non-metals present in nature, e.g, gold, silver, mercury and
platinum.
Non-metal An element which has a tendency to accept electrons.
Nuclear fission The disintegration of an atomic nucleus into two or more fragments. This
process is used in the production of nuclear (electric) power in nuclear
weapons.
Uptimum temperature It refers to that temperature where the yields of the products is maximum for
a given reaction.
Urbit An orbit, as proposed by Bohr, is a circular path around the nucleus, in which
an electron moves.
Orbital A region around the nucleus of an atom in which, there is a maximum
probability of finding electrons. There are one s, three p, five d and seven
F-orbitals in corresponding subshells.
Ore Amineral from which a metal can be extracted economically.
Urganic compounds Hydrocarbons and their derivatives are considered as organic compounds.
Usmosis The diffusion of substances, through a semipermeable membrane, from one
solution to the other due to the difference in concentrations of the two
solutions. This is the principle of the process of dialysis.
Oxidation The addition of oxygen/electronegative element to a substance or removal ot
hydrogen/electropositive element from a substance or increase in oxidation
number of an element in a reaction.
Oxide Acompound of oxygen and some other element.
Parafin or parartin wax Awhite, waxy solid. It contains higher hydrocarbons and is obtained from
petroleum (or crude oil).
Paramagnetism Paramagnetism is shown by those substances in which all electrons present
in orbitals are not paired. These are weakly attracted by a magnetic field.
Periodic table A table of arranged chemical elements in the order of increasing atomic mass
or atomic number to show the similarities of chemical properties.
Petrol A fraction of petroleum (or crude oil) obtained by its fractional distillation (or
refining), and used as a fuel in motor vehicles. It is also called gasoline.
Petroleum Amixture of hydrocarbons formed under the earth's crust and under the sea
from marine animals and plants. It is also called crude oil.
 Enoyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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pH The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion or
hydronium ion, i.e., pH =-loB1o lH
Photosynthesis Synthesis of organic compounds (sugars) by plants, from carbon dioxide and
water, in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight.
Pi bond When atomic orbitals overlap in such a way that their axis remain parallel to each
other and perpendicular to the internuclear axis, a pi(t) bond is formed.
Pig iron An impure form of iron and contains between 2 and 4.5 per cent carbon. It is hard
and brittle and cannot be tempered or moulded. It is also called cast lron.
Plastics Materials that are stable in normal use and easily moulded to any desired shape.
These are cross-linked polymers.
Polymerisation Process by which polymers and plastics are made trom monomeric units.
Polymers Substances which are made up of small molecules (called monomers) and are very
large in size and weight, e.g, polythene, PVC, proteins, starch, rubber, etc.
Power alcohol Ethyl alcohol, used for purpose af power generation in internal combustion engine,
is known as power alcohol.
Precipitate An insoluble substance formed in a solution by the mixing of chemical reagents in
a chemical reaction.
Proof spirit Solution of ethyl alcohol containing 49.28 per cent alcohol by weight in water.
Propellant A solid or liquid substance used to provide thrust in a rocket engine.

Proton One kind of particle in an atom's nucleus. Protons have a positive electric charge.
Pyrolysis Chemical decomposition by the action of heat.
Uuanta The energy of an electron is packed in small bundles called quanta.
Uuicksilver Another name given to mercury (because it isa liquid and looks like molten silver).
Hadical A species of one atom or group of atoms having either negative charge (acidic
radical) or positive charge (basic radical).
Heactants The substances which combine or react to give products.
Heagent Asubstance which produces a chemical reaction with a certain chemical and can
be used in testing for ion, radical or chemical su bstances.
Hedox reaction Achemical reaction in which oxidation and reduction process takes place
simultaneously.
Heduction Aprocess which involves the addition of hydrogen to a substance or the removal of
oxygen trom it.
Rusting The process by which iron articles get coated with a brownish black layer of
powder. It takes place in the presence of air and moisture. The brownish powder is
a mixture of ferric oxide and ferric hydroxide.
Salt The chemical substance formed, when a base reacts with an acid.
Saturated solution A solution, in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature and
pressure.
Shell Main energy level of electrons, e.g, K, L, M, N..
Sigma bond A type of covalent bond formed by the end to end overlap of bonding orbitals
along the internuclear axis.
Silica Ahard, insoluble, white colourless solid with a very high melting point. It is chiefly
made up of silicon dioxide (Si0,).
Slicon A non-metallic element used in the steel industry and in making alloys and
electronic chips tor computers, etc.
Smog Dark, thick, dust and root-laden sulphurous fog that pollutes the atmosphere in
industrial cities.
Soap Mixture of sodium salts of higher fatty acids (palmitic, stearic and oleic acids). It is
used for washing clothes, to remove dirt and oil or grease by forming emulsions
with water.
APPENDIX
413
Soda ash Itis anhydrous sodium carbonate
Soft water Type of water that easily produces a lot of lather with soap.
Solid A state of matter, having definite volume and shape.
Solubility The weight of a solute present in 100 grams of the solvent at a particular
temperature.
Solutes Solids that dissolve in liquids to make solutions.
Solution Homogeneous mixture of two or more than two components.
Solvents Liquids used in making solutions, e-g, water in syrups.
Spectroscopy The study of emission or absorption of spectra.
Stainless steel Iron containing 4 per cent chromium to resist rusting
Steel It is primarily iron, containing 0.25 -2 per cent carbon, traces of chromium
and manganese.
SIP STP corresponds to standard temperature and pressure. At this stage,
properties of gas is observed at 273.15 K (0°C) temperature and
101325 Pa (or 760 mm of Hg or 1 atm) pressure.
Sublimation The conversion of a solid directly into vapour, or the process of change from
the solid to the gaseous state or from the gaseous to the solid state without
becoming a liquid.
Subshell In an atonm, each shell (orbit) contains one or more subshells. These subshells
are s, p, d and t.
Suspension Amixture consisting of very small undissolved or partially dissolved particles
a solid,distributed in a liquid dispersion medium.
Synthesis The formation of a compound directly from its elements or a simple
compound.
System A system in thermodynamics reters to that part of universe in which
observations are made and remaining universe constitutes the surroundings.
race element An element which is present in extremely small quantities(in traces) in the
earth's crust. Also elements, that are required by organisms in very small
quantities as essential constituents of enzymes, vitamins, or hormones.
Transuranium The man-made elements that have a higher atomic number (number of
protons in the nucleus) than uranium (atomic number, 92), e.g, plutonium
(Pu, 94).
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) It is a highly explosive, yellow solid. It detonates and is, therefore, used in
filling shells.
Iriple point The point at which (or temperature and pressure at which), the three states of
a substance-liquid, solid and gas coexist.
Unshared electron Electrons not utilised in covalent bond formation are unshared electrons, pair
of unshared electrons in a molecule is known as lone pair of electron.
Valence electrons The electrons present in the outermost orbit of an atom, which can take part
in forming chemical bonds.

Valency The combining capacity of an element measured by the number of hydrogen

atoms which combine ith, or are displaced by, an atom of other elements.
Vulcanisation This is a process of improving the quality and hardness of rubber by heating it
with sulphur at about 150°C.
Wax Thick, dull-yellow, sticky substance secreted by bees for making
honeycombs.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
414
Xanthate Aclass of organic salts, formed by the treatment of an alcohol with CS, in the
presence of an alkali.
Yield of chemical reaction The actual amount of the pure product isolated from a reaction, divided by
the theoretical amount of the pure product that should have been formed,
based on the amount of limiting reagent used, multiply by 100.
Leeman effect Splitting of spectral lines when the source of spectrum is exposed to a
magnetic field.

Appendix 2
Branches of Chemistry
Agrochemistry Concerned with the application of chemistry for agricultural production,
food processing etC.
Analytical Chemistry Concerned with qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Biochemical Concerned with mechanisms of drug action and the influences of drugs
Pharmacology on an organism.
Biochemistry Concerned with chemical reactions related to the living organisms.
Bioinorganic Chemislry Concerned with the interaction of metal ions with living tissue, their
effect on enzyme activity.
Chemical Kinetics Concerned with the study of reaction rates and their mechanisms.
Cluster Chemistry Concerned with the study of clusters of bond atoms, intermediate in size
between single molecules and bulk solids.
Combinatoral Concerned with computer simulation of molecules and reaction between
Chemistry molecules.
Cosmelology Concerned with cosmeticS and their uses.
Electrochemistry Concerned with relationship between electrical energy and chemical
changes taking place in redox reactions.
Environmental Concerned with chemical phenomenon in the environmental, especially
Chemistry related to pollution.
Food Chemistry Concerned with chemistry associated with the chemical processes of
food.
Forensie Chemistry Concerned with chemical principles, techniques and methods to the
investigation of crime.
General Chemistry Concerned with the structure of matter and the reaction between matter
and energy.
Geochemistry Concerned with chemical composition, changes and processes associated
with rocks, minerals etc, of earth or a celestial body.
Green Chemistry Concerned with processes and products that reduce or eliminate the use
and generation of hazardous substance and environmental pollution.
Hydrology Concerned with the science of water with reference toits occurence and
properties in the hydrosphere and atmosphere.
Inorganic Chemistry Concerned with the study of all the elements (except C) and their
compounds included Co, CO2, Carbonates and bicarbonates.
Medicinal Chemistry Concerned with design, development and synthesis of pharmaceutical
drugs.
APPENDIX
415
Nanochemistry Concerned with the assembly and properties of nanoscale assemblies of
atoms or molecules.
Nuclear Chemistry Concerned with the study of radioactive substances.
Organic Chemistry Concerned with the study of compound of carbon and hydrogen (i.e., of
hydrocarbon) and their derivatives.
Organomelallie Concerned with the study of chemical compounds containing bonds
Chemistry between carbon and a metal.
Pholochemistry Concerned with interactions between light and matter.
Physical Chemistry Concerned with chemical changes along with the energy consideration.
Physieal Organie Concerned with the interrelationship between structure and reactivity in
Chemistry organic molecules.
Polymer Chemistry Concerned with the structure and properties of polymers and finds new
ways to synthesise these molecules.
Quantum Chemistry Concerned with the mathematical description of the motion and
interaction of subatomic particles.
Solid State Chemistry Concerned with the study of structure, properties and synthesis in solid
phase of matter.
Spectroscopy Concerned with the emission or absorption spectra of matter to study it
or the chemical processes it undergoes.
Stercochemistry Concerned with the spatial arrangement of atoms in molecules and
complexes.
Surlace Chemistry Concerned with the phenomenon that occurs at the surface or interfaces.
Theoretical Chemistry Concerned with the study of chemistry and physics calculations to explain
or make predictions about chemical phenomenon.
Thermochemistry Concerned with the study of thermal effects of chemical reactions.
Thermodynamies Concerned with the energy changes during physical and chemical
processes.

Appendix 3
Popular Scientists and their Discoveries
Discovery/Theory Scientists Discovery'Theory Scientists
Atomic theory Dalton Dynamite Alfred Nobel
Atomic theory based on
quantum theory
Neil Bohr Electron
Gold number
JZsigmondy
Thomson

Atomic number Moseley Gun powder Roger Bacon

Avogadro's hypothesis Avogadro Group displacement Fajan, Russel and Soddy
Artificial radioactivity Irene Curie and Fedric law
Joliot Hund's rule of spin Hund
Activation energy Arrhenius multiplicity
Brownian movement Robert Brown Hess's law of constant GHHess
Catalysis Berzelius heat summation
Dual nature of electron Lde-Broglie Helium Frankland and Lockyer
Dobereiner's triads Dobereiner Hydrogen gas Cavendish
Dilution law Ostwald Heavy water Urey
 Encyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
416
Discovery/Theory Scientists Discovery/Theory Scientists
Inert gas Ramsa Octet rule GN Lewis
Law of conservation of Lavoisier Periodic law and DI Mendeleef
mass classification
Law of constant Proust pH scale SPSorensen
(definite) proportion Plastics Alexander Parkes
Law of multiple Dalton Wave nature of Davison
proportion electron (experiment
Richter proof)
Law of reciprocal
proportion, Photoelectric effect Albert Einstein
Exclusion principle Pauli
Law of equivalent
proportion Proton Goldstein
Law of gaseous volume Gay Lussac Positron Wilson
Law of diffusion of Graham Positive meson Carl Anderson
gases Quantisation of angular Stern Gerlach
Law of partial Dalton momentum
pressures (experimental proof)
Law of octaves Newland Radium Marie and Pierre Curie
Law of mass action Guldberg and Wage Radioactivity Henry Becquerel
Le-Chatelier's principle Le-Chatelier Rubber (vulcanised) Charles Gocodyear
Law of electrolysis araday Rubber (waterproof) Charles Macintosh
Mass-energy relation Albert Einstein Stainless steel Harry Brearley
(E= mc*) Sulphur Frasch
Mass spectrum Aston Haber
Synthesis of ammonia
Mass spectrograph ASton
Synthesis of Kolbe
Molecule Avogadro
hydrocarbons
Modern periodic law Moseley
Synthesis of urea Wholer
Modern concept of Bronsted and Lowry
acids and bases Synthesis of higher Wurtz
Birkland
alkanes
Manufacture of HNO3
froma Terylene JWhinfield,J Dickson
Manufacture of steel Bessemer Theory of ionisation Arrhenius
Meson field theory HYukawa Theory of hybridisation L Pauling
Neutron James Chadwick Theory of Kossel
Neutrino Wilson electrovalency
Negative meson Carl Anderson Theory of covalency GN Lewis
Nylon Wallace Carothers Transuranic elements Seaborg
Oxygen gas Priestley Theory of relativity Albert Einstein
Optical isomerism van't Hoff Uncertainty principle Heisenberg
 Appendix 4
Some Important Compounds and Their Formulae
Compound Formula Compound Formula
Absolute alcohol CH,OH Marsh gas CH
Aspirin o-CHOCO-CH-C0OH Milk of lime (slaked Ca(OH)%

Baking soda NaHCO lime or lime water)

Milk of magnesia MgtOH),
Baryta water A solution of Ba[OH),
Black oxide MnO, Mohr alt FesO -NH ,S04 6H,0
Ca0Cl2 Muriatic acid HCI
Bleaching powder
CuSO, Mustard gas CICH,CHSCH,CH,CI
Blue vitriol 54,0
Borax (tincall Na,B,0, 10H,0 Oleum H,S07
Borazole BNHs of winter green
Oil o- HOCH,CO0CH

Linorganic benzene) (Methysalicylate)

Pearlash K,CO3
Calgon Na,INa, (P0,s
HgCl2 Perhydrol 30% HO2
Calomel
Carbolic acid CHOH Permutit (zeolite) Na,0 Al,0, 25i0, 6H,0
Sic Philosopher's wool Zn0
Carborundum
Caustic potash KOH Phosgene COCl,

Chloropicrin (Tear CCl NO2 Plaster of Paris Cas0,H0

2
gas
Chrome yellow PbCrO4 Prussian blue Fe lFe[CN),
Prussic acid HCN
Chromyle chloride CrO,Cl
DDT Quick lime (lime) Ca0
Dichlorodipheryl
trichloromethane Red oxide Pb,04
Dry ice Selid CO Rochelle salt Na00CCHOH), CH{OH]COOK
Ferric alum KS0, -Fe,tS0, ) 241,0 Rust Fe,0g ai0
Freon CCiF2 Smelling salt (NH, CO
Gammexame (BHC) CCl Soda ash Na,CO,(Anhydrous)
Grape sugar Na, SO
10H,0 Spirit of wine C,OH
Grape sugar CH0,tfructose) Grain alcoholl
Gun powder KNO,170%) +S(12% Talc 3Mg0 4Si0, H0
+ Charcoal( 13%) Teflon CF
Gypsum salt CaS0 2H,0 TEL CHs 1, Pb
LGypsum
(PNCI2)n TNT Teinitrotoluene
Inorganic rubber an explosive)
Hydrolith CaH KFelFelCNIg
Turnbull's blue
Hypo Na,$0, 50 Urea NH,CONH
King of chemicals H,S04
CH,COOH (7-8%)
loil of vitriol Vinegar
NO Washing sOda Na,CO 10H0
Laughing gas
Litharge Pb0 Water glass lquartz) Na, Si0

Lunar caustic AgNOg white vitriol ZnS0, 7H,00

Wood spirit CH_OH
Marshall's acid HS0g 1Perdisulphuric acid)
 Appendix 5
Important Reagents and Mixtures
Reagent/Mixture Composition Uses
Aqua-regia Conc. HNO, + conc. HCI (1:3) As a laboratory reagent
Ammonal Al powder + NHNO As an explosive
Baeyer reagent Alkaline KMnO, solution For detecting ethylenic and
acetylenic linkages
Baking powder NaHco,+sodium potassiurn For baking cake etc.
tartarate
Benedict's solution CuSO 5H,0+ NaOH-+ Sodium For detecting aldehydes
citrate
Black ash Na,CO, + Cas Impure Na,COg, produced in, ie,
Balance process
Bordeaux mixture Solution of CuSO, + lime To kill moulds and fungi on plants
Carbogen 90-959% O, +5-109% CO2 For the artificial respiration
Carbon oil Vegetable oil +lime water For the treatment of burns
Ceric ammonium nitrate Salt solution in nitric acid As an oxidising agent in organic
solution synthesis
Coal gas 47% Hh +32% 4
+ 7% CO+ Produce reducing atmospherein
other gases metallurgical operatiorns
Fehling's solution 'A' Solution of CusO^ 5H%0 in water Mixture of Fehling's solutions A' and
Fehling's solution 'B' Solution of sodium tartarate and Bis used to test reducing sugars and
NaOH in water aldehydes

Fenton's reagent H,O + FeCl To oxidise contaminants or waste

water
Freezing mixture NaCl+Ice For lowering temperature
Fusion mixture Na, CO, +K,CO, A laboratory reagent
Gobar gas CH+CO+H Domestic fuel
Gun powder KNO, + S+ Charcoal As an explosive

Ignition mixture BaO +Mg + Al In aluminothermic process

For the hydrogenation of alkyne to
Lindlar catalyst Pd/BasO, +S alkene
Lithophone ZnS +BaS04 As a white paint
Lucas reagent Conc.HCl+ anhyd. ZnCl2 For identification of 1, 2,3° alcohols
Methylated spirit 85-90% rectified spirit + 10-15% As a solvent to make spirit poisonous
CH,OH+ pyridine
Molisch's reagent Solution of a-naphthol in ethanol For detecting carbohydrates
Nessler's reagent Solution of Hg, in Kl and KOH For testing ammonia and
ammonium ion
Nitrolim CaCN, + graphite As fertiliser

Nitrophos Cal PO,)2 + Ca(NO,) As fertiliser

0il gas 50-55% H, +25-30% CH+ 10-12% As laboratory fuel

CO+ 3% CO2
APPEN DIX

Reagent/Mixture
.. Composition
.
Uses
419

Portland cement or Limestone + clay + gypsum For construction of buildings

cement
Power alcohol 80% petrol + 20% ethanol + |limited As motor fuel
benzene
Producer gas 52-55% N + 22-30% CO + 10-12% As fuel
H2+ 3% C02
Purple of cassius Colloidal solution of Au + Sn{OH)2 For colouring of glass and pottery red
Rectified spirit 95-879% CHOH+4.13% H, 0 as a solvent
Schiff's reagent Solution of rosaniline in water For testing aldehydes
Soda bleach Na, O +HC For bleaching fabrics
Sodalime NaOH+Ca(OH)2 For decarboxylation of carboxylic
acid
Sorel's cement MgO+MgCh As a tiles
Sublimed white lead PbO+ PbS0, + Zno As white paint
Superphosphate of lime Ca(HPO,) +Caso, As fertiliser

Thermite mixture Al powder +metal Oxide In metallurgy

Tincture of iodine 2 +Kl +CH, OH+ water As an antiseptic

Thomas slag ,
Ca, (PO,)2 +5CaOP,O SiO As fertiliser

Water gas 51%H, +416 CO+49%N, + 4% CO, For the preparation of methanol

Appendix 6
Important Facts
Property Element/lon Property Element/Ion
Smallest cation H Lustrous non-metal lodine ()
Largest cation Cs Hardest among non-metals Diamond
Solid with highest density Iridium (lr) Soft metals Na, K
Liquid with highest density Mercury (Hg) Best ductile metals Au, A
Elements named in honour Ru, Ge, Po, Amm Best conductor metal Silver (Ag)
of the countries Most poisonous element Pu
Most electronegative Fluorine (F)
Element with maximum Ag
elements number of isotopes
Most abundant element on Oxygen (O) (Cs)
Most electropositive metal aesium
rth
Liquid non-metal
Most abundant metal in Aluminium (Al)
Li
earth's crust Metal kept in paraffin wax
Liquid metal Mercury (H8) Coinage metals Ag, Au, Cu, Al
 Appendix 7
Nobel Laureates in CHEMISTRY
Laureate Contribution
Eric Betzig, Stefan W. Hell and william For the development of super-resolved fiuorescence
E. Moerner (2014) miroscopy.
*** ****************** **********************

Martin Karplus, Michael Levitt and Arich For the development of multiscale models for complex
Warshel (2013) chemical systems
Brian Kobilka (2012) For studies of G-protein-coupled receptors
---

Dan Shechtman and Robert Lefkowitz For the discovery of quasicrystals

(2011)
----

Ei-ichi Negishi and Akira Suzuki (2010) For palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in organic
SynthesiS
********** ******* ****

Thomas Steitz, Ada E. Yonath and

A. For studies of the structure and function of the ribosome
Richard F. Heck (2009) ******

Martin Chalfie, Roger Y. Tsien and
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (2008)
-----
Gerhard Ertl Osamu Shimomura
For the discovery and development of the Green
Fluorescent Protein (GFP)
(2007) For his studies of chemical processes on solid surfaces
-

Roger D. Kornberg (2006) For his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic
Transcription
***

Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. For the development of the metathesis method in
Schrock (2005) organic synthesis --**

Jacobus Henricus vant Hoff For the discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and
(First Nobel Laureate) (1901) Osmotic pressure in solutions

Nobel 2014 for pioneering microscope work

Eric Betzig and Wlliam Moerner of the US and Stefan W Hell of Gemany from the
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences have won the 2014 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
for the development of super-resolved fluorescence microscopy. They developed
single-molecule microscopy. The technique uses weak pulses of LASER light to
make onily a fraction of the fluorescenf tags lighf up. The microSCope takes a
picture of these glowing tags, then fires another shot of LASER light. This time, a
different fraction of tags light up, and another picture is taken. By repeating the
process hundreds of times and then supeimposing the images, the scientists
creafed pictures with higher resolufion.
We are now able to see molecular processes in real time which was limited to 200
nanometers size previously, including the study of live cells such as bacteria and
important biological processes such as the tanscription and translation of DNA to
make profeins. "Super-resolufion fiuorescence specfroscopy is noW enabling
Scienfisis fo peer inside living neve cells in order to explore brain synapses, study
proteins involved in Huntington's disease and track cell division in embryos
revealing whole new levels of understanding as to what is going on in the humaan
body down fo the nanoscale."
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
.
422
(i1) To devise an appropriate
criteria of assigning the basic units (species) into an
ascending series of groups on the basis of their similarities and relationships.
ii) To show the evolutionary changes of the organisms

History of Classification
Historical events involved into the advancement and classification of organisms are
i) Classification of organisms into viviparous (who directly give birth to young ones),
Oviparous (wha lay egg) and minute animals.
(ii) Hippocrates and Aristotle has distributed animals into major groups like birds,
insects, fishes and whales.
(11) Pliny the Elder has given the new system of classification, ie., artificial classification
and shown 1000 economic plants in his book 'Historia Naturalis.
(iv) John Ray, in his books, titled as, Historia Generalis Plantarum' described more than
18000 plants and animals. He also introduced the term'species' for the categorisation
of morphologically similar organisms.
(v) Carolus Linnaeus has given the scientific system for naming species, called as
binomial system of nomenclature. He also described 5900 species of plants in his
book "Species Plantarum' and 4326 species of animals in 'Systema Naturae. and
Philosophia Botanica by placing them into six categories, i.e., mammals, birds,
amphibians, fishes, insects and worms.
He also classified the entire organisms into the two kingdom, i.e., plant and animal
kingdom is his book 'Systama Naturae. He is known as Father of Taxonomy because
he was the first to formulate a uniform system for defining and naming the world's
plants and animals.
(vi) Periodic changes in systematics from the time of Aristotle to Linnaeus, classification
reaches to new frames, i.e., classical taxonomy gave birth to natural system of
classification followed by numerical taxonomy (phenetics) and phylogenetic
classification or cladistics.

Hierarchy of Classification
The hierarchial system or a series of classification was introduced by Linnaeus but his
series lacks two categories i.e., phyla and families. Some biologists like Ernst Hacckel
(1894), Robert Whittaker (1958) and Carl Woese (1977) also worked to distribute all living
entities into broad categories called kingdoms.
The major categories of hierarchy are given below
Kingdomn (Highest)
Phylum (for animals)/Division (for plants)
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species (Lower)

The basis of this hierarchy categorisation is to separate organisms on the basis of

characteristics, i.e., Írom larger or higher to smaller and smaller groups to reach the basic
unit of classification, ie., species.
 DIVERSITY IN LIVING WO RLD
****
***** *** 423
Binomial System of Nomenclature
Carolus Linnaeus had devised a system of scientific or technical naming of plants and
then animals.
This technical naming system is named as the binomial nomenclature. In this systerm,
every animal and plant has given a name consisting of two words out of which, first word
indicates the genus to which organisms belongs hence called generic name or generic
epithet and the second word indicates the species of the organism called specific name or
specific epithet.
e.g., Canis familiaris is the scientific name of dog (common name).
Some Important Common Names and their Scientific Names
Common Name Scientific Name
Man Homo sapiens
Leopard Panthera pardus
TIger Panthera tigris
Lion Panthera leo
Pea Pisum sativum
Cat Felis domestica
Frog Rana tigrina
Rice Oryza sativa
Mustard Brassica campestris
Gram Cicer arietinum
Wheat Triticum aestivum
Cow Bos indica
Mango Mangifera indica

Categories of Classification
Two kingdom system was given by Linnaeus, ie, Animals and Plants.
Three kingdom system was given by Haeckel, i.e., Animals, Plants and Protista.
Four kingdom system was given by Copeland, i.e, Animals, Plants, Protista,
Monera.
Five kingdom system was given by RH Whittaker i.e., Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae, Animalia.

Kingdom-Monera
Kingdom-Monera was firstly proposed by Ernst in 1866. It includes the small, simple,
microscopic organisms that are found everywhere as plentiful prokaryote (such as
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, etc). These prokaryotes are mostly unicellular organisms,
which do not have a true (well defined) nucleus and organelles.
Eubacteria (prokaryote) are also called as true bacteria because they lack nucleus. It
includes bacteria, cyanobacteria of blue-green algae and mycoplasma, actinomycetes,
rickettsia, etc.
424 .
General Characteristics of Monera
Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE

1) Monerans are usually one or single celled organisms which do not have membrane bound
nucleus.
(1) They usually reproduce asexually by splitting of cells (by binary fission) and by
sporulation (by producing spores).
(iii) Mode of nutrition in monerans can be autotrophic (synthesise their own food) or
heterotrophic (depends on autotrophs for their food).

Bacteria
Bacteria was discovered by Antony Van Leeuwenhoek in 1683 and named by Ehrenberg
in 1829. These are basically of unicellular form. These are ubiquitous and found in all
places where organic matter is present, i.e., in water, soil, over and inside the organisms,
etc. They usually vary in shape and size.
Shapes of Bacteria These are of seven types, ie., coccus (spherical or oval), bacillus
(like cylinder or rod), spirillum (spirally coiled), vibrio (curved like a comma), stalked (with
a stalk), budding (swollen at some places) and mycelial (filamentous).

General Characteristics of Bacteria

(i) They have thick cell wall (made up of chitin) and an inner cell membrane (made up of
proteins and phospholipids.
(ii) Most bacteria are autotrophic (i.e., can either be photosynthetic or chemosynthetic) and
Some of them are heterotrophic.
(ii) Bacteria may be saprophytic (derive food from dead plants and animals, e.g.,
Pseudomonas), symbiotic (derive food by living in the body of living beings or hosts, e.g
Rhizobium), or parasitic (derive food directly from tissues of living plants or animals).
These are responsible for causing various diseases.
(iv) They reproduce asexually by binary fission.
(v) Sexual reproduciion is absent in them but it may occur parasexually by conjugation (two
cells fuse and transfer genetic material) and transformation (manipulation of genetic
profile by picking up foreign DNA from any external medium).
(vi) Some bacteria that live in liquids have long, thread-like structures called flagella for
rythmic movement.
(vii) They perform respiratory activities by mesosomes.
(vii) Some bacteria produce methane (from formic acid) and CO2 and known as methanogenic
bacteria, e.g, Methanococus.
(ix) Some bacteria have the ability to live in salt rich media and impart brownish colouration
to salt, known as halophilic, e.8, Halococcus.
(x) All spore producing bacteria are gram positive and become purple on colouration. The
cellular walls of such bacteria are composed of murine.

Mycoplasma (Joker of Microbiology) These are smalest, fack cell wal, aerobic, non-motile,
pleomorphic (can change their shape) and prokaryotic organisms, contain both RNA and
DNA. These are also called PPLO, i.e, pluropneurmonia like organisms.

Mycoplasma was derived from the Greek word 'mykes' (fungus) and plastma" (formed). It was
discovered in 1889 by Abert Frank. He thought it to be a fungus due to its fungus like
characteristics. But later it was established as a separate new organism.
.

en
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
426
Pasteurisation of Milk
This phenomenon of pasteurisation was developed by Louis Pasteur. According to
this phenomenon, the milk is partially heated upto a temperature below the boiling
point through which harmful bacteria or microorganisms are killed without altering
the content and flavour of the milk.
The milk is generally pasteurised at 65°C for 30 minutes.
This is done by the foltowing two methods
() Low temperature long time process (LT & LTP) In which, milk is heated at
nearly 63 C for about 30 minute and is then cooled quickly to keep the milk
fresh.
i) High temperature short time process (HT & STP) In which, milk is heated at
a taster rate at nearly 72°C for about 15 seconds and cooled quickly.

Actinomycetes
These are the gram-positive bacteria, form branching filaments and produce spores,
often mistaken as fungi. produce many commonly used antibiotics including
streptomycin and tetracycline, one of the most common types of soil bacteria and also
common in dental plaque.
e.g., Streptomyces, Actinomyces, etc.

Cyanobacteria
These are the form of photosynthetic bacteria (gram negative), common in both marine
and freshwater environment, deeply pigmented, often responsible for "blooms' in
polluted water.
eg, Anabaena, Nostoc, etc.

Rickettsia
These are small and gram-negative intracellular parasites. Rickettsia life cycle involves
both mammals and arthropods such as fleas and ticks. Rickettsia are responsible for
many fatal human diseases including typhus (Rickettsia prowaszekii) and Rocky
Mountain spotted fever. Chalmydial infections are one of the common sexually
transmitted diseases.
e.g., Rickettsia, Chlamydia, etc.

Archaebacteria
These are primitive bacteria which mostly inhibit extreme habitats. Archaebacteria can
be categorised into three types, i.e., Methanogens (methane producing bacteria), e.g.,
Methanobacterium, etc, Halophiles (marine bacteria), eg, Halobacterium and
Thermoacidophiles (sulphur bacteria), e.g., Sulfolobus, etc.

Kingdom-Protista
The kingdom-Protista was created by Haeckel (1886). These were the first eukaryote to
evolve about 1000 million years back. This kingdom mostly includes aquatic unicellular
eukaryotic cells.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
428
Economic Importance of Protists
Many protists are pathogenic and
cause disease in humans and plants.

Many protists are primary These are used in biological

producers and play a
, research, e.g., Chorella is
basic role in food chains. unicellular, non-motile alga.
normic
Importance of
Protists
Marine protists are source of Some protists like kelps (algae) are
useful substances like algin, edible as it Is a good source of
agar, antiseptics, etc. SOdium, potassium iodine, etc.

Many protists act as medicinal source

eg, sodium laminaria sulphate, fucoidan,
heparin are algal product which are used
as blood coagulants.

Kingdom-Fungi
These are the most primitive members and show a great diversity in morphology and
habitat.
Fungi are usually defined as a group of eukaryotic organisms. These are among the
thallophytes or plants with a thallus, i.e., are simple plants (not differentiated into roots,
stems and leaves). They may possess a single cell (unicellular) or multiple cells
(multicellular). Structurally, they have definite cell wall and true nucleus but lack
chlorophyll.

Types of Fungi
Fungi are mostly heterotrophic in nature.
On the basis of nourishment they classified into three main types on

Saprophytic Fungi Parasitic Fungi

Obtain food from decayed plants
Obtain their food from other
and animals, rotten residues or
Iiving organisms
organic substances.
e.g., Pucoinia, Ustilago, etc.
e.g., Rhizopus, Penicilium, etc.

Types of Fungi

Symbiotic Fungi
Show assOciation with other living organisms for the benefit of both
organisms. e.g., Lichens form a symbiotic association between an
alga (phycobiont) and a fungi (mycobiont).
DIVERSITY IN LIVING wORLD
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General Characteristic of Fungi
() Structure Body is made up of a number of elongated, tubular filaments known as
hyphae. The body of a fungus having hyphae is known as mycellium.
i) Cell wall Made up of tough complex sugar, called chitin or fungal cellulose.
ii) Food reserve In the form of glycogen and oil.
(iv) Reproduction can be sexual, asexual and vegetative.
(a) Sexual It includes the formation and union of two
gametes or their nuclei. Everyday Science
(6) Asexual Through the formation of spores. e.g,
Bread turns brown or green
Mucor, Rhizopus, etC. arter some days as bread is
c) Vegetative By fragmentation, budding. fission, full of moisture which
etc. makes easier for mold, fungi
to grow and intest it
(v) These are also spore-forming. e.g, yeast, mushrooms
Aspergillus, Penicilium, Rhizopus and Agaricus.

Economic Importance (Advantages) of Fungi

1) To increase the soil-fertility Some fungi decompose rotten organic substances and
other substances like residues of leaves (moist), dead wood, animal dung in the form
of manure which enhance the soil-fertility. e.g., Rhizopus, etc.
(i) In N2-fixation Rhodotorula is a fungus that takes part in nitrogen (N2)-fixation due to
which the fertility of soil is enhanced.
(ii) In medicine Various types of fungi are used in the manufacturing of medicines
(antibiotics). e.g., chloromycetin, neonycin, streptomycin, tetramycin, rapamycin,
etc. First antibiotic called penicillin was prepared from fungi Penicillium notatum by
the scientist Alexander Fleming in 1927.
(iv) As a food Penicillium is used in cheese industry.
Yeast (a type of fungi) like Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in making bread. It is also
used in the production of wine and beer.
Agaricus and Morchella are used as vegetables
Blue-green algae (Spirulina) acts as a rich source of some proteins.
(v) In vitamin synthesis Fungi also help in the synthesis of many vitamins such as
Vitamin-Bi2 (cyanocobalamin) from Streptomyces griseus; vitamin-D from
Streptomyces griseus and vitamin-Ba (Riboflavin) from Ashbya gossypii.
(vi In enzymes formation Fungi and some yeasts are responsible for the formation of
various enzymes. These are enzymes (organisms), Amylase (Aspergillus oryzae),
invertase (yeast), pectinase (Penicillium).
(vii) In chemicals formation With the help of fungi various types of acids and chemical
substances are prepared.

Chemicals/Acids Organisms
Gallic acid Aspergillus Allomyces, Penicillium glucum
Alcohol Rhizopus oryzae, Mucor javanicus
Cortisone Rhizopus stolonifer
Gluconic acid Aspergiltus niger
Fumaric acid Rhizopus nigricans
Lactic acid Rhizopus stolonifer/ Rhizopus nodosus
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
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Disadvantages of Fungi
(i) Spoilage of Food Stuffs Some fungi may appear on the food stuffs (such as pickles,
jams, etc.) and spoil them. e.g., Rhizopus, Mucor, etc.
(ii) Destroy the Paper and Clothes Fungi responsible to destroy the paper are Torura,
Demantium, etc while those responsible for destroying clothes are Penicilium,
Alterneria, etc.
Gii) Destroy the Wood Fungi destroy the wood by decomposing it. These fungi include
Poria, Phomis, Merulius, etc.
(iv) Spread Diseases Fungi may spread various diseases in plants, animals and human
beings. e.g., leaf curlof peach from Taphrina deformians ringworm from Microsporum
(in animals), baldness from Taenia capitis (in human), etc.

Kingdom-Plantae
Kingdom-Plantae includes green, brown and red algae, liverworts, mosses, ferns and
seed plants with or without flowers. These are multicellular eukaryotes and generally
have chlorophyll in the photosynthetic regions.

Classification of Plantae
Kingdom-Plantae has been further described under Thallophyta, Bryophyta and
Tracheophyta.
Kingdom-Plantae

Thallophyta Bryophyta Tracheophyta

(do not have differentiated (without specialised (with vascular tissueS)
plant body ) vascular tissue)

Pteridophyta Gymmosperms Angiosperms

(do not produce seeds) (bear naked seeds) (bear seeds inside fruits)

Monocotyledonae Dicotyledonae
(have one cotyledons) (have two cotyledons)

1. Thallophyta
The plants belonging to this category are commonly known as algae. The term algae was
first given by Linnaeus in 1755.
These are chlorophyll bearing. photosynthetic, autotrophic, thalloid plants and whose
body is not differentiated intotrue roots, stems and leaves. Algae are commonly found in
both fresh-water and marine habitats, wet rocks and soil, tree trunks, etc. The basic size
and forms of algae are highly variable, ie., from filament fe.g., Spirogyra) to colonial
(e.g., Volvox).
Algae has smallest chromosomes of all known organisms.
DIVERSITY IN LIVING WORLD
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Cellular tructure of Algae
It possesses eukaryotic plant cell structure. The cell wall contains cellulose, nucleus
(containing nucleolar membrane) and cytoplasm (containing membrane bound
chloroplast, mitochondria, Golgi body and other organelles).
Types of Algae
Algae are further divided into three main classes on the basis of their pigments, stored
food and flagellatiorn. These are
Green Algae Brown Algae
Reserve food is starch, mostly Fucoxanthin and phycocolloid
marine, few freshwater, either rich multicellular eukaryotic algae
unicellular or multicellular or mostly marine, found in colder
colonial, cell wall contain inner seas, ranges from simple to
cellulose and outer pectose branched filamentous Torms,
layers, store food in the form of cell wall is composed of cellulose,
oil droplets and starch, contain pectose and phycocolloids
photosynthetic pigments like Types of Algae contain chlorophyll a,b,e and
chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids, reproduce by both
e.g., Chlamydomonas, asexual and sexual means.
Ulothrix, etc. eg, Fucus, Sargassum, etc.

Red Algae
These are red in colour due to the presence of red pigment phycoerythrin, mostly marine
and found in warm seas, mostly multicellular, cell wall contains cellulose, pectin compounds,
nucloeopolysaccharides (agar), etc contain photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll
a, carotenes, xanthophylles, phycobillins, etc, reserve food is floridean starch,
e.g, Porphyra, Gracilaria, etc.

Algae growing on ice are called cryptophytes while those appearing on the rocks are called
lithophytes.

Reproduction in Algae
There are three modes of reproduction that occur in algae.
(a) Vegetative It includes fragmentation, budding, harmogonia, etc.
e.g, Spirogyra, Sphacelaria, etc.
(b) Asexual Through zoospores, akinetes, aplanospores, autospores, monospores,
bispores, polyspores, endospores and hypnosporesS.
e.g., Ulothrix, Vaucheria, etc.
(c) Sexual There are three different types of sexual reproduction. These are isogamy,
anisogamy and oogamy. e.g., Spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, Votvox, etc.

Everyday Science
The ground surface becomes greenish in colour due to the appearance of blue-green algae.
v Emulsifiers used in ice-creams, chocolates, sauces, toothpastes, cosmeties, etc are
prepared from a phycocollid obtained from red algae.
Chara (alga) is useful in the destruction of mosquito larvae and is also called stonewort.
Bromine is extracted from red algae (Rhodomela or Polysiphonia).
lodine is extracted from brown algae (Laminaria).
DIVERSITY IN LIVING WO RLD
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2. Bryophyta
These are the simplest and first among terrestrial plants Occupyin8 an intermediate
position between thallophyta and pteridophyta. These are non-vascular autotrophic,
non-flowering and non-seeded plants. These are also known as amphibians of plant
kingdom because they possess certain features, which enable them to live on both land
and water habitats. e.g., Anthoceros, Polytrichum, Funaria, Marchantia, etc.

General Characteristics of Bryophyta

(1) Bryophytes get differentiated to form stem and leaf-like Bryophytes are unable
structures. Plant body is thallus-like, attached to to attain great heights
substratum by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids. (more than 70-80 cm)
(1) The main plant body is haploid. It produces gametes hence because of the absence
is called a gametophyte. of roots, vascular
tissues, cuticle on plant
(ii) In bryophytes, vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) are body, mechanical
not found for the conduction of water and other tissues, etc
substances.
(iv) The plants are monoecius (as they bear male and female sex organs on some plant).
(v) Bryophytes contains chlorophyll pigments and can make their own food hence are
autotrophs. In bryophytes, reserve food material is starch.
(vi) Cell wall is made up of cellulose which is surrounded by a pectic layer containing
galacturonic acid.
(vi) The male sex organ is called antheridium (pl-antheridia). While, the female sex organ
is called archegonium (pl-archegonia). Sex organs are covered by a sterile jacket.
(vii) In bryophytes, only oogamous type of sexual reproduction is present. They may also
reproduce vegetatively.

Economic Importance of Bryophyta

Advantages of bryophy ta are given below
(i) Prevention of Soil Erosion Bryophytes, like mosses have good absorption capacity

of water and thus these plants can be used as a soil-erosion preventive measure.
(i) Soil Formation Mosses act as an important link in plant succession on rocky areas.
They als0 take part in soil formation in rock crevices formed by lichens.
eg Sphagnum.
(i) Peat Sphagnum is used as a fuel, which is called peat energy. Eskimos sphagnum is
used as a wick in the lamp. Peat is acidic and hygroscopic in nature.
(v) Antiseptic Mosses are als0 used as antiseptics.

3. Tracheophyta
The plants having well organised vascular system for the conduction of food and
minerals are kept under this sub-kingdom. The tissues which help in the conduction are
xylem and phloem. There are about 2.75 lakhs species which come under this
sub-kingdom. These are further divided into pteridophyta, gymnosperms and angiosperms.

i) Pteridophyta
Plants under this sub-group are seedless vascular plants that reproduce by means of
spores. These are also known as cryptogams. The term pteridophyta was coined by Haeckel
in 1866. There are about 13000 species of pteriodophytes that have been recorded.
e.g., Selaginella, Salvinia, Marsilea, etc are found in moist and moderate temperature.
 Eneyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
.
434

Characteristics of Pteridophyta
(a) Pteridophytes are mainly found in cool, damp shady place while some may also be
found in sandy soil conditions.
(b) Their size varies from a fraction of centimeter (e.g., Azola) to 20 m (in free ferns).
(c) Plant body is differentiated into root, sterm and leaves.
(d) Vascular tissues are found for the conduction of water and other substances from
one part to another and they consist of xylem and phloem.
(e) The main plant body is known as sporophyte. The spores of these plants are produced
in sporangia.
(f) Sporangia containing leaves called sporophylls are present. Meiospores are formed
inside the sporangla.
g) Male sex organ is called as antheridium and the female sex organ is called as
archegonium.
(h) Pteridophytes show alternation of generation.

Economic Importance of Pteridophyta

(a) Fodder for the Domestic Animals The plant of Pteridium is used as fodder for the
domestic animals.
(b) AsMedicine The seeds of Lycopodium plant are of medicinal use.
(c)Commercial Uses Gold can be obtained from the plant Equisetum.
d) Ornamental Plants Ferns are also grOWn as ornamental plants for their graceful
plant body.

(ii) GymnospermsS
Gymnosperms (Gk. gymno means naked and sperma means seed) are the plants with
naked seeds, in which there is complete lack of ovary. i.e., ovules are not enclosed by an
ovary wall. These are small group of plant with only 900 living species. These plants are
generally found in the colder parts of northern hemisphere. A number of gymnosperms
are known as ornamental plants.
General Characteristics of Gymnosperms
a) Plant body is sparophytic which is differentiated into roots, stems and leaves.
(b) Root system is well-developed with tap roots.
(c) Roots of some gymnosperm have symbiotic relations with fungi known as
mycorrhiza, e.g., Pinus.
(d) Stems are branched (eg, Pinus) or unbranched (e.g., Cycas).
(e) All gymnosperms are perennial and woody, forming either bushes or trees.

() Wood is monoxylic, (e.g, Cycas) or pycnoxylic (e.g., Pinus).

g) Pollination in gymnosperm is anemophillous, ie., it takes place by wind.
(h) Gymnosperms show the tendency of polyembryony.
i) Plant possesses vascular tissues (xylem and phloem), these are arranged in vascular
bundles.
) Flowers are not found. Two types of sporophylls, microsporophylls and
megasporophylls are usually aggregated to form distinct cones or strobili, pollen
cones (male cones) and seed cones (female cones) respectively.
DIVERSITY IN LIVING WORLD
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Economic Importance of Gymnosperms
(a) In Edible Form Sago is prepared from the stems of the Cycas plant.
Chilgoza (edible seed) extracted from the plant Pinus is also an edible substance.
(b) In the Timber Form Various types of soft wood like pine, yews, etc are used for
making various types of furnitures.
(c) Fuel Food Branches of gymnosperms trees are used as fuel food.
(d) In the Form of Medicine An alkaloid ephedrine is obtained from the Ephedra,
which is used as medicine for asthma.
e) Manfacture of Paper Picea, Pinus, Larix and Abies are some gymnosperms used in
the manufacturing of paper. Pinus is used as a cheap soure of cellulose in paper
industry.
(f) In Making Tanning and Resin Tanning is used in making leather and ink, while
resin is used in making shoes polish, plastics, paints, etc.
(g) Decorative and Domestic Use Some of the gymnosperms are used for decorative
purposes. Cycas is used in making ropes and floor cleaners (brooms). Cycas has the
largest ovule.

(iii) Angiosperms
Angiosperms (Gk. angio means covered and sperma means seed) are seed bearing plants
in which seeds are enclosed by ovary (fruits). Sporophylls, pollen grains and ovules are
ganised into flowers. There are about 2,50,000 species giosperms in the nature.
They evolved about 130-160 millions years ago. These are found in wide range of
habitats. ie., from land to upto 6000 m in Himalayas or Antartica and Tundra.
They have cotyledons (seed leaves) which are the structures present in the plant embryos
of the seed. They appear green when seed germinates.
General Characteristics of Angiosperms
(a) Leaves found are simple or compound.
(b) The male sex organ in a flower is stamen while the female sex organ is pistil or carpel
which encloses the ovule.
(c) Double fertilisation takes place and triploid (3n) endosperm develops from the zygote.
(d) Vascular tissues are present.
(e) These are saprophytic, symbiotic or parasitic while, some of then are autotrophic in
nature
Classification of Angiosperms
Angiosperms can be classified into two categories on the basis of cotyledons
(a) Monocotyledons (Monocots) These are embryo with single cotyledon.
General features of monocotyledonous seeds are
Stomata are dumbbell-shaped.
Roots are not developed, secondary growth absent.
Floral parts in sets of three or its multiples.
A cambium is absent.
Vascular bundles are scattered and closed.
e.g., grasses, bamb0o, sugarcane, cereals, bananas, pals, lilies, orchids, onion, etc.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
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436
(b) Dicotyledons (Dicots) These are embryo with two cotyledons.
General features of dicotyledons seeds are
Stomata are kidney shaped.
Roots develop from radicle.
Secondary growth often present.
Floral parts in multiples of four or five.
Vascular bundles of the stem possess cambium.
Vascular bundles are open and present in ring.
eg, hardwood tree species, pulses and most fruits, vegetables, spices, etc.
Economic Importance of Angiosperms
a) Angiosperms comprise our major food, fibre, spice and beverage crops.
(b) These are used in making medicines, perfumes, rubber, soaps and cosmetics, etc.
C)They also provides us with timber and medicines
Sequoia sempervirens is the tallest gymnosperm, while Zamia pigmia is the smallest.
Cycas the most primitive gymnosperm.
is

Red wood tree (Sequoia gigantea) is also known as father of forest.

Kingdom-Animalia
There are overall around a million of animals that have been described till now.
Therefore, the need of classifying animals becomes very important.
Animal-kingdom contains animals ranging from sponges to mammals. All members of
kingdom Animalia are multicellular, heterotrophic and eukaryotic. But all of them do not
exhibit the same pattern of organisation of cells.
These are classified on the basis of extent and the type of body design differentiation
present.

General Characteristics of Animalia

The characteristics of kingdom-Animalia are as folows
(i) Their cells do not have cell wal.

(ii) Animals have four different levels of organisation

(a) Protoplasmic grade (e.g., protozoans)
(b) Cellular grade (e.g, sponges, mesozoarns)
(c) Tissue grade (e.g., Platyhelminthes)
(d) Organ system (e.g., higher invertebrates and all vertebrates).
(i) Body symmetry is the similarity of parts in different regions and directions of the body.It
may be asymmetrical, radial or bilateral.

Asymmetrical Syrmmefry Body is divisible into equal halves by any plane. e.g.
Amoeba and some sponges.
Radial Symmetry All the lines passing through the longitudinal axis, in any
plane, divide the body into equal halves or antimers. e9, Porifera, Coelenterata,
Ctenophora and Echinodermata.
Bilateral Symmetry Single plane, the median longitudinal or sagittal plane,
through which the body can be divided into two similar right and left halves. e.g.,
Platyhelminthes, Nematoda (Aschelminthes). Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda,
Chordata.
DIVERSITY IN LIVING wORLD
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Classification of Animalia
Modern animal-kingdom has been divided into two main sub-kingdoms
(i) Sub-kingdom Protozoa

(ii) Sub-kingdom Metazoa

Sub-kingdom Protozoa
Protozoa are a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms, many of which are
motile. As known today, protozoans are usually single celled and hetrotrophic eukaroytes
containing non-filamentous structures. Protozoans are the most primitive and the
simplest animals found on the earth's surface.
General Characteristics of Sub-kingdom Protozoa
These are extremely small ranging in length between 10-52 micrometers but can
also groW as large as 1 mm.
They were formely considered to be the part of the family protista.
They move around with the help of whip-like tails called flagella (5-10 um long).
hair like structure called cilia (20-30 um long) or foot-like structures called
pseudopodia (2-20 um thick).
All protozoans digest their food in stomach like compartments called vacoules.
These are mainly saprophytic, parasitic, symboitic or holozoic in nutritional
activities.
They show respiratory and excretory activities by the exterior pathway, which are
diffused in the respective bodies.
Reproduction occurs both by asexual and sexual means.
e.g., Amoeba, E.coli, Leishmania donovani, Plasmodium, Euglena, etc.

Sub-Kingdom Metazoa
Metazoans are multicellular organisms that show division of labour because they have
different cells and organs that perform different functions. They have cellular tissue,
organs and system grade of organisation.
Sub-kingdom Metazoa includes phylums from sponges to chordates i.e., (non-chordata and
chordata). These are given below in detail

Phylum-Porifera (Sponges)
This phylum was studied by RE Grant in 1825 who called the group of these animals to be
poriferans or porous animals as porifera means organisms with holes. This phylum
contains the most primitive multicellular animals, called sponges, usually referred to as
pore bearers. These holes or pores lead to forma canal system that is used as a circulating
or passage system for water movement to supply food and oxygen throughout the body.
General Characteristics of Porifera
These animals have hard skeletal covering outside the body.
They are either spherical or does not have any definite shape.
No distinct tissues or organs are found.
Mostly marine, few fresh water, all aquatic, solitary or colonial, sessile.
Cells are loosely arranged and do not form definite layers, hence not regarded as
true diploblastic.
Body is with many pores (ostia), canals and chambers that serve the flow of water
and their exhalent pore is called osculum.
DIVERSITY IN LIVING WO RLD
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Adhesive structures like hooks, spines and suckers and adhesive secretions are
common in parasitic forms.
The body is flattened, dorsoventral (from top to bottom) and hence called
flatworms.
Digestive system is branched and incomplete without anus. They have flame cells
for excretion.
They have only one opening, ie., mouth (anus is absent).
Mostly monoecious (hermaphrodite) with complete reproductive system.
Fertilisation is internal, may be cross or self.
No true body cavity or coelom is present.
e.g., Taenia (tapeworm), Fasciola (liver fluke).

Coelom
A body cavity means any internal space or a series of spaces present inside the
body. The body cavity which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom.
Animals possessing coelom are called coelomates. eg, annelids, molluscs,
arthropods, echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates.
In some animals, the body cavity is not lined by mesoderm, instead, the
mesoderm is present as scattered pouches in between the ectoderm and
endoderm. Such a body cavity is called pseudocoelom and the animals
possessing them are called pseudocoelomates.
Animals inwhich coelom is absent include sponges and coelenterates.
Animals in which coelom is supposed to be present but found absent actualy,
are are called acoelomates. e.g, Platyhelminthes.

Phylum-Aschelminthes/Nematoda (Round/Ringworms)
This is categorised as a distinct phylum. It includes roundworm and ringworms.
General Characteristics of Aschelminthes
These are mostly aquatic, free-living or parasitic.
Body is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
Body cavity (pseudocoelom) is not lined by mesoderm hence, they possess a false
coelom.
Digestive canal is complete with mouth, specialised pharynx, straight,
non-muscular intestine and posterior anus.
No circulatory and respiratory system are found. Nervous system of cerebral
ganglia or of circumcentric ring present.
is
They are usually parastic worms and cause diseases like elephantiasis (filarial worms).
e.g, Ascaris (round worm), Wuchereria (filiaria worm), etc.

Phylum-Annelidaa
Animals belonging to this phylum have elongated body divided, bilaterally symmetrical,
triploblastic, truely coelomate and metamerically segmented into similar metameres and
generaly found in variety of habitats like fresh water, marine water as well as on land.

General Characteristics of Annelida

They are mostly aquatic and some are terrestrial.
Some organisms are commensal and parasitic in nature.
Body is differentiated into segmental manner with the segments lined up one after
the other from head to tail and are termed as true worms.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
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They are diploblastic.
They have true coelom.
They have well developed digestive system.
They have kidney as excretory organ (for the excretion of waste products).
Locomotory organs are segmentally repeated, chitinous bristles called setae or
chaetae are embedded in skin.
Blood vascular system is closed. They have haemoglobin in RBCs.
Respiration occurs by moist skin or gills of parapodia and head.
e.g., Nereis, sea mouse (Aphrodita aculeata) earthworm (Pheretima), leeches
(Hirudinea-blood sucker), etc.

Phylum-Arthropoda
These animals have body bilaterally symmetrical. triploblastic and metamerically
segmented. Phyhum-Arthropoda is known to be the largest phylum of the animal
kingdom.

General Characteristics of Arthropoda

Organ system level of body organisation.
Everyday Science
Appendages are jointed, usually one pair of
a somite and with varied functions as jaws, Cockroach cannot survive in
gills, legs, etc. water because its respiratory
organ is tracehae.
Digestive system is complete with mouth
The larvae of cockroach is called
and anus. Mouth parts are adapted for maggot.
various modes of feeding. An ant can see the objects all
Respiration occurs by general body surface, around it due to the presence of
gills, tracheae or book-lungs compound eyes.
Circulatory system is of open type, i.e., blood
do not flow in vessels.
Excretory organs are green glands or Malpighian tubules.
Nervous system is with a dorsal brain connected with a nerve ring.
Sensory organs comprise of eyes, i.e., simple and compOund, statocysts, taste and
SOund receptors.
Sexes are usually separate (dioecious).
eg., Economically important in.sects- Apis, Bombyx, Luccifer ; vectors- Anopheles,
Culex and Aedes gregarious pest- Locusta (locust); living fossil-Limulus.

Phylum-Mollusca
Phylum-Mollusca includes the largest invertebrates along with soft bodied animals such
as snails, slugs, mussels, clams, etc. It is the second largest phylum after Arthropoda
having around 85,000 species. The term Mollusca was coined by Johnstnoin in 1650.

General Characteristics of Mollusca

The animals belonging to this phylum are mostly marine, however, some fresh
water and terrestrial forms are also found.
They have thin fleshy fold or outgrowth of dorsal body wall which more or less
cOvers the body. It encloses a space, the mantle or pallial cavity between the organs
and the body.
Digestive system is complete with a digestive gland or liver (hepatopancreas) and
rasping organ, the radula possessing transverse rows of teeth.
DIVERSITY IN LIVING WORLD
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The excretory system includes kidneys, which open into the mantle cavity. The
excretory matter is ammonia or uric acid.
441

Respiration occurs through ills (called ctenidia) or mantle.

Cirulatory system is of open type.
A muscular foot is present for locomotion.
They reproduce sexually, sexes are commonly Separate but some are
hermaphrodite. Fertilisation may be external or internal.
e.g., Pila (apple snail), Pinctada (pearl oyster), Sepia, etc.

Phylum-Echinodermata
Echinodermata (Gk. echinos means hedgehog; derma means skin) literally means 'spiny or
prickly skinned and refers to the conspicuous spines possessed by their skin. Some of
them are pelagic and a few are sessile. It includes around 6,000 species.
General Characteristics of Echinodermata
Organ system grade of body organisation. Triploblastic and coelomate.
Bilateral symmetry in larvae and pentamerous radial in adults.
Body is bilaterally symmetrical and coelomic cavity reduced
Body bears spines and pincer-like pedicellariae. The spines are protective in
function.
Digestive tract is complete. Vascular system is of open type and includes haemal
and perihaemal systems. There is no heart, respiratory organs include dermal
branchiae, tube feet, respiratory tree and bursae. No excretory organs are present.
Nervous system is without a brain.
e.g., Star fish (Asterias), Echinus (sea urchin), Antedon (feather star), Cucunmaria
(sea cucurmber) and Ophicura (brittle star)

Phylum-Hemichordata
Hemichordata was earlier placed as a sub-phylum under the phylum-Chordata. But now,
it is considered as a separate phylum (under non-chordata). These are also called
Half-Chordates. They include small group of worm-like animals
General Characteristics of Phylum-Hemichordata
They are exclusively marine and mostly live in burTOWs.
Body cavity is true coelom.
Digestive system s Complete, circulatory system is of open type.
Sensory cells of the epidermis acts as sense organs.
Reproduction is mostly sexual. Sexes are separate.
Respiration occurs through several pairs of gill slits or thorugh general body
Surface. e.g, Balanoglossus (tongue worm), Cephalodiscus, etc.

Phylum-Chordata
This phylum was created by Balfour (1880) and it is also known as the most advanced
animal phylum.
General Characteristics of Chordata
They have notochord (solid, unjointed rod-like structure) that provide support and
points for muscles attachment. It persists throughout the life in the lower chordates.
Dorsal tubular nerve chord is also present, which usually develops in embryo from
a plate of ectoderm that rolls into a tube located above the notochord.
DIVERSITY IN LIVING WORLD
4433

Cold and Warm Blooded Animals

Cold-blooded animals take on the temperature of their surroundings. They are
hot when their environment is hot and cold when their temperature is cold.
Warm blooded animals like mammals and birds always try to keep the internal
temperature of their bodies constant. They do this by inducing their own heat
when they are in cooler environment and by cooling themselves in a hotter
environment. To generate heat, warm blooded animal convert the food they eat
into energy.

They give birth to young ones by laying eggs. Most fishes do not sink in
e.g., Mandarian fish (Synchirpus splendidus), angler water because of the
presence of swim bladder
fish (Caulophyryne jordant), lion fish (Pterois volitans).
like organs.
electric ray (Torpedo), sting ray, dog fish (Scoiodon),
Rohu (Labeo rohita), sea horse (Nale Hippocampus), Chondriochytes
(Cartilaginous fishes) are
Anabas (climbing perch), cat fish (Mangur). the vertebrates that lack
Class-Pisces is further sub-dibvided into three sub-classes exoskeleton.
i) Sub-class-Cyclostomata e,g., Petromyzon (lamprey) Swim bladder is tound to
Myxine (hagfish). be absent in cartilaginous
(1i) fishes.
Sub-class-Chondriochytes (Cartilagenous fishes)
e.g., Scoliodon (shark/dogfish), Pristis (saw fish), Dog fish is considered to
be a true fish.
Sphyrna (hammer headed fish)
(i) Sub-class-Osteiochytes (Bony fishes) e.g., Labeo (rohu), Catla (catla), hippocompus
(sea horse), Remora (suckerfish) Anabas (climbing perch)
Class-Amphibia
It includes animals who have the ability to live in water and on land. These animals are
quite different from fishes. In larval stage, they live in water and behave like fish, ie.,
swim in water using tail and breathe through gills. Whereas, the adult forms live on land
and behave like land animals, i.e., move through limbs, breathe through lungs and skin.
General characterist ics of Amphibia are
Their body varies in the form that may be long or narrow, short or broad and
divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail or only into head and trunk.
They lack scales on their body but have mucus gland in skin.
The endoskeleton system is largely bony.
They have large mouth with teeth and mucous-coated tongue that helps in
digestion.
Respiration occurs by the help of gills, lungs and skin.
Frogs in certain stages of their life span use gills to breathe. The heart is
three-chambered.
They lay eggs for giving birth to young Ones
Everyday Science
and for laying eggs, they need external
environment. First vertebra that provides
They are cold blooded (poikilothermal). some movement to the head
is atlas.
e.g, Salamander, toad, common frog (Rana
tigrina), tree frog (Hyla), Ecothophis. Amphibians (frogs and toads)
are the first vertebrates to
They are ammonotelic organisms that excrete have true tongue (muscles
Soluble ammonia as a result of deamination, and protrusible).
process of removal of amino group, this occurs Ichthyophis is the amphibian
in the liver of humans). that lacks tongue.
 Eneyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
444

Class-Reptilia
The animals that creep belong to this class. They were the first to get fully adapted for the
life on dry land.
General characteristics of Reptilia are
Their body is divisible into head, neck, Everyday Science
trunk and tail.
Snakes do not have limbs and ears
The skin of these animals is rough and but have a good sense to smell.
dry without glands.
Dinosaurs are also known as fossil
They have cxoskelcton of horny reptiles.
epidermal scales and endoskeleton is Turtles and tortoise possess a hard
bony. shell that helps in protection (they
They show movements through retract their head and limbs inside
the shell).
Crawling
Some of them also live in water but Crocodiles and alligators live in moist
cimate usually in water and eats
they return to land for breeding. fishes as food.
They are usually cold blooded. Reptilians are the types of
Respiration occur by lungs. vertebrates that can crawl
They lay egg with hard covering of calcium carbonate.
They include snakes, lizards, crocodiles and turtles.
Generally, they have three chambered heart but crocodile is an exception that, has
four chambers.
e.g., Cobra, flying lizard (Draco), house wall lizard (Hemidactyus) etc.

Class-Aves
It includes birds. They are very unique in morphology by having a coat of feathers and
most of them can fly except some.
General characteristics of Aves are
Their body is divisible into head, neck, Everyday
trunk and tail.
Science
They have modified hind limbs that are Birds can generate body heat by
rapid metabolism and have
used for various purposes like hopping.
migratory behaviour
grasping, walking. perching, etc and
Ostrich is considered as largest
forelimbs to fly. living bird and fastest running
The skin of these animals is thin and dry, bird but cannot fly high. It lays
and endoskeleton is bony but delicate and largest egg among all birds.
light. Smallest living bird is humming
They have a four chambered heart and bird and fastest flying bird is
swift all around the world.
are warm blooded.
They lay eggs to produce their young ones.
Smallest Indian bird is sun bird.
e.g., white stork (Ciconia ciconia), male The only bird that can fly
backward is humming bird.
tufted duck (Aythya fuligula), ostrich
(Struthio camelus), pigeon, sparrow, crow,
kiwi (Apteryx).
DIVERSITY IN LIVING WORLD
445
Class-Mammalia
It includes all mammals. This class is further divided into two sub-classes Prototheria and
Theria.
General characteristics of Mammalia are
The skin of mammals usually have different types of glands like sweat, oil arnd milk
glands and also have a hairy coating that conserves body heat.
Their body varies in shape and size and is generally divided into head, neck, trunk
and tail.
They possess two pairs of limbs that are helpful in walking, climbing, running,
Jumping, etc.
The endoskeleton is bony in all mammals.
Their mouth is small, have movable lips and teeth.
Digestive system is complete and well developed.
Respiration in mammals occur by the help of lungs (lungs are spongy and elastic,
and enclosed by rib cage.)
Circulatory system in mammals is complete; they possess four chambered heart.
For reproduction, they have sex organs in both male and females separately.
The body temperature in mammals can be regulated (homeothermy).
e.g, cat, human, rat, bat, etc.
Mammalia class is further classified into two sub-classes
Prototheria
Egg- laying (oviparous),
possess mammary glands
without teats, lack external
Mammalia ears e.g., Platypus, Echidna, Metatheria
Ornithorhynchus
Possess a brood-pouch, called marsupial bag
for rearing young ones. The underdeveloped
Theria young offsprings take nourishment in this pouch
by the teats opening in it, e.g., Macropus
Produce young ones (Kangaroo), Didephis (Opossum).
(viviparous)
Eutheria
They nourish the developing foetus in
the womb through placenta, they have
well developed marmmary glands,
e.g, humans, cat, rat, bat, tiger, etc.

Everyday Science
Smallest mammal is shrew (less than 4.5 cm, weight 2 g)
Dolphin is known as highly intelligent mammal.
Blue whale is considered as the largest animal.
Echidna lacks corpus callosum (largest white matter structure in brain).
Pond bloom of blue-green algae causes death of fishes and cattles due to production of
hydroxylamine toxin.
Aves and mammals are uricotelic (excrete uric acid as result of deamination).
Penguin is a oviparous mammal found in Antarctic region.
2 TOUCH AND JOIN FOR OTHER BOOKS

Cell:
Structure and Functions
The cell (Latin word means 'little room) is the basic structural, functional and biological
unit of all known living organisms. Cells may be compared to the bricks which are
assembled to make a building. Cels are alsO assembled to make the body of every
organism.

Discovery of the Cell

Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He observed the cells in a cork slice
with the help of a primitive microscope. Hooke observed that the cells in the cork were
actually dead cells.
Leeuwenhoek firstly observed living cells in pond water in 1674 with the help of
improved microscope.

Shape and Size of Cells

Cells can be of different shape and size. It can be Cork is a substance which
different for different organisms and may also vary comes from the bark of a tree.
from the cell of one organ to other organ in the same Most of the cells are
organism. microscopic in size and are
not visible to the unaided eye.
Generally, cells are round, spherical or elongated in
The smallest cell is 0.1 to
shape but some cells are long and pointed at both ends 0.5 micrometre in bacteria.
(a spindle shape) whereas, some are quite long. The
shape and size of cells are related to the specific The largest cell measuring
170 mmx 130 mm, is the egg
functions that they perform. In some cases, the cell
of an ostrich.
shape could be more or less fixed and peculiar for a
particular type of cell, e.g., nerve cells have a typical
shape.

Number of Cells in Living Organisms

All organisms are composed of cells. Some cells, which can exist as an independent
organism are called unicellular organisms or single celled organism, e.g., Amoeba,
Chlamydomonas, Paramecium and bacteria, whereas multicellular organisms are those
that consist of more than one cell, e.3, fungi, plants and animals. Every multicellular
organism has come from a single cell. Cells also divide to produce cells of their own kind
and their functions are performed by different organs, e.g., blood cell, nerve cell, fat cell,
sperm, bone cell, ovum, smooth muscle cell, etc.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
448
Cell walls are made up of various materials depending on the species like
Bacterial cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan.
Fungi's cell wall is made up of the glucosamine polymer chitin.
Algae's cell wall is made up of glycoproteins and polysaccharides.
Plant's cell wall is mainly made up of cellulose, which provides structural strength
to it.
Structure of Cell Wall
Cell wall constitutes following three layers in its organisat ion

Outermost Layer Primary Cell Wall

Also called middle lamella, Three Basic Layers Thin flexible layer, forms
rich in pectins, forms interface when the cells grow,
between adjacent plant cells
of Cell Wall it is single layered.

and glue them together.

Secondary Cell Wall

Thick layer, forms when cell is fully grown,
not found in all cells, it is 2-3 cell thick.

Functions of Cell Wall

(i) Cell wall permits the cell of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand without bur sting
by actin8 as a pressure vessel.
i) It also helps cell to tolerate much greater changes in the surrounding medium as
compared to animal cells.

Cell Menmbrane or Plasma Membrane

This is the outermost covering of cell, separating the contents of the cell from its external
environment. Plasa membrane is made up of lipids (major content is phospholipic) and
proteins. Structurally, it is a thin, flexible and semi-permeable or selectively permeable
membrane. The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the cell membrane. Animal
cells, plant cells, prokaryotic cells and fungal cells all have cell membranes as their outer
covering except viruses which are devoicd of cell membrane.

Functions of Cell Membrane

) Its major function is to maintain shape of the cell by providing support to it.
(ii) Tt protects the interior components of the cell by selectively allowing the movement
of certain substances (ions, organic molecules) in and out of the cell. This function is
regulated by selectively permeable nature of the membranes.
(ii) The flexible nature of the cell membrane allows the cell to engulf food and other
substances from the surrounding environment and this process of intake is known
as endocytosis, e.g., in Amoeba.
(iv) It also serves as a base for the attachment of cytoskeleton in some organisms and the
cell wall in others.
(v) It performs various other functions in a cell such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity
and cell signaling.
CELLSTRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
449
Nucleus
Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown in 1831. It is an important component of the
living cell. It is generally spherical or elliptical in shape and is located in the centre of the
cell. It acts as a major controlling centre of the cell and also called as brain of the cell.
Various components of nucleus are as follows

i) Nuclear Membrane
Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a Organisms, whose cells lack a
membrane, called nuclear membrane. It i a nuclear membrane, are called
double-layered structure made up of protein and fat prokaryores (pro=primitive or
which encloses the contents of the nucleus. A primary: karyote = nucleus)
and orgarnisms with cells
fluid-filled space or perinuclear space is present
having a nuclear membrane,
between the two layers of a nuclear membrane. The are called eukaryotes (eu=true;
nuclear membrane contains micropores, allowing the karyote =nucleus).
transfer of material from inside the nucleus to outside All organisms other than
(to the cytoplasm). The outer layer of the nuclear bacteria and blue green algae,
membrane is connected through the endoplasmic are called eukaryotes.
reticulum of the cell.

(i) Nucleoplasm
As compared to the protoplasm inside the cell, nucleoplasm is the protoplasm present
inside the nucleus of the cell. It is little acidic and also known as karyoplasm or
nuclear sap. It is composed of nucleolus and chromatin. It is made up of abundant protein,
phosphorus and nucleic acid.

(iii) Nucleolus
The nucleoli are spherical structures present in the nucleoplasm. The content of
nucleolus is continuous with the rest of the nucleoplasm as it is not a membrane bound
structure. There are generally one or more spherical nucleoli inside the nucleus of the
cell, but some eukaryotic organisms have nucleus that contains upto four or more
nucleoli.
The main function of nucleolus is to synthesise rRNA and to store genetic information in
its DNA.

Nuclear Matrix
t is a network of fine fibrils of acidproteins that function as scaffold for chromatin.
The chromatin is a hereditary DNA protein fibrillar complex which is named so
because of its ability to get stained with certain dyes. It is basically composed of
histones (a type of protein in DNA and RNA). DNA in chromatin is mainly
responsible for genetic characters in an organism.

(iv) Chromosomes
During the cell division, chromatin shrinks (compressed) and gets divided into various
smaller, thick and consolidated form, known as chromosomes. These are thread-like,
rod-shaped structures and are made up of a combination of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
and protein, found in the nuclei of cells
Chromosomes consist of a thick jelly like substance, called matrix and chromonemata
(two mutually thin interconnected coil shaped structure). As every chromonemata is
 Eneyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
450
called chromatid hence, every chromosome is composed of two chromatids. They alsSO
carry genes that act as a unit of inheritarnce in living organisnms.
Genes control the transfer of characters from the parents to next generation. Thus,
chromosomes are also called hereditary vehicles in an organism.

Cytoplas1m
Cytoplasm is a fluid-like substance of viscous nature filled in the cell. In eukaryotic cells,
it can also be defined as the part of the cell present between the cell membrane and the
nuclear envelope.
Protoplasm' is a term given by Purkinje in 1839, which is the living content of a cell that is
Surrounded by a plasma membrane. It is basically composed of a mixture of small
molecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and polysaccharides.
In eukaryotes, the protoplasm surrounding the cell nucleus ís known as the cytoplasm
and that inside the nucleus as the nucleoplasm. While, in prokaryotes the material inside
the plasma membrane is the bacterial cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm contains the following components

() Cytosol
Cytosol is the cytoplasmic matrix (liquid) found inside the cells. It is separated
into compartments by membranes. eg., the mitochondrial matrix separates the
mitochondrion into compartments ie., outer and inner compartments.
(ii) Cell Organelles
Each cell has certain specific components within it, known as cell organelles. Various cell
organelles perform special functions, such as making new material in the cell, cleaning up
the waste material from the cell, etc. Cell organelles constitute various components like
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids and vacuoles,
which perform various functions in the cell.
These organelles are described below in detail
(a) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) It was discovered by Albert Claude and Keith Porter
in 1945. ER is basically structured as a network of tubules or flattened sac, called
vasicles or oblong bags. These are all interconnected by a single continuous
membrane.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough Endoplasmic Smooth Endoplasmic

Reticulum (RER)
Synthesises and secretes serum proteins
(e.g., albumin), hormones (e.g insulin)
and other substances (e.g., milk) in the
glands because it possesses ribosomes at
the cytoplasmic side of the membrane.
Reticulum (SER)
Synthesises lipids and steroids, metabolises
carbohydrates and helps in regulating calcium
concentration, drug detoxification and attachment
of receptors on the cell membrane

The SER helps in the manufacturing of fat molecules, or lipids that are essential for the
functioning of the cel. Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane
This process is known as membrane biogenesis.
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
451
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum
ER carries out various functions like transport of materials between various
arts of the cell.
It acts as waste disposal and cell cleansing system by digesting foreign or
inwanted materials.
It has Somedigestive enzymes in the membrane bound sacs that break down
foreign material entering the cell.
They also break down worn-out cellular components.

Microbodies
These are small cell organelles bounded by a single membrane that absorb oxygen
and also take part in oxidation other than those involved in respiration.
These are of following two types
(a) Peroxisomes These are developed from endoplasmic reticulum. They have
special docking proteins called peroxins for obtaining materials from cytosol
and endoplasmic reticulum.
(6) Glyoxysomes They are considered to be special peroxisomes as they are
microbodies that contain enzymes for B-oxidation of fatty acids and for
glyoxylate pathway.

(6) Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body) It was first discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898 in the
nerve cells of barn owl and cat. It is basically composed of flat sacs known as
cisternae. The sacs are attached/stacked in a bent or semicircular shape. Each stacked
grouping has a membrane that separates it inside from the cell cytoplasnm. It is also
composed of tubules (arising from the periphery of cisternae) and vesicles. These
membranes get link to the membrane of ER and forms another complex membrane
system.
Functions of Golgi Apparatus
The main function of Golgi apparatus is to carry out the processing of proteins
generated in ER.
It helps in the transportation of lipids around the cells.
In Golgi bodies, some complex sugars are formed from the simple sugars.
It also helps in the formation of cell wall (in plant cells) and lysosomes.
(c) Lysosomes These were discovered by De Duve in 1955 and are also known as
suicidal bags (digestive bags) or atom bomb of the cell, due the presence of powerful1
hydrolytic enzymes which are able to digest every organic substance in the cell. It has
complexly arranged lumen (internal space) in the form of packet that can serve a
variety of function în a cell. Lysosomes occur practically in all animal cells and
protozoans.
Functions of Lysosomes
Intracellular and extracellular digestion is perfomed by lysosomes, i.e., in
intracellular digestion, individual cells may obtain food through phagocytosis
and extracellular digestion occur when lysosomes release enzymes in the
external enivironment through exocytosis.
It helps in disposing useless cells and replace them with new cell. i.e., breakdown
of ageing and dead cell.
It helps in body defence system.
d) Mitochondria It was discovered by Richard Altman in 1880 and was named as
bioblast' by Benda. It acts as the cell's power producer and also called as power house
or power plant of the cell.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
452. .

Mitochondria is elliptical in shape and bounded by two membrane coverings, i.e., an

Outer one which is porous and smooth and an inner one, which is deeply folded. The
inner membrane form finger shaped matrix called tubuli (cristae) at various places.
Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes therefore they can make some of
their protcins.
It has the ability to convert energy into such forms that are usable by the cell, i.e., in
the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). It acts as the major site of cellular
respiration, which ultimately generates fuel for the cell's activities.
Mitochondria is also involved in other cell processes such as cell divisiorn and growth,
as well as in cell death (apoptosis).
However, mitochondria are not fully autonomous as both structure and function are
partially controlled by nucleus of the cell and they depend upon the availability of
material from cytoplasm. Hence, they are considered as semiautonomous in nature.
Functions of Mitochondria
It provides energy for energy requiring processes of the cell like muscle
contraction, nerve impulse, conduction etc.
It may store and release calcium when required.
(e) Plastids The term plastids was introducec by E. Hackel in 1866. It is a major
organelle found in the cells of plants and algae. It has numerous membrane layers
embedded in a part called stroma.
Plastids are the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical compounds
used by the cell. Like mitochondria plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes.
Based on the types of pigments present, plastids can be classified into following three
types

Leucoplast Chromoplast
Colourless,OcCurs near tne
Yellow or reddish in colour
nucleus, non-green cells
in due to the presence of carotenoid
pigments, found in coloured
ikeroots, underground stems, parts like flowers, fruits, etc,
etc. Ihey may be amyloplast
Types of Plastids various torms are found in
(store starch), elaioplast
(store tat) or proteinoplast tomato (lycopene), carrot
store proteins). (carotene), beet root (betamin), etc.

Chloroplast
Greenish plastids due to the presence of chlorophyll and
carotenoids, takes part in photosynthesis. Chloroplasts
of algae other than green ones are called chromatophores.

Ribosomes These are granular structures first observed under the electron
microscope as dense particles by George Palade (1953). These are basically composed
of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins. Ribosomes are not surrounded by any
membrane. It is the smallest cell organelle and was earlier known as microsomes
before the contribution of Palade, who later called it ribosomes. The eukaryotic
ribosomes are 80 S type while prokaryotic are 70 S type.
Function of Ribosomes Its major function is to synthesise proteins in the cell, due to
which it is also known as factory of protein in the cell.
E) Centrosomes It is an orgarnelle usually containing two cylindrical structures, called
centrioles. Both centrioles lie perpendicular to each other forming an organisation
like that of a cartwheel. Centrosome is mainly found in animal cells and was first
discovered by T Boveri in 1888.
 Eneyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
454
Difference bet een Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell
Components Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
Cell size Generally smaller insize (1-10 um) Generally larger in size (5-100 jum)
is not well defined
Nuclear region
It It is well defined and Surrounded by a
nuclear membrane
Genetic DNA is circular and lies free in cytoplasm DNA is linear and contained in a nucleus.
materia (no true nucleus).
Cytoplasm Lack organelles like endoplasmic Contains organelles like endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus,
centrosome, etc. ysosomes, centrosomes, etc.
Vacuoles Sap vacuoles are lacking. Gas vacuoles Sap vacuoles are commonly present.
may be present
Ribosomes Ribosomes are 70S (30S +50S) They are 80S (40S + 60S)
Endocytosis Endocytosis and exocytosis do not occur Endocytosis and exocytosis occur in many
and exocytosis in prokaryotes. protists and in animal cells.
Cell cycle Cell cycle is short, of nearly about 20-60 Cell cycle is long of about 12-24 hours.
minutes.
Nucleolus There is no nucleolus. One or more nucleolil occur within the
nucleus.

Eukaryotic cells are further categorised into animal cells and plant cells.
Difference between ukaryotic Animal Cell and Plant Cell
Characteristics Animal Cell Plant Cell
Membrane It has thin, flexible and living plasma It has thick, rigid, dead cell wall in
organisation membrane only. addition to plasma membrane.
Nucleus It has nucleus generally in or near the Its nucleus is pushed to one of the side in
centre of the cell. the peripheral cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic Rough ER is abundant in animal cells. Rough ER is sparse in plant cells.
reticulum
Chromosomes They are small in size. They are larger in size.
Glyoxysomes hey lack 8yoxysomes. They have glyoxysomes.
Carbohydrates They store carbohydrates as glycogen. They store carbohydrates as starch.
Lysosomes They have lysosomes. They generally do not have lysosomes.
Cellwall Cell wall is absent. Cell wall is present.
Vacoule Cytoplasm contains small vacuoles. The peripheral, central space is occupied
by a large vacuole.
Plastid Plastids are absent. Plastids are present.
Golgibodies Prominent and highly complex Golgi bodies Sub-units of Golgi apparatus caled
are present. dictyosomes are present.
Centriole Animal cll possess centrioles. Plant cells lack centrosome and centrioles.
PerOxisome Ougn endoplasmic
Plasma ooth
Smooth reticulum
Golgi
apparatus
UUo Ymembrane endoplasmic
reticulur
Centriole -Chloroplast
Smooth Iclelus
endoplasmic -Golgi apparatus
reticulum Lyososome
Vacuole -
~Nuclear envelope
Nuclear Ribosomes membrane
envelope Mitochondrion asina
Adjacent cell wall
Rough
Cell wall
endoplasmic Mitochondrion
Nucleus reticulJlum Cytoplasm
cytoplasn Chloroplast Ribosomees
Animal Cell Plant Cell
3
Cell Cycle and
Cell Division
All organisms start their life from a single cell and grow by the addition of new cells. The
new cells arise by the division of pre-existing cells.
This idea was suggested by Rudolf Virchow in 1858 in a particular statement 'Omnis
Cellula e Celula, means'every cell produces from a cell. This states that the continuity of
life depends on cell reproduction or ell division.

Cell Cycle
Cell cycle was introduced by Howard and Pele in 1953. It is defined as the series of events
by which a cell duplicates its genome and synthesises other cell components and then
divides into two daughter cells.

Phases of Cell Cycle

Cell cycle occurs in the following two phases
CyokeSIS
1. Interphase (undividing phase)
2. M Phase or Mitosis Phase (dividing phase)
Oha
Metaphase Go
1. Interphase Prophase
e Growth resting
T
(Undividing Phase)
It represents the phase between two succesSive M Gro wih and S
preparaIon Gfowth and
phases. It constitutes or lasts for more than 95% of for cell
divislon auplicaron or
the whole duration of cell cycle. Though it is called DNA

the resting phase, but it is the time during which

er
the newly formed cells prepare themsclves for
division ie., to undergo both growth and DNA
Cell Cycle
replication în an orderly manner.
456 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE

Interphase involves three phases as given below

G Phase S Phase
mitosiS Syninesis phase, DNA
First gap phase,represents
and initiation of
metabolically active, grow
time detween
are
DNA replication, celis
continuously, produce
etc, DNA content
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, not OCCur.
remains ine same, replication
do
...
Interphase repicaion
occurs, UNA
Content doubles irom
2C to 4

G2 Phasee
Second gap phase,
preparatory phase for cell division,
lead to cell division or mitosis.
proteins and HNA synthesises,

2. M Phase (Dividing Phase)

ttwois the phase of cell division in which already duplicated chromosomes get distributed into
daughter nuclei. It starts with the nuclear division (karyokinesis) and terminates after
cytokinesis.
Karyokinesis is the separation of daughter chromosomes and nucleus division and cytokinesis
is the division of cytoplasm.
During this phase, all components of the cell reorganise for cell division. Since. the number of
chromosomes remain same in both parent and progeny cells, it is also known as equational
division.

Cell Division
It is a very important phenomenon in all living organisms. Concept of cell division was firstly
propounded by a scientist Nageli and was observed by Flemming in 1882 in reptelean Triturus
mascules and gave it a name mitosis. Its complete extensive and exclusive study was done by
Belar in 1920. This is also called cell production.

Modes of Cell Division

Cell division usually occurs in follow ing three ways
1. Amitosis 2. Mitosis 3. Meiosis
1. Amitosis
It is very rare and is not considered an exact mode of cell division. It occurs only in some
Specialised cells like mammalian cartilage, embryonic membrane of some vertebrates, old
tissues, diseased tissues, etc.

Cytoplasm Dividing Nucleus

Daughter
Nucleus Cell membrane cells

Stages in Amitosis
2. Mitosis
It was first explained by Eduard Strasburger. It usually takes place in somatic cells of animals.
Thus, it is known as somatic division.
Mitosis occurs in gonads for the multiplication of undifferentiated germ cells. It is a continuous
process that gives rise to two identical cells but the number of chromosomes in them remains
the same.
Ttoccurs in various phases such as prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and then cytokinesis.
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
457
Different Phases of Mitosis
Prophase First and the longest phase of cell division. It continues for
about 50 minutes.
Aster Involves the condensation of chromosomal material.
ntriole .Nucleoli and nuclear envelope disappears
Nuclear envelope. Duplicated chromosomes have two identical sister
-Nucleolus chromatids which are held together by a disc-Ike
Pair of chromatids structure (kinetochore) at centromere
(chiromoSomes)
Centromere spindles push centriole pairs to the opposite ends (poles).
In plants, development of spindle fibres ocCur without the
OCEnLoles.
Short and simple phase that lasts for only 2-10 minutes.
Metaphase
Metaphase is the most suitable time to determine the
number of chromosome and to study their morphology.
Spndle fibres Chromosome move towards the equatorial plane of the
(microtubules) spindle.
Centromeres on Spindle fibres extends towards the chromosome and
equator of spindle attaches to the kinetochore
At equator of the spindle, the chromosomes get arranged
in the form of a plate called metaphase plate and the
chromosome reaches to the equator.
Anaphase It continues for about 2-3 minutes only.
As each chromosome moves away from the equatorial
plate, the centromeres of each chromosome splits and the
Sister chromatids separates to move towards the opposite
Chromatids are les.
puled apart
The spindle fibres elongate and cell becomes longer and
anaphase ends when all the chromatids reaches the
opposite poles.

The chromosomes that have reached their respective

Telophase poles start to decondense and lose their individuality.
-Pair of centrioless .Reconstructuon of nuclear envelope occur in each group
of chromosomes.
( Nucleolus
Chromatin threads . The chromosomes gradually uncoil and become long and
-Nuclear envelope slender and are at opposite poles.
Cytokinesis beginning Spindle fibres get disappear.
(division of the cell) . Viscosity of cytoplasm decreases, which would generally
increase in prophase.
Cell organelles like nucleolus, golgi complex and ER are
retormed again.
Cytokinesis
(a) Cytokinesis in animal cell (6) Cytokinesis in plant cell
cell wall New cell wall
Cleavage furrow, Contracting ring of
microfilaments

Membranee Cell plate Daughter cells

Daughter cells bounded vesicle
At the end of mitosis, division of cytoplasm and equal distribution of cell organelles in two daughter cells
OCCurs by the procesSs of cytokinesis. During this process, the original larger cell divIdes into two smaller
identical cells, which individually takes food, grow, divide and the process continues.
4 TOUCH AND JOIN FOR OTHER BOOKS

Tissue
The term tissue was coined by N Grew. It is defined as a group of cells that are
structurally similar and constitute together to perform a particular function.
eg., blood, phloem, muscle, etc.
Tissues are broadly categorised into plant tissues and animal tissues. Branch of biology
which deals with the study of tissues is known as histology.

Plant Tissue
Most of the tissues present in plants are dead and provide more mechanical strength to
them than the living cells because the dead cells of plant do not need so much of
maintenance.
On the basis of the functions they perform, plant tissue can be categorised as
Plant Tissue

Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue

Apical Lateral Intercalary Simple tissue Complex tissue

meristem meristem meristem (made up of one type of cels) made up of many kinds of cels)

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyrma Xylem Phloem

Meristematic Tissue
It includes group of cells, which remain in continuous state of division or retain their
power of division, i.e., they actively divide throughout their life.
The meristematic tissues divide to form new cells, which differentiate to give rise to
permanent tissues. These tissues are generally found in growing parts of the plants like
receptacle axis of stem to which the floral organs are attached, sepal and stigma of the
flower, apex of the root, cambium, etc. Cells produced by meristem are sinmilar in
appearance as those of the older meristematic cells itself, but as the newly formed cells
start growing and becomes mature, the characteristics of the newly formed cells change
slowly.

Characteristics of Meristematic Tissue

) The cells of meristematic tissues may be rounded, oval, polygonal or rectangular in
shape without any intercellular spaces.
(ii) These are living cells which bring an increase in the length and girth (thickness) of
the plant.
 Encyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
460
ii) Meristematic tissues have thin cell wall made up of cellulose. They also lack vacuoles.
iv) Cells of meristematic tissues contain clear and dense protoplasm and large nuclei.
(v) Plastids can also be seen in the form of protoplastids.

Types of Meristematic Tissue

Meristematic tissues are of three types, depending upon the position in the plant body

Intercalary Meristems These are found at

Apical Meristems These are found at the
apices (growing tips) of main and lateral
shoots and roots. It is responsible for linear
growth of an organ like the height or length
of the plarnfs, which iS called prirmary grown.
the base of the leaves or internodes on wigs
(on either side of the node). These meristems
help in longitudinal growth of the plant by
adding primary tissue. e.g, in stems of various
grasses and wheat or at the base of the leaf
(as in pinus) and at the nodes (as in mint).

Types of Meristematic Tissues

Lateral Meristems (Cambium) These are also found on the lateral sides of the stem and
roots. The meristem consists of initials which divide mainly in one plane and results in the
e
increase in the diameter. g., cork cambium, vascular cambium, etc. These are also
responsible for the growth in thickness, ie., to increase stem or root in diameter called
secondary growth. They occur in dicotyledon plants due to the presence of cambium but do
not occur in monocotyledons.

ihe number of annual rings formed by the secondary growth is used for counting the age of
the trees.
The activities of cambium changes with climatic changes i.e, in spring season, its activity
increases while activity in winter season. Ihus, acts as an indicative parameter of the one year
growth.

Permanent Tissue or Mature Tissue

These are made up of mature cells which have lost their ability of cell division and are
already adopted or accommodated to perform some specific work. These tissues originate
from meristematic tissues, when they loose the ability to divide. This process of taking up
permanent shape, size and function is known as differentiation. The permanent tissue
may be dead or living. having thick or thin cellular walls.
These tissues are of following two types

1. Simple Permanent Tissue

These are composed of similar type of cells, which have common origin and function.
These are further classified under three categories
i) Parenchyma These are the most simple and unspecialised type of permanent tissue,
whose cells are usually isodiametric (equally expanded on all sides) with intercelular
spaces among them, which allows the exchange of gases.
These are living cells of oval, round, polygonal or elongated shape. The cell wall is
made up of cellulose or calcium pectate. Each cell possessesa nucleus and a vacuole.
It is found in epidermis, cortex, pith, pericycle, mesophyll of leaves, pulp of fruits,
endoderm of seeds and in meristematic tissues. If parenchymatous cells have
TISSUE
4661

chloroplast in some situations, then the phenomenon of photosynthesis takes place

in them, and hence parenchyma is also called chlorenchyma (chlorotissue).
It gives rise to secondary meristem in the form of cork cambium and vascular
cambium. These tissue cells also store the food stuffs in the protoplasm of the cells.
(ii) Collenchyma It consists of living cells. There is no intercellular space as these are
elongated in shape due to irregular thickening of cellulose and pectin in the cellular
walls. It is basically a mechanical tissue which provides mechanical support and
elasticity to the plants. Thus, its existence always provides rigid support to the plants.
It is found in outer region of cortex. e.g., angles of stems, midrib of leaves, etc.
(ii) Sclerenchyma It consists of dead cells and are devoid of protoplasm cells of rigid
tissue. Cell walls of such cells are greatly thickened due to lignin or cellulose (or both).
It gives mechanical strength, support and rigidity to the plant body. Sclerenchyma
tissues are the components of hard coating of several seeds and nuts. e.g., husk of a
COConut.

2. Complex Permanent Tissue

These are another type of permanent tissue, composed of more than one type of cells
having common origin.

Complex tissues are also of two main types

i) Xylem It is the chief conducting tissue of vascular plants responsible for the
conduction of water and inorganic solutes (minerals) from roots to apical parts of the
plant. Its main function is to provide mechanical strength and rigidity to the plant.
The components of xylem include tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem
fibres. It exists in the vascular pores of the roots, stems and leaves of the plants.
Xylem consists of dead hollow cells (such as wood) in the form of fibres and sclereids.
Out of all different types of cells of xylem, vessels are the most important cells.
i) Phloem It is also the chief conducting tissue of vascular plants responsible for the
conduction of organic solutes (food). This conduction may be bi-directional, ie., from
leaves to storage organs or may be from storage organs to growing parts of plants.
The components of phloem include sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem
parenchyma and phloem fibres. Out of the phloem
all componernts, phloem fibres are
the dead cells. The cells of seive tubes (having numerous pores like holes in the wall)
are responsible for the transformation and distribution of food to various organs.
Phloem is also known as base because the phloem fibres of some plants are used for
binding purposes, e.g., flax and hemp.

Vascular Tissues Both xylem tissue and phoem tissue together constitute the vascular
bundles.
Laticiferous tissues are the special types of tissues which contain a colourless, milky fiuid
called latex.
Secretory tissues are mainly found in vascular plants. These are meant to secrete substances
like rubbe, resins, oil, gums, etc. eg, hydathodes, trichomes and glands, secretory cavities and
Canals, etc.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
462

Animal Tissues
Animal tissues have organised layers or masses of structurally similar cells of common
embryonic origin and same function.
All complex animals consist of four basic types of tissues i.e., epithelial, muscular,
connective and neural (nervous tissue).
Types of Animal Tissues and their Functions
Name Origin Main Function
Epithelial tissue Ectoderm, mesoderm, Protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, reproduction.
endoderm
Connective tissue Mesoderm Attachment, support, protection, storage, transport.
Muscular tissue Mesodermn Movement of parts and locomotion.
Nervous tissue Ectoderm Control and coordination by nerve impulse conductive.

Epithelial Tissue or Epithelia

It is composed of one or more layers of closely packed cells covering the external surface
and internal lining of the body organs. The epithelium lines all the organs of the body
cavity as well as ducts. It also forms a barrier to keep the different body systems
separately. Epithelial tissues are of ectodermal, mesodermal or endodermal lgerm cells)
origin. e.g., skin, lining of mouth, lining of blood vessels, lung alevoli, kidney tubules, etc.

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

i) Epithelial tissue forms a continuous sheet due to tightly packed cells, hence, they do
not have inter cellular spaces between them ie., have very small amount of
cementing material between them.
(ii) The epithelial tissue rests on a non-cellular basement membrane separating it from
the underlying connective tissue.
(ii) These tissues help to protect organisms from invading microorganisms, injury to
internal organs and fluid losSs.
(iv) The outer layer of epithelium is exposed to the external environment, while inside
as a basement membrane.
layer acts
(v) The moist nature of the linings of some hollow organs or cavities is due to the mucous
secreted by the epithelial tissue
(vi) Epithelial cells have no blaod vessels.
(vii) Epithelium tissues use diffusion as a process for exchange of materials betvween the
epithelial cells and vessels of connective tissue.

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

i) Helps in the absorption of water and nutrients.
(ii)Provides protection to the underlying cells from injury, drying, infection and also
from the harmful effects of chemicals.
(ii) Helps in the elimination of waste products from the body.
TISSUE
463
Types of Epithelial Tissues
On the basis of cell layers and shape of cells, epithelial tissues are classifiecd as
Epithelial Tissues

nple Compound

Simple Simple Simple Simple Pseudostratified Stratified lransitional

squamous cuboidal columnar ciliated

Stratified Stratified Stratified Stratified

squamous uboidal Columnar ciliated
columnar

Keratinised Non-keratinised

1. Simple Epithelial Tissue

It is formed from a single layer of cells, resting on the basement membrane. These are
mainly found on the secretory and absorptive surfaces.
On the basis of cellayers and shape of cells, simple epithelial tissues are of the following types
(i) Squamous Epithelium It is composed of a single layer of flat, thin and disc-like
cells. The cells have irregular boundaries and closely attached to each other like tiles
of the floor hence, also known as pavement epithelium.
The nuclei of the cells are flattened and often lie at the centre of the cells and cause
bulging of cell surface.
Location Present in the skin, lining of the mouth, oesophagus, terminal bronchioles,
alveoli of the lungs., membranous labyrinth (internal ear), coelomic cavities and rete
testis.
Functions Provide protection and helps in the secretion of coelomic fluid, also helps
in the exchange of gases between the cells.
In the blood vessels and heart, epitheliai tissue is called endothelium but in the coelon, it is
called mesothelium.
(ii) Cuboidal Epithelium It consists of tall, polygonal (in outline), wide and
cube-shaped cells around the nucleus located in the centre of the cells.
Location Present in the small salivary glands, pancreatic ducts, thyroid vesicles,
distal convoluted tubules of the nephrons of kidneys, ovaries, seminiferous tubules,
testes and iris of eyes. Other sites of cuboidal epithelium are the inner surface of the
lens and the pigment cell layer of the retina of the eye.
Functions These cells help in the protection, secretion, absorption, excretion and also
in gamete formation.
The cells of cuboidal epithelium found in the absorptive surfaces bear microvili (at their free
ends) which helps in increasing the surface area during absorption.

ii) Columnar Epithelium It possess elongated cells which are placed side by side like a
tall column. The outer free surface of each cell is slightly broader. The nuclei are
somewhat elongated along the axis of the cells and lie near the bases of the cells.
Certain cells contain mucous and are goblet (or mucous) cells.
TISSUE .... . . .. 465
Compound epithelia may be of the folowing two types
(i) Stratified Epithelium These consist of many layers of epithelial cells, the deepest

layer is made up of loose columnar or cuboidal cells but the outer surface may vary in
nature. On the basis of the form of cells found in the outer layer, it is classified into
four types i.e., stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar and
stratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
(i) Transitional Epithelium t differs from stratified epithilium in having fewer
layers (ie., four to six layers) of cells. The cells of basal layer are columnar or cuboidal.
The cells of middle layer are polyhedral or pear-shaped. While, the cells of the
surface layer are large and globular or umbrella shaped.
Location It lies in the renal calyces, renal pelvis, ureter, urinary bladder and part of
the urethra. Because of its distribution mainly in the urinary system, it is also called
urothelium.
Functions It permits distention. Thus, urinary bladder can be stretched considerably
without being damaged and regain its original shape under normal conditions.

Connective Tissu1e
These are most aburndant and widely distributed in the body of complex animals. These
tissues arise from the mesoderm of the embryo. They are named so because of their
special function of linking and supporting other tissues or organs of the body. The basic
componernts of connective tissue are intercellular medium, connective tissue cells and
fibres. The cells of connective tissue are loosely packed, living, embedded in an
intercellular matrix. The matrix may be jelly-like fluid, dense or rigid in nature.
Functions Attachment of one tissue to another, supporting cartilage and bone, storage
and insulation (by fat storage) transporting materials, etc.

Everyday Science
Camels hump is made up of adipose tissue or fatty tissue which conduct heat slowly.
So, the camel can keep suitable body temperature. These deposits are also used for
energy when food Is not available.
Labourers who do hard manual labour develop thick skin on their palms and soles due
to thickening of all three layers (ie, epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous layers) of the
Skin.
Small bones present in the body are solid and the long bones such as the humerus and
femur have a cavity.
The bones are meant to provide support and protect the body parts. It has some
metabolic roles too.
An adult person has about 6.8 L of blood that form 6-10% of body weight.
2
TISSUE
467
Muscular Tissue
Muscle cells have the feature of contractility. The muscle tissue is composed of cells,
called myocytes which can shorten considerably and return to the original relaxed state.
Muscles also have the property of electrical excitability, which is due to the energy
provided by the electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane.
Structurally, they consist of long, narrow cells called muscle fibres and the cytoplasm
which is known as sacroplasm. The endoplamic reticulum present in it is called
sacroplasmic reticulum (SR). The sacroplasm is largely occupied by fine parallel threads of
proteins, called myofibril.
In muscle tissue cells, mitochondria is abundantly present in between the myofibrils and
termed as sarcosomes and it is also the site where the glycogen granules are present
which provide energy for the contraction (by oxidation of glucose).

Functions of Muscle Tissue

1) It brings about movement of the body parts and locomotion of the organisms.
ii) Muscles support bones and other structures.
(ii) Muscles are responsible for the heart beat, flow of blood and lymph, movement of food
through alinentary canal, air flow through respiratory tract, sound production,
propulsion of waste products, etc.
(iv) Facial expressions and gestures are also dependent on muscles.

Types of Muscle Tissue

There are three types of muscle tissue
1. Striated (Striped) Muscle
The striated muscle consists of 80% or more of the mass of soft tissues in vertebrates. The
cells of this tissue are long, cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate (having nany
nuclei). They have light deep coloured strips on their outer surface which seem to be in
the alternative forms. Due to this property, this muscle tissue is called striped or striated
muscle tissue.
Location These are found in body walls, limbs, tougue, pharynx and beginning of
oesophagus in the form of bundles that are wrapped by connective tissue sheaths. They
form the various body muscles such or biseps, triceps, etc.
General Features of Striated Muscles
() The striated muscles contract rapidly but not for long time i.e., soon get fatigued.
i) It is innervated by nerves from the brain and spinal cord.
(i) The contraction of striated muscle is under the control of person's conscious will. Hence,
called voluntary muscles.
(iv) Most of the striated muscles are joined to the bones by tendons.
(v) Blood capillaries are also present in the surface of the fibres.
2. Non-striated (Smooth) Muscle
The cells of non-striated muscle tissue are thin, long with pin pointed ends (spindle
shaped) and uninucleate (l.e., have single nucleus). The conical shaped nucleus is found in
the centre of every fibre. These cylindrical shaped fibres are arranged in the form of
parallel branched bundle.
Functionally, smooth muscles are of following two main types
(i) Single unit present in the walls of hollow organs such as digestive tract, uterus, ureters,
urinary bladder.
(i) Multi unit present in the dermis of skin, iris of eye and walls of large blood vessels.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
468
Location The non-striated (smooth) muscles are present in the iris of eye, walls of the
internal organs (viscera) such as alimentary canal, genital tracts, ducts, blood vessels,
urinary bladder, ureter, etc. Thus, they are also called visceral muscles.
Structurally, striated muscles have two types of myofilaments
() Primary myofilament (composed of myosin protein).
(ii) Secondary myofilament (composed of actin, tropomyosin and troponin proteins).

General Features of Smooth Muscle Tissue

() The visceral muscle contracts slowly but can stay contracted for long time without
getting fatigued as compared to the striated muscles.
(ii) Contraction is not under persons conscious will, (control) hence called involuntary
muscles.
3. Cardiac Muscle
These muscles are mainly confined to the wall of the heart. The muscle cells of the heart
are cylindrical, branched and uninucleate. The middle of cell contains one or two nuclei.
Location It is found in the walls of the pulmonary veins and superior vena cava.
Functions
(1) It generates
its own wave of excitation that can pass through fibre to fibre.
ii) It accounts for the rhythmic contractions of the heart muscle by its own throughout
the lite. Hence, known as involuntary muscle.

Neural Tissue
This tissue in an animal receives stimuli and conduct impulses for controlling and
cOordinating body functions. It forms central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous
system(PNS) and autonomic nervous system (ANS).
Nervous tissue is mainly composed of nerve cells and glial cells. The main function of
neural tissue is to accommodate the working of almost all organs according to the specific
requirements.

Components of Neural Tissue

The different components of neural tissue are described belowv

Neurons Neurosecretory Cells

Structural and functional unit
Specialised nerve cells, function
of neural tissue, longest cell of
the body, composed of cell body,
as an endocrine organ, release neuro
axon (single long part) and hormones from their axons into
blood instead of synaptic cleft.
dendrites (Small branched part)
Components of
Neural Tissue
Neuroglia Ependymal Cells
Non-nervous cells, present along Arranged as epithelial layer, lines the
with neurons in CNS, ganglia and brain ventricles (cavities) and central
retina, hold neurons at their position canal of spinal cord, free surface
in CNS, they are further of 2 types possess microvilli (for the absorption
microglia and macroglia. of cerebro spinal fluid) and cilia.

Organs like brain, spinal cord, nerves, etc are all made up of nervous tissues.
5
Nutrition
Energy is the basic requirement of all living organisms to perform various vital activities,
that are required for their survival. Nutrition is a process of intake of nutrients (such as
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water) by an organism as well as the
utilisation of these nutrients for the maintenance of different life processes like growth,
repair, reproduction, etc.

Nutrients
A nutrient can be defined as a chemical substance, which an organism obtain from its
surroundings and use as a source of energy for various metabolic processes or for the
biosynthesis of body constituents (like tissues and organs).
A nutrient can be simple or complex organic molecule (like protein), an inorganic
molecule (like CO2) or ion |like nitrate ion (NO3). potassium ion (K ), calcium ion (Cas").
zinc ion (Zn*), etc].

Macronutrients Essential Nutrients

Needed in large amount, contain carbon, Obtained from an external source and
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, cannot be synthesised by the body. They
Sulphur, etc; they are 9 in number. e.g.. are 8 in number. e.g., Fe, Zn, B, Mn, Cu,
C, H, O, N, P K, S, Mg and Ca Mo, Cl on the basis of synthesising ability
of an organism.
Types of Nutrients

Micronutrients Non-essential Nutrients

Required in small amount or traces, Synthesised in the body and sometimes
e.g., ZinC, iron, chlorine efc. taken from external source. They include
Co, Si, Na, Al, Pb etC.

Nutrition in Plants
Plants need essential nutrients for their growth and maintenance. They prepare their
own food by using carbon dioxide, water and sunlight by the process of photosynthesis.
They have various mode or types of nutrition for fultilling their food requirements.
 Encyolopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
470 * ******** **** **** *** ** **************

Types of Nutrition in Plants

There are two main types of nutrition in plants

Autotrophic Nutrition
The word 'auto' means self and 'trophe means nutrition.
Thus, autotrophic nutrition is the mode of nutrition in which an organism makes
synthesises) its own food by the utilisation of simple substances like carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of sunlight. This process is known as photosynthesis
The organisms which are involved in this mode of nutrition are called autotrophs. e.g., all
green plants, blue-green algae, some bacteria and almost all unicellular organisms show
autotrophic mode of nutrition.
Autotrophic nutrition can be further divided into two parts
Autotrophic Nutrition

Photoautotrophic
Nutrition
Organisms (photoautotrophs) prepare
their food with the help of light energy.
e.g, all green plants, purple, red, green
bacteria, etc.
Chemoautotrophic
nutrition
Organisms (chemoautotrophs) prepare
their food using chemical energy
released during the oxidation of inorganic
chemical substances. e.g, nitritying bacteria,
iron bacteria, sulphur bacteria, etc.

Heterotrophic Nutrition
The word heteros' nmeans others and 'trophe' means nutrition. Thus, heterotrophy means
nutrition obtained from others.
Heterotrophic nutrition is that mode of nutrition in which an organism cannot prepare
(or synthesise) its own food from simple inorganic materials like carbon dioxide and
water and depends on other organisms for it. Such organisms are called heterotrophs.
Heterotrophic nutrition in plants is generally followed by those who lack chlorophyll and
cannot utilise sun as a source of energy. They instead use chemical bond-energy of
organic molecules synthesised by other organisms in building their own organic
molccules.
These plants are further categorised into four types
i) Parasitic Plants
These plants derive some or all of its nutritional need from other living plants. They
use a specialised organ called haustoria to connect with the host plant and extract
water and nutrients from it,
eg,Cuscuta, Orobanche, Viscum, Loranthus, Santalum, Hyobanche, Sanguinea, dodder,
Rafflesia, Western Australian Christmas tree, etc.
(i) Saprophytic Plants
These are the plants that grow and live on dead and decaying matter of animals and
plants and take their nutrition by secreting digestive juices on these matter and
converting them into a solution. The plants that follow saprophitic mode of nutrition
are known as saprotrophs. e.g., fungi, bacteria, etc.
NUTRITION
471
(iii) Symbiotic Plants
These are the plants that show a mutual beneficial relationship with each other to
fulfil their nutritional needs (between two symbiotic plants), i.e., two partners (plants)
are involved in the symbiotic relationship for nutrition and they together give benefit
to each but do not show any adverse or negative impact on each other.
e.g., a bryophyte that have aerial root system attach themselves to the barks of tree for
anchorage as well as to gain height in the tree canopy.

Lichens
Lichens are the organisms that are composed of fungi (mycobiont) and an alga
(phycobiont, a photosynthetic partner). They generally grow in an intimate, closely
entangled, symbiotic relationship to fulfill their nutritional needs (especially carbon
as a food source).
They both show mutual relationship with each other as both the fungi and the
photosynthetic partner provide benefits to each other. The lichen fungus is typically
a member of ascomycota. They are usually found in hot deserts, rocky coasts, toxic
slag heaps, epiphytes, branches in rain forests. Lichens can reproduce asexually,
sexually or by vegetative reproduction on the basis of it occurrence.

Uses of Lichens
Lichens can be used as staple food or even as a delicacy like iceland moss,
rendior moss, indoCorpn, Permaha, etc., but some of them are poisonous too ([ike
yellow lichens).
Violet colour can be prepared by lichen orchile, laconora, etc.
Some lichens can accumulate several environmental pollutants such as lead,
copper, etC.
Lichens can reduce harmful amount of sunlight by producing secondary
compounds and pOwerful toxins that reduce herbivory or kll bacteria. The
compounds of lichens have economic importance as dyes such as cudbear or
primitive antibiotics. Lichen Permelia sexitelis helps in the formation of the
medicine of Epilepsy and such as Loberia, irvenia, Hemeniia, etc. Usenea is used for
making usenic acid (arntibiotic).
Some lichens are used in the manufacturing of pertumes.
Lichens acts as an indicator of air pollution (mainly sulphur dioxide pollution).
hence, called bioindicators.

(iv) Insectivorous Plants

These are the plants that obtain their nutrients by trapping or consuming animals
insects and other arthopods). They generally have pitcher like structure (modified
part of leaf). The tip of the leaf forms a lid that can open or close the entry (mouth) of
the pitcher. In pitcher, hairs are present in the downward direction. When an
organism reaches inside it, the lid closes and pitcher releases enzymes to digest it.
The proteins of the digested insect bodies, supply nitrogen, which otherwise may be
unavailable to these plants in the place, where they grow. e.g., pitcher plant, Drosera,
venus flytrap, Ultricularia, and Dionea.

Mineral Nutrition in Plants

It is the study of source, mode of absorption, distribution and metabolism of various
inorganic substances or minerals by plants for their growth, development, structure,
physiology and reproduction.
NUTRITION
4733

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

The rate of photosynthesis is essential in determining the yield of plants (including crop
plants). It is generally influenced by the number of factors including both external
i.e., environmental) and internal (i.e., plant) factors. These are as follows

Carbon Dioxide
Increase in its concentration upto 0.05% increases the rate of photosynthesis.
But after a certain limit, the increase in its concentration does not affect the photosynthetic activity.

Light
The characteristics of light ie., the intensity
quality and duration generally influences the
rate of photosynthesis. At low light intensity,
the rate of photosynthesis is reduced. While it
increases with the increase in the intensily of
ight. Photosynthesis occurs in the blue-violet
and red regions of the light spectrum. Red light
favours carbohydrate accomulation while blue
light stimulates protein synthesis.
Water
The amount of water used in photosynthesis is very
small. Thus, due to the lack of water, the
photosynthetic activity abruptly decreases
(as sleep lall in the rate of evaporation occurs).
In water stress conditions, stonata becomes closed
which thereby reduces the availability of CO2 to
plants. Thus, causes reduction in photosynthesis.
This cause leaves to wll, which ultimately reduces
the metabolic activity of the plants.

Factors Affecting
Photosynthesis
TemperatureL
Temperature does not influence the
photochemical part of photosynthesis (light
reaction) but affects the biochemical part
(dark reaction). The optimum temperature is
10-25°C for C3 plants and 30 + 45°C for C4
plants.
Oxygen
Small quantity of oxygen is essential for
photosynthesis. At a very high oxygen
content, the rate ot photosynihesis begins
to decline in all plants. This phenomenon
is called Warburg effeci.

Visible light (having radiation of 380 to 760 nm) is used for the phenomenon of
photosynthesis. The photosynthetic process may also be done in artificial light sometime.
Red (650+760 nm) and blue (470 to 500 nm) regions of visible light are the most effective
in photosynthesis while violet region of visible light is least effective.

Nitrogen-Fixation
This is a process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted into different compounds by
abiological or biological processes. It is a reduction process independent of respiration.
In abiological nitrogen-fixation, nitrogen combines with oxygen in the presence of
electric discharge, resulting to nitrogen oxides.
Biological nitrogen-fixation occurs when nitrogen (N2) is converted to ammonia with the
help of an enzyme nitrogenase. 1The fixed nitrogen is then used by the plants.
The reaction involved in biological nitrogen-fixation is
N+8H + Be 2NH,+2H
 Encyolopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
474° ******
******** ' ******** ** *** *** *

Nitrogen as a Nutrient
Nitrogen is the element required by the pants in large quantity as compared to other
elements stuch as calcium, sulphur, phosphorus, etc. Plants mainly need nitrogen for the
synthesis of nucleic acid, protein and other nitrogenous compounds. Despite having 78%
nitrogen in atmosphere, plants can not take it in the gaseous form and they obtain it in
the form of nitrite (NO, ), nitrate (NO) and ammonium (NH) form. That's why
nitrogen-tixation in necessary for plants.

Microorganisms Involved in Nitrogen-Fixation

() Cyanobacteria are able to utilise a variety of inorganic and organic sources of
Combined nitrogen like nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, urea or some amino acids.
ii) Legume family members like Fabaceae with taxa such as Kudzu, clovers, soyabeans,
alfa-alfa, lupines, peanuts, etc contains symbiotic bacteria called Rhizobia within
nodules in their root systems.
(iii) Some lichens such as Loberia and Petigera.

iv Mosquito, ferns, cycads and Gunnera.

Nutrition in Animals
The process by which animals use or absorb nutrients as basic material for the regulation
of growth, development, maintenance and almost all the other cellular and metabolic
activities is called nutrition.

Types of Nutrition in Animals

Depending upon the nature of food and its composition, nutrition in animals is of follovwing
three types
i) Holozoic Nutrition
In this type of nutrition, food stuff is first engulfed, then digested and absorbed by the
animals.
It is further divided into four types
Herbivorous are the animals (herbivores) that eat plants, parts or products of plants. e.g.
cow, buffalo, horse, goat, deer, sheep, etc.
Carnivorous are the animals (carnivores) that eat other small animals.
eg, fox, lion, tiger leopard, etc.
Scavengers are the animals that feed on dead remains of other animals.
eg, ant, kite, vulture, etc.
Omnivorous are the animals that can eat plants and animals e.g., human beings
(i) Parasitic Nutrition
In this type of nutrition, one animal is directly dependent upon another for its nutrition.
Former is known as parasite and latter is known as host.
It is also further divided into two types
External Parasite Those parasites which attaches to the outside of the host and obtain
nutrition from it, are called external parasites. e.g., bug, leech, mosquito, etc.
Internal Parasite Those parasite that lives inside the body of the host for nutrition, are
called internal parasites. e.g., roundworm, ringworm, etc.
NUTRITION
475
(iii) Saprozoic Nutrition
In this type of nutrition, animals extract their food from decomposed and rotten
non-living substances in the form of fluid organic substances. eg., insects existing on the
dirty drainage, growing mushroom, on the heap of rotten and decormposed lives, growing
microbes on pickles, bread.

Nutrients in Animals
Nutrients required by the animals are
i) Carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharide)
(ii) Fats (animal fat, vegetative fat), (saturated and unsaturated fatty acids)
ii) Proteins
(iv)Vitamins (water soluble, fat soluble)
(v) Water
(vi) Roughage
(vii) Minerals
Details about the first four nutrients have already been covered in the chemistry potion
(i.e, food chemistry) of this book.

Water
It is the main component of the body.
Human body contains about 65% water and
Everyday Science
about 70% of this water is protoplasm. An average adult needs 5-6 glasses
Water do not yield energy. yet it is so vital of water daily for the normal
for the body that a person dies if he is functioning of the body.
deprived of water. The amount of water required varies
with temperature and humidity of
Functions of water are as follows
the air and the degree of physcal
(i) To control the body temperature.
work
(i1) To act as an important medium in the
excretional activities.
Babies/infants under 6 months are
not advised to take water as their
(ii) To regulate almost all biochemical kidney are not that matured to meet
reactions, which actually occur in the intoxIcation and sodium present
in the water.
aquatic environment (atmosphere).

Roughage
Indigestable fibrous material present in the food is called roughage. It provides bulk to the
diet for satisfying appetite. Bulk amount of roughage helps in expanding gut and also
stimulates peristalsis to eliminate the faceal matter.
e.g. celulose present in the cell walls of plant material such as vegctables, fruits and bran
all contain roughage.

Everyday Science
Food rich in roughage may help to prevent constipation.
Roughage is not digested in human intestine.
Bacteria like E.coli etc are considered to be beneficial because they synthesise Vitamin K
in human body (in the intestine or gut).
Pregnant ladies are advised to increase diet rich in folic acid during first trimester of
pregnancy. Green vegetables contains folic acid which is rich in folate required for DNA
synthesis.
 Encyolopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
476

Minerals (Inorganic Salts)

Minerals control various metabolic activities in the human body. Minerals form about 4%
of our body weight. Over a dozen elements are known to be essential mineral salts in the
diet. Minerals are needed in very small amounts, a gram or less per day by human body.
Minerals Required Per Day
Minerals Daily Amount
Sodium 2-5 g
Potassium 8
Calcium About 1.2 g
Phosphorus 1.2 8
Iron 25 mg (boy), 35 mg (gir)
Iodine 20 mg
Magnesium Extremely low
Zinc Extremely low
Cobalt Extremely low

Different Minerals and their Functions

Different minerals and their functions are tabulated below.
Macrominerals
Name Source Functions Deficiency Symptoms

Calciumn Dairy products, eggS, Useful for the formation of bones Rickets and muscle
wheatgerm. and teeth, helps in blood clotting. spasms.
keeps muscles and nerve activity
Ormal.
------- ----

Chlorine Table salt, sea food, Maintains pH balance in body fluid, Disturbs pH balance of
chlorinated water. a constituent of hydrochloric acid in body fluid.
stomach.
Magnesium Dairy products, cereals,
green leaty vegetables, sea
Ithelps in
also keeps
muscle relaxation and
nerve relaxed, synthesis
Convulsions and
hallucinations.
food, wheatgerm and of bones and teeth.
chocolate. *******
********** ******************
Phosphorus/ Dairy products, eggs, fish, Important for the formation of Loss of bone minerals
Phosphate meat, wneatgerm. bones, teeth and biomembranes, and many idny
keeps muscle and nerve activity metabolic disorders
normal. Synthesis of nucleic acids including cardiac muscle
(DNA, RNA) and synthesis of ATP. nerves disorders.
Sodium (in Table salt, most foods and It helps in muscle activity and Cramps, diarrhoea and
the form of wheatgerm. transmission of nerve impulses. dehydration.
NaCI)
Potassiumn Cereals meats, fruits and Needed With sodium, conduction of
vegetables. nerve impulse.
** *** ***

Sulphur Dairy products, eggs and Part of many proteins, essential for Interferes with the
meat. the synthesis of vitamin-B1, for healthy growth of hair
healthy hair, skin, nails. and nails.
6
Plant Morphology
and Physiology
Plant Morphology
Morphology deals with the study of outer forms and features of different plant organs
like roots, stems, leaf, flower, fruits, etc.

Plant Diversity
Plant shows great diversity in their form, size, life span, habit, habitats, nutrition etc.
There are different varieties of plants such as
Herbs Small plant with soft and pliable stems that usually erow at height of less
than two metres. e.g., wheat, buttercup, henbane, canna, etc.
Shrubs Medium height plants with perreníal woody stems. These are also called
bushes. eg, Capparis, jasmine, rose.
Tress Plant of great height with a thick woody stem called trunk.
e.g, Palm, Pinus, Casuarina, Eucalptus, Dalbergia, Banyan.
Trailers Spread over the ground without rooting of prostrate stems.
e.g., Tribuus, Euphorbia.
Creepers With prostrate stems which root at intervals. e.g., grass.
Twiners Weak stemmed plants where stem twine around the support, e.g., Ipomoea
Climbers Rise up their support by means of special clinging or coiling structure.
eggrape vine.
Epiphytes Plants that live on other plants for space, e.g., Vanda.

Different Parts of the Plant

Flowering plants consist of a long cylindrical axis differentiated into underground root
system and an aeríal shoot system. The root system is comprised of roots and its lateral
branches. While, the shoot system has a stem, a system of branches and leaves. Root,
stem and leaves are known as vegetative plant organs. When flowering plant attain the
age of maturity, it produces flowers, fruits and seeds. These are known as reproductivve
organs.
In this chapter, we will discuss about the vegetative plant organs. Reproductive organs of
plants have been covered in the chapter reproduction of this book.
PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
479

The Root
Roots are typically non-green part of plants. It Apical bud
is always present undergrOund, develops Blade -Leat
from radicle and grows down into the earth.
Petiole
Characteristics of Roots
() Roots are the descending portion of the Shoot
Axllary
Node System
plant axis that grows in the downward Bud
position in the soil. Internode
(ii) Photosynthesis does not occur in roots.
Stem-
(i) The root apex is sub-apical and usually
protected by a root cap (parenchymatOus Lateral root
multicellular). Root
(iv) They have root hairs (unicellular) that help Primary root System
roots for the absorption of water by
increasing surface area. Different Parts of a Plant
(v) Roots are not categorised into nodes or
internodes.

Root System of Plants

Plants have two types of root system
1. Adventitious Root System
It develops from anywhere except the radicle. This is usually found in monocot plants.
Mycorrhizal roots are known from 90% of plant species that shows mutual relationship
or association of a fungus with plant root tissues.
Modifications of Adventitious Roots
The adventitious roots are modified to perform several additional functions like food
storage, mechanical support and other vital function also.
Roots can be modified for storage of food as given below
i) Tuberous Roots eg., sweet potato (ipomoea batatas).
(i) Fasciculated Roots eg. Dahlia, Asparagus.
(ii) Palmate Tuberous Roots eg, Orchis.
(iv) Nodulose Roots eg, mango ginger (Curcuma amada), costus specious etc.
(v) Moniliform Roots e.g, Dioscorea alata, Basella rubra (Indian spinach), Momordica
charantia (bitter gourd)
(vi) Annulated Roots e.g, ipecac (Psychotria ipecacuahha).
(vii) Fibrous roots e.g., Wheat, Maize, Grass etc.

2. Tap Root System

It develops from radicle and usually found in dicot plants.

Modifications of Tap Roots

On the basis of the function they perform, tap roots are divided into three main types
(i) Storage Roots In some plants, primary roots are modified for storing reserve food

materials. The storage roots are usually swollen and assume various forms such as
(a) Fusiform It is spindle shaped. Middle portion of the root is thickened and
narrows toward both apex and base. e.g., radish.
 Eneyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
480
(b) Napiform It is globular or spherical shaped, basal portion of the root is very
thick that suddenly tapers towards the apex e.g., beet (Beta vulgaris).
(c) Conical The swollen root is broad at the base and tapers gradually towards the
apex region providing a cone like shape. e.g., carrot.
(d) Tuberous Tap Root They have no specific shape e.g., Mirabilis jalapa (4 0 clock
plant), Trichosanthes (parwal), Echinocystis (lobata), etc.
i) Nodulated (Tuberculate) Roots The primary tap rOots and its branches of
leguminous plants bear nodule like swellings called root nodules that contain nminute,
countless nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium leguminosarium) to fix the atmospheric
nitrogen into ammonia. e.g, groundnut, pea, clover, etc.
(ii) Respiratory Roots or Pneunatophores These type of roots are special type that
are found in plants growing in mangrooves or saline, swamps near the sea shore.
They have minute breathing pores called pneumatophores or lenticles present on the
tips of vertical roots that help them in getting O2 for respiration.
e.g., Rhizophora, plant sundari, Sonneratia, Avicennia, etc.

Buttress Roots
They are horizontal roots that arise jointly from the base of the tap roots and the
trunk. e.g, Almond, rubber tree, ceiba, simbol, peepal, etc.

Roots Modified for Mechanical Support

Prop Roots eg, Ficus bengalensis (banyan).
(i)

i) Stilt Roots (Bace roots) e.g., maize, sugarcane, Sorghum (screw pine), Rhizophora
(a mangroove) plant.
ii) Climbing Roots e.g, money plant, betel leaf.

Functions of Root
Keeps the plant in a static form ie., provides fixation to the plants with soil.
(i)

Absorbs water and mineral salts from the soil.

(ii)
ii) Transports water and mineral salts from the soil.
iv) Stores food for the use of other plants and animals.

The Stem
This is the ascending organ of a plant that develops from the plumule of the embryo of a
germinating seed. In flowering plants, it bears leaves, flowers, branches and fruits.

Characteristics of Stem
i) It is usually erect and grows away from the soil towards light.
(i) They have a terminal bud for growing in length.
(ii) In flowering plants, they show distinction into nodes (attach leaves to stem) and
internodes (portion of stem between the two nodes).
iv The young stem is green and photosynthesize.
PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
4811

Different Forms of Stem

On the basis of the position of the soil, stems are of the following three types
(1)
Aerial stem (when stem grows above the soil, e.g., lemons, roses, etc).
(ii) Subaerial stern (when aerial stem in some plants trails or creeps on the ground,
e.g., water plant, grass root, etc.
(iii) Underground stem (when stem grows inside the soil, e.g., banana, potato, etc).

Modifications of Stem
Stems of plant are modified to perform different functions such as nutrition, vegetativve
propagation, storage, etc
These are classified into three main types
1.Under Ground Modification
Under ground stems are modified plant structures which exist under the soil surface and
functions as storage tissues for food and nutrients.
There are different forms of underground stemns
(i) Sucker eg., banana.

(i) Rhizome e.g, Alcocasia indica, ginger (Zingiber officiuate), [urmerIC

(Curcuma domestica), Saccharum, etc.
(ii) Corm eg, elephant foot (kachalu), Fressia (saffron), Alocasia, banana, etc.
(iv) Tuber e.g., rose, stem tuber (potato).
(v Bulb e.g., onion, tulip, nargis, etc.
2. Subaerial Modification
The subaerial stems are weak and do not stand erect. They may be partial subterranean.
They are mainly used for the purpose of vegetative propagation.
Various types of modifications found in such types of stem are
Gi)
Runner e.g. grass root, Merelia, etc.
) Stolon eg. mint, jasmine, strawberry, etc.
(iii) Offset e.g., water plant, Pistia, etc.
(iv) Sucker e.g., roses, gilly flower, etc.

3. Aerial Modification
Aerial stems are modified to carry out certain functions.
There are various types of aerial modifications
i) Stem Tendrils eg., ghiatori, Cucurbita (kaddoo), Lagenaria (lauki). grape vine, etc.
(ii) Stem Thorns eg., Citrus, Duranta, Boungainvillea, pomegranate, etc.
ii) Phylloclade e.g.. Cactus, Opuntia, etc.
iv) Bulbils e.g, Ruscus.
Functions of Stem
() It bears leaves and hold them in sucha manner so that they can get maximumn sunlight.
(11)
The stem conducts water and mineral nutrients from the roots to the leaves, flower
and fruits.
ii) It also flower in suitable position so that pollination and fertilisation takes place.
(iv) Stem branches help in providing support to its various parts.
 Eneyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
482

The Leaf
Leaf is green, flat, thin, expanded lateral appendage born on the stem. It emerges at a node
and bears a bud in its axil. The mode of arrangement of leaves on the stem and its
branches, is known as phyllotaxy. Distribution pattern of the vein and veinlets in the
lamina of a leaf, is called venation.
Characteristics of Leaf
) There is always an auxillary bud in the axil of a leaf.
(i) The growth of leaf is always limited.
ii) It is exogenous in origin and develops from the swollen leaf primordium of the
growing apex.

Modifications of Leaf
Leaves of plants are modified to perform different functions in addition to their nmain
function, i.e., photosynthesis.
Leaf modifications are as follows
Leaf Tendrils These are thread-like sensitive structure which can coil around a support
to help the plant in climbing. e.g., wild pea, sweet pea, lentils etc.
Leaf Spines The leaf parts modified into spines in order to protect the plant from
grazing animals e,8, Aloe, barberry etc.
Leaf Hooks The terminal leaflets of the leaves transformed into three stiff claw-like and
curved hooks. e.g., Doxantha.
Phyllodes It is a green, short live of flattened petiole or rachis of a leaf, which is modified
for the purpose of photosynthesis. e.g., Acacia Melanoxylon, Rhubarb.
Leaf Bladders They occur in the aquatic carnivorous plants, which modify their leaf
segments to form small bladders in order to trap insects present in the water.
eg, Bladder wost.
Leaf Pitcher The leaf of the pitcher plant get modified into tube like structures with
hairs to trap insects. The base is expanded to carryout photosynthesis while the leaf apex
is modified into a lid. e.g, pitcher plant, venus flytrap etc.
Succulent Leaves The leaves are fleshy or swollen. They store water, food, etc.
e.g, Aloe, Agave, Bryophyllum, etc.
Scale Leaves These are specialised leaves or bract that gets modified in order to protect a
bud and other soft organs. It is small having a coolourless membrane such as on a
rhizome or forming part of a bulb. e.g. garlic, onion, etc.
Coloured Leaves or Bract Inthis type of modification, leaves get modified and become
brightly coloured in order to fascinate insects towards themselves, e.g., Poinsettia.
Floral Organs They are specialised leaves-sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
Functions of Leaf
() Its important function is to perform photosynthesis.
i) Leaves act as a site of transpiration.
(ii) They store food as in the leaf base of onion.
iv) Leaves protect axillary and terminal buds from desiccation and mechanical injury.
PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
483
Inflorescence
It is the arrangement of flower on the floral axis. Flower is a modified shoot. Its structural
details are discussed in the chapter "Reproduction.
Types of Inflorescence

Recemose or Cymose or
indeterminate determinater or CompoundSpecisl type
or indefinite definite
Raceme (mustara)FUniparous or yrus -Cyathium
FPanicle (goldmohar) monochasial cyme (grape wine (Euphorbia)
Corymb (candytutt) (potato) Mixed spadix Verticillaster
-Spike (bottle brush)Biparous or dichasial (banana) (Ocimum)
Spikelet (wheat) cyme (night jasmine) Scorpigerus cyme-Hypanthodium
-Polychasial or umbel (onion) (Peepal)
-Catkin (mulberry)
multiparous cymee Cymose corymb
Spadix (palm) (Dinathus) (IXOra)
Coenanthium
Umbel (coriander (Dorstenia)
Cymose head Mixed panicle
Capitulum or head (keekar) (Ligustrum)
(sunflower)
Strobile (Hop)

Plant-Water Relations
Water plays a very impor tant role in the living system and it is essential for all
physiological activities of plants.

Functions of Water
Some useful functions of water in plants are given below
) Water carries the nutrients from the soil to the plant.
(i) Water acts as a major component of all living cells, e.g. protoplasm of cell is nothing
but water containg several different molecules or Suspended particles.
ii) It acts as an excellent solvent and also acts as cooling system in plants.
(iv) Every plant whether herbaceous or woody consists of water but its amount varies.
e.g., watermelon has 92% of water, while woody plants has relatively very little water.
(v) It acts as a major component of seeds (for their survial and respiration) although they
appear dry.
(vi) It also acts as a limiting factor of growth and productivity of plants in agricultural and
natural environment because of high demands of water by plants.
Terms Related to Plant-Water Relation
Water Potential The term was firstly defined by Slatyer and Taylor (1966). It is
defined as the difference between the free energy of water molecules in pure water
and ener9y or water in any other system. Pure water has greatest water potential.
Water potential is affected by both solute and pressure potential.
Solute Potential The magnitude to which water potential is reduced due to the
presence of a solute in pure water is called solute potential.
Pressure Potential It is the pressure which develops in an osmotic system due to
the osmotic entry or exit of water from it.
 Eneyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
484

Processes Concerned with Plant-Water Relation

() Imbibition It is the special penonet
Everyday Science
Everyday Science
of water absorption by the solid particle of
we sprinkle common salt on an
an adsorbent without forming a solution. If earthworm/leech, it dies because the
The solid adsorbent is called imbibant and body fluid being hypotonic diffuse out
the imbibed liquid is called imbibate. and the worm dies due to osmotic
e.g., dry piece of wood when place shock (dehydration).
water, swells and increases in volume. In If excess fertiliser is applied to a plant
plant systems, absorption of water by cell without water, plant will die due to
plasmolysis because fertiliser causes
wall, swelling and rupture of seed coats exosmosis in the plant tissues.
during germination, etc.
When we put raisin in a bowl of water,
ii) Osmosis The movement of water the raisin swell up after a few minutes
molecules from high water concentration due to endosomosis and gets shrink if
we place it in concentrated salt or
to low concentration is called osmosis. e.g. sugar solution.
absorption of water by plant roots. This
Wooden doors and windows become
was discovered by Pteffer. hard to open and close in rainy season
The movement of water acrOss the plasma because they absorb water i.e. their
volume increases. This happens due
membrance is also affected by the amount
to imbibition
of substance dissolved in water.
This can be easily inferred by the example given below
If a cell is placed in sugar or salt solution
If water concentration outside the cell is high, then cell will gain water by osmosis
and the solution, is called hypotonic solution. Therefore, the cell is likely to get
swelled up (become turgid).
If the water concentration outside and inside is same then cell willl remain same in
size and the solution, is called isotonic solution.
If the concentration of water is lower outside the cell than inside then the cell will
shrink (become flaccid) and the solution, is called hypertonic solution.
ii) Plasmolysis It is the phenomenon used to define the shrinkage of plant cell wlhen
water is lost from it due to osmosis. And when the same plasmolysed (shrinked) cells
are transferred back to water or hypotonic solution, the condition is referred to as
deplasmolysis.

Means of Transport
Transport is an important phenomenon. It can occur either unidirectionally or
bidirectionally.
Two main methods that allow the transport of molecules in and out of the cell are
) Diffusion It is the process by which the movement of ions or molecules of a solute
or a solvent (may be solid, liquid or gas) occur from higher concenteration to lower
concenteration without expenditure of energy.
ii) Active Transport This phenomenon uses the energy in the form of AAT
(Adenosine triphosphate) to move ions/molecules along a gradient (i.e., low
concentration to high concentration).
PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PH YSIOLOGY
485

Transport System in Plants

In flowering plants, a complex movement of materials takes place in different directions.
This is despite the fact that the plants do not bear any circulatory system. Water taken up
by the roots has to reach all the parts of the plant upto very tip of the growing stem where
the processes like photosynthesis and growth are going on.
Apart from water, important materials also move over short distances (by cytoplasmic
streaming, diffusion, etc). The substances transported are minerals, organic nutrients and
plant growth regulators. The long distance transport takes place through xylem and
phloem and is known a translocation.

Transport of Water
Plants absorb water from the roots and transport it to the tips of the growing stem in a
very specific manner. The uptake of water involves processes like diffusion, osmosis and
potential gradient for absorption to occur at short distances i.e., from cell to cell, acroSS
membrane. For the water uptake to Occur at long distances, movements ivolve complex
processes such as root pressure and transpirational pull.
Transpiration and guttation are the processes through which loss of water takes place from
the aerial parts of the plant.
() Transpiration Plants do not utilise the total amount of water absorbed by them.
Only 5-10% is absorbed and rest 90-95% of water is lost from plants through aerial
parts (mainly from leaves) in the form of water vapours. Thus, transpiration is the
evaporative loss of water by plants. The process of transpiration is carried out by the
special structure found in leaves of plants, called stomata. As the process of
transpiration occurs through stomata, it is also known as stomatal transpiration.
(ii) Guttation When the amount of root pressure is high and rate of transpiration is
low, many herbaceous plants tend to loose snall quantities of water or liquid in the
form of drops from the hydathodes (small pores) or water glands. These are present
on the margins of the leaves or where the main vein ends and near the tips of blade of
some vascular plants like grasses and small herbaceous plants (rose, strawberry,
tomato, etc).
This phenomenon of water loss in its liquid phase is called guttation. It takes place
usually in early morning. The water that oozes out contains organic and inorganic
substances.

Transport of Minerals
The mineral elements present in soil are absorped by roots and transported in upward
direction through xylem along with water. In rooted plants, the transport of inorganic
nutrients is multidirectional. The major regions where mineral elements reach are the
growing regions of the plant like the apical and the lateral meristems, young leaves,
developing flowers, fruits, seeds and also the storage organs. Remobilisation of many
minerals takes place inside the plants particularly from old parts to the young leaves.
 Eneyolopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
486

Translocation of Organic Solutes

The organic compounds are mainly synthesised during photosynthesis in leaves and
young growing apices of roots and sh0ots. These compounds are transported by phloem
to all parts of the plants.

Plant Growth and Development

The life of a plant initiates from a single cell, called zygote. All the structures of plant such
as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds arise from a single cell in a very orderly
sequence. Plant growth is generally indeterminate because growth in plants is unlimited
and occurs continuously throughout their life by the activity of meristematic cells. The
new cells continually produced by cell division occur in meristem (open form of growth).
Different phases of plant growth are cell division, cell enlargement and cell maturation.

Conditions or Factors for Growth in Plants

1)Supply of nutrients
C/N ratio (ratio of carbohydrates
(1i) and nitrogenous compounds regulate specific
pattern of growth în plants).
ii) Temperature
(iv) Water
(v) Light
(vi) Oxygen

Plant Growth Hormones

Plant growth regulators are variously described as plant growth substances, plant
hormones or phyto hormones. These are small, simple organic molecules of diverse
chemical composition produced naturally in higher plants that control the growth
and other physiological functions. These are required in very small amount by plants.
For the regulation of every phase of growth in plants, two or more grovwth hormones are
intimately related to each other. These can either act synergistically or antagonistically.
The plant hormones are prepared by the apical meristem of younger and mature leaves
and are transported through the vascular tissue, phloem to other parts of the plant.
Some plant hormones are given below

Auxins
The real plant auxin is chemically known as Indole 3-acetic acid (1AA). It is also known as
natural auxin. Apart from this, napthalene acetic acid (NAA) and 2, 4 dichloro
phenoxyacetic acidl (2, 4 D) are known as synthetic auxins.
Functions of Auxins
) Cell elongation and longitudinal growth.
(ii) Cell division in the cambium.
(i) Promotion of root growth and root initiation.
(iv) Prevents abscission layer, ie., shedding of mature leaves from stem or ripe fruits from
the stem.
(v) Induces parthenocarpy, ie., formation of seedless fruits without fertilisation.
(vi) Generally inhibits flowering but in pineapple, it initiales uniform flowering.
PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
487
Gibberellins
It was discovered by Kurosawa in 1926. These are generally known as weakly acidic
8rowth hormones. Out of more than 100 different gibberllins being reported, GA3 is the
most important gibberellic acid. It was first to be discovered and was most extinsively
studied.
Functions of Gibberellins
(i) Elongation of sten.

i) Reversal of dwarfism in plants

(iii) Breaking of dormancy (i.e., making the seed to germinate) in potato tubers.
(1v) Promotes seed germination in lettuce, cereals.
(v) Causes parthenocarpy in apple and pear.
(vi) Control flowering in long day plants.
(vi) Control growth and development of fruits.
(vii) Delay senescence (ageing) in fruits like citrus fruits, apples etc.

Cytokinins
It was invented by Miller in 1955. These growth hormones are Zeatin is the naturaly
basic in nature and have specific effects on cytokinesis. occurring cytokinin
isolated from maizee
Functions of Cytokinins grains. It is remarkably
) It acts on cell division but have little or no effect on growth. known to be much
(ii) Breaks the dormancy of many seeds and promote their more active than any
generation. other cytokinin.
(ii) It stimulates the growth of lateral buds and thus suppress heterogametes
apical dominance.
(iv) It also delay senescence (ageing) of plant organs by controlling protein synthesis.
(v) Induce parthenocarpy in many plants.
(vi) Increase shelf life of marketed vegetables, cut shoots and flowers to keep them fresh
for several days.

Ethylene
It is a simple gaseous plant hormone synthesised from the amino acid methionine. It was
invented by Burg in 1962 and is also known as ripening hormone.
Functions of Ethylene
i) Inhibits growth.
i) Helps in fruit growth and ripening.
(i) Flowering in pineapple, mango and various other plants is induced by the
application of ethylene.
iv) Inhibits the growth of lateral buds and causes apical dominance.
(v) Stimulate root initiation, growth of lateral roots and root hairs.
(vi) Promotes the yellowing and senescence of leaves.
(vii) Breaks the dormancy of buds and seeds.
5
5

2.
5

2.
5.
5
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
494
Pre-Fertilisation Events
All the events of sexual reproduction that occur When male and female gametes
before the fusion of gametes are included in this are similar in appearance, they are
category. Two main pre-fertilisaton events are called homogametes or
gametogenesis (formation of gametes) and copulation isogametes, while
or gamete transter, (close association of male and morphologicaly distinct male and
female for the fusion of gametes). female gametes are called
heterogametes.
Fertilisation
The process of fusion of male gametes with the female gametes is called fertilisation or
syngamy. It results in the formation of a diploid zysote.
t is mainly of two types
i) External Fertlisation When process of fertilisation takes place outside the body of an
organism e.g., in aquatic organisms like algae, fishes and amphibians.
(ii) Internal Fertilisation When process of fertilisation takes place inside the body of an
organism, eg., in most terrestrial organisms like fungi, higher animal and majority of
plants such as bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Post-Fertilisation Events
During the sexual reproduction, the events which occur after the fusion of gametes are
called post-fertilisation events. These events include the formation of a zygote and
embryogenesis (i.e., the process of development of embryo from the zygote). Based on
whether the development of the zygote takes place outside or inside the body of the
female parent, animals are divided into two categories.
) Oviparous Those animals in which the development of zygote takes place outside the
female parent are called oviparous. They lay fertilised eggs covered with hard calcareous
shell in a safe environment, e.g, reptiles and birds. After a period of incubation, the young
ones hatch out from the egg.
(i) Viviparous Those animals in which, the Everyday Science
development of zygote takes place inside the body
of the female parent are called viviparous. After King Cobra is the only snake that
attaininga certain stage of growth, the young ones makes its own nest because it is
are delivered out of the female's body. eg, human, an oviparous snake. They lay
around 20-40 eggs in a nest in the
monkeys and all other mammals (except egg laying
month of may and the female
monotremes like the platypus and echidnas). Cobra guards the nest during the
The chances of survival of young ones are greater incubation period (between
in ViviparOus animal because of proper embryonic 60-90 days) until it is hatched.
Care and protection.

Reproduction in Lower Plants

There are different methods of asexual and sexual reproduction in lower plants
1. Asexual Reproduction
Different modes of asexual reproduction in lower plants are given below
Fragmentation
It is the simplest form of asexual reproduction in which the filamentous plant body
breaks into pieces and each fragmernt results into a new filament or plant body on
maturing. e.g., Spirogyra {filamentous green algae).
Vegetative multiplication by fragmentation is considered as the common method used by
algae to grow in running water, e.g, Ulothrix.
REPRO DUCTION
495
Spore Formation
In many multicellular organisms, spore is the reproductive cell which has the ability to
germinate and give rise to a new colony. Algae ferns, mosses and fungi reproduce
through spore formation. They produce spores inside the sporangium. The spores are
covered by a thick walls that protect them until they come in the contact of some moist
surface like soil and begin to grow
Different types of spores produced in algae and fungi are as follows
() Zoospores (motile) e.g., Algae-Ulothrix, Oedogonium, Fungi- Pythium and Achlya.
(i) Sporangiospores (non-motile) eg, Mucor and Rhizopus.
(ii) Conidia (non-motile) eg, Peniciliam, Aspergilus, Fusarium.
(iv) Cysts (Thick coverings) e.g., Vaucheria and Botrydium.

2. Sexual Reproduction
In algae and fungi, sex organs are unicellular whereas in bryophytes, the sex organs are
multicellular and more developed. These sex organs are either embedded in the
gametophyte or present at the apical portion of the gametophyte.
Generally. in evolved members of algae, motile male gametes are produced in
antheridium, while non-motile female gametes are produced in archegonium.
These gametes fuse by the process called fertilisation, to produce a product called zygote.
The fertilisation occurs when mature archegonium absorbs water, swells and exerts
pressure on the lid cells. Due to this, a mucilagenous substance present in it oozes out and
spreads in water. The antherozoids swimming in water attract to this substance and enter
into the archegonium for fertilisation to produce a diploid zygote.

Reproduction in Higher Plants

(Angiosperms or Flowering Plants)
Angiosperms also reproduce both asexually and sexually

1. Asexual Reproduction
In this type of reproduction, flowering plants follow apomixis, i.e., producing young ones
without involvement and fusion of sex cells (pollen and ovule) or vegetative propagation.

Apomixis
t occurs mainly in tvwo ways
i) Agamospermy or Adventitious Embryogenesis In which formation of embryo
occurs either from the cells of integument or nucellus e.g., Citrus.
i) Recurrent Apomixis In which the development of diploid egg occurs
parthenogenetically e.g., Allium.

Vegetative Propagation
In vegetative propagation, new plants are obtained from a part of the parent plant without
the involvement of reproductive organs, eg., vegetative plant parts like roots, stem,
leaves or meristems develop into new plants. This is known as natural vegetativve
propagation.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
496.
Different Plant Parts Used for Vegetative Propagation
Type Examples
Roots
Adventitious tuberous buds Sweet potato, Dahlia
Stems Ginger
() Rhizome Ginger
1) Bulb Garlic
(ii) Tuber eye (nodes) Potato
(iv) Suckers Mint
(V Bulbils
Leaves
------------******
ABave,pineapple ------
(i) Adventitious buds Begonia
(ii) Plantlets at margins of leaves Bryophylium
(ii) Buds at leaf tip Adiantum caudatum

Vegetative propagation can also be practised artificially for mass production. There are
usually four types of method for artificial vegetative propagation such as cutting,
layering. grafting and micropropagation.

Artificial Method Examples

Cutting Leaves (Bryophlium), roots (tamarind) stems (grapes, sugarcane, rose), etc.
Layering Jasmine, grape, vine, litchi, orange, etc.
Grafting |
Rose, apple, plum, peach, mango0.
Micropropagation Banana, orchids, Coronation and ornamental plants.

Tissue Culture
ISSue culture involves to maintain tissues or organs (in case of plant tissue culture
isolated cells or small pieces of plant tissues are used) under sterile in vitro conditions
in nutrient cultures to grow new disease-free plants. This technique is also known as
in vitro micropropagation because it takes place in a laboratory and the plants are
transferred from the labs to the soil.
Plant tissue culture is widely used for the rapid multiplication of plant species with
superior qualities. In this method, small pieces are cut from the plant. Flower buds, stem
tissue, growing tips, leaves, etC are known as explants. These are transferred to artificial
medium where they divide rapidly to form a callus (undifferentiated mass of cells).
This technique is used for production of ornamental plants like carnations, orchids,
Dahlia, etc.
Various advantages of tissue culture are given below
It is possible to produce large number of plants from single parent in disease-free
environment.
It helps to avoid various plant diseases through the sterile techniques.
Rapid production of ornamental plants is possible.
Climatic conditions do not hinder the plant growth.

2. Sexual Reproduction
Flowering plants are generally angiosperms which carry the reproductive parts within
the flower and seeds enclosed in a fruit. Most plants have both male and female
reproductive organs in the same flower known as bisexual flowers, e.g., lily, rose, etc.
While others have either male or female reproductive part in a flower known as
unisexual flowers, e.g., papaya, watermelon, etc.
 Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
498 *** ** *** ** ** *** ****** ** ****

Fertilisation
Soon after the completion of pollination, the process of fertilisation begins. The
pollination tube soon enters the ovule, passes through nucellus and ends at the
endosperm, leaving the pollen grains there.
-**-******************...********.*.*****

Microspore formed in micrOsporangla or: :Pollination Pollen grain reachesS onto stigma:
anther. Microspore gives rise to pollen :of ovary by wind and from a tube by which
grains that bear IWO male speris. male sperms reacne up to eroryoS
**** ***********************************

**********************.
2)
Pollen sac Pollen grains (n)
A DISexuai iower bears Microspore
androecIum and mother A)eiOsis
gynoecium. Androecium Cell (2n)
s made up of anthers.
Gynoecium is made up of Pollen grains
Ovary that bears ovules.
**************" *** Microspore Microspores (n) ligma
Anther mother cell (2n) Sperm cells
llen
Eight-nucleate emDiyo sau
Ovary tube cell Tube cells
nucleus
Ovule
Meiosis
Style
Carpel
O
Adult
Pollen
sporophyte (2) tube Formation oif
With fiowers pollen tube (n)
Embryo
:
Ovule contains
OEEd Coat Polar nuclei
Endosperm (3n)
Megaspore that forrms
embryo sac which
Egg
Contains egg cell.
Seed (2n)
YOung DOUDie
embryo (2n) Fertilisation
-..-.
***

*********************************
Post Fertilisation Events After ierlilisation, zygote Fertilisation One male spem uses with egg
forms embryo. (3n) cells forms, endosperm that to torm zygote (an) and other one tuses with
nourishes the embryo. Whole ovule becomes secondary nucleus to form n cell that further
seed and whole ovary becomes fruit. form endosperm.
*********************************** **"
********************************************
Life Cycle of an Angiosperm Plant
The fate of various parts of flower is given below
Pre Fertilisation Post Fertilisation Pre Fertilisation Post Fertilisation
Parts Parts Parts Parts
Flower Simple or aggregate fruit Inner integument Tegmen (delicate)
Stamens Fall off FuniculusS Stalk
Calyx Fall off or remain attached cell Embryo
as fleshy structure Nucellus Perisperm
Ovary wall Pericarp Triple fusion nucleus Endosperm
Ovule Seed Antipodals Degenerate
Outer integument Testa (touch) ynergidss Degenerate

Fruit
A fruit is formed as a result of cell division and differentiation in the ovary which
transform it into a fruit. As a result of stimuli received from pollination as well as
developing seed, the wall of the ovary develops in the pericarp which may be fleshy
e.g, guava, tomato, cucumber) or may be leathery and dry (e.g., pea, bean, mustard).
REPRO DUCTTN......
499
Fruits are of the following two type
(i) True Fruits The fruit derived from an ovary of a flower not associated with any
non-capillary part 1S called true fruit (e-g, mang0, tomato, etc).
(ii) False Fruits The fruit derived from an ovary along with other accessory floral parts ís
called false fruit (e,.g., apple, cashewnut, strawberry, etc). Thalamus also contributes in
fruit formation.
On macro level, fruits are classified into three main classes
) Simple fruit Mustard, bean, lemon, mango, etc.
(1i) Aggregate fruit Raspberry. apple, strawberry, etc.

(in) Composite fruit Jack fruit, mulberry, banyan, etc.

Fruit and their Edible Parts

Fruits Edible parts Fruits Edible parts
Mango Mid. pericarp Mulberry Bract, sepals and seeds
itchi Pulpy aerial Pear Thalmus
Guava ericarp Apple Thalmus
Wood apple Mesocarp and endocarp Tomato Pericarp and perisperm
Grape Pericarp COconut Endosperm
Wheat Endosperm and embryo Papaya Mid. pericarp
Coriander Thalmus and seeds Grouna ut Seed leaves and embryo
Lemon Juicy pore Jack fruit Sepals, bract, seeds
Chinese date Epicarp and mesocarp

Seeds
Seed is a fertilized mature ovule that possesses an embryonic part.
There are two types of seeds
(1)
Non-endospermic seeds/non-albuminous seed Endosperm is absent in this seed and
stores their food material in cotyledons, e-g.. gram pea.
(ii) Endospermic or albuminous seed They possess endosperm and store their food in it,
e.g., castor, maize, rice.

Reproduction in Animals
Animals reproduce by both asexual and sexual means
Asexual Reproduction
It is the primary means of reproduction among the protists, cnidarians and tunicates.
The process of asexual reproduction can ocCur through following methods
Regeneration
Itis the formation of whole body of an organism from
the small fragment of its body, eg., planara Hydra, etc.
Gemmules
These are the asexua Fission
reproductive structure The parent body is divided into two
present in several sponges. or more parts, which become new
These are oval in shape. individual e.g., planarians, protozoans, etc.
Asexual
Spore Formation Reproduction Budding
Ihe propagule which Small projection or outgrowths in
in Animals protozoans and sponges. Projection
germinates to new individual
eg, Z00spore conidia, etc. IS called bud later bud develops into new
organisms e.g, yeast and coelenterates.
Strobilisation Fragmentation
In this,the ring-like constrictions are
:

developed and organisms look like

ne parent body breaks into two or more
a pile ot minute saucers e.g., Aurelia. fragments. Each fragment becomes new
organism e.g, sponges and echinoderrms.
 Encyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
500
Sexual Reproduction
In animals, the sexual reproduction occurs by the fertilisation of haploid sperm and
haploid eE8. generating a diploid offspring. In most individuals (i.e., dioecious), the female
produces eggs, (fie., large non-Imotile cells contain food reserve) and the male produce
sperms (i.e., small, motile cell and have almost no food reserve).
In other individual, (ie., monoecious) such as earthworm and many snail, single
individual produce both sperm and eEg. These individuals are called as hermophrodite.
The union of sperm and egg ocurs in variety of ways, depending on the mobility and the
breeding environmernt of individual.
Sexual reproduction is of two types

Sexual Reproduction

Syngamy Conjugation
(Permanent fusion of male (Temporary fusion of male and
and female gamete) female parents of same speciess
for exchange of nuclear material
e.g., bacteria and Paramecuim)
On the basis of number On the basis of structure
of parents involved of fusing gametes

Isogamy
Exogamy Endogamy Fusion of morphologically
It is fusion of gametes It is the fusion of similar gametes, e.g., monocystis.
produced by two ditferent gametes produced -Anisogamy
parents, e.g, dioecious by the same parent, Fusion of two dissimilar
ndividuals. e.g, monoecious gametes, e.g., frog rabbit, etc.
individuals.

Reproductions in Humans
Humans are viviparous, unisexual and have specialised cells that take part in sexual
reproduction, called gametes (sperms in male and ova in females). These gametes are
produced by organs called gonads.
Sperms and egg cell fuse to produce a zygote (fertilised egg) that results into a new
multicellular organism by further development (mitotic division) in it.

Puberty is the time phase in males and females when they become sexually mature. The
puberty age in girls begins at 10-11 yrs and completes at age of 15-17 yrs whereas, in boys, it
begins at the age of 1 1-12 yrs and completes at 16-17 yrs.
Signs of puberty in males are hair growth in pubic area and armpits, muscle growth, voice
deepening, facial hair development and size increment of penis. Whereas, the signs of puberty
that appear in girls are breast development, hair growth in the pubic area and armpits and
onset of menstruation cycle.
When a person reaches a puberty, certain hormones in the body affect the sweat glands
especially those in the armpits that cause odour.
 REPRODUCTION
**** * *** *** *
501
Secondary Sexual Features in Man and Woman
Characters Man Woman
General build up More muscular Less muscular
Aggressiveness More marked Less marked
Hair growth
(i) Facial Beard, moustache present Absent
(ii) Axillary Present Present
(ii) Chest Present Absent
Mammary glands Undeveloped Well developed
Skin More hairy and coarse Less hairy and coarse
Shoulder Broad Not broad
Pelvis Not broad More broad
Larynx More apparent Less apparent
Voice Low pitched High pitched
Breathing Predominantly abdominal Predominantly thoracic

Male Reproductive System

It consists of the following parts
Paired/
Types Organ Unpaired Description and Location Function

Glands Testes Paired Primary sex organs; posterior to the Produce spermatozoa (gametes)
penis within the scrotum dnd testOSterone (male seX
normone).
Seminal Paired Club-shaped glands posterior to the Secrete alkaline fluid containing
vesicle prostate, attached to the ejaculatory nutrients fructose and
ducts. prostaglandins.
Cowper's Paired Pea-sized glands inferior to the Secrete fluid that lubricates
gland prostate; empty into the urethra and end of penis.
membranous urethra.
Prostate Unpaired Walnut-sized gland at the base of Secretes al kaline fluid that
gland the urinary bladder, surrounding the helps neutralise acidic
prostatic urethra. environment of the vagina.
- ------- ----.

Ducts Epididymis Paired Mass of tubule attached to the Site of sperm maturation; store
posterior surtace of the testes. SpermatoZ0a.
Vas deferens Paired Ducts extending from the epididymis Store spermatozoa; transport
to the ejaculatory ducts. spermatozoa during ejaculation.
Ejaculatory Paired Short ducts between the ductus Receive spermatozoa and
duct deferentia and the prostatic urethra. additives to produce seminal
fluid.
Supporting Scrotum Unpaired Pouch of skin, posterior to the Encloses and protects testes.
structures penis.
Penis Unpaired Pendant organ anterior to the Carry urine and seminal fluid
scrotum and attached to the pubis, to outside ot body; organ of
external genitalia coitus.
502 . Encyolopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE

Female Reproductive System

Female reproductive system consists of the following organs

Organs of Female Reproductive System

Paired/ Description and
Types Organs Functions
Unpaired Location
Glands Ovaries Paired Primary sex organs; upper Production of ova (gametes)
pelvic cavIty on botn lateral and female sex normones
sides of uterus oestrogen and progesterone.
Vestibular glands Paired Subcutaneous within the Secrete lubricating fluid into
wall of the vaginal opening. the vestibule and vaginal
opening during coitus.
Mammary glands Paired Composed of lobes within Produce and secrete milk tor
the breasts. nourisnment of an intant.
Fallopian tube Paired Open-ended tubes that Convey ova toward uterus;
extend from the ovaries Site of tertilisation; convey
the uterus. developing blastocyst to
uterus.
Ducts Uterus Unpaired Hollow-shaped like an Site of implantation;
inverted pear; maintained in Sustains lite of embroys and
position within the pelvic foetus during pregnancy
cavity bu muscles and plays active role in
Igamenis. parturition.
Vagind Unpaired Hollow-positioned between Conveys uterine secretion to
the urinary bladder and Outside of body; recelves
urethra anteriorly and the erect penis and semen
rectum posteriorly; external during cotus;, passage way
genitalia. for foetus during parturition.
Labia majora Unpaired Two longitudinal folds of From margins of pudendal
Skin that extend trom the cleft; encose and protect
mons pubis to the other external reproductive
perineum; Separated organs.
longitudinally by the
pudendal Clert.
Supporting Labia minora Unpaired Two longitudinal folds of From margins of vestibule;
structuress skin medial to the labia protect openings or vagina
majora; separated and urethra.
longitudinally by the vaginal
vestibula.
Clitoris Unpaired Rounded projection at the Provides feeling of pleasure
upper part of the pundendal during sexual stimulation.
cleft, sheathed by aa
prepuce.

Oviduct or
Fallopian
Seminal vesicle
tube
Ureter H
Bladder Ovary
Uterus
Prostate gland
Penis Cervix-
Vas Urethra
deferens

Epididymis
Vagina
ScrotumESIIS
Human-Male Reproductive System Human-Female Reproductive System
REPRODUCTION
5033

Menstrual Cycle
It is the sequence of changes that start in female body at the age of puberty (13 to 15 yrs) in
the uterus and ovary for the purpose of sexual reproduction.
The start of menstrual cycle is known as menarche and it continues up to the age of 45-50
years. After that it ceases (stops) and this phase is known as menopause.
The cyclic activity proceeds after every 28/29 days from the previous cycle.

Mechanism Involved with Human Reproductive System

Various process involved are given below

Gametogenesis
It is the process of formation of male and female sex cells or gametes, i.e., sperms and ova
in the male and female gonads (testes and ovaries) respectively.
It is divided into two main types
(1)
Spermatogenesis The process of formation of a sperm is called spermatogenesis. It
Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. A spermatogonium (sperm mother
cell) produces four functional spermatozoa.
(i) Oogenesis It is the process of formation of a mature female gamete (ovum). It occurs
in the ovaries (female gonads).
t consists of three phases
(a) Multiplication (b) Growth Phase c) Maturation Phase

Difference between Spermatogenesis and 0ogenesis

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
It occurs in the testes. It occurs in the ovaries.

Spermatogonia changes to primary Oogonia changes to primary oocytes.

spermatocytes.
A primary spermatocyte divides to form two A primary oocyte divides to form one secondary o0cyte
secondary spermatoOcyte. and one polar body.
A secondary spermatocyte divides to form two
A secondary oocyte divides to form one ootid and one
Spermatids. polar body.
No polar body Is tormed. Polar bodies are formed.
Aspermatogonium forms spermatozoa. An oogonium forms one ovum.
Sperms are minute, yolkless and motile. Ova are much large, often with yolk and non-motile.

Fertilisation
It is the fusion of a haploid male gamete (spermatozoan) and a haploid fermale gamete
(Ovum) to form a diploid cell, the zygote. It is an internal process that Occurs in the ampullla
region of the female's fallopian tube.
A glycoprotein fertilisin is secreted by ovum and the penetrating sperm also has a protein on
its surface called antifertilisin.

Embryonic Development
During embryonic development, different organs are formed from the three basic germ
layers namely ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
 Eneyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
504
The fate of cells of these 3 layers is as follows
Outer Epithelium of Body and its Derivatives
Ectoderm Hair, nails, epithelial glands, lining of mouth,
enamel of teeth, lens of eye, inner ear, nasal
and olfactory epithelium
Neural Tube Brain, spinal cord, motor nerves
Neural Crest Sensory ganglia and nerves,
adrenal medulla, sympathetic ganglia, skull,
gill arches, dentine of teeth

Notochord
Lining of thoracic and abdominal cavities
Primordial
Circulatory System Blood, bone marrow,
:Zygote Gastrulation | Mesoderm lymphoid tissue, endothelium of blood vessels
Cleavage and lymphatics
Somites Skeletal muscle, muscle, bone cartilage
of skeleton (except skull), dermis and connective
tissues
Organs of Urogenital System Ureter, kidney,
gonads and reproductive ducts
Epithelium of Respiratory Tract
Pharynx Pharyngeal pouches, thyroid and
Endoderm Primitive gut parathyroid
Liver and pancreas
Epithelium of urogenital system

Parturition
It is the act of expelling the fully formed young one from the mother uterus at the end of
gestation period. This process is induced by both neural and hormonal system. Hormones
are secreted by the endocrine glands of the mother. COxytocin promotes the contraction of
the uterine muscles. It is also called birth hormone, while relaxin increases the flexibility
of the pubis ligaments and helps in the dilation of uterine cervix during labour pains
(pains of child birth).

Lactation
Production of milk in the mammary glands is called lactation. It starts towards the end of
pregnancy and after the birth of the young one.
The first milk produced after the birth of baby is called colostrum. It is rich in proteins,
calories and antibodies (lgA). Milk synthesis is under the control of prolactin hormone,
while its release is controlled by oxytocin hormone released by pituitary gland.

Reproductive Health
Reproductive health is defined as a state of physical, mental and social well-being in all
aspects of reproduction at all stages of life. India was amongst the first few countries to
initiate the programmes at the national level to attain total reproductive health as a
national goal. These programmes are called Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH)
programmes.
According to this, all men and women should be informed about safe, effective,
affordable and acceptable methods of family planning for their choice. And also the right
to appropriate health-care services should be provided to pregnant ladies that enable
them to safely go through pregnancy and child birth.
REPRODUCTTON.........
.505
Birth Control (Contraceptive) Methods
A wide range of contraceptive methods are available to control the overgrowing
population. Some of them are as follows

Barrier Methods
Methods Basis of Action Note on Uses Approximate Failure Rate
Condom A thin, strong rubber Placed over erect penis just 10-12% with experienced
sheath, prevents the sperm belore sexual intercourse. Use.
to enter tne vagina.
Femidomn Female condom-a thin Inserted before intercourse Relatively new so no data.
rubber or polyurethane tube and removed any time later Probably similarly to male
With a closed end and an Condom.
Open end.
*************-----
**** -*-*--*-

Diaphragm/Cap A flexible rubber dome Inserted before intercourse. 3-15%

which fits over the cervix Must be left in place at
and prevents entry of least 6 hours after the
Sperm to uterus. intercourse
Spermicide Chemical which kills Placed in vagina to cover the 10-25%
sperms lining of vagina and cervix.
ETTective TOr about nour.
************
*

*****************************************
Sponge Polyurethane sponge Fits up to 24 hours before 10-25%
impregnated with intercourse. Leave in place
spermicide, Fits over for at least 6 hours after
cervix, Disposabie intercourse

Hormonal Methods
Methods Basis of Action Note on Uses Approximate Failure Rate
Pills Contains the female sex One taken orally each day 1%
hormones Oestrogen and during first 3 weeks of
progensterone. Prevents cycle. After week 4,
development of eggs and menstruation starts and
Ovulation by inhibiting the the pill is started again.
secretion of FSH. Act on
cervical mucus to prevent
the penetration of sperm.
Prevent the blastocyst
----a-
implantation. --------------
Mini pills Contains progesterone only Must be taken within 3 2
Ovulation may occur, but hours after inter-course
cervical mucus is thiCkened, everyday
preventing entry of sperms.

Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs)

Devices
Non-medicated, e.8
Ippes looP, Tings, copper
devices, e,8, copper -220
and hormonal devices,
e-g. progestasert.
Basis of Action
Approximate Failure
Note on Uses
Rate
Increase phagocytosis of is placed in cervix, acts
It 3%
sperms with uterus, as spermicide within the
make uterus unsuitable uterus.
for implanation, make
cervix hostile to sperms.
 Eneyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
504
The fate of cells of these 3 layers is as follows
Outer Epithelium of Body and its Derivatives
Ectoderm Hair, nails, epithelial glands, lining of mouth,
enamel of teeth, lens of eye, inner ear, nasal
and olfactory epithelium
Neural Tube Brain, spinal cord, motor nerves
Neural Crest Sensory ganglia and nerves,
adrenal medulla, sympathetic ganglia, skull,
gill arches, dentine of teeth

Notochord
Lining of thoracic and abdominal cavities
Primordial
Circulatory System Blood, bone marrow,
:Zygote Gastrulation | Mesoderm lymphoid tissue, endothelium of blood vessels
Cleavage and lymphatics
Somites Skeletal muscle, muscle, bone cartilage
of skeleton (except skull), dermis and connective
tissues
Organs of Urogenital System Ureter, kidney,
gonads and reproductive ducts
Epithelium of Respiratory Tract
Pharynx Pharyngeal pouches, thyroid and
Endoderm Primitive gut parathyroid
Liver and pancreas
Epithelium of urogenital system

Parturition
It is the act of expelling the fully formed young one from the mother uterus at the end of
gestation period. This process is induced by both neural and hormonal system. Hormones
are secreted by the endocrine glands of the mother. COxytocin promotes the contraction of
the uterine muscles. It is also called birth hormone, while relaxin increases the flexibility
of the pubis ligaments and helps in the dilation of uterine cervix during labour pains
(pains of child birth).

Lactation
Production of milk in the mammary glands is called lactation. It starts towards the end of
pregnancy and after the birth of the young one.
The first milk produced after the birth of baby is called colostrum. It is rich in proteins,
calories and antibodies (lgA). Milk synthesis is under the control of prolactin hormone,
while its release is controlled by oxytocin hormone released by pituitary gland.

Reproductive Health
Reproductive health is defined as a state of physical, mental and social well-being in all
aspects of reproduction at all stages of life. India was amongst the first few countries to
initiate the programmes at the national level to attain total reproductive health as a
national goal. These programmes are called Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH)
programmes.
According to this, all men and women should be informed about safe, effective,
affordable and acceptable methods of family planning for their choice. And also the right
to appropriate health-care services should be provided to pregnant ladies that enable
them to safely go through pregnancy and child birth.
REPRODUCTTON.........
.505
Birth Control (Contraceptive) Methods
A wide range of contraceptive methods are available to control the overgrowing
population. Some of them are as follows

Barrier Methods
Methods Basis of Action Note on Uses Approximate Failure Rate
Condom A thin, strong rubber Placed over erect penis just 10-12% with experienced
sheath, prevents the sperm belore sexual intercourse. Use.
to enter tne vagina.
Femidomn Female condom-a thin Inserted before intercourse Relatively new so no data.
rubber or polyurethane tube and removed any time later Probably similarly to male
With a closed end and an Condom.
Open end.
*************-----
**** -*-*--*-

Diaphragm/Cap A flexible rubber dome Inserted before intercourse. 3-15%

which fits over the cervix Must be left in place at
and prevents entry of least 6 hours after the
Sperm to uterus. intercourse
Spermicide Chemical which kills Placed in vagina to cover the 10-25%
sperms lining of vagina and cervix.
ETTective TOr about nour.
************
*

*****************************************
Sponge Polyurethane sponge Fits up to 24 hours before 10-25%
impregnated with intercourse. Leave in place
spermicide, Fits over for at least 6 hours after
cervix, Disposabie intercourse

Hormonal Methods
Methods Basis of Action Note on Uses Approximate Failure Rate
Pills Contains the female sex One taken orally each day 1%
hormones Oestrogen and during first 3 weeks of
progensterone. Prevents cycle. After week 4,
development of eggs and menstruation starts and
Ovulation by inhibiting the the pill is started again.
secretion of FSH. Act on
cervical mucus to prevent
the penetration of sperm.
Prevent the blastocyst
----a-
implantation. --------------
Mini pills Contains progesterone only Must be taken within 3 2
Ovulation may occur, but hours after inter-course
cervical mucus is thiCkened, everyday
preventing entry of sperms.

Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs)

Devices
Non-medicated, e.8
Ippes looP, Tings, copper
devices, e,8, copper -220
and hormonal devices,
e-g. progestasert.
Basis of Action
Approximate Failure
Note on Uses
Rate
Increase phagocytosis of is placed in cervix, acts
It 3%
sperms with uterus, as spermicide within the
make uterus unsuitable uterus.
for implanation, make
cervix hostile to sperms.
 Encyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
506
Natural Methods (NFP, Natural method of family planning)
Approximate
Methods Basis of Action
Failure Rate
Abstinence Avoid sexual intercourse -*****-*

Rhythm method
Temperature method
Coitus interruptus
(withdraw)
Lactational amenorrhea
AVoid sexual intercourse around the time of ovulation (total 20%
abstinence for about 7-14 days)
Note the rise in temperature at ovulation (due to rise in Up to 20%
progesterone) and avoid sexual intercourse at these times
Penis is withdrawn from vagina before ejaculation 20%
Sucking stimulus prevents the generation of normal
prevulatory LH surge hence, ovulation does not occur.

Surgical Methods (Sterilisation)

Approximate
Methods Basis of Action
Failure Rate
Vasectomy Vas deferens are severed and tied. Less than 1%
Tubectomy Both oviducts are severed and tied. (now laproscopic Less than 1%
method are used).

Termination (it is not a part of contraception)

Methods Basis of Action Note on Use
Morning-after pill Contains RU486, an antiprogesterone. Taken within 3 days of sexual intercourse
Abortion (discussed later Upto 24 weeks Premature termination of pregnancy by
in this chapter as MTP) Surgical intervention.

Amniocentesis
tis an illegal foetal sex determination test based on the chromosome pattern in the
amniotic fluid surrounding the developing embryo. If the sex determined comes to be of a
girl, then female foeticide is prone to happen.
So, this practice should be banned and once cought should be fined heavily and imprisoned.
In this way, the female foeticide can be prevented as much as possible in order to
maintain the sex-ratio and its balance in the sociery.

Disorders of Human Reproductive System

There are some disorders in male and female reproductive systems which are tabulated here.

Disorders and Diseases in Male Reproductive System

Diseases Description
Prostate cancer Cancer of prostate gland is an extermely common malignancy accounting from 2 to 3
% Of male
deatns *********-***------
Benign Prostatic This is the enlargement of the prostate gland during old age. It compresses the
Hyertrophy (BPH)urethra causing frequent night urination (nocturia) or painful micturition.
Impotence It is the inability to achieve or hold an erection of penis for long enough to complete
sexual intercourse. *******

Sterlity It is the inability of sperm to fertilise an ovum.

Cryptochidism It is a condition in which the testes do not descend into the scrotum. It is caused by
deficient secretion of testosterone by foetal testes.
Hydroule. Itis a collection of fluid usually in the tunica vaginalis of the testes. *** **

Inguinal hernia Tearing of inguinal tissue may result in the protrusion of a part of intestine into the
Scrotum.
 Encyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
506
Natural Methods (NFP, Natural method of family planning)
Approximate
Methods Basis of Action
Failure Rate
Abstinence Avoid sexual intercourse -*****-*

Rhythm method
Temperature method
Coitus interruptus
(withdraw)
Lactational amenorrhea
AVoid sexual intercourse around the time of ovulation (total 20%
abstinence for about 7-14 days)
Note the rise in temperature at ovulation (due to rise in Up to 20%
progesterone) and avoid sexual intercourse at these times
Penis is withdrawn from vagina before ejaculation 20%
Sucking stimulus prevents the generation of normal
prevulatory LH surge hence, ovulation does not occur.

Surgical Methods (Sterilisation)

Approximate
Methods Basis of Action
Failure Rate
Vasectomy Vas deferens are severed and tied. Less than 1%
Tubectomy Both oviducts are severed and tied. (now laproscopic Less than 1%
method are used).

Termination (it is not a part of contraception)

Methods Basis of Action Note on Use
Morning-after pill Contains RU486, an antiprogesterone. Taken within 3 days of sexual intercourse
Abortion (discussed later Upto 24 weeks Premature termination of pregnancy by
in this chapter as MTP) Surgical intervention.

Amniocentesis
tis an illegal foetal sex determination test based on the chromosome pattern in the
amniotic fluid surrounding the developing embryo. If the sex determined comes to be of a
girl, then female foeticide is prone to happen.
So, this practice should be banned and once cought should be fined heavily and imprisoned.
In this way, the female foeticide can be prevented as much as possible in order to
maintain the sex-ratio and its balance in the sociery.

Disorders of Human Reproductive System

There are some disorders in male and female reproductive systems which are tabulated here.

Disorders and Diseases in Male Reproductive System

Diseases Description
Prostate cancer Cancer of prostate gland is an extermely common malignancy accounting from 2 to 3
% Of male
deatns *********-***------
Benign Prostatic This is the enlargement of the prostate gland during old age. It compresses the
Hyertrophy (BPH)urethra causing frequent night urination (nocturia) or painful micturition.
Impotence It is the inability to achieve or hold an erection of penis for long enough to complete
sexual intercourse. *******

Sterlity It is the inability of sperm to fertilise an ovum.

Cryptochidism It is a condition in which the testes do not descend into the scrotum. It is caused by
deficient secretion of testosterone by foetal testes.
Hydroule. Itis a collection of fluid usually in the tunica vaginalis of the testes. *** **

Inguinal hernia Tearing of inguinal tissue may result in the protrusion of a part of intestine into the
Scrotum.
REPRODUCTION
507
Disorders in Female Reproductive System
Disorder Description
Endometriosis It is the growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus. It appears at menopause,
or when the ovarieS are removed. It includes premenstrual or unusual menstrual
pain.

Oophoritis It Is intlammation of ovary, usually due to an intection.

---- ----- **** ---

Cevical cancer It is slow-growth cancer. On detection, it can be cured by radiation or surgery.

--

Ovarian cysts Ovarian cysts are fluid filled tumours of the ovary. Sometimes, during pregnancy
(Oophorocystosis) these cysts rupture and regress.
Breast cancer It generally occurs in women after 30 years of age. Its incidence increases after
women attain menpause.
Ectopic pregnancy It is the implantation of embryo at a place other than uterus generally in the
ovIduct.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

These are the diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse.
They are also called Veneral Diseases (VD) or Reproductive Tract Infections (RTI). Various
STDs are as follows
Syphilis
Caused by bacterium freponema
pallidium which grow and multipy in
warm, moist area of reproductive
tract, causes skin lesions, swollen
joints, heart trouble, etc.

Trichomoniasis Gonorrhoea
Caused by protozoan Trichomonas Caused by bacterium Neisseria
vaginalis causes vaginitis, foul gonorrhoea and mainly affect
smeling and burning sensation in STDS womens causes pain around
females. Causes urethritis genitalia pus-containing
epididymitis and prostatis in males. discharge, erc.

Chlamydiasis Genital Herpes

Caused by bacterium Chlamydia
trachomatis causes inflammation
of fallopian tubes cervicities,
mucopurulent, epididymitis
urethritis, etc.
Caused by Herpes simplex virus
causes vesiculopustular lesions
ulcers over external genitlia, vaginal
discharge, elc.

Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

It is a fluid transmitted disease with possibility of transmission through body fluids like
blood, semen, etc.
As sexual intercourse is the best suitable mode of fluid transmission that's why it is
misleaded to be one of the STDs. Its other transmission modes include blood transfusion,
use of same syringes and needles, etc. It is caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus
(HIV), which damages the immune system, causes weights loss, nausea, headache, rashes,
pharyngitis, etc.
8
Systems of
Human Body
Human body is chemically composed of various elements on the basis of mass
composition or atomic composition.
The adult human body is approximately 57% water. Maximum mass of the human body is
Oxygen, but most of the atoms in the human body are of hydrogen.
On the basis of mass, 99% of human body is composed of six elements namely
(Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus, arranged in decreasing
order of percentage), O.85% of five elements (potassium, sulphur, sodium, chlorine and
magnesium) and the rest of the elements are trace elements (fluorine etc). These are
essential elements in living organisms that play many necessary roles in sustaining life
and good health maintenance.
A human body is comprised of numerous separate but interconnected systems. These
systems include the digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, excretory
system, skeletal system, nervous system and endocrine system.
All these different systems are anyhow dependent on each other for their proper and
static functioning in the body. e.g
The circulatory system relies on the respiratory system for the delivery of oxygen and
the respiratory system in turn is relied on the muscular system for inspiration and
expiration. The immune system also relies on the circulatory system for movement of
cells providing immune function. Thus, in this way all the systems are dependent on the
circulation for nutrients and on the nervous system for regulatory control like this, there
are many more instances which show that how systems are interconnected. Only it is
important to know the positioning of the organs in each body system because the location
of an organ often relates directly to its function and its relationship with the organ
around it.
8(a)
Humann
Digestive System
Biomacromolecules which we consume in our food are not directly utilised by our body
in its original form. us, they are subjected to a process called digestion and the system
that helps in complete process of digestion by mechanical and biochemical methods is
called digestive system.
The human digestive system consists of various parts (organs and glands) that are
concerned with the uptake, digestion and elimination of indigestible remains of food
from the body.
Human alimentary canal and its associated glands are shown in the figure below

Oral cavity
Parotid gland
Mouth
Pharynx
Submaxillary and
sublingual glands
-
Oesophagus
Liver
Gall bladder- Stomach

Duodenum -
Pancreas

Transverse colon -
Jejunum
Ascending colon -Descending
lleum- Colon
Caecum
Rectum
Vermiform appendix-
Anus

Human Digestive System

 Eneyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
510

Alimentary Canal
The alimentary canal in human beings is a long tube (about 8 to 10 metres in length)
which begins with an anterior opening ie., mouth and ends posteriorly through the anus.
The various parts associated with the alimentary canal are as follows
1. Mouth
It is a transverse slit bounded by two soft, movable lips which are covered with skin on
the outer side and lined with mucous membrane on the inner side.
2. Vestibule
Mouth mainly leads to vestibule which is a narrow space enclosed between the lips and
cheeks externally and the gums and teeth internally. Its lining contains mucous glands.

3. Buccal Cavity
It is bounded by lips and cheeks. It contains teeth, tongue and salivary glands. Mouth
(buccal) passes through both the jaws. The uppermost portion of the buccal (mouth} cavity
is called palate. The upper and lower jaws of the buccal cavity consist of two separate
sequences of teeth.
Teeth
These are hard structures present in the mouth and both the jaws (iLe., upper and lower
jaw). Each tooth is embedded in a socket of jaw bone. A tooth consists of 3 major parts,
namely crown (upper part), neck (middle part) and root (lower part).
Various types of teeth are present in different animal groups as given below
Homodont
the teeth are of
All
Monophyodont
Acrodont same type, e.g, isiE
Appear once in lifetime,
Attached to the e.g., 3rd molar and all
crest of bone, e.g., snake.
premolars of humans.
On the Types On the
Pleurodont basis o
basis Diphyodont
or of their
their
Attached to the t
atachment Teeth appearance Appear twice in lifetime, e.g.
median side of incisors, camines,
the bone, e.g., Lizard. s
second molars of humans.

Thecodont Heterodont Polyphyodont

Attached to the bony Different types of Appear many times in lifetime,
SOcket, e.g.. alligator. teeth are present, e.g., in most lower vertebrates.
e.g., humans.

In human beings, the number of teeth present is 32,16 teeth present in each jaw. The half
teeth of the jaw is towards left while the rest half is towards right. Arrangement of these
teeth include two incisors, one canine, two premolars and three molars on each side
(half)
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
511

Incisors
1
Canine 3
Premolars 4

Molars >Socket of jaw

Arrangement types of teeth in the jaws on one side

of different
and the sockets on the other side in humans
Each of the tooth is specialised to perform a particular function. The main function of
teeth is to perform physical digestion.
(a) Incisors are outer mostly forward, flatten and extremely sharp, which help in biting
or cutting the food.
(b) Canines are sharply pointed which crack and split or tear the food.
C) Premolars and molars, crush, grind and chew food smoothly.

Dental Formula
The number and kinds of teeth in mammals are represented by an equation, called dental
formula. Since two halves of each jaw are identical, the teeth of only one side are
ICPmM
considered in the equation. Dental formula can be represented as below =
ICPmM
= =
where, I= Incisors, C=Canine, Pm Premolars, M Molars
2123
The total number of teeth = Number of teeth in dental formula x 2 = x2(Man).
2123

-x2-
Terms Related to Teeth
Enamel The outermost, shining layer in the crown region is called enamel. It
is the hardest substance in the human body.
Cement Layer The outermost layer in the neck and root region is called
cement layer.
Pulp Cavity A cavity in the centre of the tooth containing pulp (mass of cells,
blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves) is called pulp cavity.
Dentine The layer made up of hard ivory like substance, which surrounds the
pulp cavity is called dentine.

4. Tongue
It is a highly muscular organ containing voluntary Bitter
muscles attached to the floor of buccal cavity with the help
Sour
of a connective tissue (frenulum linguae). Taste zones
There are taste buds present on the tongue to realise thee sweet -Salt
nature of the food like sweet, bitter, salt and sour.
Apex of Tongue
 Eneyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
512

Functions The tongue helps in tasting and swallowing of food. It also helps in the
process of speech and masticating the food by mixing saliva in it.

Everyday Science
Women have in general more taste buds than men.
The blue whale has the largest tongue of all animals, i.e, about 2.7 metric tonne.
Dogs and cats often use their tongue to clean their fur and body removing oil and parasites.
85% of the population can curl their tongue into a tube.
Chillies and other spicy ingredients in food cause its hotness because of a substance
called capsaicin. he human tongue has many nerve endings called receptors that detect
I

different tastes like sweet, bitter, sour and salty. One kind of receptors detects how warmm
the food is. Capsaicin irritates this receptor, causing the tongue to feel hot. Birds like
parrots do not have the capsaicin-sensitive receptor on their tongues, that's why they
enjoy chilies so much.

5. Pharynx
It is small (12 cm long) vertical canal beyond the soft palate of the oral cavity. It acts as a
common passage for both air and food, ie., it communicates with both oesophagus and
treachea. During swallowing of food, trachea is covered by epiglottis (a cartilagenous flap
or lid) to prevent the entry of food into treachea (wind pipe).
6. Oesophagus
It is a thin, long highly muscular and purely conducting (23 to 27 cm long) tube. It opens in
stomach. Its opening is called gullet and carries food to it. The secretion of fluid from the
mucous glands present in the wall of oesophagus helps in the forward movement of food.
A muscular gastro-oesophageal sphincter regulates the opening of oesophagus into the
stomach.
Function It transfers food from the pharynx to the stomach.
7. Stomach
It is the widest organ and the most dilated organ of the alimentary canal. The stomach is
J-shaped organ which churns, breaks up food and mix the pieces with gastric juice
include enzymes like renin, pepsin and HC).
The inner lining of stomach secretes various components like mucous, hydrochloric acid
and digestive juices. The mucous lining of stomach protects it from the acidic
environment and allow it to work firmly.
Stomach has three major parts as given below
(a) Cardiac stomach, the upper por tion into which the oesophagus opens.
(b) Fundic stomach, the middle portion
c) Pyrolic stomach, the lower portion Everyday Science
which opens into the first part of smal
intestine, ie., duodenum. The terminal Human stomach cannot digest cellulose
pyrolus part of stomach (ie., opening of containing food such as raw grasses,
leaves because humans lack ernzymes.
stomach into duodenum) is guarded by
a pyrolic sphincter The stomach of an adult can hold 1.5 L of
material.
Functions The living of human stomach is
(i) It acts as a short term reservoir of food replaced every 36 hrs.
(i) Food become liquified in the stomach The stomach can breakdown goat milk
before being released into the small faster than cow milk.
intestine.
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
513
8. Intestine
Small Intestine It is the longest part of the alimentary canal. It is about 6 metres long.
t is divisible into three main parts as
() Duodenum It is U-shaped, about 25 cm long and is the widest part of the small
intestine.
(ii) Jejunum It has a diameter of about 4 cm. It is the middle part of the small intestine
and is about 2.5 metres long
11) leum It is the last part with diameter around 3.5 cm. Its wall is thinner than that of
the jejunum. It is the longest part of small intestine. Ileum opens into the colon of
large intestine.
Functions Small intestine completes digestion of components like proteins,
carbohydrates, nucleic acid and fats. Thus, acts as a major site in digestion of food. It
absorbs nutrients into the blood and lymph and also helps in absorption of fats.
Villi and Microvilli
The surface of small intestine incorporates important features that accounts for its
huge absorptive surface area. These are
vVilli The inner mucosa layer of small intestine has villi (about 1 mm in height),
covered with columnar epithelial cells.
Microvilli Numerous micorscopic projections of microvilli are produced by
the cell lining of villi. These microvilli gives it a brush border appearance and
enormousIy increase the surtace area of the intestine.

Large Intestine Although it is shorter, but its diameter is larger than that of the small
intestine thus, it is known as large intestine. It is about 1.5 metres long and is divisible into
three main part as
() Caecum It is a small pouch like structure of about 6 cm. It also has an outgrowth
known as vermiform appendix, which is slightly coiled tube of about 8 cm long.
(11)
Colon The caecum part leads into the colon. The colon has three main parts as
ascending, transverse and descending part.
ii) Rectum The descending portion of colon leads into the rectum which is the last part
of the intestine. Rectum is of about 20 cm in length and opens into the anus.
Functions The absorption of water and nutrients and elimination of solid wastes takes
place mainly in large intestine.

Digestive Glands
To bring about the simplification of conmplex food molecules chemically, secretion of
digestive juices take place by different glands.
These are as follows

i) Salivary or Mouth Watering Glands

These are exocrine glands which discharge
their secretion into the oral cavity. In
man, Everyday Science_
there are three pairs of salivary glands; Our mouth becomes watery, when
parotid, sublingual and submandibular we smell food or something we like
8lands. the most, due to the secretion of
salivary glands.
The fluids secreted by the salivary glands Our salivary gland produces about
constitute saliva, which is a slightly acidic 1.5 L saliva each day.
 Eneyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE
514
fluid (pH 6.8). Saliva is mainly a mixture of water, electrolytes (Na", K", Cr, HCO3)
derived from blood plasma, mucous, serum fluids, and ernzyme, i.e., salivary amylase or
ptyalin and lysozyme (antibacterial agent).

i) Gastric Glands
Glands of stomach are called gastric glands. These are numerous microscopic, tubular
glands formed by the epithelium of the stomach.
Gastric glands have three major types of cells
(a) Chief cells or peptic cells which secrete inactive precursors of gastric enzymes.
(b) Oxyntic cells secrete hydrochloric acid.
c) Mucous cells or Goblet cells secrete alkaline null cells.
The secretions from these cells form gastric juiee with pH 1.5-2.5 (very acidic). The gastric
juice contains two proenzymes, ie., pepsinogen (propepsin) and prorennin and the
enzymes gastric lipase gastrie amylase, mucous and hydrochloric acid.
In human body, about 2000-3000 mL of gastric juice is secreted per day.

(ii) Liver
It is the largest gland of the body, that lies in the upper right side of the abdominal cavity
just below the diaphragm. It is heavier in males (i.e., about 1.4-1.8 kg) as compared to
females (about 1.2-1.5 kg).
Internally, the structural and functional units of liver are the hepatic lobules (containing
hepatic cells arranged in the form of cords). Each lobule is covered bya thin connective
tissue sheath called the Glisson's capsule. Fat storage cells are also present in liver.
Functions of Liver
Functions performed by liver are as follows
Production of Bile The liver secretes bile juice (hepatic bile pH 8.6). The bile is
stored in the gall bladder (gall bladder bile pH 7.6). About 500-1000 mL of bile is
secreted by liver in a day.
Glycogenesis It is the conversion of the excess of glucose into glycogen by liver
cells with the help of insulin secreted by the panereas.
Deamination It is a process by which the amino group (-NH2) is removed from
the amino acids resulting in the production of ammonia, which is converted into
urea.
Excretion Waste products and bile pigments reach the duodenum through bile
and pass out with faeces.
Glycogenolysis It is the conversion of glycogen into glucose by the liver cells with
the help of insulin secreted by the pancreas.
Haemopoiesis The process of formation of blood corpuscles is called haemopoiesis
Secretion of Heparin Liver also secretes heparin (an anticoagulant of blood).
Secretion of Enzymes Liver secretes certain enzymes which play an important
role in the metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates in the body.
Synthesis of Vitamin Liver synthesises vitamin-A from B-carotene.
Storage Liver stores glycogen, fats, vitamins (C and D), bile, blood, water, iron,
Copper and potassium.
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
515

Gall Bladder
The small muscular sac-like organ situated just below the liver is called gali bladde.
The duct of gall bladder (cystic duct) aong with the hepatic duct from a common bile
duct that regulates the flow of bile into the gall bladder from the liver.
Function it stores bile temporarily and also helps in making bile more concentrated
but does not produce bile.

iv) Pancreas
It is a soft, lobuled, greyish-pink gland which weighs about 60 grams. It is about 2-5 cm
wide and 12-15 cm long, located posterior to the stomach in the abdominal cavity, ie.,
between stomach and duodenum.
As it is a mixed gland, the exocrine portion of pancreas secretes an alkaline pancreatic
juice (containing enzymes and hormones) while, the endocrine part of the pancreas
consists of group of cells known as Islets of Langerhans, which secrete hormones to be
passed into the circulating blood, i.e., însulin and glycogen

(v) Intestinal Glands

Apart from the above mentioned glands involved in the process of digestion, intestinal
glands are also present in the walls of srnall intestine called intestinal glands which
secretes intestinal juice (containing lipolytic, proteolytic and amylolytic enzymes)
commonly called as succus entericus.

Mechanism of Digestion of Food

Utilisation of fooc in humans involves five processes namely ingestion, digestion,
absorption, assimilation and egestion.
Ingestion is the process of taking food in solicl or liquid form into the mouth. Digestion
involves the conversion of complex food components into the simpler one by the action
of various enzymes. The process of digestion begins in the mouth and gets completed in
the small intestine.
Absorption helps to take up the digested food by the cellular components of the body.
All the digested food is taken up by the walls of intestinal villi present in the small
intestine and lacteals (small lymph capillary found in villi in the small intestine). They
increases the surface area and helps in the absorption of digested food.

Summary of Absorption in Different Parts of Digestive System

Mouth
Certain drugs coming in contact with the mucosa of mouth and lower side of the tongue
are absorbed into the blood capillaries lining them
Stomach
Absorption of water, simple sugars and alcohol, etc., take place
Small Intestine
Principal organ for absorption of nutrients. The digestion is completed here and the final
products of digestion such as glucose, fructose, fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids are
absorbed through the mucosa, into the blood stream and lymph.
516
Large Intestine
. Eneyclopedia 0F GENERAL SCIENCE

Absorption of water, some minerals and drugs takes place.

Assimilation is the process of distribution of digested food throughout the body and
egestion refers to the elimination of undigested food formed in the umen of large
intestine (colon and rectum) through anus. The unabsorbed food is sent into
large intestine where more villi absorb water from this material.
Peristalsis gradually pushes the undigested food fram small intestine to large intestine.
The remaining material after reabsorption of water and ions is removed from the body
through the anus.
Peristalsis
It is the necessary event of the digestive process because it is essential to move
the semi-digested food in a regulated manner along the whole digestive tube. The
lining of the alimentary canal has muscles which contract rhythmically all along
the gut, lt occurs in oesophagus when food moves into stomach, when from
stomach food moves into small intestine, which in turn pushes food into large
intestine and then to colon and finally into the rectum and anus

Everyday Science
We sometimes hear the noises in the stomach during digestion of food because of
contraction of stomach muscles which more food and gastric juices through the
gastroin testinal tract.
v Eating heavy food at night before sleeping is not suggestable because by doing this,
during sleep the digestive functions slow down and blood is directed from brain to
digestion of food, which leads to poor sleep qualty and many other diseases.

Disorders of Digestive System

Some common disorders that lead to the malfunctioning of digestive system are as follows

Digestive Disorders, their Causes and Symptoms

Disorders Condition Causes Symptoms
Jaundice Due to increased acCumulation of bile Due to malfunctioning of Skin and white portion
pigments they begin to excrete liver of eye becomes yellow.
********
tnrougn other parts of body. --***

Diarrhoea Condition of abnormal frequency of Irritation in the lining of Cramps, headache,

bowel movement and increased stomach due to virus, or loss of appetite,
liquidity of taeces. bacterial infection nausea and vomiting
slightly watery stools

Vomiting Forceful ejection of harmful contents Intection, allergy Sweating, nausea etc
of stomach through mouth. overeating food poisoning
Constipation Condition of difficult or irregular Disruption of regular diet Cramps,pain, vomiting
detacation during which faeces are inadequate water and diticuty
having bowel
retained within the bladder fora Tiber intake, eating more movement, swelling
longer time than normal dairy products etc.
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