Tecronophysics, 113 (1985) 123-137 123

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

GRAVITY STUDY OF THE WHITE NILE RIFT, SUDAN, AND ITS REGIONAL
TECTONIC SEITING

SE. BROWNE *, J.D. FAIRHEAD and 1.1. MOHAMED **

Department of Earth Sciences, The Universiiy of beak, Leeds L.S2 9JT (Great Britain)

(Received March 13, 1984; revised version accepted September 20, 1984)

ABSTRACT

Browne, S.E., Fairhead, J.D. and Mohamed, 1.1. 1984. Gravity study of the White Nile Rift, Sudan and its
regional tectonic setting. Tecronophysics, 113: 123-137.

A compilation of 675 Bouguer gravity values for central Sudan show the presence of a series of linked
gravity minima of approximately 40 km width and amplitude 200-300 g.u. to the east and north of the
Nuba Mountains. These anomalies are interpreted as delineating the low-density sedimentary infill of the
White Nile Rift. A broader 150 km wide positive Bouguer anomaly of amplitude less than 300 g.u. is
centred over the Rift in the southern part of the study area and is interpreted in terms of a thinned crust
beneath the Rift. Such a model is consistent with the subsidence nature of the Rift. The White Nile Rift is
similar in tectonic character to the Southern Sudan Rift and the Blue Nile and Atbara fault controlled
basins in that these Cretaceous/Tertiary structures all follow similar structural trends and terminate in
line at their northwest end. This termination is considered to be caused by a structural lineament, possibly
a shear zone, extending the Central African shear zone through Sudan. The form of the lineament is
unknown but is considered to have had a major structural control on the development of deep
sedimentary basins in Sudan since Cretaceous times and on the development of the Red Sea.

INTRODUCTION

For some years it has been recognised that the extensive Tertiary to Quaternary
sediments which cover much of southern Sudan conceal extensive basins. In
1966-1967 the Geological and Mineral Resources Department, Khartoum, under-
took a gravity survey of the Bara region (Fig. 1) which indicated the presence of a
fault-bounded depression (Mitwalli, 1969). This area received further study in the
course of groundwater research by Kbattab (1975) and Ali and Whiteley (1981). To
the southeast, in the region centred on Galhak (Fig. 2), Strojexport (1977), working
for the Rural Water Corporation, Khartoum, discovered a series of basins along the
White Nile Valley. Hydrocarbon exploration was initiated in southwest Sudan in

l Present address: B.P. Pet. & Dev., Brittanic House, Moor Lane, London EC 2Y 9BU (U.K.).
** Present address: Geological and Min. Res. Dept., P.O. Box 410, Khartoum, Sudan.

0040-1951/85/$03.30 0 1985 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

124

LEGEND

YOUNGER SEDIMENTS
i

a NUBIAN SANDSTONE

EXTRUSIVE ROCKS
m

i BASEMEN1 CDMPL EX

- INTERNATIONAL EOlJNOAf

---- FAiJLT
- WATER COURSE
I OIL DfSCOVERlES

* EARTNQUAKES
wtfh year
-

/ / I I C
3 26 30 34 38

Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of Sudan showing the location of the study area. oil discoveries to the
end of 1982 and recent earthquakes. (Geology after: Geology Map of the Sudan, 1981, Ministry of Energy
of Mines, Khartoum.)
 125

1975 by Chevron Overseas Petroleum Inc. who carried out aeromagnetic, and gravity
surveys to delineate a major fault bounded series of sedimentary basins striking
southeast from Nyala (Fig. 1). These basins are collectively called here the Southern
Sudan Rift (Adamson and Williams, 1980; Flege, 1982; Browne and Fairhead,
1983). Following Chevron’s successful search for hydrocarbons in the Southern
Sudan Rift, they extended their hydrocarbon search into the Melut concession block
along the White Nile and discovered oil at Adar (Fig. 2) in 1981 (Nicod, 1983).

14 .,I_ ,...
‘:.

._,.. -, . . .

13-

__

12 _
BLUE NILE

_‘.
,:. . .
. .
., .
‘.. .

0 :, ‘.

. ..
0
‘-..A 1 SOUTHERN KQRDOFAN : ‘. ; .‘!‘,/I .: _‘: ‘,

/
ll-

a-J
.
. .

101
30

cl q q
Easement NabV.3 -:; Granitic “mm&w&a :::i:;ziiii’Ge_~;,-a
::::_:.:.:I:;:
Complex Formation :.:.: Intrusions _‘. ‘,. Form&ion
G ;iii:;::;:;;Formation

/’ 20 0 20 40 60Km
- Fau1t Geological Boundary . Oil Well h Earthquake

Fig. 2. Geology map of study area showing Province boundaries, oil discoveries and recent earthquakes,
126

Figure 1 shows the locations of oil discoveries to the end of 1982 (Nicod. 1983).
This study brings together the gravity data of Mitwalli (1969), Strojexport (1977)
and Chevron (Melut concession block, unpublished) with part of the regional gravity
survey made by the University of Leeds for the area extending from 30”E to 34”E
and from 1O”N to 14”N. The Bouguer anomaly map for this area shows a succession
of linked, negative anomalies which are interpreted as delineating an elongate, fault
bounded series of sedimentary basins which we term the White Nile Rift. This study
investigates the crustal structure of this Rift and considers its regional tectonic
setting.

GEOLOGY

The geology map (Fig. 2) is dominated by a swath of sediments which blanket the
broad, flat plain of the White Nile Valley and sweep to the northwest from Renk
and Kosti towards Bara. The Basement Complex, which outcrops on either side of
the White Nile Valley, comprises largely undifferentiated gneisses and schists of
presumed Pan-African age. Granitic and syenitic intrusions form some of the rugged
relief in the Nuba Mountains to the west, and represent late or post-erogenic
emplacement (Vail. 1978).
The oldest sedimentary strata within the study area are the purple and green
argillaceous mudstones of the Nawa formation. In the absence of fossils, Whiteman
(1971) designated them undifferentiated Palaeozoic-Mesozoic. They have no out-
crop and are known only from wells and boreholes. The formation is thought to
have been preserved by down-faulting. Drilling near Er Rahad indicates a thickness
of 285 m (Strojexport, 1972). The term Nubian Sandstone has been applied to a
wide range of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic deposits in Sudan, Egypt and Libya, which
lie unconformably over the peneplained Basement surface. They were laid down in
river fans, deltas and shallow lakes, fed from the uplands to the south and east
(Williams and Williams, 1980). Within the study area outcrops are restricted to
isolated outliers south of El Obeid. Nubian Sandstones form a major Cretaceous
sequence in the Southern Sudan Rift and probably also underlie the superficial
sediments of the White Nile Valley. The Tertiary to Quaternary fluviatile and
lacustrine sands and clays of the Umm Rawaba Formation cover much of the
southern part of the Sudan and vary rapidly in lithology and thickness. In the
northeast of the study area the Gezira Formation is lithologically similar to and
continuous with the Umm Ruwaba Formation (Vail, 1978). More recent alluvial
deposits have developed along the principal water-courses (Fig. 2).

COMPILATION OF THE BOUGUER ANOMALY MAP

The 675 Bouguer gravity values used in this study have been compiled from four
sources Mitwalli (1969), Strojexport (1977), Chevron (unpublished data) and the
University of Leeds data (Browne et al., 1984).
 127

Data listings were not available for the MitwalIi (1969) survey so the published
Bouguer anomaly map was sampled on a 1.5 km grid yielding 51 points. Mitwalli
(1959) used an assumed gravity datum and corrected for latitude variations using the
International Gravity Formula 1930 (IGF30); so the datum shift originally de-
termined by Isaev and Mitwalli (1978) to bring the data relative to the Potsdam
datum was further corrected here to the ~ntcrnational Gravity Standardisation
Network 1971 (IGSN71) datum. The three remaining data sets were adjusted to the
iGSN71 datum and latitude corrections were calculated using the Geodetic Refer-
ence System 1967 (GRS67). In the absence of gravity station elevations for Mitwalfi’s

v Univ. of Leeds

Fig. 3. Bouguer gravity anomaly map of study area contoured at 100 gu. (10 mGal) intervals and showing
the gravity expression of the White Nile Rift. Gravity stations of the four surveys have been differentiated
(note that stations for M~tw~I~if1969) survey are interpolated onto a regular grid). The detailed gravity
profile shown by small dots through Umm Ruwaba is by the University of Leeds. The Location of gravity
profiles l-6 used in the interpretation is shown.
128

survey, his reduction density of 2600 kg m ’ was adopted for all four data sets. The
Strojexport (1977) survey took the form of traverses, with station spacing between
100 and 500 m. Most of the area covered by this survey has been resurveyed by
Chevron who kindly provided the authors with gravity data on a 15 km grid. Many
of the Strojexport data have therefore been omitted from the regional Bouguer
anomaly map (Fig. 3) and have only been used where additional detail is required
(see Fig. 5). The University of Leeds data were collected in collaboration with the
Geological and Mineral Resources Department, Khartoum and provide a regional
coverage of the Nuba Mountains (Fig. 3). The survey was designed, within the study
area to link the surveys of Mitwalli and Chevron (Browne and Fairhead. 1983;
Bermingham et al., 1983). No terrain corrections were applied to these data sets
since in most areas the topography is fairly flat or in the case of the Nuba
Mountains there are no suitable topographic maps.
Data from the Bouguer gravity map of Fad1 (1979). published by Overmeeren
(1981), have not been included in the compilation. As with the Strojexport data, the
area covered by this survey has been resurveyed by Chevron and the detailed survey
is only used in a closer examination of structures within the Rift (see Fig. 5).
The Bouguer anomaly map was constructed by interpolating the 675 original data
points on to a grid of side 8.5 km using a minimum total curvature program (Swain,
1976, 1977). It was contoured at 100 g.u. (10 mGa1) intervals with the GINOSURF
computer graphics package (C.A.D.C., 1976). The heighting accuracy of individual
stations lies within +5 m which gives an accuracy of the Bouguer gravity values
within & 10 g.u.

INTERPRETATION

The Bouguer gravity map (Fig. 3) reveals a series of linked gravity minima which
are interpreted as delineating the low-density sedimentary infill of a subsiding rift
called here with White Nile Rift. The negative anomalies have amplitudes of
between 200 and 300 g.u. and strike northwards from Adar before striking towards
the northwest at Renk. The amplitude of these anomalies decrease along this path.
Northwest of Bara the Rift terminates and Basement is exposed across the path of
the Rift immediately outside the study area (see Fig. 1). West of Adar, a deep basin
also strikes for some distance in a northwest direction. It is in this region that the
sedimentary basin (as interpreted) is at its broadest and deepest. Drilling has proven
at least 4545 m of sediments at Adar (Nicod, 1982, 1983). South of the study area
Chevron and Total gravity data (unpublished) clearly indicate the continuation of
the fault bounded sedimentary basins into southernmost Sudan.
Negative anomalies of similar amplitude occur over the Basement Complex in the
Nuba Mountains. However, their gradients are much lower and the characteristic
wavelengths much larger, when compared with the Umm Ruwaba region where the
sampling density is similar. The Basement gravity anomalies suggest either small
 129

regional density changes and/or higher density contrasts at depth such as might be
associated with the isostatic compensation of the Nuba Mountains.
To model the gravity anomalies of the Rift, six profiles have been constructed
(Fig. 3) and their interpretation summarised in Fig. 5. Profiles 1 and 2 are shown in
more detail in Fig. 4 and show the Rift’s negative anomaly is superimposed on a
broader positive anomaly centred on the Rift. The positive regional anomaly (dashed
line in Fig. 4) was determined from the shape of the gravity field outside the Rift

PROFILE 1
(aI
0 BOUCUER ANOMALV g”
_ _ ,_ _ - - - - - - - -- - - - -
_ - -
_ _ _ -c_~____-,,
- - - -/:l,,,rr---
-500 i

W I_,
-1000

30 i im _ 1
0 50 - 100 150

PROFILE 2
O-BO,,GUrR
ANOMALY B.u.
(b)
___.-----------________
_/-----=--__
_500.-:---

Fig. 4. Gravity profiles 1 and 2 showing the character of the positive and negative anomalies associated
with the White Nile Rift together with the crustal model interpretation. (10 g.u. ~1 mGal; 1000 kg
m -3 = 1 g/cm3).
130

and was necessary to accommodate, in the basin models, the proven (minimum)
thickness of sediment. The positive regional anomaly is interpreted in Fig. 4 as being
due to thinner crust beneath the Rift, assuming the crustal thickness outside the Rift
is 30 km and the density contrast between the crust and upper mantle is 500 kg mm-‘.

I- ----------l-- - -‘-T-- --7. -- 1

EDRAWN FROM OVERMEER_EN 198

I
I
i

Fig. 5. Rift basin models computed from gravity profiles l-6 plotted in their true position (see Fig. 4 for
definitions of solid and dashed lines). Insets are the detailed gravity survey reported by Overmeeren
(1981) relative to unknown datum and two high resolution profiles across the rift (IO g.u. 5 1 mGal).
 131

The mechanism envisaged to produce this thinned crust is that of lithospheric

stretching which results in isostatic and thermal subsidence of the crust leading to
rift basin formation (McKenzie, 19’78). For profiles 3-6 the regional positive
anomaly is more difficult to define since its amplitude appears to decrease towards
the northwest. A flatter regional, indicative of little or no crustal thinning has been
used to interpret profiles 3-6.
To model the gravity effects of the sediments, two density-depth functions have
been used: (I) a constant density contrast of -400 kg rnM3 and (2) a density
contrast which decreases with depth. The latter was designed to incorporate as much
geological information as possible. The most extensive study on rock densities in
southern Sudan is that by Strojexport (1972) for the En Nahud area, to the west of
the study area. They derived a density of 2630 kg rnw3 for the undifferentiated,
Precambrian Basement Complex and 2100 kg me3 for the sediment cover. Texas
Instruments (1962) used a density contrast of 300 kg m“ between the Basement and
Nubian sandstone while Hunting Geology and Geophysics (1970) used 1900 kg me3
for the superficial sediments, 2300 kg m-j for the Nubian formation and 2700 kg
m -3 for the Basement Complex. Flege (1982) describes the elastic sediments from
the Abu Gabra and Unity basins of the Southern Sudan Rift as normally compacted
ranging from 2000 kg rnw3 at the surface to 2500 kg m- 3 at 3350-4600 m. Within
this depth range, Flege indicates there are no major density inversions such that the
gravity data tends to reflect the shape of basin.
Compaction and cementation cause sandstones (McCulloh, 1967) and sandstones
and shales (Perrier and Quiblier, 1974) to show a slow, roughly linear increase in
density with depth although there may be considerable variation in the near surface
behaviour. The basin models (Figs. 4 and 5) were divided into layers 100 m thick
and a density DC*,,assigned to the centre of each layer according to the form:

I) (2) = 2000 + (2500 - 2000’ z kg rn-’ (for z .< 3600)

(3600)

D(2) = 2300 + (2500 - 2300) z kg mm3 (for z > 3600)

3600
where D is density in kg rnp3 and z depth in metres.
These equations give a density of 2000 kg me3 at the surface, increasing linearly
to 2500 kg mm3 at 3600 m. Below 3600 m the linear increase in density is in keeping
with the findings of McCulloh (1967). To compute the gravity anomalies these
densities were converted to density contrasts with respect to a constant Basement
density of 2630 kg rnd3,
The resulting shapes of the sedimentary basin models are given in Figs. 4 and 5
and show that the constant density contrast of -400 kg me3 gives similar results to
the density-depth function. The gravity station distribution (Fig. 3) is insufficient to
demonstrate that the basins are fault-bounded. The two ~~-resolution profiles and
Overmeeren’s map, shown as insets in Fig. 5, give better definition to the shape of
132

the gravity anomalies within the sedimentary basins. These profiles have steep
gravity gradients, over the basins margins, which are consistent with them being
fault bounded. Some detail within the Rift is shown by Overmeeren’s (1981) map
and the Strojexport profile which indicate the existence of an axial positive gravity
anomaly 200 g.u. in amplitude, 20 km wide. striking to the northwest. A probable
explanation is that the positive anomaly results from an elevated fault bounded
Basement block. Depth estimation from the Bouguer anomaly suggests its top is at a
depth of 1.5 km. No similar feature is seen in the University of Leeds profile that
crosses the Rift at Umm Ruwaba further to the northwest (see inset to Fig. 5).

REGIONAL STRUCTURAL MODEL

The series of linked basins which comprise the White Nile Rift vary in width
north of lOoN, depending upon their strike. Those which are elongated along a N-S
axis tend to be narrower than those oriented NW-SE. The former set parallels the
structural direction found in the Basement to the east of the White Nile and is
considered to reflect the Mozambique Belt fabric (Vail, 1978), while the latter set
parallels the fault trend which is most evident in the Nuba Mountains (Fig. 2).
Significanlly this is also the strike of the Southern Sudan Rift (Browne and
Fairhead, 1983) and it recurs as an important fault direction in Ethiopia (Mohr,
1974) and the Red Sea.
The implications of these observations is that the White Nile Rift formed in a
tectonic regime of NE-SW crustaf extension. Where the Mozambique Belt is
imprinted (in the east) the fracturing of the crust has exploited, preferentially, this
weaker grain.
An estimate of the crustal extension across the White Nile Rift can be obtained
from two-dimensional gravity modelling (Cordell, 1982; Browne and Fairhead,
1983). Assuming a normal (unthinned) crustal thickness of 30 km, the gravity model
of profile 3 (Fig. 3) yields an extension of 8 km along its length, that is 10 km about
an axis of extension orientated NW-SE. The shallowing of the Rift basins from
Renk to Bara, together with the absence of a well-defined regional positive anomaly,
suggests a decrease of crustal extension to the northwest. North of Umm Ruwaba,
the Bouguer anomaly map (Fig. 3) indicates the presence of an offset NW-SE
oriented depression. This structure is fault bounded on its northern side and possibly
on its southern side (Fig. 2). The gravity data, although relatively sparse over the
southern side, are consistent with this view. Extension across this basin could have
taken up some of the total extension.
The northern end of the White Nile Rift terminates against Basement (Fig. 6).
The form of the Rift’s termination cannot be ascertained because of the lack of
gravity data in the region, This northwestern limit of the Rift coincides with the
extension of the Foumban-Bake-Birao shear zone (Louis, 1970; Browne and
Fairhead, 1983) which traverses central Africa from Cameroon to western Sudan
 133

and is associated with deep, narrow sedimentary basins. The Baggara basins, which
mark the continuation of this lineament into western Sudan, appear to have formed
by dextral shearing which accompanied the opening of the Southern Sudan Rift
(Browne and Fairhead 1983). Since the White Nile Rift apparently evolved in a
similar tensional tectonic environment as the Southern Sudan Rift, it is natural to
enquire whether the movement along this shear zone was not entirely taken up by
the opening of the Southern Sudan Rift but extended across Sudan and acted as the
nortwestern boundary structure to the White Nile Rift. The evidence to support such
a structural model (Fig. 6) is that the proposed lineament:
(1) terminates 4 NW-SE trending sedimentary basins (i.e. Southern Sudan Rift,
White Nile Rift and the Blue Nile and Atbara fault controlled basins);
(2) divides the Basement into areas having prominent NE-SW fault patterns to
the north and NW-SE faults to the south;

0 500km
8 * * . . 1

18 22 26 30 i 3,4 ‘t 38

Rift Basins National

Volcanics Faults ,/
/ Borders

Fig. 6. Proposed regional structural model for southern and central Sudan.
134

(3) delineates the northern extent of younger sediments;

(4) parallels the southern limit of a zone of extrusive volcanics across Sudan
(Jebel Marra-Bayida volcanic line).
To the south of the study area, unpublished gravity data (Total Exploration,
Sudan) indicate the White Nile Rift extends further to the south. A number of
authors (e.g., Mitwalli, 1969; Khattab, 1975; Ah and Whiteley, 1981) have suggested
that it may be a continuation of the East African Rift System. El Shaafi (1980) links
the White Nile Rift directly with the Southern Sudan Rift and connects that with the
Western Rift. In the light of rather more geophysical data than were available to
these authors, we feel that such a structural connection is unlikely. The structural
trends of the White Nile Rift and the Southern Sudan Rift certainly do converge
towards the Sudan-Uganda-Kenya border and developed contemporaneously in
(late?) Cretaceous and early Tertiary. If these rift structures do continue into East
Africa then they most probably underlie the Cenozoic sediments and volcanic cover
in a zone striking SE from southernmost Sudan through Lake Turkana (formerly
Lake Rudolf) towards the Kenya coast. The Sudan Rifts developed prior to the main
phases of rifting in East Africa (Baker et al., 1972) and have trends that are nearly
perpendicular to the Eastern and Western Rifts. The mechanism of rifting also
differs: extension and crustal subsidence in the Sudan. uplift and little extension in
East Africa.
Earthquake studies (Fairhead and Stuart, 1982) show that the East African Rift
System is still seismically active, whereas the Sudan Rift System is seismically quiet.
Since 1960 only ten instrumentally detected earthquakes have been located in Sudan
(Fig. 1). The epicentres are mainly confined to the Red Sea Coast and to the
southernmost part of Sudan where they occur along NW and NNW faults represent-
ing the northernmost structures associated with the Western Rift (Fig. 1). The
remaining three events all occurred within the study area close to the White Nile Rift
(Fig. 2). Two of these events were on 1966 Oct. 9 with magnitudes 5.1 and 4.1 and
the other event occurred on 1974 Mar. 17 with magnitude 4.6. Surface effects of the
1966 events have been reported by Qureshi and Sadig (1967). To investigate the
regional seismicity, a seismic station was installed in Nyala for a 2-year period from
April 1980. During this period no local earthquakes were identified, other than small
tremors from Jebel Merra volcanic province.

CONCLUSION

This gravity study has delineated a series of linked gravity minima following the
White Nile from Adar to Renk before turning northwest towards Bara. These
negative anomalies have been modelled in terms of sedimentary infill of a fault-
bounded basin called here the White Nile Rift. A positive regional gravity anomaly
is associated with the Rift in the southern part of the survey area and has been
modelled in terms of a thinner crust beneath the Rift. Such a crustal model provides
 135

the isostatic subsidence mechanism for rift basin development. Crustal extension
across the Rift is calculated to be 10 km in a NE-SW direction, which is similar to
the direction of opening of the Southern Sudan Rift. The White Nile Rift is
considered here to be terminated at its northern end by a structural lineament which
probably represents the extension of the Central African Shear Zone across Sudan
(Fig. 6). The position of the proposed lineament has been drawn as a dashed line in
Fig. 6 since its precise form is unknown. The lineament appears to have acted as a
structural barrier to the development of deep Cretaceous-Tertiary sedimentary
basins into northern Sudan. Hydrocarbon exploration currently in progress (Nicod,
1983) north of the lineament in areas covered by Nubian Sandstones should clarify
some of the implications of our regional structural model and aeromagnetic studies
may shed light on the nature of the lineament.
Finally, if the shear lineament is not confined to the narrow zone shown as a
dashed line in Fig. 6, but instead is a border zone incorporating the SW-NE
trending faults between Jebel Marra and the Bayuda Volcanics, then the northern
limit of the shear zone would intersect the Red Sea coast close to St. John’s Island
(23S’N). This island is located not only at a passive continental margin but also
within a fracture zone at the transition from plate separation by sea-floor spreading
to the south to extension by lithospheric attenuation to the north (Styles and Gerdes,
1983). Thus the changes in tectonic character across the shear zone in Sudan and the
fracture zone of the Red Sea coincide and are most probably structurally related.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study has been funded by the Overseas Development Administration as a

research grant to J.D.F. and studentship to S.E.B. Field work was in full collabora-
tion with the Geological and Mineral Resources Department (GMRD) Khartoum.
Chevron Overseas Pet. Inc. very kindly made available data from their Melut
concession block and provided a scholarship to I.I.M. (via the GMRD, Khartoum)
to study in Leeds.

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