Module 1

The Nature of Mathematics

A. What is Mathematics?
Mathematics is defined as the study of numbers and arithmetic operations. It came from the
Greek word “mathēmâ” which means, inclined to learn. Ancient Hindus referred mathematics
as, Ganita meaning the science of calculation. National Council of Teacher of Mathematic
defined the nature of mathematics as, a study of patterns and relationships, a way of thinking,
an art, a language and a tool. Others describe mathematics as a set of tools or a collection of
skills that can be applied to questions of “how many” or “how much”. Still, others view it as a
science which involves logical reasoning, drawing conclusions from assumed premises, and
strategic reasoning based on accepted rules, laws, or probabilities. Mathematics is also
considered an art in which studies patterns for predictive purposes or a specialized language
which deals with form, size, and quantity.

Check your progress

How about you, what comes to your mind when hear the word mathematics? Use the space
provided for your answer.
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Whatever point of view is taken, there is no denying the fact the mathematics is universal.
People from around the world use math to get things done. It helps them perform daily tasks as
well as make important decisions like buying wisely, choosing the most appropriate insurance
plan, or even betting on an outcome with the highest chance of actually occurring. The same
mathematical concepts and language are applied regardless of whether the users are Asians,
Americans, Africans, or Europeans.
In examining the development of mathematics from a historical perspective, it can be seen that
much has been directed towards describing patterns of relationship that are of interest to
various individuals. Patterns arouse curiosity because they can be directly related to common
human experiences.
B. Mathematics in Nature
As rational creatures, we tend to identify and follow patterns, like
the picture shown. Whether consciously or subconsciously. Early
humans recognized the repeating interval of day and night, the
cycle of the moon, the rising and falling of tides, and the changing
of the seasons. Awareness of these patterns allowed humans to
survive. In a similar fashion many flora and fauna also follow certain
patterns such as the arrangement of leaves and stems in a plant,
the shape of snowflake, the flowers’ petals, or even the shape of a
snail’s shell.
In general sense of the word, patterns regular, repeated, or recurring forms or design. We see
pattern everyday – from the layout of floor tiles, designs of skyscrapers, to the way we tie our
shoelaces. Studying patterns helps students in identifying relationships and finding logical
connections to form generalizations and make predictions.
Let’s take a look at this pattern:

What do you think will be the next face in the sequence? It should be easy enough to note that
the pattern is made up of two smiling faces – one without teeth and one with teeth. Beginning
with a toothless face, the two faces then alternate.
Logically, the face that should follow is

Example 1 What Comes Next?

What is the next figure in the pattern below?

A B
Solution
Looking at the given figures, the lines seem to rotate at 90 – degree intervals in a
counterclockwise direction, always parallel to one side of the square. Hence, either A or B could
be the answer. Checking the other patterns, the length of the lines inside the square follow a
decreasing trend. So again, either A or B could be the answer. Finally looking at the number of
lines in the box, each succeeding figure has the number of lines increase by 1. This means that
the next figure should have five lines inside. This leads to option A as the correct choice.
Check your progress
What is the next figure in the given pattern?

A B

Example 2 What Number Comes Next?

What number comes next in 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ___?

Solution
Looking at the given numbers, the sequence is increasing, with each term being two more than
the previous term: 3 = 1+ 2; 5 = 3 + 2; 7 = 5 + 2; 9 = 7+ 2.
Therefore, the next term should be 11 = 9 + 2.
Check your progress
What number comes next in 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ___?

Patterns indicate a sense of structure and organization that it seems only humans are capable
of producing these intricate, creative, and amazing, formations. It is from this perspective that
some people see an “intelligent design” in the way that nature forms.
Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world and can also be seen
in the universe. Nature patterns which are not just to be admired, are vital clues to the rules that
govern natural processes. The development of new mathematical theories begins to reveal the
secret of nature’s patterns. Patterns can be observed even in stars which move in circles across
the sky each day. All snowflakes contain six-fold symmetry which no two are exactly the same.
There are evidences by mathematicians that hexagonal snowflakes have an atomic geometry
of ice crystals. Fish and animals patterns attest to mathematical regularities in biological growth
and forms. These evolutionary and functional arguments explain why these animals need their
patterns. Natural patterns like the intricate waves across the oceans; sand dunes on desert;
formation of typhoon; water drop with ripple; and the like serves as clues to the rules that govern
the flow of water, sand, and air.
Check your progress
Can you also see patterns in nature in your surroundings? Take a picture of it and paste it below.

Paste you photo here.

What can you say about the pattern in the picture you have taken? Write a short description
below.
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Patterns and Regularities in Nature

Snowflakes and Honeycombs
Recall that symmetry indicates that you can draw an imaginary line across an object and the
resulting parts are mirror images of each other.
 The figure above is symmetric about the axis indicated by the dotted
line. Note that the left and right portions are exactly the same. This type
of symmetry, known as line or bilateral symmetry, is evident in most
animals, including humans. Look in a mirror and see how the left and right
side of your face closely match.

Leonardo da Vinci’s Vitruvian

Man showing the proportions
of symmetry of the human
body

There are others type of symmetry depending on the number of sides or faces that are
symmetrical.

Spiderwort with three-fold Symmetry This starfish has five-fold symmetry

Note that if your rotate the spiderwort and starfish above by several degrees, you can still
achieve the same appearance as the original position. This is known as rotational symmetry. The
smallest angle that a figure can be rotated while still preserving the original formation is called
the angle of rotation. For the spiderwort, the angle of rotation is 120°, while the angle of rotation
for the baby starfish is 72°.
A more common way of describing rotational symmetry is by order of rotation.
Order of Rotation
1
A figure has a rotational symmetry of order n (n-fold rotational symmetry) if 𝑛 of a complete turn

leaves the figure unchanged. To compute for the angle of rotation, we use the following
formula:
360°
Angle of rotation = 𝑛

Consider this image of this image of a snowflake.

It can be observe that the patterns on a snowflake repeat six times, indicating that there is a six-
fold symmetry. To determine the angle of rotation, we simply divide 360° by 6 to get 60°. Many
combinations and complex shapes of snowflakes may occur, which lead some people to think
that “no two are alike”. If you look closely, however, many snowflakes are not perfectly
symmetric due to the effects of humidity and temperature on the ice crystal as it forms.
Another marvel of nature’s design is the structure and
shape of a honeycomb. People have long wondered
how bees, despite their very small size are able to
produce such arrangement while humans would
generally need the use of a ruler and compass to
accomplish the same feat. It is observed that such
formation enables the bee colony to maximize their storage of honey using the smallest amount
of wax.
Try it for yourself
Get several coins of the same size and a 4 in x 4 in piece of paper. Try to cover as much area of
a piece of paper with coins. First, arrange the coins in a square formation (take a photo and
paste it on the space provided). Second arrange the coins in a hexagonal formation (take a
photo and paste it on the space provided).Compare the two figures. Write your comparison
below.

Figure 1 Figure 2

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Translating this idea to a three dimensional space, we can conclude that the hexagonal
formation are more optimal in making use of the available space. These are referred to as
packing problems. Packing problems involve finding the optimum method of filling up a given
space such as a cubic or spherical container. The bees have instinctively found the best solution,
evident in the hexagonal construction of their hives. These geometric patterns are not only
simple and beautiful, but also optimally functional.
Let us illustrate this mathematically. Suppose you have circles of radius 1 cm, each of which will
then have an area of 𝜋 𝑐𝑚2 . We are then going to fill a plane with these circles using square
packing and hexagonal packing.

For square packing, each square will have an area of 4 cm2. Note from the figure that for each
square, it can fir only one circle (4 quarters). The percentage of the square’s area covered by
circles will be.
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝜋 𝑐𝑚2
× 100% = × 100% = 78.54 %
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 4 𝑐𝑚2

For hexagonal packing, we can think of each hexagon as compose of six equilateral triangles
with side equal to 2 cm.
The area of each triangle is given by
𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 2 × √3 (2𝑐𝑚)2 × √3 4 𝑐𝑚2 × √3
𝐴= = = = √3 𝑐𝑚2
4 4 4
This gives the area of the hexagon as 6√3 𝑐𝑚2 . Looking at the figure there are 3 circles that could
fit inside one hexagon (the whole circle in the middle, and 6 one-thirds of a circle), which gives
the total area of 3𝜋𝑐𝑚2 . The percentage of the hexagon’s area covered by circles will be
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 3𝜋 𝑐𝑚2
× 100% = × 100% = 90.90%
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 6√3 𝑐𝑚2
Comparing the two percentages, we can clearly see that using hexagons will cover a larger
area than when using squares.
Tigers’ Stripes and Hyenas’ Spots
Patterns are also exhibited in the external appearances of
animals. We are familiar with how a tiger looks – distinctive
reddish-orange fur and dark stripes. Hyenas, another predator
from Africa, are also covered in patterns of spots. These
seemingly random designs are believed to be govern by
mathematical equations. According to a theory by Alan Turning,
the man famous by breaking the Enigma Code during World War II, chemical reactions and
diffusion processes in cells determine these growth
patterns. More recent studies addressed the question of
why some species vertical stripes while others have
horizontal ones. A new model by Harvard University
researchers predicts that these are three variables that
could affect the orientation of these stripes – (1) the
substance that amplifies the density of stripe patterns; the substance that changes one of the
parameters involved in stripe formation; and the physical change in the direction of the origin
of the stripe.
The Sunflower
Looking at a sunflower up close, you will notice that there is a
definite pattern of clockwise and counterclockwise arcs or spirals
extending outward from the center of the flower. This is another
demonstration of how nature works to optimize the available
space. This arrangement allows the flower seeds to occupy the
flower head in a way that maximizes their access to light and
necessary nutrients.
The Snail’s Shell
We are also very familiar with spiral patterns. The most common spiral patterns
can be seen in whirlpools and in the shells of snails and other similar
mollusks. Snails are born with their shells, called protoconch, which starts
out as fragile and colorless. Eventually, these original shells harden as the
snails consume calcium. As the snails grow, their shells also expand
proportionately so that they can continue to live inside their shells. This process results to a fine
spiral structure that is even more visible when the shells is sliced. This figure, is called equiangular
spiral, follows the rule that as the distance from the spiral center increases (radius), the
amplitudes of the angles formed by the radii to the point and the tangent to the point remain
constant. This is another example of how nature seems to follow certain rules governed by
mathematics.

The inside of a snail’s shell

Flower Petals
Flower are easily considered as things of beauty. Their vibrant colors and fragrant odors make
them very appealing as gifts or decorations. Of you look more closely, you will note that different
flowers have different number of petals. Take the iris and trillium, for example. Both flowers have
only 3 petals.

Buttercup
Iris Trillium

Flowers with five petals are said to be the most common. These includes buttercup, columbine,
and hibiscus. Among those flowers with eight petals are clematis, and delphinium, while ragwort
and marigold have thirteen. These numbers are all Fibonacci numbers, which we will discuss in
detail in the next module.
Fractals
Fractal is a curve or geometric figure, each part of which has the same statistical character as
the whole. Fractals is one of the newest and most exciting branches of mathematics. It is a class
of highly irregular shapes that are related to continents, coastlines and snowflakes. It is useful in
modelling structure in which similar pattern recur at progressively smaller scales, and in
describing partly random or chaotic phenomena such as crystal growth, fluid turbulence, and
galaxy formation. Fractals can be seen in some plants, trees, leaves, and others.

Angelica Flower head Frost Crystals Romanesco Broccoli Lightning Volt

Try it for yourself

Have a research on the following pattern and regularities in nature; (1) Meander, (2) Wave, (3)
Foam, and (4) Cracks. Make a short discussion about these pattern and regularities and give
at least one example.
World Population
As of 2017, it is estimated that the world population is about 7.6 billion. World leaders, sociologists,
and anthropologists are interested in studying population, including its growth. Mathematics
can be used to model population growth. Recall that the formula for exponential growth is
𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑟𝑡 , where A is the size of the population after it grows, P is the initial number of people, r is
the rate of growth, and t is time. Recall further that e Euler’s constant with an approximate value
of 2.718. Plugging in values to this formula would result in the population size after time t with a
growth rate of r.
Example Population Growth
The exponential growth model 𝐴 = 30𝑒 0.02𝑡 , describes the population of a city in the Philippines
in thousands, t years after 1995.
a. What was the population of the city in 1995?
b. What will be the population in 2017?
Solution
a. Since our exponential growth model describes the population t years after 1995, we consider
1995 as t = 0 and then solve for A, our population size. Replace t with t = 0.
𝐴 = 30𝑒 0.02𝑡 = 30𝑒 0.02(0) = 30𝑒 0 = 30 (1) = 30
 b. We need to find A for the year 2017. To find t, we subtract 2017 and 1995 to get t = 22, which
we then plug in to our exponential growth model. Replace t with t = 0.
𝐴 = 30𝑒 0.02𝑡 = 30𝑒 0.02(22) = 30𝑒 0.44 = 30 (1.55271) = 46.5813
Therefore, the city population would be about 46, 581 in 2017.
Check your Progress
1. The exponential growth model 𝐴 = 50𝑒 0.07𝑡 describes the population of a city in the
Philippines in thousands, t years after 1997.
a. What is the population after 20 years?
b. What is the population in 2037?
2. Suppose the population of a certain bacteria in a laboratory sample is 100. If it doubles in
population every 6 hours, what is the growth rate? How many bacteria will there be in two
days?
3. A house is purchased for P 1, 000, 000. 00 in 2002. The value of the house is given by the
exponential growth model 𝐴 = 1, 000, 000𝑒 0.645𝑡 . Find t when the house would be worth P 5,
000, 000.00
C. Applications of Mathematics in the World
• In forensic
Mathematics is applied specifically the differential and integral calculus to clarify the blurred
images to clear image. Another application of is optimization (maximize or minimize) surface
areas, volumes, profit and cost analysis and projectile motion.
• In medical field
Much of a function of a protein is determined by its shape and how the pieces move. Many
drugs are designed to change the shape or motions of protein by modelling using geometry
and related areas.
• In fluid mechanics
Engineers use numerical analysis in phenomena involving heat, electricity, and magnetism,
relativistic mechanics, and other theoretical constructs.
• In information technology
Modern computers are invented thru the help of mathematics. An important area of
applications of mathematics is in the development of computer science.
• In cryptography
Is a combination of both mathematics and computer science and is affiliated closely with
information theory, computers security and engineering. It is use in applications present in
technologically advanced societies.
• In archaeology
 Archaeologist use a variety of mathematical and statistical techniques to present the data
from archaeological surveys and try to find patterns to shed light on past human behaviour
and in carbon dating artifacts.
• In social sciences
Make extensive use of mathematical models, using the tools of calculus, probability, game
theory, and network theory.
• In political science
Political analyst study past election results to see changes in voting patterns and the
influence of various factors on voting behaviour, on switching of votes among political
parties and mathematical models for conflict resolution using game theory and statistics.
• In music and arts
The rhythm that we find in all music notes is the result of innumerable permutations and
combinations. Music theorists understand musical structure and communicate new ways of
hearing music by applying set theory, abstract algebra, and number theory.