11 03 07 Johnbenemann

University of British Columbia,
Department of Chemical Engineering

Vancouver, BC, 3 PM, March 7, 2011
Can we Save the World

with Algae?
John R. Benemann,
Consultant, Benemann Associates
jbenemann@aol.com
1
Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Abstract: Can we Save the World with Algae?
In the past ~3 years, >$2 billion has been invested in microalgae
biofuels, by venture capital, governments, energy companies …
ExxonMobil (with Synthetic Genomics) $600 million, 5 year R&D
effort in the algae biofuels "space“ (+ ~$100? million TV advert.)
The U.S. Federal Govt. (mainly Dept. Energy) spent almost as
much on R&D consortia, pilot & demonstration projects...The
US Dept. Defense is purchasing ~1 million liters algae jet fuel.
Scores of well funded projects are underway around the world,
including in Canada, with hundreds of start-up and academic
R&D projects, promising algae oil, jetfuel, ethanol; soon, shortly
Algae production can use flue gas CO2 and simple open ponds
or complex closed photobioreactors, even sugar fermentations,
cultivating “native” algae or genetically modified (GMA) strains.
This talk reviews the science, the technology, the hype and the
hope of this field, and the sustainability of microalgae biofuels.
2

“The year was 1975, and my
professor in Berkeley asked
me if I wanted to change the
world, and I said, sure, lets
grow algae, that started it…”
ExxonMobil 30 sec TV spot, 2010 Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

4
5
“The algae (cyanobacteria) will
[be genetically modified to]
secrete hydrocarbon fuels …”
6
An introductory quotation
Nihil vilior alga

(nothing is more worthless
than algae)
Virgil, 90 BC-17 BC
7
Roman Poet Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011
Algae: non-vascular plants, which include the
Macro- (Seaweeds) and Micro- (Pond Scum) Algae
Today only microalgae, Roesjadi, Copping,
for seaweeds see: Huesemann, Forster,
and Benemann, 2008
“Techno-Economic
Feasibility Analysis of
Offshore Seaweed
Farming for Bioenergy
and Biobased
Products” Report by
the Pacific Northwest
Laboratory 8
California Kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011
9

Conceptual “Ocean Energy Farm” (1975)
10

today I talk only about planktonic microalgae
Cyanobacteria
11

Another Introductory Quote
“...on the arid lands ... forests
of glass tubes will extend ...
inside of these will take place
the photochemical processes
in [which] the guarded secret of
plants, mastered by human
industry, will ... make them bear
even more abundant fruit than
nature” Science 36: 385, 1912
Prof. Giacomo Ciamician,
Electrochemist, University Bologna 12

An alternative technology view
Grow edible microscopic

organisms in lakes. Every lake will
become a kettle of ready-made
soup that only needs be heated.
Contented people will lie about on
the shores having dinner.”
from Took - The Futurists Drum.
Velimir Khlebnikov
Moscow, 1915
1885 -1922
(poet and futurist) 13

A Contrarian Economists View
“…an economy based only
on solar energy would have
to rely on the natural
costless way of harnessing
that energy, which means
an intensive utilization of
wood … and possibly, but
at this moment debatably of
algae” (1976)
Georgescu-Roegen, 1906 – 1994, author of ‘The
Entropy Law and the Economic Process’ 1971 and
14
a founding father of “ecological economics”
Peak Phosphate
Fertilizer?
Something Georgescu-
Roegens worried about
From The Sunday
Times (London) June
23, 2008 “Scientists
warn of lack of vital
phosphorus as
biofuels raise demand”
Scientific American, 6/2009 “Phosphorus Famine:
Threat to Our Food Supply …we must act now to
conserve it, or future agriculture could collapse…”
Biofuels Digest, March 4, 2011, “Peak Phosphorous:
is there enough for biofuels at scale?
15
See also http://phosphorusfutures.net/peak-phosphorus
Why do we need v
Biofuels?
(billions barrels petroleum/year)
?
Discovery Demand
?
Supply?
Demand and supply will soon diverge drastically

Peak Oil is end of cheap Oil 16

17

WHY DO WE WANT MICROALGAE BIOFUELS?
• Global Warming – must make major greenhouse gas reductions
• “Peak Oil” (the end of cheap oil), rising prices, supply security
Aviation industry, Department of Defense, other stakeholders…
• Environmental issues of fossil fuels other than greenhouse gases
• 1st Generation Biofuels (ethanol from corn/cane ethanol, biodiesel
from soybean/ palm oil) have issues: “Food vs. Fuel” “indirect land
change” (Same also for sugar Æ”designer fuels” technologies),
• 2nd Generation Biofuels are lagging, badly (ethanol, other liquid
fuels from lignocellulosic biomass, enzymatic or thermochemical).
• 3rd Generation Biofuels (jatropha, algae, etc.) appear attractive
because even less is known about them then for 2nd generation,
allowing for an fanciful “extrapolations” andBenemann,
incredibleUBC,
hype. Next
18
March 7, 2011
19

Not only hype but also wrong –
algae still produced O2, process 20
not as advertised, not practical Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011
Microalgae biotech could be a huge source of H2 fuel
Jae Edmonds, World Industrial Biotech Congress, 2004
400 Regardless of being wrong and not
Biomass working as advertised, the hype
350 was incredible: in 50 years algae H2
Electrolysis
300 Coal would be our main energy source
Gas
250 Oil
EJ/year
Biotechnology
200
150
100
50 Direct biological
production of H2.
0
21
1990 2005 2020 2035 2050 2065 2080 2095
I had some insight
into this affair: as the
initiator of the idea,
I was the patent but
not the publication, it
was just plain wrong
22

But then interest shifted from H2 to biodiesel.
WHY? HIGH YIELDS – projected high yields that is
Biodiesel yields liters/ha-yr barrels/acre-yr
Soybeans 400 1
Sunflower 800 2
Mustard 1,600 4
Jathropha 2,000 5
Palm Oil 6,000 15
Microalgae 50,000*-250,000 120- 600
*maximum possible long-term yield, above that is just fantasy –
no actual yields currently available, but are essentially zero…23
GreenFuel Technologies, Inc. -start of algae
Roof of MIT at Campus power plant. Claimed that biofuels
their PBRs captured 85% NOx & 50% CO2, and oil hype
produced biodiesel at >250,000 l/ha-yr (!). Lot of in 2006
PR… sold “technology licenses”, then tested at an
Arizona coal-fired power plant (photoshop!). First
algae did not grow, then could not harvest, then
ran away, went broke May 2009, $70 million loss
24

First algal mass culture
Inoculum Tubes
project (for Chlorella)
Plastic bag-type
photobioreactors
(PBRs)
Roof of MIT Building~ 1950

(GreenFuel Technologies not the first to do this!!)
25

Algae mass culture was first investigated over fifty years ago
Carnegie Institute of Washington Algae for Food Project
Jack Myers They did the first MIT Bessel Kok
rooftop experiments
2006, Austin, Tx 1956, Stanford
Burlew (ed.) Algae Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant, 1953

26

The work of these pioneers already identified
THE KEY ISSUES IN MICROALGAE CULTIVATION
• Production technology: Ponds vs. photobioreactors
(note: I neglect sugars fermentations Æ oil using algae -
a heterotrophic process, competes with yeast or bacteria)
• Productivity: solar conversion efficiency liters oil/ha-yr,
how to maximize oil, or other fuels, or biomass outputs?
• CO2 sources, supply, transfer, outgasing (a dismal topic)
• Mixing – why mix, how much to mix, what energy input?
• Harvesting – how, costs (< 500 ppm, <50 micron cells)
• Processing – how to extract /recover oil (or other fuels)
• Cultivation – selected strains, grazers, weed algae, etc. 27

40 ha design based on 1950’s MIT rooftop plant
Fisher (1956), A.D. Little Co. carried out an engineering

design-cost estimate for a 40 hectare system of plastic
tubes estimating (2008 $) capital cost >$1.25 million/ha
Still pretty close to what we estimate now (best case) 28

Popular Science 2007: Solix Biofuels (photoshop)
the iconic picture of algae biofuels!
29

Solix Pilot Plant, 2010, in Colorado
Now hanging bags in pool, such PBRS need many valves, connections, etc.
30

Many companies around world using PBR for PR to show they are
capturing CO2. Total nonsense.. Here is another problem: how to clean
E.on- Hamburg, Germany (Subitec PBR)
31

RWE, Germany, hanging bags PBR to capture CO2
from a coal-fired power plant - would need 100
million such bags!
32

There are scores, hundreds, such examples worldwide
Latest entry: Joule Unlimited, Cambridge MA
(“pilot plant” in Texas) – Claim 150,000 l/ha-yr, with
genetically modified cyanobacteria excreting oil [see later]
33

U.C. Berkeley, Richmond Field Station,
Sanitary Engineering Research Lab. ca 1976
1st use paddle-wheels for mixing large ponds
34

Prof. W.J. Oswald pioneer of high rate ponds
(HRP) for wastewater treatment and biofuels
production (paddle wheel mixed pilot-scale
ponds at UC Berkeley Engineering Lab 1976) 35

Cyanotech Co.
Open, raceway
ponds, algae
plant in Hawaii.
Red ponds for
Haematococcus
pluvialis for
astaxanthin.
others Spirulina
NOTE red ponds
source of oil
used in airline
test flight 2009
36

Commercial microalgae production
(Earthrise in S. California, near Salton Sea]
37

Parry Nutraceuticals, Spirulina Producer, India
38

Commercial successes : autotrophic (light + CO2)
microalgae species produced commercially
(world production ~10,000 t, ~99% in ponds)
39

Algal wastewater treatment with “high rate” ponds
Use so-called “high-rate

ponds” (raceway,
paddle wheel mixed)
clean-up wastewaters,
reclaim nutrients (N, P)
and produce biofuels. 40

Open ponds only option for algal biofuels
production (or wastewater
treatment, even for higher
value products).
One Question:
how large can
we make a
single pond?
2 ha? 4 ha? ?? Paddle wheel
Design specs:
25-35 cm deep
20-30 cm/sec mix
Dilute 20-40%/d
~7.5-8.5 pH range
41

This paper was in response to many claims that closed
PBRs are superior to open ponds. Pointed out some of
the problems faced by both open ponds and closed PBRs.
Neither has clear advantage, except lower costs of ponds
42

Power required to mix high rate ponds
43

Paddle wheels for mixing high rate ponds.
(Mixing below 30 cm/sec to minimizes energy use)
44

AQUATIC SPECIES PROGRAM : ROSWELL, NEW MEXICO 1990
po n d
u nl i ned
po nd Å
Å li ned
ÅCO2 injection
Å Inoculum pond 50m2
Joseph Weissman., P.I.,
David Tillett, Ray Goebel
Microbial Products, Inc
Two 0.25 acre ponds, one lined and one unlined
Demonstrated key engineering and biological
parameters in algal mass cultures, such as mixing
gas transfer, CO2 utilization/losses, liners vs. dirt,
culture productivity & stability, strain selection....
45

46
Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011b

J. Sheehan,
P. Roessler,
T. Dunahay,
J. Weissman
J. Benemann
(Principal
Investigator)
Paul Roessler now

at Synthetic Genomics
(funded by ExxonMobil) 47
USA Aquatic Species
Production Program : Oil
of Microalgae forfrom Algae
Fuels
Conception of microalgae biodiesel production Aquatic Species Program,
U.S. DOE NREL 1987. Note raceway growth and settling-harvesting ponds
48

Techno-economic studies of open pond algae
production suggest low costs –energy possible
Benemann, J., P. Pursoff, & W.J. Oswald, 1978. Engineering Design
and Cost Analysis of a Large-Scale Microalgae Biomass System,
Final Report US DOE. NTIS #H CP/T1605-01UC-61 (for methane only)
Benemann, J., B. Koopman, D. Eisenberg, and J. Weissman, 1978 The
Photosynthetic Energy Factory (for municipal wastewater treatment)
Benemann, J., R. Goebel, J. Weissman, & D. Augenstein 1982.
Microalgae as a source of liquid fuels. U.S.Dep. Energy (for algae oil)
Benemann, J. & W. Oswald 1996, Systems and economic analysis of
microalgae ponds for conversion of CO2 to biomass. Report to US
DOE-NETL (algae oil produced using CO2 from coal-fired power plants)
Lundquist, T., I. Woertz, N. Quinn and J. Benemann, 2010 “A realistic
Technology and Engineering Assessment of Algae Biofuel
Production”, Energy Biosciences Inst., U.C. Berkeley (all the above)
Conclusion: algae biofuels maybe possible but only with very high
productivities, and many favorable process / Benemann,
location assumptions
49
UBC, March 7, 2011

Basic Schematic of Algae Biofuels Production
showing alternative inputs and output products, scenarios
INPUTS to atmosphere Water OUTPUTS
H2O CO2 O2 recycle
Flue gas
or other CO2
nutrients Clarifiers
(Wastes)water Raceway Ponds (bioflocculation)
Seed culture
Recycle C,
Nutrients CO2 Internal Blow
other wastes Anaerobic use down
CH4 power Thickeners
(optional) Digester plant (optional)
Waste biomass
Biomass
electricity To Grid
Processing – Algal Biomass
Oil extraction Algal oil (to biodiesel or refinery)
Co-products (feeds, chemicals...)
Note: Schematic does not include genetically modifying algae to excrete
50
hydrocarbons, or ethanol, acting as catalysts and needing no harvesting,
processing, nutrients, etc. (ExxonMobil, Sapphire, etc.)
POTENTIAL OF ALGAE FOR COAL POWER PLANT (CCP) FLUE
GAS CO2 CAPTURE FOR GREENHOUSE GAS ABATEMENT
<10% of CCP in climatically favorable areas for algae
<10% of these have >10,000 ha + water for algae ponds
<10% of CO2 could be captured by algae systems (due
to limitations in flue gas transport, day/night-summer
winter differences, transfer and outgasing losses, etc.)
Potential for algae to capture CO2 from CPPs in US
<0.1 x <0.1 x <0.1= <<<0.1%
Conclusion re. abating coal power plant CO2:
ABANDON ALL HOPE
(note: applies also to large natural gas fired power plants) 51

52

Biodiesel Power Plant with CO2 Scrubber,
320 kW output can provide all the CO2 needed
and most (~80%) of power needed
53

Process Schematic
54

55

CO2 Outgasing Transfer Coefficients from
1000 m2 Ponds (Weissman and Tillett, 1990)
Depth Velocity kL Surface Conclusion
cm cm/sec cm/sec Renewal, sec too:
10 10 3.9 x 10-4 150 shallow, slow
10 30 1.4 x 10-3 12 shallow, fast
30 10 2.2 x 10-4 480 deep, slow
30 30 0.8 x 10-3 37 almost right!
Conclusion: Operate ponds 23-35 cm deep,~20-25
cm/sec and pH 7.5-8.5 to prevent excessive CO2
losses. Conclusion: Using CO2 efficiently not a
limiting factor ... but must operate in a narrow range
of parameters. ALSO what about flue gas transfer?? 56

LOWEST COST SYSTEM
Ponds, Christchurch NZ 5 hectares, 4 ponds

Largest algae for biofuels project in world.
Investigator: Dr. Rupert Craggs at UBC,
NIWA
57
Benemann, March 7, 2011

Elsevier, 1980, pp. 457 - 496
58

Commercial Photobioreactor in Germany
59

Algatech Commerical Photobioreactors, Israel
(>250 km of tubes). Plant reported closed for
some time, reopened, now looking at ponds!60
Haematococcus pluvialis, for the red astaxanthin
pigment, for nutritional products, $>20 million/ton!!
61

FUJI Chemicals: BioReal
Astaxanthin Production
Sweden
HAWAII
62

Eni Project (Monterotondo, Italy)
Compared PBRs & ponds using flue gas CO2
63

Photosynthetic
Photosynthetic Efficiencies
Efficiencies in
in the
the Ponds
Ponds and
and
Photobioreactors
Photobioreactors (30%
(30% dilution/day)
dilution/day)
kcal biomass/kcal solar photons (%)
Total moles photons (PAR)/m

20.00 70.00
18.00
16.00
50.00
/day
2
14.00 30.00
12.00
10.00
10.00
-
8.00
6.00 -
4.00
-50.00
2.00
0.00 -70.00
08-Jun 18-Jul 27-Aug 06-Oct 15-Nov
09-Apr 19-May 28-Jun 07-Aug 16-Sep 26-Oct

Tetraselmis time (days)
suecica pond 1 reactor 3 radiation
64

“A new dawn for industrial Photosynthesis”
Joule Unlimited: 150,000 l /ha-yr oil, peer reviewed!
Claims that their genetically engineered cyanobacteria are~5 X better
oil producers than algae grown in ponds, but their analysis is spurious
D. Robert,
S. Jacobson,
F. Morgan,
D. Berry,
G. Church,
& N. Afeyan These
Note log are just
scale made-up
Photosynthe
sis Research
Feb. 13, 2011
Lesson: Can’t
trust even “Peer 65
Reviewed” papers Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION WITH ALGAE CULTURES
US Southwest solar energy ~2 MWhr (~7.2 GJ)/m2-yr
~assume 90% reaches the crop/or algae in pond
~and 45% is PAR (photosynthetic active radiation)
~and 90% photons absorbed by PS pigments, then:
~22% max PS efficiency (photonsÆbiomass energy)
~75% loss to light saturation & photoinhibition
~15% loss to respiration (growth, maintenance)
Calculation (current best, year-round algae culture):
7.2x0.9x0.45x0.9x0.22x0.25x0.85 = 0.12 GJ/m2-yr
~1.7% solar efficiency. ~52 biomass Mg/ha-yr
For @25% oil biomass ~23GJ/Mg, ~13 mt oil/ha-yr
Maximum oil ~15,000 liters/ha-yr (1,600 gal/ac-yr)
near-term technology, ~3X with long-term R&D on
PS efficiency (“antenna size”) & oil biosynthesis, etc.
66

High light grown cells have less
chlorophyll and use high light
more effectively than low light
grown cells. However, algae
cultures must be grown densely.
.
In dense cultures cells

will synthesize more
cholorophyll to absorb
more photons
From Neidhardt, Benemann and Melis, 1997

67
To increase
productivity
Attempts to find mutants with small antenna size for high

productivity resulted in mutants that had desired low
pigment level-small antenna size, but grew slowly, low
A
productivity, will need Genetically Modified Algae (GMA)
WT CM1
CM2 CM1-1
CM3 CM7
WT Mutant 68

However, GMA still work in progress. GMA to excrete oils (such as Joule,
or this paper, claims) maybe OK in laboratory, but can’t be scaled-up
because bacteria will unavoidably make short work of any oil excreted
“
“
January 2010
mutant strains
overproduced
fatty acids
(C10–C18) and
secreted them
into the
medium at an
efficiency of up
to 133 mg⁄L of
culture/day at
a cell density
of ~0.23 g dry
weight/liter).
69

We seem to have a few problems going from 70
lab-scale to full-scale productionBenemann, UBC, March 7, 2011
CHALLENGE OF ALGAE CULTIVATION: WEEDS, GRAZERS
Must manage ponds for algal species & culture stability
71

Resource Limitations to Microalgae Biofuels
• Water – Saline (near sea), Fresh (food competition), brackish (?)
• Nutrients - 5-10% N, 0.3-1% P, very high! must recycle efficiently
• Carbon – CO2 from fossil power plants - sustainable? available?
• Land – Must be nearly flat, clay-type soil (liners are expensive!)
• Climate – “Goldilocks” (not too cold, not too hot, just right).
Water-Nutrients-Carbon-Land-Climate NEED ALL AT SAME SITE!

72

Climatic regions most suitable for microalgae :
annual average temperatures of > 15 °C
73

THE POTENTIAL AND PROMISE OF ALGAE BIOMASS
current feed crops - future algae biomass crops
U.S. Avg. Yield Protein 1,000s Ha Total Protein
CROP Mt/ha-yr Mt/ha-yr Harvested million Mt/yr
CORN GRAIN 5.4 0.52 28,400 23,100
SOYBEAN 1.5 0.58 29,400 28,800
ALGAE 100 50 1,000 50,000
CONCLUSION: Algae grown on 1 million ha could produce 10% of
world animal feed commodities (but ~1% of fuels). We must try to
achieve, at least come as close as we can, this transformative vision
of very high algae biomass productivity for food, feed and maybe
fuels! (But note: crop productivities are real, algae still projections)
74

Each species, even each strain has its own story
11 Division, 29 classes vs. 2/12 vascular plants
30 000 described species (< 10% of estimated)
We must screen, select, improve, domesticate, and
protect algal strains that make what we want at high
productivity – algae cultivation is the challenge
75

Nature already provides what some want to make oil
globs made by the alga Botryococcus braunii
76

1st large batch of microalgae biodiesel produced
Ramin Yazdani (California) with sample of the ~1
barrel B10 algae biodiesel he made in his backyard
refinery from an
Dunaliella salina Take home lesson: the
extract I gave him problem is not making oil
(December 2005)
His car ran just
from algae but making
fine! algae with oil!
77

SOME CONCLUSIONS Re. MICROALGAE BIOFUELS
1. Algae biofuels are possible in principle; but more
long-term (~10 yrs) R&D needed achieve high
productivities required
2. Algae biofuels potential is limited by climate, land,
water, CO2, at one site. Using sea-, brackish- and
waste-waters a positive
3. Use of CO2 from large coal-fired power plants or such,
limited by scale, low fractional use of CO2, need for
land, water, etc.
4. Smaller fossil, non-fossil sources of CO2 (ethanol or
biogas plants, etc.) are possible, and of significant 78
global potential. Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

MORE CONCLUSIONS Re. MICROALGAE BIOFUELS
6. Higher value co-products markets small. Production of
commodity animal feeds not likely to be integrated with
biofuels. Global potential ~1 - ?% of fuels, ~10 - ?% of feeds
7. Some other large-scale microalgae processes maybe
possible: N fertilizer (N2-fixing cyanobacteria) & chemicals.
8. Microalgae grow very fast: one week algae growth = one
higher plant crop season. Thus, R&D can be much faster!
9. Microalgae processes have the potential to achieve very
high biomass yields – BUT requires R&D & demonstration.
10. Producing microalgae biomass using domesticated algae
for various product and applications, in aggregate could
contribute to a future, sustainable economy. 79
(But not save the world) Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011
A CONCLUDING THOUGHT (to save the world)
• “The advantage of biofuels and other solar and

renewable energy sources is that they will be so limited,
and so expensive that we will need to use them very
frugally instead of wasting them wantonly, like we do now
with fossil fuels or will with nuclear energy”
80

THANK YOU!
ANY QUESTIONS?
81

11 03 07 Johnbenemann

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

11 03 07 Johnbenemann

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

University of British Columbia,

Department of Chemical Engineering

Can we Save the World

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

ExxonMobil 30 sec TV spot, 2010 Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Nihil vilior alga

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Grow edible microscopic

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Demand and supply will soon diverge drastically

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Roof of MIT Building~ 1950

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Burlew (ed.) Algae Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant, 1953

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Fisher (1956), A.D. Little Co. carried out an engineering

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Use so-called “high-rate

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011b

Paul Roessler now

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Ponds, Christchurch NZ 5 hectares, 4 ponds

Benemann, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Benemann, UBC, March 7, 2011

Total moles photons (PAR)/m

08-Jun 18-Jul 27-Aug 06-Oct 15-Nov