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MEDIEVAL HISTORY
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Topics: Delhi Sultanate - Administration, Art and Culture and Society; Vijaynagara
Empire
Other Dynasties - Bahamani, Bengal, Kashmir, Gujarat, Sind, Sikhism etc.

Delhi Sultanate

Administration
 When Qutubuddin Aibak established himself as an independent Sultan at Lahore, the
available administrative apparatus was continued in the initial phase.
 The prevailing structure was not altered or disturbed and as long, as the local rulers
recognised the supremacy of the Sultan in Delhi, they were allowed to collect taxes and
send it to the central treasury as tribute.
 With the expansion and consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate, new administrative
institutions also started emerging. The administrative structures and institutions
introduced in India were influenced by the Mongols, Seljukids etc, brought by the new
rulers.
 The Sultans were aware of the fact that they had to rule over a subject population
that was largely non-Islamic. Thus the Sultans of Delhi had to introduce particular
measures to suit the prevailing conditions in the Sultanate.
 The large extent of the Sultanate necessitated the evolution of administrative
structure separately for the centre and provinces.
 From the administrative point of view, the local level administration, it seems, was left
mainly in the hands of village headmen etc.
 During the Sultanate period the administrative apparatus was headed by the Sultan
who was helped by various nobles. There were various other offices along with the
office of the Sultan.
 Theoretically, there was a council of Ministers Majlis-i-Khalwat to assist the Sultan.
 Sultan
o The Sultan was the central figure in the administrative set up.
o He was the head of the civil administration and Supreme Commander of the
army.
o He made all the appointments and promotions. He also had the right to remove
anybody from the service. He had absolute power in his hand.
o He was also the head of the Judiciary.
o He used to confer titles and honours upon people.
o Theoretically the Sultan had an exalted position but in actual practice different
Sultans enjoyed varying power.
o The position of the Sultan was always under pressure from the powerful group of
nobility and Ulema.
o Sultans of Delhi, particularly the powerful Sultans, adopted various strategies to
keep these groups under control. Balban kept the nobles firmly under his control.
o Thus the personality of the Sultan played a significant role in the administrative
structure of the Sultanate.
 Nobility
o In the initial stage they were those commanders who came with the victorious
army. Over a period of time their descendants formed the main strength and
some Indian groups also emerged.

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o The position and power of the nobility varied from time to time as has been
mentioned above.
o Nobles, particularly those who were based at Delhi, emerged as a very powerful
group and at times even played a role in the selection of the sultan.
o The nobility was not a homogeneous class. There were different groups within
the nobility and often there were inter group clashes and rivalries. The clash
between Turkish and Tajik nobles started during the time of Iltutmish and
became intense after his death.
o The group of chahalgan (group of 40 nobles), which was created by Iltutmish,
also emerged very powerful.
o Qutubuddin Aibak and Iltutmish had considered the nobles at par with
themselves. Balban maintained distance from the nobility and enforced strict
code of conduct for himself and for the nobility.
o Initially it was the preserve of the Turks only. During the rule of the Khalji and
Tughlags the doors of the nobility were opened to people of diverse
backgrounds.
o The low caste people, both Hindus and Muslims, joined the nobility and could
rise to high positions especially under Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.
o During the Lodi period the Afghan concept of equality became important when
the Sultan was considered “first among equals”. Thus the nobles enjoyed
equal status with the Sultan.
o Some of the Lodi Sultans like Sikandar Lodi and Ibrahim Lodi found this
uncomfortable and tried to bring the nobles under their control. The
nobles resisted this which resulted in the trouble for both the Sultans
 Ulema
o The religious intellectual group of Muslims was collectively referred as Ulema.
o People of this group managed religious matters and interpreted religious
regulations for Sultan.
o They were also incharge of judicial matters and worked as Qazis at various
levels.
o It was quite influential group and commanded respect of Sultan and nobility.
o They also had influence among Muslim masses.
o This group used to pressurize the sultan to run the Sultanate as per the religious
laws of Islam.
o The Sultan and nobles generally tried to run the administrative affairs as per the
need of state rather than religious laws. Sultan like Alauddin Khalji could ignore
the opinions of Ulema on a number of issues but some followed their line.
 Central Administrative System
o Wizarat: Most important office after Sultan. The main functions of the wazir
were to look after the financial organization of the State, give advice to the
Sultan, and on occasions to lead military expeditions at Sultan’s behest.
 There were several other departments which worked under the wizarat.
They were entrusted with specific functions. These included Mustaufi-i-
Mumalik (Auditor General), Mushrif-i-Mumalik (Accountant General),
Majmuadar (Keeper of loans and balances from treasury).
o Diwan-i-Arz: This department was set up to look after the military organization
of the empire. It was headed by Ariz-i-Mumalik. He ensured the discipline and

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fitness of the army, inspected the troops maintained by the Iqta-holders,

examined the horses and branded them with the royal insignia.
 Alauddin Khalji introduced the system of Dagh (branding) and huliya
(description) and cash payment to the soldiers in order to strengthen his
control over the army. The contingent stationed at Delhi was called
hasham-i-qalb and Provincial contingents were called hasham-i-atraf.
o Diwan-i-Insha: This department looked after the state correspondence. It was
headed by Dabir-i-Khas. The Dabir was the formal channel of communication
between the centre and other regions of the empire. He was also a sort of
private secretary of the Sultan and was responsible for writing the farmans
 The Barid-i-Mumalik was the head of the state news gathering and dealt
with intelligence.
 At local level there were barids who used to send regular news
concerning the matters of the state to the central office. Apart from
barids, another set of reporters also existed who were known as
Munihiyan.
o Diwan-i-Rasalat: This department dealt with the administration of Justice. It was
headed by Sadr-us-Sadr who was also the qazi-i-mumalik. He was the highest
religious officer and took care of ecclesiastical affairs. He also appointed the qazis
(judges) and approved various charitable grants like waqf, wazifa, Idrar , etc.
 The Sultan was the highest court of appeal in both civil and criminal
matters. Next to him was Qazi-i-mumalik.
o Apart from these, there were a number of smaller departments at the centre
which helped in the everyday administration of the empire.
 Provincial Administrative System
o Wizarat: Most The territorial expansion and consolidation of the sultanate
was a process which continued throughout the 13 th and 14 th centuries. Some
of the newly conquered areas were brought directly under the control of the
Sultanate and some other areas remained semi autonomous.
o In the areas that were loosely affiliated to the Sultanate, a few officials were
appointed by the Centre as a symbol of imperial presence but everyday
administration remained in local hands. The interest of the centre in these areas
was mostly economic, i.e. the collection of the revenue.
o The provinces were placed under the charge of the Governors who were
responsible for the overall administration of the area. This involved ensuring the
collection of revenue, maintaining law and order and keeping rebellious
elements under control. He was a deputy of the Sultan in his area.
o During the 14th century the provinces were partitioned into Shiqs for
administrative convenience. The shiqs were administered by the Shiqdar.
Subsequently the Shiqs got transformed into Sarkar during the Afghan period.
o Faujdar was another officer along with Shiqdar at the provincial level. Their
duties are not clearly articulated, and often the role of the two seem to overlap.
o The Shiqdar assisted the governor in the maintenance of law and order and
provided military assistance. He also supervised the functioning of the smaller
administrative units. The duties of the Faujdar were similar to the Shiqdar. The
Kotwals were placed under the Faujdar.

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o The other important officers at the provincial level wereBarids (intelligence

officer and reporter) and Sahib-i-Diwan (who maintained the financial accounts
of the provincial income and expenditure).
IQTA system
o The institution of the Iqta had been in force in early Islamic world as a form of
reward for services to the state. In the caliphate administration it was used to
pay civil and military officers. After the establishment of the Sultanate iqta
system was introduced by the Sultans.
o To begin with the army commanders and nobles were given territories to
administer and collect the revenue. The territories thus assigned were called
iqta and their holders as iqtadar or muqti.
o In essence this was a system of payment to the officers and maintenance of army
by them. Gradually rules and regulations were laid down to organize the whole
system.
o From the 14 th century we hear of Walis or muqtis who are commanders of
military and administrative tracts called Iqta. Their exact powers varied according
to circumstances. In due course the muqti was given complete charge of the
administration of the iqta which included the task of maintaining an army.
o The muqti was to help the sultan with his army in case of need. He was expected
to maintain the army and meet his own expenses with the revenue collected.
o From the time of Balban the muqti was expected to send the balance (fawazil) of
the income to the centre after meeting his and the army’s expenses.
o During the reign of Muhmmad-bin-Thughlaq a number of governors were
appointed on revenue sharing terms where they were to give a fixed sum to the
state. During the time of Feroze Shah Tughlaq the control of state over iqtas was
diluted when iqtas became hereditary.
Economy During Delhi Sultanate Period
 Land revenue was major source of income for administration.The peasantry paid one
third of their produce as land revenue, and sometimes even one half of the produce.
o The peasants produced a large variety of food crops, cash crops, fruits,
vegetables and spices. They practiced advanced agricultural techniques such as
crop rotation, double cropping, three crop harvesting, fruit grafting etc. Various
types of artificial water lifting devices were also used for this purpose.
 The Persian wheel was the most advanced water lifting device of this period.
 During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained momentum.
Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated for smooth transport and
communication. Particularly the royal roads were kept in good shape. Sarais or rest
houses on the highways were maintained for the convenience of the travellers.
 Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period.
 Paper-making technology evolved by the Chinese and learnt by the Arabs was
introduced in India during the rule of the Delhi Sultans.
 Craft production was organized in villages as well as qasbas (extension of village).
 In the field of commerce India had trade links with contemporary central Asia, China,
South-east Asia and Europe etc

Literature and Languages during Delhi Sultanate

Sanskrit Literature
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 During the first half of the medieval period Sanskrit received patronage from the
numerous smaller political establishments in central and south India.
 In western India Hemachandra Suri was an important Jain scholar who composed works
in Sanskrit, as was Chaitanya.
 A new style of writing called the champu also emerged during this period. It was a form
that mixed both prose and poetry.
 Among the historical poems of the period was the Rajavinoda that was a biography of
Sultan Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat written by his court poet, Udayaraja.
 Another important work was Kalhan’s Rajtarangini, which presented a history of the
kings of Kashmir. It was written in the 12 th century A.D.
o The second Rajtaranginni was written by Jonaraja who wrote the history of the
kings of Kashmir from Jayasimha to Sultan Zainul Abidin and the third was
written by Srivara who wrote the history of the region till 1486.
 After the 15 th century the patronage of the Sanskrit language was maintained in the
southern courts of the rulers of Vijayanagar, Nayakas of Tanjor and the chiefs of
Travancore and Cochin.
 Among the important writers of this period were
o Govinda Dikshita ( Sahitya Sudha and Sangitsudhanidhi being among his
important works);
o Appaya Dikshita (in the court of the Nayaka ruler of Vellore);
o Nilanatha Dikshit (who was a minister in the court of the Nayaka of Madurai);
o Chakrakavi (who was patronized by the rulers of Kozhikode)

Persian literature
 With the establishment of the Delhi sultanate a new language and literary style was
introduced into the sub continent.
 The development of Persian literature in the sub continent entered a new era in the
writings of Amir Khusrau.
o He was a poet born in a family of Turkish immigrants and began as a poet in the
reign of Sultan Balban.
o He was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya and was patronized in the courts of
Jalaluddin Khalji, Alauddin Khalji and Ghiyasuddin Tughluq.
o He is said to have composed ninety-nine works on different themes and
numerous verses of poetry. His poetry was written in the different forms of lyric,
ode, epic and elegy.
o His writing style represents the first instance of Persian styles being composed in
the Indian context. This came to be known as the Sabaq-i-Hindi (the
Indian style).
o Among the important works composed by him are, Mutla-ul-Anwar,
Shirin Khusrau, Laila Majnun and Ayina-I-Sikandari, these works were dedi-
cated to Alauddin Khalji.
o Amorig his five Diwans (Ghazals) are Tuhfat-us-Sighar, Baqiya Naqiya and
Nihayat-ul-Kamal.
o He also wrote masnavis (narrative poems), which have been of great historical
and literary value. Among these are the Qiran-us Sa’dain, Miftah-ul Futuh
(dealing with the military success of Jalauddin Khalji), Tughluq Nama (describing

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Ghiyasuddin Tughluq’s rise to power) and the Khazain-ul Futuh(giving an account

ofAlauddin Khalji’s conquest of the South).
 The court chronicles were an important feature of the literature during the period of
the Delhi Sultanate. Some important of these were, the Tabaqat-I-Nasiri by Minaj-us
Siraj, Futuh-us Salatin by Isami and the Futuhat-I Firozshahi by Feroz Shah Tughluq
Growth and Development of Regional Languages
 The growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali,Assamese, Oriya, Marathi and
Gujarati during the medieval period was an important development.
 These languages can be traced to the 7th and 8th centuries when they seem to have
broken away from their Prakrit base.
 In the south Malayalam emerged as an independent language in the 14 th century.
 The growth of these regional languages coincided with a growing regional sentiment and
the emergence of regional polities. This resulted in the decline of Sanskrit that was being
replaced by Persian.
 The rise of the Bhakti movement and its propagation using these languages also enabled
the growth and development of these languages
Music
 Information on music of the sultanate period is limited.
 The important phase in the development of music during this period belongs to the time
of Amir Khusrau. It is during this period that the qawwali style is said to have developed.
 He is also credited for the development of many modern ragas like aiman, gora and
sanam .
 He is credited with the creation of a new musical instrument, the sitar that was a
combination of the Indian vina and the Iranian tambura.
 The Turks are credited with bringing musical instruments like rabab and sarangi into
South Asia.
PAINTINGS
 The developments in painting during the sultanate period have not been studied be-
cause of the limited samples.
 The closest view that one has of murals in the sultanate is to the numerous literary
references. The earliest reference to murals is in a qasida in praise of Iltutmish, which
describes the figures depicted upon the sqandrels of the main arch that was raised to
welcome the envoy of the Caliph.
o In another reference in the Tarikh-I Ferozshai there is a reference to the Sultan
seeking to ban the tradition of figural paintings on the walls of the palaces of
Delhi.
 Quaranic calligraphy also became popular across South Asia during this period
 By the 15th century the kingdoms of Gujarat, Malwa and Jaunpur emerged as important
centres of art.
Architecture of the Delhi Sultanate
 New architectural forms and styles were introduced in India during the medieval period.
 The arch and dome were new architectural additions of the period.
 The use of lime-mortar in the construction of buildings and houses altered the building
techniques.

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 The development of the true arch was important feature of the architectural style of
the period. The true arch required stones and bricks to be laid as voussoirs in the shape
of a curve and bound together firmly by a good binding material.
 The arches were made in different shapes but the dominant one was the pointed form.
 In the 14 th century a variant of the arch, called the four-centred arch was introduced by
the Tughluqs in their buildings.
 Stone has been used abundantly in the masonry work of this period. The material
commonly used for plastering buildings was gypsum.

 Monuments like the Quwwatul Islam mosque (1198), Qutab Minar (1199–1235),
Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (1200) and Iltutmish’s tomb represent the early forms of Indo-
Islamic architecture.
 The early buildings show signs of being worked upon by local craftsmen while the later
buildings show the development or the maturing of the Indo-Islamic style.
 In these monuments one can see the gradual development of dome and the true arch.
o The best examples of this are the tombs of Iltutmish (1233–34) and Balban
(1287– 88).
o The Alai Darwaza in the Qutub complex (1305) and the Jamat Khana Masjid at
Nizamuddin (1325) are examples of Khalji period.
 The important features of this new style were:
o The employment of the true arch shaped like a pointed horse shoe
o The emergence of true dome
o Use of red sand stone and decorative marble reliefs
o Emergence of the lotus bud fringe on the underside of the arch
 The new architectural style of the Tughluq period is represented with the
o use of stone rubble as the principle building material
o the battering of walls and bastions
o a new type of arch called the four centred arch
o the emergence of the pointed dome and the introduction of an octagonal plan of
tomb building.

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 Another important feature of Tughlaq architecture was the “batter” or sloping walls.
This gave the structures an effect of strength.
 During the subsequent period numerous tombs were built using the octagonal plan
while others were built using the square plan.
 Another feature of the art of this period was the decorative art in Islamic buildings
that was introduced in the sub continent for the first time. These decorative styles
were usually in the form of calligraphy, geometrical figures and foliation


VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
Sources  The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary,
archaeological and numismatics.
 Krishnadevaraya’s Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and
Allasani Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous
literature of this period.
 The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti,
Persian traveller Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese traveler Domingo
Paes were among eminent foreign travelers who left valuable
accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire.
 The copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copper plates of
Devaraya II provide the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar
rulers.
 The Hampi ruins and other monuments of Vijayanagar provide
information on the cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers.
 The numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers contain figures
and legends explaining their tittles and achievements.
Political History  The Vijayanagar empire was founded in 1346 as a direct response to
the challenge posed by the sultanate of Delhi.
 The empire was founded by brothers, Harihara and Bukka. Their
dynasty was named after their father, Sangama.
 There are several theories with regard to the origin of this dynasty.
According to some scholars, they had been the feudatories of the
Kakatiyas of Warangal and after their fall they served the Kampili
state.
 Another view says that they were the feudatories of the Hoysalas and
belonged to Karnataka.
 Harihara and Bukka were helped and inspired by contemporary
scholar and a saint Vidyaranya for the establishment of their kingdom.
It is believed that to commemorate the memory of their guru, the
brothers established the city of Vidyanagar or Vijayanagara on the
banks of river Tungabhadra.
 The empire included people from different cultural regions, the Tamil,
Telegu and Karnataka region who all spoke different languages and
belonged to different cultures.
 Between 1336 and 1565, Vijayanagar was ruled by three different

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dynasties- Sangama, who remained in power till 1485; the Saluva who
remained in power till 1503 and the Tuluvas.
 The last dynasty was the Aravidu dynasty that ruled till seventeenth
century.
 Foreign travellers like Nicolo Conti, Fernao Nuniz, Domingo Paes,
Duarto Barbosa and Abdur Razzaq wrote about the magnificence of
Vijayanagar.
Krishna Deva  The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha.
Raya (1509 –  The greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to
1530) the Tuluva dynasty. He possessed great military ability. His imposing
personality was accompanied by high intellectual quality. His first task
was to check the invading Bahmani forces.By that time the Bahmani
kingdom was replaced by Deccan Sultanates.
 The Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by
Krishna Deva Raya.
 Then he invaded Raichur Doab which had resulted in the
confrontation with the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. Krishna
Deva Raya defeated him and captured the city of Raichur in 1520.
From there he marched on Bidar and captured it.
 Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful.
 He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the
whole of Telungana.
 He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese.
 Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva Raya.
 Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions.
 He was a great patron of literature and art and he was known as
Andhra Bhoja.
 Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal
court.
 Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called Andhrakavita
Pitamaga. His important works include Manucharitam and
Harikathasaram.
 Pingali Suranna and Tenali Ramakrishna were other important
scholars.
 Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a Telugu work,
Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit works, Jambavati Kalyanam and
Ushaparinayam.
 He built the famous Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at
Vijayanagar.
 He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen
Nagaladevi.
 Besides, he built a large number of Rayagopurams.
 After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the throne.
 During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur,
Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of
Talaikotta in 1565.

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 This battle is also known as Raksasa Thangadi.

 Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of Vijayanagar was
destroyed. This battle was generally considered to mark the end of
the Vijayanagar Empire.
 However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty
for about another century.
 Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the important rulers of this
dynasty.
 The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.
Administration  The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and
legislative matters.
 He was the highest court of appeal.
 The succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary.
 Sometimes usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha
came to power by ending the Sangama dynasty.
 The king was assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day
administration.
 The Empire was divided into different administrative units called
Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally into gramas.
 The governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.
 Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the
administration.
 Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal
chiefs, customs collected at the ports, taxes on various professions
were other sources of income to the government.
 Land revenue was fixed generally one sixth of the produce.
 The expenditure of the government includes personal expenses of
king and the charities given by him and military expenditure.
 In the matter of justice, harsh punishments such as mutilation and
throwing to elephants were followed.
Army and  In order to wage continuous warfare there was a need to keep a large
Military army.
Organisation  Artillery was important and well bred horses were maintained.
 The Vijayanagar rulers imported high quality horses from across the
Arabian Sea from Arabia and other Gulf countries.
 The port of Malabar was the centre of this trade and trade in other
luxury commodities. The Vijayanagar rulers always attempted to
control the port of Malabar.
 Like the Bahamanis, the Vijayanagar state also was familiar with the
use of firearms and employed Turkish and Portuguese experts to train
the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare.
 One of the rayas, Deva Raya II enrolled Muslims in his armed services,
allotted them jagirs and erected a mosque for their use in the city.
 The walls of the forts to counter the firearms were now made thick
and special kinds of door with fortified walls front were constructed.
 On the walls of the forts, special kinds of big holes were made to rest

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the guns. Special kinds of parapets were constructed on the forts to

put the canons on it.
 Firearms were used. Some firearms were small and comprised of rifles
and pistols. Some like canons were heavy and had to be put on a
bullock cart or on an elephant and pushed into the battlefield.
 One of the important characteristics of the Vijayanagar administration
was the amaranayaka system. In this system, the commander of the
Vijayanagar army was called the nayaka. Each nayaka was given an
area for administration.
 The nayaka was responsible for expanding agricultural activities in his
area. He collected taxes in his area and with this income maintained
his army, horses, elephants and weapons of warfare that he had to
supply to the raya or the Vijayanagar ruler. The nayaka was also the
commander of the forts.
 Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples
and irrigation works. The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king
annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to
express their loyalty.
 In the seventeenth century, several of these nayakas became
independent and established separate states.
 The feudal Nayankaras used to maintain their own soldiers, forces
and elephants. They were a powerful section that challenged the
Vijayanagar authority, weakened its internal structures and
contributed to the defeat of the Vijayangar in the battle of Talikota.
Society  Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence of four
castes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras – in the Vijayanagar
society.
 Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the splendour of buildings and
luxurious social life in the city of Vijayanagar.
 Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress.
 Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people.
 Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large
number of their household servants.
 Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery.
 Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were some of
the amusements.
 Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar. They were
continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period.
 The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are
examples for casting of metal images.
 Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
Economy  According to the accounts of the foreign travelers, the Vijayanagar
Empire was one of the wealthiest parts of the world at that time.
 Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the people.
 The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus to its further growth by
providing irrigation facilities.

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 New tanks were built and dams were constructed across the rivers
like Tunghabadra. Nuniz refers to the excavation of canals.
 There were numerous industries and they were organized into guilds.
 Metal workers and other craftsmen flourished during this period.
 Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur district.
 Vijayanagar was also a great centre of trade.
 The chief gold coin was the varaha but weights and measures varied
from place to place.
 Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the general prosperity.
 There were a number of seaports on the Malabar coast, the chief
being Cannanore.
 Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia, South Africa and Portugal on
the west and with Burma, Malay peninsula and China on the east
flourished.
 The chief items of exports were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice,
iron, saltpeter and sugar.
 The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China
silk and velvet clothes. The art of shipbuilding had developed.
Culture  The temple building activity further gained momentum during the
Vijayanagar rule.
 The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the
construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the
Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises.
 The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive features.
The horse was the most common animal found in these pillars.
 Large mandapams contain one hundred pillars as well as one
thousand pillars in some big temples. These mandapams were used
for seating the deity on festival occasions.
 Also, many Amman shrines were added to the already existing
temples during this period.
 The most important temples of the Vijayanagar style were found in
the Hampi ruins or the city of Vijayanagar.
 Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples were the best
examples of this style.
 The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram stand
as examples for the magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of temple
architecture.
 The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram speak the
glorious epoch of Vijayanagar.
 They were continued by the Nayak rulers in the later period.
 The metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at Tirupati are
examples for casting of metal images.
 Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
 Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil
flourished in the regions.
 There was a great development in Sanskrit and Telugu literature.

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 The peak of literary achievement was reached during the reign of

Krishna Deva Raya.
 He himself was a scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu.
 His famous court poet Allasani Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu
literature.

BAHAMANI KINGDOM
Introduction  The Deccan region was a part of the provincial administration of the
Delhi Sultanate.
 In order to establish a stable administration in the Deccan,
Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed amiran-i-sada/ Sada Amir, who
were the administrative heads of hundred villages.
 From 1337 the conflict between the officers in Deccan and Delhi
sultanate accelerated which led to the establishment of an
independent state in the Deccan in 1347 with the capital at Gulbarga
in Andhra Pradesh.
 Its founders Haran Gangu assumed the title AlauddinHasanBahman
Shah as he traced his descent from the mythical hero of Iran, Bahman
Shah and the kingdom was named after him, the Bahamani Sultanate.
 After Mohammad bin Tughlaq there were no attempts by the Delhi
Sultanate to control the Deccan region, therefore, the Bahamani
Sultans without any checks annexed the kingdom.
 There were a total of fourteen Sultans ruling over this kingdom.
Among them, AlauddinBahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I and Firoz
Shah were important.
 Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
 The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the rule of
Muhammad Shah III. It extended from the Arabian sea to the Bay of
Bengal. On the west it extended from Goa to Bombay. On the east, it
extended from Kakinada to the mouth of the river Krishna.
 The success of Muhammad Shah was due to the advice and services
of his minister Mahmud Gawan.
 One of the important acquisitions was the control over Dabhol, an
important port on the west coast.
 Under Bahman Shah and his son Muhammmad Shah, the
administrative system was well organised.
 The kingdom was divided into four administrative units called ‘taraf’
or provinces. These provinces were Daultabad, Bidar, Berar and
Gulbarga.
 Muhammad I defeated the Vijayanagar kingdom and consequently
Golconda was annexed to Bahamani kingdom.
 Every province was under a tarafdar who was also called a subedar.
 Some land was converted into Khalisa land from the jurisdiction of the
tarafdar. Khalisa land was that piece of land which was used to run
expenses of the king and the royal household.
 Further the services and the salary of every noble was fixed. Those

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nobles who kept 500 horses were given 1000,000 huns annually.
 If short of the stipulated troops, the tarafdar would have to reimburse
the amount to the central government.
 Nobles used to get their salary either in cash or in form of grant of
land or ‘jagir’ .
 Bahamani ruler depended for military support on his amirs.
 There were two groups in the ranks of amirs: One was the Deccanis
who were immigrant Muslims and had been staying for a long time in
the Deccan region. The other group was Afaquis or Pardesis who had
recently come from Central Asia, Iran and Iraq and had settled in the
Deccan region recently.
 Between both these groups there was always tension to appropriate
better administrative positions and because of their feuds, the
stability of the Bahamani Sultanate was affected.
 For the first time in India both Bahamani and Vijaynagar kingdoms
used gunpowder in the warfare.
 The Bahamanis were already familiar with the use of firearms. They
employed Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the
latest weaponry of warfare.
Mahmud  One of the most important personalities in the Bahamani kingdom
Gawan was Mahmud Gawan. The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under
the guidance of Mahmud Gawan.
 Mahmud Gawan’s early life is obscure. He was an Iranian by birth and
first reached Deccan as a trader. He was granted the title of ‘Chief of
the Merchants’ or Malikut-Tujjar by the Bahamani ruler, Humayun
Shah.
 The sudden death of Humayun led to the coronation of his minor son
Ahmad III. A regency council was set for the administration and
Mahmud Gawan was its important member.
 He was made wazir or the prime minister and was given the title of
‘Khwaju-i-Jahan.’
 The history of Bahmani kingdom after this period is actually the
record of the achievements of Mahmud Gawan.
 He lived a simple life and was magnanimous. He was also a learned
person. He possessed a great knowledge of mathematics.
 He made endowments to build a college at Bidar which was built in
the Persian style of architecture.
 He was also a military genius. He waged successful wars against
Vijayanagar, Orissa and the sea pirates on the Arabian sea.
 His conquests include Konkan, Goa and Krishna-Godavari delta and
thus he expanded the Bahmani Empire through his conquests.
 Despite of being an Afaqui he was liberal and wanted a compromise
between the Afaquis and the Deccanis.
 He controlled the kingdom in an efficient manner and provided it
stability.
 Gawan conquered the Vijayanagar territories up to Kanchi.

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 On the western coast, Goa and Dhabol were conquered. Losing these
important ports was a great loss for Vijayanagar.
 Bahamani strengthened its trading relations with Iran and Iraq after
gaining control over Goa and Dabhol.
 His administrative reforms were were aimed to increase the control
of Sultan over the nobles and provinces.
 Gawan carried out many internal reforms and attempted to put an
end to the strife in the nobility. Royal officers were appointed in each
province for this purpose. Most of the forts were under the control of
these officers.
 In order to curb the military power of the tarafdar, Gawan ordered
that only one fort of each province was to be under the direct control
of the provincial tarafdar.
 The remaining forts of the province were placed under a Qiladar or
commander of the forts. The Qiladar was appointed by the central
Government.
 However, soon after his death, the governors declared their
independence and the Bahamani kingdom broke up.
 In the fifteenth and the sixteenth century, some amirs in Bidar,
Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bijapur and Berar established
independent sultanates of their own and formed new states.
 These were the NizamShahis of Ahmadnagar, the AdilShahis of
Bijapur, the QutbShahis of Golconda, and the ImadShahis of Berar and
the BaridShahis of Bidar.
 They formed a league of states and strengthened them by
matrimonial alliances.
 They maintained the traditional rivalry with the Vijayanagar rulers.
 Golconda and Bijapur entered into matrimonial alliances and led the
Battle of Talikota against Vijayanagar.
 They finally succumbed to the Mughal armies.
Conflicts  There were constant conflicts between the Vijayanagar and the
between the Bahamani kingdoms over the control of Raichur doab which was the
Vijayanagar land between rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra.
and the  This area was fertile and rich in mineral resources. The famous
Bahamani diamond mines of Golconda were located in the eastern part of the
Kingdoms doab region.
 The geography of both the kingdoms was such that expansion was
possible only across Tungabhadra in the Deccan.
 It appears that the battles between the two were not conclusive and
the status quo was maintained.
 Sometimes, Bahamani had an advantage and sometimes, Vijayanagar
had an advantage. For instance, in 1504, the Bahamani managed to
reconquer the Raichur doab. However, with the ascent of Krishna
Deva Raya, the Bahamanis lost Raichur, Mudkal, Nalgonda and other
inland towns.
 An important result of these wars was that both the powers were so

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involved amongst themselves that they never realized the increasing

power of the Portuguese on the coast of South India.
 Besides, continuous warfare exhausted the resources of both the
states and weakened them.
 The other areas of conflict were the Marathwada region and the
deltaic region of Krishna-Godavari.
 Both regions had fertile areas and important ports that controlled
trade to the foreign countries.
 The fertile area in the Marathwada region was the Konkan belt that
also had the port of Goa which was an important region for trade and
export and import especially import of horses from Iraq and Iran.
 Often, the battles between the Vijayanagar and the Bahamani states
are perceived as Hindu-Muslim conflicts, but the above mentioned
reasons show that the struggle was not due to any religious
differences.
 Territorial and economic motives were the main causes for the war.
 Despite hostilities between the two states, there were times when
they also co-operated with each other.
 Krishna Deva Raya, for example, supported some claimants to power
in the Sultanates and took pride in the title “establisher of the Yavana
kingdom”.
 Similarly, the Sultan of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession
disputes in Vijayanagra following the death of Krishna Deva Raya.
 There were also sharing and exchange of ideas, especially in the field
of art, literature and architecture.

BENGAL
 After conquest by Bakhtiyar Khalji in A.D.1204, Bengal in a freakish nature continued to
be ruled by governors appointed by the Delhi Sultans.
 Its long distance from Delhi tempted its governors to seek sovereignty, hence rebellions
were a recurrent feature in Bengal.
 The history of Bengal as an independent kingdom may be dated from A.D. 1338 hen one
Fakhruddin taking advantage of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s troubles proclaimed himself
ruler of eastern Bengal as Sonargaon its capital under the title of Fakhruddin Mubarak
Shah.
 Shortly after, Alauddin Ali Shah (A.D. 1339-1342) established its authority in western
Bengal with Lakhnauti as its capital.
 About A.D. 1342, Ilyas, an officer of Alauddin Ali Shah, made himself independent ruler
of the entire Bengal, assuming the title of Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah and founded Ilyas
Shahi dynasty.
 He overran Tirhut and went as far as Kathmandu in Nepal (A.D. 1346). He then exacted a
tribute from the ruler of Orissa. He also defeated the ruler of Sonargaon and annexed
his dominions.
 Firuz Tughlaq attempted twice to capture Bengal but failed.
 The rule of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty continued till A.D. 1415 when it was superceded by
that of Raja Ganesha; though it was recovered in about A.D. 1442.

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 But there followed a period of weak monarches and the throne was finally seized by
Malik Andil, an Abyssinian commander of the Ilyas Shahi army.
 The Abyssinian regime covered a short period of 6 years (A.D. 1487-1493) and
comprised three weak rulers.
 Then the throne was occupied by one Syed Hussain, who assumed the title of ‘Alauddin
Hussain Shah’. His long reign (A.D. 1493-1519) is noted for public works and for
promotion of Bengali literature.
 Chaitanya, the famous Hindu reformer, enjoyed Alauddin Hussain Shah’s patronage and
was able to propagate his ideas freely.
 Alauddin Hussain Shah was succeeded by his son Nusrat Shah, a contemporary of Sultan
Ibrahim Lodi.
 The Afghan rebel chiefs who were rising against the Sultans sided with Nusrat Shah who
is said to have conquered Tirhut. Subsequently, he made a treaty with Babar, and was
assassinated soon after in A.D. 1532.
 Then decline set in and there followed a quick succession and one Mahmud Shah was
overthrown in A.D. 1538 by Sher Khan Suri and sought shelter with Humayun who had
then advanced in Bihar with the object of suppressing Sher Khan.
 Humayun turned out the latter, and sat on the throne of Gaur (the other new capital) as
emperor for three months. But Sher Khan defeated Humayun at Chausa and recovered
the independence of Bengal.
 But after his death Bengal fell under confusion till it was annexed to the Mughal empire
in A.D. 1575.

KASHMIR
 Kashmir is in the northern part of India. In the eleventh century, the rulers were
followers of Saivism, and Saivism became the central religion in Kashmir. It was a closed
kingdom.
 Albiruni, the Arab traveller who visited India during this period remarked in his work, Al-
Hind that no one, not even Hindus from outside was allowed access to Kashmir.
 In 1320s, the ruling dynasty of Kashmir could not check the devastating Mongol
invasions.
 It therefore, lost all public support. In 1339, Shamsuddin Shah deposed the Saiva ruler
and became the ruler of Kashmir. From this period onwards, Islam influenced the
Kashmiri society.
 A group of Sufi saints known as the Rishis propagated a religion that combined features
of Hinduism and Islam Sufi saints and refugees migrated from Central Asia to Kashmir
and further influenced the society and religion.
 Gradually, the poorer section of the population started converting to Islam. The state
encouragement to Islam took place when the Kashmiri Sultan, Sikandar Shah (1389–
1413), issued an order that all Hindus especially, the brahmanas living in his kingdom
should embrace Islam or leave his kingdom.
 These orders were issued at the instance of the king’s minister, Suha Bhatt who was a
Hindu and had recently converted to Islam.
 Perhaps, one of the greatest rulers of Kashmir was Zainul Abidin (1420–1470). He was an
enlightened ruler and called back those Hindus who had left the state due to the
persecution of Sikandar Shah. He abolished jaziya and prohibited cow slaughter and gave

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the Hindus important state posts. A large number of temples were repaired and new
ones constructed.
 Abul Fazl, the court historian of the Mughal Emperor Akbar noted that Kashmir had one
hundred and fifty big temples.
 Sultan Zainul Abidin married the daughters of the Hindu raja of Jammu. Some scholars
call Zainul Abidin as the Akbar of Kashmir. Under him, Kashmir became prosperous and
he was called the Bud Shah or the great king of Kashmiris.
 The Sultan Zainul Abidin contributed to the agricultural development of Kashmir by
constructing dams and canals. Agricultural records were maintained. During the period
of famine and other natural calamities, relief in terms of loans and grains and fodder was
provided to the peasants.
 Sultan Zainul Abidin also introduced reforms in the currency. He introduced market
control and fixed prices of the commodities. Traders and merchants were asked to sell
the commodities at fixed prices. Sultan also subsidized the import of the commodities
which were scarce in the state.
 To make up for the shortage of salt, he imported salt from Ladakh and helped the
traders in every possible way.
 Sultan also paid attention to the development of handicrafts. He sent some people to
Samarqand for training of paper making and book binding.
 Sultan also encouraged stone cutting and polishing and many other crafts. He introduced
carpet and shawl making, which make Kashmir famous till day.
 Sultan also founded the towns of Zaingir, Zainket and Zainpur and laid out the islands on
the Dal Lake.
 His chief engineering achievement was the Zaina Lanka, an artificial island in the Woolur
Lake on which he built his palace and mosque.
 He was a great scholar of Persian, Sanskrit, Tibetan and Arab languages and patronised
the Sanskrit and Persian scholars.
 Under his patronage, the Mahabharat and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini were translated into
Persian and many Persian and Arabic works were translated into Hindi.
 He himself was a poet and wrote poetry under the pen name ‘Qutb’.
 After him weak rulers ascended the throne of Kashmir and there was confusion. Taking
advantage of this, Mirza Haider, Babur’s relative occupied Kashmir.
 In 1586, Akbar conquered Kashmir and made it a part of the Mughal Empire.

GUJARAT
 Gujarat was annexed to the Delhi Sultanate in 1297 by Alauddin. From that time it was
ruled for long time by Muslim governors appointed by the Delhi Sultans.
 Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad, sixth king of the Tughlaq house, appointed in A.D. 1391,
Zafar Khan as governor of Gujarat.
 In A.D. 1407, he took the title of Sultan Muzaffar Shah and founded the Muzaffari
Dynasty which continued till A.D. 1573 when it was annexed by Akbar to the Mughal
empire.
 Of the fourteen kings of this dynasty, the most important are three – Ahmad Shah I,
Mahmud Begara, also known as Mahmud I and Bahadur Shah.
 Ahamd Shah (A.D. 1411-1443) was a grandson of Muzaffar Shah and is remembered for
founding the city of Ahmadabad on the Sabarmati. He died at Ahmedabad in A.D. 1442.

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 Ahmad Shah’s grandson, Mahmud I (A.D. 1449-1511), commonly known by his surname
Begara, was by far the most eminent Sultan of Gujarat. Champaner was rechristened by
him as Muhammadabad.
 Towards the close of his reign, he attempted, in alliance with Egypt, to check the power
of the Portuguese who monopolized the lucrative trade which passed through Egypt
and Red Sea to India. After his death, the decline of the empire began.
 Only Bahadur Shah (A.D. 1526-1537) proved to be a capable ruler. He invaded Mandu
fort and entered the city unopposed. The king of Malwa, Mahmud Khalji II, was taken
prisoner and his territory was annexed to Gujarat in A.D. 1591.
 Bahadur Shah also captured the fortress of Ujjain, Bhilsa and Raisen completing the
conquest of Malwa.
 In A.D. 1535, he captured Chittor. By this time, the Mughal emperor, Humayun as it is
felt it necessary to stem the tide of Bhadur’s conquests he marched into Malwa and
occupied Mandasor.
 In the reign of the last ruler Muzaffar III, Akbar annexed Gujarat to his empire.

SIND
 Sind retained some degree of independence, the desert of thar being a fairly effective
barrier to frequent communications with Rajastan and Delhi.
 The Arabs who conquered Sind in 8th century after reverses they met with appear to
have lost interest in enlarging their indian possessions.
 During the period of the sultanate Sind was ruled by obscure tribes.
 In 1520 Shah Beg Arghun the governor of Kandhar having been driven out of
Afghanistan by Babur migrated to Sind, conquered it and laid the foundation of the
Arghun dynasty. His son shah Hussain consolidated his conquest by annexing Multan.
 At the time Babur’s invasion the power was Arghuns was in Sind was at its height.

RAJPUTANA
Introductions  Mewar with its capital at Chittor was the most extensive and powerful
state in Rajasthan.
 Babur’s contemporary on the throne was the famous Rana Sangram
Singh popularly known as Rana Sangha.
 He was a man of the great military powers and was a terror to the
muslim states.
 Devoted to military activites all through his life his body bore the signs of
eighty wounds in addition to an eye blinded and a leg crippled.
 He fought successfully against Gujarat and repulsed an invasion of
Mewar by Ibrahim Lodhi.
 Rana Sangha helped Medini Rai against Mehmud II of Malwa who was
taken as captive to Chittor.
 The economic resources and the military forces of Mewar were
thoroughly organized and it was clear that any other power aiming at
supremacy in Hindustan would have to contest it with him.
 In the Deccan that is beyond Vindhyas two formidable empires viz. the
Bahamani Kingdom (the Muslim Kingdom) and the Vijyanagar Kingdom
(The Hindu Kingdom) had been founded during the rule of Muhammed

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Bin Tughluq.
Social and  The Indian society in the beginning of 16th century was divided into two
Cultural distinct communities – Hindus and Muslims. But socially the country was
Conditions passing through a period of transition from conflict to co-operation
between Hindus and Muslim.
 The bitterness between the Hindus and Muslims had gradually subsided.
Islam had come to stay in India and Muslim culture had become a part
of the Indian society.
 The Turks – Afghan rulers and their followers were shedding their
foreign ways and were becoming Indiansied.
 More over a large number of Hindus converted as Muslims, though
these Hindustani Muslims were considered inferior to the pure foreign
blood.
 The Muslims were the dominant class in the state enjoying considerable
prestige.
 Muslims followed the teachings of the Quaran and muslim traditions.
The holy men were consulted on important questions of religions and
state but their advice was not always followed.
 The Hindus were divided into castes, the Sudras being the lowest in
society.
 Slavery was common and there was sale and purchase of slaves.
 The life of Hindus was governed by the rules laid down in the Smritis and
they led pure and dignified lives, restricted by the convention of their
caste. Sati was prevalent in certain parts of India.
 Foreign writers like Ibn Batuta and Nicolo Conti testify to the practice of
Sati in the state of Delhi and Vijyanagar empire in the Deccan.
 The property right of women were recognized and they were declared
absolute owners of their stridhana which they could dispose of without
any interference from their husbands.
 Caste distinctions were rigidly observed.
 Although India was politically divided yet culturally she was becoming
one.
 It was during this period that the saints of the Bhakti movement played
a very important part in abridging the gulf between Hinduism and Islam.
 The reformers of the Bhakti cult such as Ramanand, Chaitanya, Namdev
and particularly Kabir and Nanak stressed the need of Hindu-Muslim
unity.
 The work of these saints was supplemented by the Sufi mystics of the
day.
 Close cooperation between Hindus and Muslims had an interesting side
effect; it led to the growth of vernacular languages like Hindi Punjabi,
Bengali, Marathi and Gujarati.
Economic  The Indian economy so far as its agricultural and material wealth was
Conditions concerned was quite sound and there was general prosperity.
 Agriculture was in flourishing condition. In normal times the peasants
produced so much corn that after satisfying the needs of the country it

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was exported to foreign lands.

 However, on account of frequent invasions villages were built and
destroyed very often.
 India had brisk inland and foreign trade.
 There was a lot of trade with Malaya, China, Central Asia, Afghanistan,
Iran and Tibet.
 Many kinds of industries like textile industry sugar, mental and paper
industries were found in most parts of the country.
 People lived a life of ease and comfort. The common man though poor
had few needs and did not suffer from starvation.
Military  Militarily India was weak at the beginning of 16th century.
Conditions  The Indian as well as the Muslim rulers no doubt maintained huge
armies but there was not much of discipline and training.
 The military organization was based upon feudalism. The Indian rulers
did not have direct control over their troops. They depended upon
feudal nobility for the supply of most of the fighting men. Therefore
these soldiers were more loyal to their immediate masters than to the
kings.
 Moreover the training and the military skill differed from contingent to
contingent. There was no uniformity in their actions on the battle field.
 The Indian rulers were also ignorant of the latest invasions in the field of
military science, including the use of artillery which had become quite
popular with the countries of Central Asia who had borrowed from the
West.
 The use of elephants in the advance guard, the lack of reserve force and
the absence of second-in-command in the battle fields were some of
other defects in the Indian Military organization.
 The Delhi army under the Lodhis was not a national force. It was
organised on clannish basis. The Lodhis had failed to safeguard the north
western frontier which gave Babur a free hand to deal with the Indian
situation as he pleased. Such were the political, social, economic and
military conditions of India on the eve of Babur’s invasion in 1526.

Sikhism
 The word 'Sikh' in the Punjabi language means 'disciple'. Sikhism was founded by
Guru Nanak Dev at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Guru Nanak was born on
April 15, 1469 in the Western Punjab village of Talwandi.
 Sikhs are the disciples of God who follow the writings and teachings of the Ten Sikh
Gurus.
 Sikhs believe in one God. They believe they should remember God in everything they
do. This is called simran.
 The Sikhs call their faith Gurmat (Punjabi: “the Way of the Guru”).
 According to Sikh tradition, Sikhism was established by Guru Nanak (1469–1539) and
subsequently led by a succession of nine other Gurus.

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 All 10 human Gurus, Sikhs believe, were inhabited by a single spirit. Upon the death
of the 10th, Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), the spirit of the eternal Guru
transferred itself to the sacred scripture of Sikhism, Guru Granth Sahib (The Granth
as the Guru), also known as the Adi Granth (First Volume), which thereafter was
regarded as the sole Guru.
 Sikhism was well established by the time of Guru Arjan, the fifth Guru. Guru Arjan
completed the establishment of Amritsar as the capital of the Sikh world and
compiled the first authorised book of Sikh scripture, the Adi Granth.
 There are over 25 million Sikhs worldwide, the great majority of them living in the
Indian state of Punjab.

Philosophies and Beliefs

 There is only One God (Ek Onkar "Ek" is One and "Onkar" is God). He is the same
God for all people of all religions.
 The true path to achieving salvation and merging with God does not require
renunciation of the world or celibacy, but living the life of a householder, earning an
honest living and avoiding worldly temptations and sins. Guru Nanak emphasised on
the message of liberation through meditation on the divine name.
 Sikhism condemns blind rituals such as fasting, visiting places of pilgrimage,
superstitions, worship of the dead, idol worship etc.
 Sikhism preaches that people of different races, religions, or sex are all equal in the
eyes of God. It teaches the full equality of men and women. Women can participate
in any religious function or perform any Sikh ceremony or lead the congregation in
prayer.

Development of Sikhism
 The development of Sikhism was influenced by the Bhakti movement and
Vaishnava Hinduism. However, Sikhism was not simply an extension of the Bhakti
movement.
 Sikhism developed while the region was being ruled by the Mughal Empire. Two of
the Sikh gurus – Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur, after they refused to convert to
Islam, were tortured and executed by the Mughal rulers. The Islamic era persecution
of Sikhs triggered the founding of the Khalsa, as an order for freedom of conscience
and religion.
 The final living Guru, Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa order (meaning 'The
Pure'), soldier-saints. The Khalsa upholds the highest Sikh virtues of commitment,
dedication and a social conscious.
 The Khalsa are men and women who have undergone the Sikh baptism
ceremony and who strictly follow the Sikh Code of Conduct and Conventions and
wear the prescribed physical articles of the faith (5K’s: Kesh (uncut hair), Kangha (a
wooden comb), Kara (a iron bracelet), Kachera (cotton underpants) and Kirpan (an
iron dagger)).
 Sikhism does not have priests, which were abolished by Guru Gobind Singh.
 Sikhs only have custodians of the Guru Granth Sahib (granthi), and any Sikh is free to
read the Guru Granth Sahib in the Gurdwara (a Sikh temple) or in their home. All
people of all religions are welcome to the Gurdwara.

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 A free community kitchen can be found at every Gurdwara which serves meals to all
people of all faiths. Guru Nanak first started this institution which outlines the basic
Sikh principles of service, humility and equality.

 The three duties that a Sikh must carry out; Pray, Work, Give.
o Nam japna: Keeping God in mind at all times.
o Kirt Karna: Earning an honest living. Since God is truth, a Sikh seeks to live
honestly. This doesn't just mean avoiding crime; Sikhs avoid gambling,
begging, or working in the alcohol or tobacco industries.
o Vand Chhakna: (Literally, sharing one's earnings with others) Giving to
charity and caring for others.
 The five vices: Sikhs try to avoid the five vices that make people self-centred, and
build barriers against God in their lives. These are lust, covetousness and greed,
attachment to things of this world, anger and pride
Gurus of Sikh Order

1. Guru Nanak Dev  first of the 10 gurus- founded the Sikh faith, introducing the
- 1469 to 1539 concept of one God.
 He started the institution of Guru Ka Langar -common
kitchen where food is served to everyone without any
discrimination.
 He emphasized the equality of women and rejected the
path of renunciation and he rejected the authority of the
Vedas.
 He was the contemporary of Mughal emperor - Babur.
2. Guru Angad Dev  He invented and introduced the Gurmukhi (written form of
1539 to 1552 Punjabi) script.
 He compiled the writings of Nanak Dev in Guru Granth
Sahib in Gurmukhi Script.
 Popularized and expanded the institution of Guru ka Langar
3. Guru Amardas  He introduced the Anand Karaj marriage ceremony for the
Sahib Sikhs, replacing the Hindu form.
1552 to 1574  He established Manji & Piri system of religious missions for
men and women respectively.
 He also completely abolished amongst the Sikhs, the
custom of Sati and purdah system.
 He was the contemporary of Mughal emperor - Akbar.
4. Guru Ram Das  He founded the city of Amritsar.
1574 to 1581  He started the construction of the famous Golden Temple
at Amritsar, the holy city of the Sikhs.
 He requested the Muslim Sufi, Mian Mir to lay the
cornerstone of the Harmandir Sahib.
5. Guru Arjan Dev  He compiled the Adi Granth, the scriptures of the Sikhs.
1581 to 1606  He completed construction of Sri Darbar Sahib also known
as Golden Temple in Amritsar.
 He founded the town of Tarn Taran Sahib near Goindwal
Sahib.

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 He became the first great martyr in Sikh history when

Emperor Jahangir ordered his execution. Thus, he was
hailed as Shaheedan-de-Sartaj (The crown of martyrs).
6. Guru Har Gobind  He was the son of Guru Arjan Dev and was known as a
Sahib "soldier saint”.
1606 to 1644  He organised a small army and became the first Guru to
take up arms to defend the faith.
 He waged wars against Mughal rulers Jahangir and Shah
Jahan.
7. Guru Har Rai  Though he was a man of peace, he never disbanded the
Sahib armed sikh warriors who were earlier maintained by Guru
1644 to 1661 Har Gobind.
 He gave shelter to Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Mughal
Ruler Shah Jahan, who was later persecuted by
Aurangazeb.
 He cautiously avoided conflict with Emperor Aurangzeb and
devoted his efforts to missionary work.
8. Guru Har Krishan  He was the youngest of the Gurus. He was installed as Guru
Sahib at the age of five.
1661 to 1664  He was contemporary of Aurangazeb and summoned to
Delhi by him under framed charges of anti-Islamic
blasphemy.
9. Guru Tegh  He established the town of Anandpur.
Bahadur Sahib  He opposed the forced conversion of the Hindu Kashmiri
1665 to 1675 Pandits by Mughal ruler Aurangazeb and he was
consequently persecuted for this.
10. Guru Gobind  He became Guru after the martyrdom of his father Guru
Singh Sahib Tegh Bahadur.
 He created the Khalsa in 1699, changing the Sikhs into a
saint-soldier order for protecting themselves.
 Last Sikh Guru in human form and he passed the Guruship
of the Sikhs to the Guru Granth Sahib.
11. Guru Granth  Also known as the Adi Granth) is the scripture of the Sikhs.
Sahib  The Granth was written in Gurmukhi script and it contains
the actual words and verses as uttered by the Sikh Gurus.
 It is considered the Supreme Spiritual Authority and Head
of the Sikh religion, rather than any living person.

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